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Which year in the 1970’s saw three popes? | 1978- Year of 3 Popes - TU ES PETRUS
1978: The Year Of
The Three Popes
The year 1978 will long be remembered as the year of the three popes. The not unexpected death of Pope Paul VI on August 6th, 1978 was followed on August 26th by the election of the "Smiling Pope," John Paul I. Reigning only 33 days, the length in years of Our Lord's earthy life, he died in his sleep of a heart attack on September 28th. Only a few weeks later on October 16th, 1978 the College of Cardinals elected the "Polish Pope" John Paul II to the chair of Peter.
Pope Paul VI
Giovanni Battista Montini was born on September 26th, 1897 in Concesio, 8km. (5 miles) from Brescia, in the Lombardi region of northern Italy. Ordained to the priesthood at Brescia on May 29th, 1920, he undertook further studies in Rome, including the Gregorian University. From 1924 until his ordination as archbishop of Milan on December 12th, 1954, he served the Secretariate of State of the Holy See in various capacities, including a 17 year tenure (1937-1954) as Undersecretary of State during the pontificate of Pope Pius XII, with whose own career he was closely associated. Pope John XXIII elevated him to the College of Cardinals on December 15, 1958. he succeeded this greatly beloved Pope as Supreme pontiff on June 21st 1963, taking the name of the Apostle to the Gentiles.
Pope John Paul I
Albino Luciani was born on October 17th, 1912 in Forno de Canale. This small town is called today Canale d'Agordo, and is located 29 km. (18 miles) from Belluno in the province of Veneto, Italy, in which Venice is also to be found. He was ecucated in the minor (high school) and major (college) seminaries of the diocese of Belluno and ordained to the priesthood on July 7, 1935, later receiving a doctorate in sacred theology (S.T.D.) from the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. He returned to the diocese to serve as seminary vice-rector from 1937 to 1947, also teaching in the areas of dogmatic and moral theology, canon law and sacred art. From 1947 he served as vicar general of the diocese, until his ordination as bishop of Vittorio Venuto on December 27th 1958. Bishop Luicani participated in all the sessions of the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), and on December 15th, 1969 was appointed Archbishop and Patriarch of Venice. Pope Paul VI made him a cardinal on March 5, 1973. On being elected to succeed Pope Paul as Supreme Pontiff on August 26, 1978, he took the names of his immediate predecessors, John XXIII and Paul VI, the first Pope in history to do so.
Significant acts of his papacy: While Pope John Paul I delivered 19 addresses and was noted for his good humor, especially with children, no significant papal acts are attributed to his pontificate.
Pope John Paul II
Karol Wojtyla was born in Wadowice, Poland (near Krakow) on May 18, 1920. In 1938 he became a student of theatre and poetry in the university of Krakow, but had to undertake manual labor in a stone quarry and chemical plant when the Nazis invaded Poland at the beginning of World War II. In 1942 he began secret studies for the priesthood in an "underground" seminary of the Archbishop of Krakow and was ordained to the priesthood on November 1, 1946. After ordination he was sent to Rome to complete doctoral studies at the University of St. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicum). He then undertook a brief parish career, combining pastoral work with the attainment of a second doctorate at the Catholic University of Lublin, to which he was assigned to teach ethics in 1954. On Septemeber 28th, 1958 he was ordained to the episcopacy as the Auxiliary Bishop of Krakow, to which See he succeeded as Archbishop on January 13, 1964. As Auxiliary and then Archbishop he participated in all the sessions of the Second Vatican Council. Pope Paul VI made him a Cardinal on June 26, 1967. After the death of Pope Paul he was an elector in the conclave that chose Pope John Paul I, whom he succeeded as Pope on October 16, 1978, taking his name.
| one thousand nine hundred and seventy eight |
In the game of Bingo ‘Kelly’s Eye’ is the nickname for which number? | Every Pope ever: the full list | News | theguardian.com
Blog home
Every Pope ever: the full list
Benedict XVI surprised the world in announcing his resignation - the first in six centuries' time. But which Pope held the longest Pontificate or was the youngest at the start of papacy? How many Pontiffs are originally from Italy? Get the full data history of the Pope
• More data journalism and data visualisations from the Guardian
Pope Francis elected: how does he fit in? A nun looks at front pages showing newly elected Pope at a newsstand near the Vatican. Argentine Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio, who chose the name of Pope Francis, was elected the 266th pontiff of the Roman Catholic Church on Wednesday, March 13, 2013. Photograph: Emilio Morenatti/AP
Pope Francis is a Pope of firsts: first Francis and first Pope from Latin America. He's also the first pope in 600 years to take office after one who has resigned: Pope Benedict XVI shocked the Catholic world when he resigned.
But which Pope has held the longest term of office and what is the average age at the start of papacy? How many sovereign pontiffs are originally from Italy?
The last time a pope resigned was in 1415 - when Gregory XII ended the Great Western Schism by handing in his tiara.
What can we learn from this data? Of the 266 Popes listed below, 88 came from Rome and the majority (196) came from Italy. Gregory V (3 May 996 - 18 February 999) was the first German Pope before Benedict XVI. And Sylvester II who succeeded him in 999 was French. Adrian IV (4 December 1154 - 1 September 1159) from Abbots Langley, Hertfordshire, was the first and only English Pope. Francis is the first and only Argentinian Pope.
Pius IX (1846-1878) held the pontificate for 31 years, 7 months and 23 days. John Paul II comes right after with 26 years, 5 months and 18 days in power. At the bottom of the ranking comes Urban VII (15-27 September 1590) who reigned for only 13 days and died before coronation. John Paul I (26 August – 28 September 1978) only reigned for 33 calendar days.
Pope-elect Stephen II (23 March 752 - 25 March 752) never held his Pontificate. He died three days after his election and was never consecrated into the office of Pope as such. Some lists still include his name. The Vatican sanctioned his addition to the list of popes in the sixteenth century, however he was removed in 1961. He is no longer considered a pope by the Catholic Church.
Clement X (29 April 1670 - 22 July 1676) is the oldest elected Pope. He started his Pontificate at the age of 79. Benedict XVI has been elected at the age of 78. He is the 7th oldest Pope at the time of election. Another Clement named Pope Clement XI (23 November 1700 - 19 March 1721) is the youngest of the list. He has been elected at the age of 51.
Leo XIII (1878) reached the Canonic age of 93 years old when he died He is the oldest in the whole history of Papacy. The average age at the time of election is 65. 78 is the most common age to die, the average for holding power is 2,451 days - or 7 years.
What can you do with the data?
| i don't know |
In our solar system which is the 5th planet from the Sun? | Solar System Planets: Order of the 8 (or 9) Planets
Solar System Planets: Order of the 8 (or 9) Planets
By Robert Roy Britt |
January 22, 2016 12:35pm ET
MORE
The planets of the solar system as depicted by a NASA computer illustration. Orbits and sizes are not shown to scale.
Credit: NASA
Ever since the discovery of Pluto in 1930, kids grew up learning about the nine planets of our solar system. That all changed starting in the late 1990s, when astronomers began to argue about whether Pluto was a planet. In a highly controversial decision , the International Astronomical Union ultimately decided in 2006 to call Pluto a “dwarf planet,” reducing the list of “real planets” in our solar system to eight.
However, astronomers are now hunting for another planet in our solar system, a true ninth planet , after evidence of its existence was unveiled on Jan. 20, 2016. The so-called "Planet Nine," as scientists are calling it, is about 10 times the mass of Earth and 5,000 times the mass of Pluto.
[ Solar System Pictures: A Photo Tour ]
If you insist on including Pluto , then that world would come after Neptune on the list; Pluto is truly way out there, and on a wildly tilted, elliptical orbit (two of the several reasons it got demoted). Interestingly, Pluto used to be the eighth planet, actually. More on that below.
Terrestrial planets
The inner four worlds are called “ terrestrial planets ,” because, like Earth, their surfaces are all rocky. Pluto, too, has a solid surface (and a very frozen one) but has never been grouped with the four terrestrials.
Jovian planets
The four large outer worlds — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune — are known as the “Jovian planets” (meaning “Jupiter-like”) because they are all huge compared to the terrestrial planets, and because they are gaseous in nature rather than having rocky surfaces (though some or all of them may have solid cores, astronomers say). According to NASA , "two of the outer planets beyond the orbit of Mars — Jupiter and Saturn — are known as gas giants; the more distant Uranus and Neptune are called ice giants." This is because, while the first two are dominated by gas, while the last two have more ice. All four contain mostly hydrogen and helium.
Dwarf planets
The IAU definition of a full-fledged planet goes like this: A body that circles the sun without being some other object's satellite, is large enough to be rounded by its own gravity (but not so big that it begins to undergo nuclear fusion, like a star) and has "cleared its neighborhood" of most other orbiting bodies. Yeah, that’s a mouthful.
The problem for Pluto, besides its small size and offbeat orbit, is that it shares its space with lots of other objects in the Kuiper Belt , beyond Neptune. Still, the demotion of Pluto remains controversial .
The IAU planet definition puts other small, round worlds in the dwarf planet category, including the Kuiper Belt objects Eris , Haumea , and Makemake .
Also now a dwarf planet is Ceres , a round object in the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter. Ceres was actually considered a planet when discovered in 1801 and then later deemed to be an asteroid. Some astronomers like to consider Ceres as a 10th planet (not to be confused with Nibiru or Planet X ), but that line of thinking opens up the possibility of there being 13 planets, with more bound to be discovered.
The planets
Below is a brief overview of the eight primary planets in our solar system , in order from the inner solar system outward:
Mercury
The closest planet to the sun, Mercury is only a bit larger than Earth's moon. Its day side is scorched by the sun and can reach 840 degrees Fahrenheit (450 Celsius), but on the night side, temperatures drop to hundreds of degrees below freezing. Mercury has virtually no atmosphere to absorb meteor impacts, so its surface is pockmarked with craters, just like the moon. Over its four-year mission, NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft has revealed views of the planet that have challenged astronomers' expectations.
Discovery: Known to the ancients and visible to the naked eye
Named for: Messenger of the Roman gods
Diameter: 3,031 miles (4,878 km)
Orbit: 88 Earth days
Venus' southern hemisphere, as seen in the ultraviolet.
Credit: ESA
Venus
The second planet from the sun, Venus is terribly hot, even hotter than Mercury. The atmosphere is toxic. The pressure at the surface would crush and kill you. Scientists describe Venus’ situation as a runaway greenhouse effect. Its size and structure are similar to Earth, Venus' thick, toxic atmosphere traps heat in a runaway "greenhouse effect." Oddly, Venus spins slowly in the opposite direction of most planets.
The Greeks believed Venus was two different objects — one in the morning sky and another in the evening. Because it is often brighter than any other object in the sky — except for the sun and moon — Venus has generated many UFO reports.
Discovery: Known to the ancients and visible to the naked eye
Named for: Roman goddess of love and beauty
Diameter: 7,521 miles (12,104 km)
Orbit: 225 Earth days
An image of the Earth taken by the Russian weather satellite Elektro-L No.1.
Credit: NTsOMZ
Earth
The third planet from the sun, Earth is a waterworld, with two-thirds of the planet covered by ocean. It’s the only world known to harbor life. Earth’s atmosphere is rich in life-sustaining nitrogen and oxygen. Earth's surface rotates about its axis at 1,532 feet per second (467 meters per second) — slightly more than 1,000 mph (1,600 kph) — at the equator. The planet zips around the sun at more than 18 miles per second (29 km per second).
Diameter: 7,926 miles (12,760 km)
Orbit: 365.24 days
Day: 23 hours, 56 minutes
Related:
Mars researchers are focusing both Earth-based and planet orbiting sensors to better understand sources of methane on the red planet. Image
Credit: Space Telescope Science Institute
Mars
The fourth planet from the sun, is a cold, dusty place. The dust, an iron oxide, gives the planet its reddish cast. Mars shares similarities with Earth: It is rocky, has mountains and valleys, and storm systems ranging from localized tornado-like dust devils to planet-engulfing dust storms. It snows on Mars. And Mars harbors water ice. Scientists think it was once wet and warm, though today it’s cold and desert-like.
Mars' atmosphere is too thin for liquid water to exist on the surface for any length of time. Scientists think ancient Mars would have had the conditions to support life, and there is hope that signs of past life — possibly even present biology — may exist on the Red Planet.
Discovery: Known to the ancients and visible to the naked eye
Named for: Roman god of war
Diameter: 4,217 miles (6,787 km)
Orbit: 687 Earth days
Day: Just more than one Earth day (24 hours, 37 minutes)
Related:
Close-up of Jupiter's Great Red Spot as seen by a Voyager spacecraft.
Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
Jupiter
The fifth planet from the sun, Jupiter is huge and is the most massive planet in our solar system. It’s a mostly gaseous world, mostly hydrogen and helium. Its swirling clouds are colorful due to different types of trace gases. A big feature is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm which has raged for hundreds of years. Jupiter has a strong magnetic field, and with dozens of moons, it looks a bit like a miniature solar system.
Discovery: Known to the ancients and visible to the naked eye
Named for: Ruler of the Roman gods
Diameter: 86,881 miles (139,822 km)
Orbit: 11.9 Earth years
The shadow of Saturn's moon Mimas dips onto the planet's rings and straddles the Cassini Division in this natural color image taken as Saturn approaches its August 2009 equinox.
Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute
Saturn
The sixth planet from the sun is known most for its rings . When Galileo Galilei first studied Saturn in the early 1600s, he thought it was an object with three parts. Not knowing he was seeing a planet with rings, the stumped astronomer entered a small drawing — a symbol with one large circle and two smaller ones — in his notebook, as a noun in a sentence describing his discovery. More than 40 years later, Christiaan Huygens proposed that they were rings. The rings are made of ice and rock. Scientists are not yet sure how they formed. The gaseous planet is mostly hydrogen and helium. It has numerous moons .
Discovery: Known to the ancients and visible to the naked eye
Named for: Roman god of agriculture
Diameter: 74,900 miles (120,500 km)
Orbit: 29.5 Earth years
Day: About 10.5 Earth hours
Related:
Near-infrared views of Uranus reveal its otherwise faint ring system, highlighting the extent to which the planet is tilted.
Credit: Lawrence Sromovsky, (Univ. Wisconsin-Madison), Keck Observatory
Uranus
The seventh planet from the sun, Uranus is an oddball. It’s the only giant planet whose equator is nearly at right angles to its orbit — it basically orbits on its side. Astronomers think the planet collided with some other planet-size object long ago, causing the tilt. The tilt causes extreme seasons that last 20-plus years, and the sun beats down on one pole or the other for 84 Earth-years. Uranus is about the same size as Neptune. Methane in the atmosphere gives Uranus its blue-green tint. It has numerous moons and faint rings.
Discovery: 1781 by William Herschel (was thought previously to be a star)
Named for: Personification of heaven in ancient myth
Diameter: 31,763 miles (51,120 km)
Orbit: 84 Earth years
Neptune’s winds travel at more than 1,500 mph, and are the fastest planetary winds in the solar system.
Credit: NASA/JPL
Neptune
The eighth planet from the sun, Neptune is known for strong winds — sometimes faster than the speed of sound. Neptune is far out and cold. The planet is more than 30 times as far from the sun as Earth. It has a rocky core. Neptune was the first planet to be predicted to exist by using math, before it was detected. Irregularities in the orbit of Uranus led French astronomer Alexis Bouvard to suggest some other might be exerting a gravitational tug. German astronomer Johann Galle used calculations to help find Neptune in a telescope. Neptune is about 17 times as massive as Earth.
Discovery: 1846
Pluto and its moons orbit the sun near the edge of our solar system. Learn all about Pluto's weirdly eccentric orbit, four moons and more in this Space.com infographic .
Credit: SPACE.com/Karl Tate
Pluto (Dwarf Planet)
Once the ninth planet from the sun, Pluto is unlike other planets in many respects. It is smaller than Earth's moon. Its orbit carries it inside the orbit of Neptune and then way out beyond that orbit. From 1979 until early 1999, Pluto had actually been the eighth planet from the sun. Then, on Feb. 11, 1999, it crossed Neptune's path and once again became the solar system's most distant planet — until it was demoted to dwarf planet status. Pluto will stay beyond Neptune for 228 years. Pluto’s orbit is tilted to the main plane of the solar system — where the other planets orbit — by 17.1 degrees. It’s a cold, rocky world with only a very ephemeral atmosphere. NASA's New Horizons mission performed history's first flyby of the Pluto system on July 14, 2015. [Related: New Horizons' Pluto Flyby: Latest News, Images and Video ]
Discovery: 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh
Named for: Roman god of the underworld, Hades
Diameter: 1,430 miles (2,301 km)
Orbit: 248 Earth years
NASA Solar System Exploration: Dwarf Planets
Planet Nine
Planet Nine orbits the sun at a distance that is 20 times farther out than the orbit of Neptune. (The orbit of Neptune is 2.7 billion miles from the sun at its closest point.) The strange world's orbit is about 600 times farther from the sun than the Earth's orbit is from the star.
Scientists have not actually seen Planet Nine directly . Its existence was inferred by its gravitational effects on other objects in the Kuiper Belt, a region at the fringe of the solar system that is home to icy objects left over from the birth of the sun and planets.
| Jupiter |
A gourami is what type of creature? | The Planets of the Solar System
USOE
Our solar system includes many different planets. In the drawing below, click your mouse on each planet to find its name and a short bit of information about that planet. Keep in mind that the following model of the solar system shows the correct order of the planets, but the sizes of the planets or their distances from each other are not drawn to scale.
Notice the order of the planets. Make sure you view information for all the planets.
Which planet is closest to the sun?
Which planet is the farthest away from the sun?
A good way to remember the order of the planets is to memorize the following sentence. My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas. Do you get it? Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto!
Now it is time for you to take The Planet Quiz. Click on your choice for the correct answer. Need a hint, or want more information? Click on the photo of the planet to the left of the question. Photos courtesy of NASA .
1. What is the fourth planet away from the sun?
2. What planet is closest to the sun?
3. What planet is the third as you move away from the sun?
4. What planet is the farthest away from the sun?
5. What is the seventh planet as you move away from the sun?
6. What planet is the fifth as you move away from the sun?
7. What planet is the eighth as you move away from the sun?
8. What is the second planet as you move away from the sun?
9. What planet is the sixth as you go away from the sun?
Check your answers by highlighting the box at the right! 1. Mars 2. Mercury 3. Earth 4. Pluto
5. Uranus 6. Jupiter 7. Neptune
8. Venus 9. Saturn
| i don't know |
Robert Stephen Rintoul was the founding editor of which British magazine, first published in 1928? | The Spectator - iSnare Free Encyclopedia
The Spectator
This article is about the UK political magazine. For other uses, see Spectator (disambiguation) .
The Spectator
The Spectator 22 October 2016 cover
Editor
.uk
The Spectator is a weekly British conservative magazine. It was first published on 6 July 1828, [2] making it the oldest continuously published magazine in the English language. [3] It is currently owned by David and Frederick Barclay who also own The Daily Telegraph newspaper, via Press Holdings . Its principal subject areas are politics and culture. Its editorial outlook is generally supportive of the Conservative Party , although regular contributors include some outside that fold, such as Frank Field , Rod Liddle and Martin Bright . The magazine also contains arts pages on books, music, opera, and film and TV reviews. In late 2008, Spectator Australia was launched. This offers 12 pages of "Unique Australian Content" (including a separate editorial page) in addition to the full UK contents.
Editorship of The Spectator has often been a step on the ladder to high office in the Conservative Party in the UK – past editors include Iain Macleod , Ian Gilmour and Nigel Lawson , all of whom became cabinet members – or a springboard for a greater role in public affairs, as with Boris Johnson (1999–2005), the former Conservative Mayor of London (2008–16), [4] and incumbent Foreign Secretary .
Contents
First hundred years
Early years
The Spectator’s founding editor, the Dundonian reformer Robert Stephen Rintoul , launched the paper on 5 December 1828. Almost certainly (there is no precise evidence) he revived the title from the 1711 publication by Addison & Steele . As he had long been determined "to edit a perfect newspaper", Despite its political stance it was widely regarded and respected for its non-partisanship. [7]
Under Rintoul The Spectator came out strongly for the Great Reform Act of 1832 , coining the well known phrase, "The Bill, the whole Bill and nothing but the Bill", in its support. It also objected to the appointment of the Duke of Wellington as Prime Minister, condemning him as "a Field Marshal whose political career proves him to be utterly destitute of political principle – whose military career affords ample evidence of his stern and remorseless temperament." [8]
The magazine was vocal in its opposition to the First Opium War (1839–1842), commenting: "all the alleged aims of the expedition against China are vague, illimitable, and incapable of explanation, save only that of making the Chinese pay the opium-smugglers." [9] and "There does not appear to be much glory gained in a contest so unequal that hundreds are killed on one side and none on the other. What honour is there in going to shoot men, certain that they cannot hurt you? The cause of the war, be it remembered, is as disreputable as the strength of the parties is unequal. The war is undertaken in support of a co-partnery of opium-smugglers, in which the Anglo-Indian Government may be considered as the principal partner." [10]
In 1853 it published an anonymous and unfavourable review of Charles Dickens ’ Bleak House , later revealed to be by George Brimley , typical of the paper's enduring contempt for him as a "popular" writer "amusing the idle hours of the greatest number of readers; not, we may hope, without improvement to their hearts, but certainly without profoundly affecting their intellects or deeply stirring their emotions." [11]
Rintoul died in April 1858 and the magazine, whose circulation was falling, was sold. Thereafter, it went into an accelerated period of decline. Records are scarce but it appears that it was briefly owned by a Mr Scott and then bought for £4200 in December 1858 by two London-based Americans, James McHenry and Benjamin Moran . McHenry was a businessman and Moran was an Assistant Secretary to the ambassador, George M. Dallas ; they saw their purchase as a means to influence British opinion on American affairs. The editor was Thornton Hunt , a friend of Moran who had also worked for Rintoul. Hunt was also nominally the purchaser, having been given the necessary monies in an attempt by McHenry and Moran to disguise the American ownership. Circulation declined with this loss of independence and inspirational leadership, and the views of James Buchanan , the then president of the US, came to the fore. Within weeks, This set it at odds with most of the British press but gained it the sympathy of ex-patriate Americans in the country. Richard Fulton notes that from then until 1861, "... the Spectator's commentary on American affairs read like a Buchanan administration propaganda sheet." and that this represented a volte-face. [7]
Meredith Townsend, Richard Holt Hutton and John Strachey
On 19 January 1861, The Spectator was bought by a journalist, Meredith Townsend , for £2000. The need to promote the Buchanan position in Britain had been reduced as British papers such as The Times and The Saturday Review turned in his favour, fearing the potential effects of a split in the Union. Abraham Lincoln had also replaced the vacillating Buchanan and Moran's position in London was in doubt now that Dallas had been removed as ambassador. In addition, the owners had been pumping money into a loss-making publication and were increasingly reluctant to continue the practice. [7]
From the outset, Townsend took up an anti-Buchanan, anti-slavery position, arguing that his unwillingness to act decisively had been a weakness and a contributor to the problems apparent in the US. [7] He soon went into partnership with Richard Holt Hutton , a theologian whose friend William Gladstone later called him "the first critic of the nineteenth century". [6] Townsend’s writing in The Spectator confirmed him as one of the finest journalists of his day, and he has since been called "the greatest leader writer ever to appear in the English Press." [6]
The two men remained co-proprietors and joint editors for 25 years, taking a strong stand on some of the most controversial issues of their day. They supported the Federalists against the South in the American Civil War , an unpopular position which, at the time, did some damage to the paper’s circulation, though gained readers in the long run when the North won. [6] They also launched an all-out assault on Benjamin Disraeli , accusing him in a series of leaders of jettisoning ethics for politics by ignoring the atrocities committed against Bulgarian civilians by Turkey in the 1870s.
In 1887 Townsend was succeeded by John St Loe Strachey , a young aristocrat who had replaced H.H. Asquith (the future Prime Minister) as a leader-writer during the previous year. As well as being The Spectator’s sole proprietor and editor, he also became its chief leader-writer, general manager and literature critic. The paper’s circulation doubled under Strachey’s leadership, becoming "the most influential of all the London weeklies" [12] before 1914. After falling ill in 1925, Strachey finally sold his controlling interest in the paper to his business manager, Sir Evelyn Wrench , and retired, dying two years later in 1928.
1928–1975
Aberdare miners and 1930s Europe
Perhaps Wrench’s most remembered achievement as editor of The Spectator was his campaign to ease unemployment in the mining town of Aberdare , one of the worst hit by the crisis of 1928, when joblessness reached 40% in South Wales. Within three months, the paper’s appeal for the town’s relief raised over £12,000 (the equivalent of about £500,000 today).
Wrench retired as editor in 1932 (though he remained the magazine's proprietor), appointing Wilson Harris his successor. Under Harris The Spectator became increasingly outspoken on developing international politics in the 1930s, in particular on the rise of fascism . Beneath a reader’s letter referring to the Nazi Party as "peaceful, orderly and kindly", Harris printed the following reply:
No facts in recent history are established more incontestably? ... than the numerous cases of murder, assault, and various forms of intimidation for which the National Socialist Party in Germany has been responsible ... The organized economic boycott of the Jews is the climax. The Spectator has consistently shown itself a friend of Germany, but it is a friend of freedom first. Resort to violence is not condoned by styling it revolution. [14]
In general however, Harris supported Neville Chamberlain ’s policy of appeasement, praising the Munich agreement , explaining later that he believed "even the most desperate attempt to save the peace was worthwhile". [12]
Ian Gilmour
Wrench sold The Spectator in 1954 to barrister Ian Gilmour . Assuming the editorship himself from 1954 to 1959, Gilmour adopted a libertarian and pro-European outlook, and "enlivened the paper and injected a new element of irreverence, fun and controversy". [6] He was critical of Harold Macmillan 's government, and while supporting the Conservatives was also friendly to the Hugh Gaitskell wing of the Labour Party. [15]
Gilmour famously lent The Spectator’s voice to the campaign to end capital punishment in Britain, writing an incensed leader attacking the hanging of Ruth Ellis in 1955, in which he claimed "Hanging has become the national sport", and that the home secretary Gwilym Lloyd George , for not reprieving the sentence, "has now been responsible for the hanging of two women over the past eight months". [12]
The Spectator opposed Britain’s involvement in the Suez crisis in 1956, strongly criticizing the government’s handling of the debacle. The paper went on to oppose Macmillan’s government’s re-election in 1959 , complaining: "The continued Conservative pretence that Suez was a good, a noble, a wise venture has been too much to stomach ... the Government is taking its stand on a solid principle: 'Never admit a mistake.'" [12]
The paper also gave its support to the proposals of the Wolfenden Committee in 1957, condemning the "utterly irrational and illogical" old laws on homosexuality: "Not only is the law unjust in conception, it is almost inevitably unjust in practice". [12]
In March the same year, Jenny Nicholson , a frequent contributor, wrote a piece on the Italian Socialist Party congress in Venice, which mentioned three Labour Party politicians ( Aneurin Bevan , Richard Crossman and Morgan Phillips ) "who puzzled the Italians by filling themselves like tanks with whisky and coffee " [16] All three sued for libel, the case went to trial and The Spectator was forced to make a large payment in damages and costs, a sum well over the equivalent of £150,000 today. [17] It has since emerged that "all three plaintiffs, to a greater or lesser degree, perjured themselves in court". [17]
"The Tory Leadership" article
In 1963, Gilmour offered the editorship to Iain Macleod , the politician who had recently resigned his cabinet seat in objection to the controversial appointment of Sir Alec Douglas-Home as Prime Minister. The decision caused enormous controversy, especially after Macleod chose to use the paper to explain his recent resignation. In an article entitled "The Tory Leadership", ostensibly a review of a new book by Randolph Churchill , Macleod lay out in great detail Harold Macmillan ’s version of events after his replacement by Douglas-Home the previous October.
In disclosing, from the horse’s mouth, the mysterious circumstances of Douglas-Home’s appointment, the article caused an immediate sensation. Churchill’s book was all but obliterated by the review, "four fifths" of which, it said, "could have been compiled by anyone with a pair of scissors, a pot of paste and a built-in prejudice against Mr Butler and Sir William Haley ". [18] That week’s edition, bearing the headline "Iain Macleod, What Happened", sold a record number of copies.
Nigel Lawson, George Gale and Harry Creighton
The "Tory Leadership" article prompted a furious response from many Spectator readers and caused Macleod, for a time, to be shunned by political colleagues. He eventually regained his party’s favour, however, and rejoined the shadow cabinet in the same year. On his appointment as Shadow Chancellor in 1965, he stepped down as editor on the last day of the year, to be replaced by Nigel Lawson .
Sometimes called "The Great Procrastinator" because of his tendency to leave writing leaders until the last minute, [6] Lawson had been City editor for The Sunday Telegraph and Alec Douglas-Home’s personal assistant during the 1964 general election .
Largely thanks to Lawson, in 1966 The Spectator opposed America’s increasing military commitment in Vietnam . In a signed article he estimated "the risks involved in an American withdrawal from Vietnam are less than the risks in escalating a bloody and brutal war". [17]
In 1967 Ian Gilmour, who by then had joined parliament and was already finding the proprietorship less of a help than a hindrance in political life, sold The Spectator to Harry Creighton for £75,000. with George Gale .
Gale shared Creighton’s political outlook, [6] in particular his strong opposition to the Common Market, and much of the next five years was spent attacking the pro- EEC prime minister Edward Heath , treating his eventual defeat by Margaret Thatcher with undisguised delight.
Gale’s almost obsessive opposition to the EEC and antagonistic attitude towards Heath began to lose the magazine readers. In 1973 Creighton took over the editorship himself, but was, if possible, even less successful in stemming the losses. Circulation fell from 36,000 in 1966 to below 17,000. As one journalist who joined The Spectator at that time said: "It gave the impression, an entirely accurate one, of a publication surviving on a shoestring". [17] George Gale later remarked that Creighton had only wanted the job to get into Who’s Who . [17]
1975–2005
Henry Keswick and Alexander Chancellor
In 1975 Creighton sold The Spectator to Henry Keswick , again for £75,000 (Creighton sold the 99 Gower Street premises separately, so the magazine moved to offices in Doughty Street). [20] Keswick was chairman of the Jardine Matheson multinational corporation. He was drawn to the paper partly because he harboured political aspirations (the paper’s perk as a useful stepping stone to Westminster was, by now, well established), but also because his father had been a friend of Peter Fleming , its well known columnist.
Keswick gave the job of editor to "the only journalist he knew",
Chancellor’s editorship of the paper relied principally on a return to earlier values. He adopted a new format and a more traditional weekly style, with the front page displaying five cover lines above the leader. Most significantly, he recognised the need "to bring together a number of talented writers and, with the minimal of editorial interference, let them write". [17] To this end he persuaded Auberon Waugh (who had been sacked by Nigel Lawson) to return from the New Statesman , and enticed Richard West and Jeffrey Bernard from the same magazine. Another columnist recruited by Chancellor was Taki Theodoracopulos whose column ‘High Life’ was then printed beside Bernard’s ‘Low Life’. Taki's column, frequently criticised for its content by the press, [21] remains in the paper.
In September 1978, a 96-page issue was released to mark The Spectator’s 150th anniversary. William Rees-Mogg congratulated the paper in a Times 's leading article, praising it in particular for its important part in "the movement away from collectivism".[ citation needed ]
Charles Moore
Chancellor was replaced by the 28-year-old Charles Moore in February 1984 after the magazine’s then owner, Algy Cluff , had become concerned that The Spectator was "lacking in political weight" and considered Chancellor to be "commercially irresponsible". [17]
Moore had been a leader writer at The Daily Telegraph before Chancellor recruited him to The Spectator as political commentator. The paper under Moore became more political than it had been under Chancellor. The new editor adopted an approach that was, in general, pro- Margaret Thatcher , while showing no restraint in opposing her on certain issues. The paper called the Anglo-Irish Agreement "a fraudulent prospectus" in 1985, came out against the Single European Act , and, in 1989, criticised the handover of Hong Kong to China . Moore wrote that, if Britain failed to allow the city’s UK passport holders right of abode in Britain, "we shall have to confess that, for the first time in our history, we have forced Britons to be slaves." [22]
He also introduced several new contributors, including a restaurant column by Nigella Lawson (the former editor’s daughter), and a humorous column by Craig Brown . When Taki was briefly imprisoned for cocaine possession Moore refused to accept his resignation, explaining publicly: "We expect our High Life columnist to be high some of the time." [17]
The Spectator changed hands again in 1985, by which time it had accumulated an overdraft of over £300,000 and it was facing financial meltdown. Cluff had reached the conclusion that the paper "would be best secured in the hands of a publishing group", and sold it to an Australian company, John Fairfax Ltd , who promptly paid off the overdraft. With the support of its new proprietor, the paper was able to widen its readership through subscription drives and advertising, reaching a circulation of 30,000 in 1986, exceeding the circulation of the New Statesman for the first time. The magazine was again sold in 1988, after an uncertain period during which several candidates, including Rupert Murdoch , attempted to buy the magazine. Moore wrote to Murdoch, saying: "Most of our contributors and many of our readers would be horrified at the idea of your buying The Spectator. They believe you are autocratic and that you have a bad effect on journalism of quality – they cite The Times as the chief example." [17] In the end The Spectator was bought by the Telegraph Group , of which Conrad Black then had a controlling interest.
Dominic Lawson and Frank Johnson
Moore gave up the editorship in 1990 to become deputy editor of The Daily Telegraph , though he continues to write a column for the magazine. He was replaced by his own deputy editor, Dominic Lawson —the former editor’s son.
Shortly after becoming editor, Lawson became responsible for the resignation of a cabinet minister when he interviewed the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry , Nicholas Ridley . During the interview Ridley described the proposed Economic and Monetary Union as "a German racket designed to take over the whole of Europe", [23] and seemed to draw comparisons between the German Chancellor, Helmut Kohl and Adolf Hitler . The interview appeared in the issue of 14 July 1990, whose cover showed a cartoon by Nicholas Garland , of Ridley painting onto a poster of Kohl a crude comb-over and a Hitler moustache. Ridley resigned from Thatcher’s government immediately.
The Spectator caused controversy in 1994 when it printed an article entitled "Kings of the Deal" on a claimed Jewish influence in Hollywood, written by William Cash , who at the time was based in Los Angeles and working mainly for The Daily Telegraph . The Telegraph had considered the article too risky to publish, but Lawson thought Cash's idea was as old as Hollywood itself and that his (Lawson's) being Jewish would mitigate adverse reactions to publication. There was, however, considerable controversy. Although owner Conrad Black did not personally rebuke Lawson, Max Hastings , then editor of The Daily Telegraph, wrote with regard to Black, who also owned The Jerusalem Post at the time, "It was one of the few moments in my time with Conrad when I saw him look seriously rattled: 'You don't understand, Max. My entire interests in the United States and internationally could be seriously damaged by this'." [24]
The article was defended by some conservatives. John Derbyshire , who says he has "complicated and sometimes self-contradictory feelings about Jews", wrote on National Review Online regarding what he saw as the Jewish overreaction to the article that "It was a display of arrogance, cruelty, ignorance, stupidity, and sheer bad manners by rich and powerful people towards a harmless, helpless young writer, and the Jews who whipped up this preposterous storm should all be thoroughly ashamed of themselves". [25]
Lawson left in 1995 to become editor of The Sunday Telegraph , and was replaced by a deputy editor of the same newspaper, Frank Johnson . After the 1997 election , Johnson averted a decline in The Spectator’s sales by recruiting " New Labour contributors", and shifting the magazine’s direction slightly away from politics. In 1996 the paper featured an interview with The Spice Girls , in which the band members gave their "Euro-sceptic and generally anti-labour" views on politics. Shortly before her death Diana, Princess of Wales was depicted on the magazine’s cover as the figurehead of Mohamed Al-Fayed ’s boat, the Jonikal. [26]
Boris Johnson
Before joining The Spectator as editor, Johnson had worked for The Times , the Wolverhampton Express & Star , and The Daily Telegraph . He had also briefly been political commentator for The Spectator under Dominic Lawson, but Frank Johnson replaced him with Bruce Anderson in 1995. Succeeding Frank Johnson in 1999, Johnson soon established himself as a competent and "colourful" [27] editor.
In the 2001 general election he was elected MP for Henley , and by 2004 had been made vice-chairman of the Conservative party, with a place in Michael Howard ’s shadow cabinet. In 2003 he explained his editorial policy for The Spectator would "always be roughly speaking in favour of getting rid of Saddam, sticking up for Israel, free-market economics, expanding choice" and that the magazine was "not necessarily a Thatcherite Conservative or a neo-conservative magazine, even though in our editorial coverage we tend to follow roughly the conclusions of those lines of arguments". [28]
In October 2004, a Spectator editorial suggested that the death of the hostage Kenneth Bigley was being over-sentimentalized by the people of Liverpool, accusing them of indulging in a "vicarious victimhood" and of possessing a "deeply unattractive psyche".’ Recent articles have resumed the theme in commenting on public declarations of grief following the murder of Rhys Jones .
At this time the paper began jokingly to be referred to as the ‘Sextator’ – a nickname for which Johnson himself was more than a little responsible – owing to the number of sex scandals connected with the magazine during his editorship. These included an affair between columnist Rod Liddle and the magazine’s receptionist, and Johnson’s own affair with another columnist, Petronella Wyatt . Johnson at first denied the relationship, dismissing the allegations as "an inverted pyramid of piffle", but was sacked from the Shadow Cabinet in November 2004 when they turned out to be perfectly true. In the same year David Blunkett , the Home Secretary, resigned from the government after it emerged he had been having an affair with the publisher of The Spectator, Kimberly Quinn , and had fast-tracked her nanny’s visa application.[ citation needed ]
Circulation under Johnson reached record levels – as high as 70,000 by the time he left the magazine in 2005 to join David Cameron ’s Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Minister for Higher Education. On the announcement of his departure, Andrew Neil , The Spectator CEO paid tribute to his editorship. [31]
2006–present
Matthew d’Ancona
D’Ancona had been Deputy Editor at The Sunday Telegraph , and before that an assistant editor at The Times. During his four years as editor of The Spectator, he made several editorial and structural changes to the magazine, "not all of which were universally popular with readers".
He ended the traditional summary of the week’s events, "Portrait of the Week", and, in 2006, launched a new lifestyle section entitled "You Earned It". He removed Peter Oborne as political editor, and appointed Fraser Nelson in his place. He decided not to appoint a new media columnist to succeed Stephen Glover , explaining, "I do not think The Spectator needs a media columnist. Our pages are precious and I do not think the internal wranglings of our trade are high on the list of Spectator readers’ priorities." [32]
Perhaps the magazine's most important innovation under d’Ancona was the Coffee House blog, led by Peter Hoskin and James Forsyth , launched in May 2007. [33]
In 2007 The Spectator moved its offices from Doughty Street, which had been its home for 31 years, to 22 Old Queen Street in Westminster, leaving Bloomsbury for the first time since the paper’s founding in 1828.
Fraser Nelson
The Spectator’s current editor is Fraser Nelson , who replaced d’Ancona in August 2009.
In 2010 he unveiled a slight redesign of the paper, shrinking the cover illustration slightly, shifting the cover lines, in general, to the bottom, and spreading the contents section over a double-page. Playing down the changes, Nelson described the new look as "a tidy-up ... rather like restoring an old painting." [34]
An article in November 2011 by Rod Liddle on the trial of two men eventually convicted for the murder of Stephen Lawrence led to the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) deciding to prosecute the magazine for breaching reporting restrictions. [35] The magazine chose not to contest the case, [36] and the publisher Spectator 1828 Ltd pleaded guilty at the court hearing at Westminster Magistrates Court on 7 June 2012. [37] The magazine was fined £3,000, with £2,000 compensation awarded to Stephen Lawrence's parents and £625 costs. [38] According to Nelson, readers' most common reaction to the columnist was "don't tone down Rod", but "our non-readers don't like" him. [39]
In June 2013, The Spectator Archive was launched, [40] containing 1.5 million pages from 180 years of published articles.
In August 2015, The Spectator received media attention and criticism after publishing an article by Charles Moore regarding the 2015 Labour Party leadership election titled "Have Yvette Cooper and Liz Kendall got the looks for a leadership contest?", in which he wrote "there is an understanding that no leader - especially, despite the age of equality, a woman - can look grotesque on television and win a general election" and discussed the looks of the two female candidates in detail. The article was condemned by Liz Kendall ; First Minister of Scotland , Nicola Sturgeon ; Candidate for Labour nomination for Mayor of London and former Minister and MP Tessa Jowell ; along with several journalist and MP's from various parties [41] [42]
Policy positions
Like its sister publication The Daily Telegraph, The Spectator is generally Atlanticist and Eurosceptic in outlook, favouring close ties with the United States rather than with the European Union , and supportive of Israel .[ citation needed ] It also strongly opposes Scottish independence . However, it has expressed strong doubts about the Iraq War , and some of its contributors, such as Matthew Parris and Stuart Reid, express a more old-school conservative position. Some contributors, such as Irwin Stelzer , argue from an American neoconservative position.[ citation needed ] Unlike much of the British press it is approving of the unilateral extradition treaty that allowed the Natwest three to be extradited, and in July 2006 the magazine devoted a leading article to praising the US Senate . [43]
Cultural positions
The Spectator is one of the few British publications that tends to be cautious of idolising examples of popular culture , in the way that (for example) The Daily Telegraph did under Bill Deedes , or The Times did under William Haley .[ citation needed ] The magazine coined the phrase " young fogey " in 1984. [44] [ not in citation given ]
The Spectator does have a popular music column, though it only appears every four weeks, while a cinema column contains a review of one film each week by Deborah Ross . By contrast, opera, fine art, books, poetry and classical music all receive extensive weekly coverage.
Contributors
In addition to the permanent staff of writers, other contributors include:
Larry Adler , the world-famous mouth organist, wrote several articles for The Spectator in the 1970s during Harold Creighton’s editorship.
Hugo Rifkind
John Simpson wrote The Spectator′s weekly reports on the Gulf War when he was also the BBC’s man in Baghdad.
Hugh Trevor-Roper was an occasional reviewer and, under the pseudonym Mercurius Oxoniensis, began an irregular humorous column about Oxford academia in the late 1960s.
Taki Theodoracopulos , or simply 'Taki', started writing his ‘High Life’ column in 1977 as an answer Bernard's 'Low Life'. The pairing continues today, since ‘Low Life’ has been revived by Jeremy Clarke.
Kenneth Tynan wrote theatre reviews for The Spectator in the 1950s.
Auberon Waugh , became political commentator in 1967.
Evelyn Waugh first began contributing to The Spectator in the 1930s.
A. N. Wilson was Literary Editor until his dismissal in 1983.
Editors
| The Spectator |
In cooking, Senf is German for which condiment? | the spectator 1828 : definition of the spectator 1828 and synonyms of the spectator 1828 (English)
http://www.spectator.co.uk/
The Spectator is a weekly British magazine first published on 6 July 1828. [3] It is currently owned by the Barclay brothers , who also own The Daily Telegraph . Its principal subject areas are politics and culture. It generally takes a right-of-centre, conservative editorial line, although regular contributors such as Rod Liddle , Frank Field and Martin Bright write from a more left-wing perspective. The magazine also has extensive arts pages on books, music, opera, and film and TV reviews. In late 2008, Spectator Australia was launched. This offers 12 pages of "Unique Australian Content" (including a separate Editorial page) in addition to the full UK contents. The magazine had an ABC circulation figure of 77,146 in 2008.
Editorship of The Spectator has often been part of a route to high office in the Conservative Party ; past editors include Iain Macleod , Ian Gilmour and Nigel Lawson , all of whom became cabinet ministers . Editorship can also be a springboard for a greater role in public affairs, as with Boris Johnson (1999 to 2005), Conservative Mayor of London . [4]
Contents
8 External links
Policy positions
From its founding in 1828 The Spectator has taken a pro-British line in foreign affairs; such was the case in 1904 when it raised concerns about the anti-British and Pan-Asian attitudes prevalent amongst Indian students in Japan.
Like its sister publication The Daily Telegraph, The Spectator is generally Atlanticist and Eurosceptic in outlook, favouring close ties with the United States rather than with the European Union , and it is usually supportive of Israel . However, it has expressed strong doubts about the Iraq war , and some of its contributors, such as Matthew Parris and Stuart Reid, express a more Americosceptic, old-school conservative line. Other contributors such as Irwin Stelzer argue from an American-style neoconservative position. Like much of the British press it is critical of the unilateral extradition treaty that allowed the Natwest three to be extradited, and in July 2006 the magazine devoted a leading article to lambasting the US Senate . [5] According to former editor Boris Johnson , the Spectator's baseline editorial policy is to "always be roughly speaking in favour of getting rid of Saddam, sticking up for Israel, free-market economics, expanding choice", though it is "not necessarily a Thatcherite Conservative or a neo-conservative magazine, even though in our editorial coverage we tend to follow roughly the conclusions of those lines of arguments." [6]
Cultural positions
The Spectator is one of the few British publications that still ignores or dismisses most popular culture , in the way that (for example) The Daily Telegraph did under W.F. Deedes , or The Times did under William Haley .[citation needed] The magazine coined the phrase " young fogey " in 1984 (in an article by Alan Watkins ).[citation needed]
The Spectator does have a popular music column, though it only appears every four weeks, while a cinema column contains a review of one film each week by the non-specialist Deborah Ross . By contrast, opera, fine art, books, poetry and classical music all receive extensive weekly coverage.
Contributors
Although there is a permanent staff of writers, The Spectator has always had room for a wide array of contributors. These have included Donald Hankey ("a student in arms"), Auberon Waugh , Jeffrey Bernard (the "Low Life" column) and Taki (the "High Life" column). Following Bernard's death, the "Low Life" column is now written by Jeremy Clarke. Joan Collins contributes regularly as Guest Diarist, as does Barry Humphries . For the past few years the weekly provider of Spectator’s Notes has been Charles Moore . Some recent reviewers include semi-residents, Deborah Ross and James Delingpole , notable for their unusual styles of Cinema and TV criticism. John Cleese acted as 'Contributing Editor' ten days after the Ides of March 2009.
The book reviews are often 'outsourced' to outsiders who are experts in the given subject, so consequently it is rare to see the same review author twice in as many weeks. The restaurant section is also an irregular piece. British-born South African journalist, Jani Allan is also a former correspondent. [7] [8]
The chess columnist since 1977 has been Raymond Keene who retains the role despite the unauthorised copying of a piece by Edward Winter [9] for his column [10] of 7 June 2008. The matter was reported in Private Eye. [11]
Twenty-first century
The magazine has prospered in recent times. Former editor Boris Johnson , who gave The Spectator more appeal with his famous profile and charm, resigned in December 2005, on taking up an appointment as Shadow Minister for Higher Education . Johnson's final months as editor were marred by the negative reaction to an editorial written by Simon Heffer criticising the people of Liverpool for engaging in vicarious victimhood following the death of Kenneth Bigley . Johnson made a personal apology. Recent articles have resumed the theme in commenting on public declarations of grief following the murder of Rhys Jones .
The circulation was not at all hindered by the notoriety the magazine achieved after revelations about Johnson's affair with one of his columnists Petronella Wyatt , the extramarital adventures of its publisher Kimberly Quinn and affair of the associate editor Rod Liddle .
The "Kings of the Deal" article
The Spectator caused controversy in 1994 when it printed an article entitled "Kings of the Deal" on the Jewish influence in Hollywood , written by William Cash, who at the time was based in Los Angeles and working mainly for The Daily Telegraph . Cash claimed that the Jewish media elite was "culturally nihilist" and that Jewish influence reflected a Jewish lack of concern for traditional cultural values [12] . Cash is the son of Bill Cash a British Conservative politician and Member of Parliament for Stone .
The Telegraph had considered the article too risky to publish, but Spectator editor Dominic Lawson thought Cash's idea was as old as Hollywood itself and that Lawson's being a Jew would mitigate adverse reactions to publication. There was, however, considerable controversy, although owner Conrad Black did not personally rebuke Lawson. Max Hastings , then editor of The Daily Telegraph, wrote with regard to Telegraph group owner Conrad Black , who also owned The Jerusalem Post at the time, "It was one of the few moments in my time with Conrad when I saw him look seriously rattled: 'You don't understand, Max. My entire interests in the United States and internationally could be seriously damaged by this'." [13]
The article was defended by some conservatives. John Derbyshire , who says he has "complicated and sometimes self-contradictory feelings about Jews", wrote on National Review Online regarding what he saw as the Jewish overreaction to the article that "It was a display of arrogance, cruelty, ignorance, stupidity, and sheer bad manners by rich and powerful people towards a harmless, helpless young writer, and the Jews who whipped up this preposterous storm should all be thoroughly ashamed of themselves" [14] .
The psychologist Kevin B. MacDonald , writing in response to Derbyshire's critical review of his book The Culture of Critique , wrote of how "chilling" it was that "critics of Jews simply disappear from sight - their professional horizons limited if not entirely ended." MacDonald used Joseph Sobran and Cash as examples of such people "who have called attention to Jewish power and influence in certain areas. Jewish groups have made any critical discussion of Jewish issues off limits and that's vitally important because, yes, Jews are a very powerful group." [15]
Similarly, Kevin Myers wrote in The Sunday Telegraph that "we should really be able to discuss Jews and their Jewishness, their virtues or their vices, as one can any other identifiable group, without being called anti-Semitic. Frankness does not feed anti-Semitism; secrecy, however, does. The silence of sympathetic discretion can easily be misunderstood as a conspiracy. It is time to be frank about Jews." Myers complained that Jews described The Spectator as anti-Semitic .
Editors
| i don't know |
What were the first names of the characters played by Jason Donovan and Kylie Minogue in the Australian series ‘Neighbours’? | Neighbours at 30: Memorable moments - BBC News
BBC News
Neighbours at 30: Memorable moments
By Genevieve Hassan Entertainment reporter
18 March 2015
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On 18 March 1985, Neighbours was first broadcast in Australia. Thirty years on it's still going strong and broadcast to more than 50 countries around the world.
To mark its 30th anniversary - and its 7,083rd episode - we give you 30 of the soap opera's memorable moments.
1. Scott and Charlene's wedding
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We begin with perhaps the most famous Neighbours moment. The wedding of Scott and Charlene Robinson - played by Jason Donovan and pop princess Kylie Minogue - was watched by some 20 million people in the UK when it was broadcast in November 1988.
There wasn't a dry eye in the house when Charlene walked down the aisle to Angry Anderson's power ballad Suddenly. And who caught the bouquet? Nosy neighbour Nell Mangel.
2. The only surviving cast member (just)
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Stefan Dennis - aka Paul Robinson - is the only actor from the first episode to remain on Ramsay Street.
Along the way, he's had five marriages, been held hostage, become mayor, survived a tornado and had his leg amputated (although eagle-eyed viewers will have spotted that the afflicted leg has changed from time to time).
For the show's 30th anniversary, the character will be mistakenly diagnosed with leukaemia.
"You are going to see a very, very different side of Paul," Dennis told Digital Spy . "He will take you on a rollercoaster. We will see a dark and very vulnerable side of him."
3. Famous Hollywood face #1 - Russell Crowe
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Oscar winning actor Russell Crowe appeared in four episodes of Neighbours in 1987. He may not have been memorable in his role as ex-con Kenny Larkin, but his mullet certainly was.
4. Famous guest star #1 - Lily Allen
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The pop star appeared on the soap as herself in 2009, appearing as a guest on Zeke Kinski's local radio show while a star-struck Karl Kennedy looked on. She even performed a couple of bars of her track 22.
5. Des and Daphne's wedding
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Des and Daphne appeared in the very first episode of Neighbours, where Daphne was a stripper at Des's stag party. After Des was jilted at the altar, Daphne moved in with him to help pay his mortgage and romance blossomed.
Their first attempt to get married ended in disaster after the wedding car was hijacked by a bank robber dressed in a gorilla suit. But after a six-month period apart, eventually made it down the aisle in 1986.
6. Daphne gives birth
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In Episode 544, Des and Daphne were out for a picnic when Daphne suddenly announced: "it's happening".
Although he was initially disappointed at forgetting to bring his cigars, Des rallied round and helped his wife breathe and push as the contractions became closer and closer.
With a bit of help from Jim Robinson and Beverly Marshall - who happened to be in the same area for a fishing trip - the baby boy was delivered safely. And all without Daphne removing her tights. Miraculous.
7. Famous Hollywood face #2 - Guy Pearce
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Memento/Iron Man 3/The Hurt Locker star Guy Pearce appeared as Mike Young from 1986-89, when he was a school friend of Scott and Charlene (and later Scott's best man). Abused by his violent father, Mike moved in with Des and Daphne after they offered to become his legal guardians. He was known for his relationship with Jane Harris, who later ended up engaged to Des, much to Mike's annoyance.
8. Famous guest star #2 - Paula Abdul
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The Opposites Attract singer dropped in at Lassiter's last year in a storyline which saw Karl reveal a long-time crush on the former American Idol judge. Sadly, Abdul was not accompanied by MC Skat Kat.
9. Henry gets locked out the house
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Played by Craig McLachlan, Henry Ramsay (brother to Charlene) was seen as the soap's prankster, always coming up with crazy schemes to make money... which inevitably failed.
One of his most memorable moments came when he was locked out of Bronwyn's house in nothing but a towel and was forced to make a hasty, naked retreat after the towel got caught in the door.
10. Bouncer's dream sequence
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In a bizarre moment in Neighbours history, Bouncer the dog got his own dream sequence . While watching a video of the wedding of his second owners Joe and Kerry Mangel, he dozed off and dreamt of marrying his sweetheart, Rosie the sheepdog, who lived next door.
Bouncer ended up moving to the country with the Mangels, but not before he fathered a litter of puppies in Anson's Corner.
11. Melanie Pearson's laugh
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Madcap Melanie (played by Lucinda Cowden) was best known on the soap for her foghorn, seal-like laugh and her frequent trips to the local Erinsborough astrologer, Madame Zolga.
She ended up marrying Joe Mangle, who fell in love with her after his wife Kerry was killed while out protesting a duck hunt. The marriage didn't last long though - they separated after a few years and Melanie moved to London.
12. Famous Hollywood face #3 - Alan Dale
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Alan Dale played Robinson family patriarch Jim Robinson for eight years, before falling out with producers over his pay. "I didn't like it there, they were not nice people," he later recalled .
Australia's loss was Hollywood's gain, as Dale became one of US television's most sought-after bit part players, with roles in Ugly Betty, The OC, The West Wing, ER and 24, in which he played the vice president.
For some reason, he always ended up dying... although nothing could top his Neighbours exit, in which Jim, mid-heart attack, knocked a fruit bowl to the floor in a suburban re-enactment of The Godfather's famous orange-spilling scene.
13. Famous guest star #3 - Little Britain
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Little Britain characters Lou and Andy made a cameo appearance in the background of a bar scene in 2007. True to form, Andy rose from his wheelchair to play a motorbike arcade game while Lou was given directions by Harold Bishop.
14. Lassiter's fire
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The Lassiter's complex has suffered a number of unfortunate incidents over the years. An explosion hit the area in 1993, destroying everything but the Waterhole pub; and an unknown arsonist (who later turned out to be Paul Robinson) set fire to two buildings in 2004, which devastated half the area - and handily led to a revamp of the soap's sets.
15. Mark and Annalise's wedding
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Mark Gottlieb and Annalise Hartman's wedding didn't quite go to plan in 1994. With both parties feeling pre-wedding jitters on the day, it was Mark who ended up backing out in the church. He later explained to his jilted bride it wasn't that he couldn't marry her, he couldn't marry anyone - and had decided to become a priest instead.
16. Helen Daniels' death
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Anne Haddy played Jim Robinson's mother-in-law Helen Daniels from the soap's start until 1997. Best friend to Madge, budding artist and head of the international Daniels Corporation, Helen was the caring grandmother of Ramsay Street.
Over her time, she was duped by a conman who took her life savings, had an affair with her daughter's fiance, fell down a flight of stairs and suffered a stroke.
Trying to settle a feud between the Ramsays and the Robinsons, Helen gathered the two families to watch Scott and Charlene's wedding. But as everyone remembered the old times and put their differences aside, Helen quietly passed away on the sofa.
17. The Lou, Madge and Harold love triangle
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The love triangle between Madge Ramsay (Anne Charleston), Harold Bishop (Iain Smith) and Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver) was a storyline that began before Neighbours even aired.
The trio first met at high school, where Madge first fell for the old "fuddy duddy" Harold, although she preferred the more roguish Lou. Then, unexpectedly, she married Fred Mitchell - a union that proved more than volatile.
Realising her mistake, Madge and Harold reunited and he proposed. But Lou flew down to Erinsborough to fight for Madge's affections, leading to many comedic moments. Madge ultimately chose Harold and they married in 1988.
After Harold's death, Lou pursued Madge again and they were set to be married, although he called it off when he realised he could never replace his love rival, whom he nicknamed "Jelly Belly".
18. Harold returns from the dead
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Loveable Harold was killed off in 1991 (aired in the UK in 1992), apparently swept out to sea when Madge's back was turned. All he left behind were his glasses.
Five years later he returned to Erinsborough, afflicted by that most convenient of soap opera diseases, amnesia. Ramsay Street stalwart Helen Daniels stumbled across him while in a Salvation Army shop and reunited him with his beloved Madge.
19. Madge's death
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Fiery Madge Bishop was a much-loved character on Ramsay Street - which was named after her grandfather - appearing from 1986-92, and again from 1996-2001.
After reuniting with Harold after he returned from the dead, the couple renewed their vows and took in foster child Paul McClain. But tragedy struck when Madge was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. Told she only had months to live, it was further shortened when she developed septicaemia after cutting her finger.
Returning home, Lou confessed his never-ending love for her and she died in the arms of her beloved Harold.
20. Famous Hollywood Face #4 - Liam Hemsworth
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The Hunger Games star Liam Hemsworth starred as paraplegic Josh Taylor - who was injured in a surfing accident - from 2007-08. Caught in a love triangle between regular characters Bridget Parker and Declan Napier, he dated Donna Freedman to get back at Bridget, but ended up losing both girls in the process.
Liam wasn't the first Hemsworth brother to appear in the soap, either, Chris - aka Thor - played Jamie Kane in 2002; and older brother Luke played Nathan Tyson in 2001 and 2002.
21. Susan's memory loss
Image copyright Fremantle
You know the saying "don't cry over spilt milk?" Well, in Susan Kennedy's case, that is terrible advice.
In 2002, the character slipped on an upturned bowl of cereal and sustained a head injury, erasing 30 years of memories.
She started to believe that she was 16 years old again - a state of affairs that only got more complicated when she accidentally wandered into a 1970s theme party.
Jackie Woodburne, who plays the character, is Neighbours' longest-serving actress, having filmed more than 5,000 episodes of the show.
22. Toadie's weddings
Image copyright Fremantle
Jarrod "Toadfish" Rebecchi has been unlucky when it comes to weddings. His marriage to Dee Bliss in 2003 (above) came to an abrupt end within hours of their nuptials when he lost control of their car and drove off a cliff into the ocean. Her body was never found.
On his second wedding day in 2010, Toadie left Steph Scully at the altar after realising she didn't really love him.
And on his third, to Sonya Mitchell in 2013, a gas bottle exploded during the reception which destroyed their marquee, leaving Sonya with a fractured skull and no memory of the wedding. The explosion also killed characters Priya Kapoor and Rhys Lawson.
23. Like father, like son
Image copyright Fremantle
Following in his son Jason's footsteps, Terence Donovan joined the soap for a four-year stint in 1990 and came back for a brief appearance last year along with his on-screen wife, Pam, where it was discovered he was developing Alzheimer's Disease.
24. Characters return with a head transplant
Image copyright Fremantle
Neighbours has never been averse to sending a character away and bringing them back with another actor in the role.
Lucy Robinson has been played by no fewer than three different actresses - beginning with Kylie Flinker (1985-87), Sasha Close (1987-90) and Melissa Bell (pictured above, 1991 to date).
Other characters to be played by multiple actors include Cody Willis, Cheryl Stark, Summer Hoyland and current Ramsay Street residents Brad Willis and Lauren Turner (nee Carpenter).
25. Famous Hollywood face #5 - Margot Robbie
Image copyright Getty Images
Margot played feisty teen Donna Freedman in the soap from 2008-11 before she went on to disrobe in Martin Scorsese's The Wolf of Wall Street, opposite Leonardo DiCaprio.
During her time on the show, Donna had numerous storylines which saw her search for her biological father, explore her bisexuality and get involved in numerous love triangles.
The 6,000th episode of the soap featured Donna's wedding to Ringo Brown (played by Sam Clarke, pictured above), but a month later the groom was run over by Steph Scully's motorbike and died. Donna ended up leaving Ramsay Street for a fashion design school in New York. Probably for the best.
26. Pop princesses
Image copyright Fremantle
Many who got their start in Neighbours went on to forge pop careers - although not all on the same scale as Kylie Minogue.
Holly Valance starred as Felicity "Flick" Scully (1999-2002), who was best known for chasing most of the neighbourhood boys and left Erinsborough to work for Lassiter's hotel branch in New York.
Delta Goodrem appeared as aspiring singer Nina Tucker (2002-05), written in to specially promote her single, Born to Try. Nina ended up finding success as a Bollywood star in Bombay, before becoming a film and TV star.
And Natalie Imbruglia played Beth Brennan (1992-94), a simple country girl who fled to Erinsborough after being abused by her stepfather. She was meant to marry Brad Willis, but left him at the altar after he admitted he was having an affair with her best friend Lauren.
27. The plane crash
In a storyline almost Hollywood-esque in ambition, a bomb on board an aeroplane killed off three characters - Harold's son David, daughter-in-law Liljana and grand-daughter Serena - back in 2005.
The Lassiter's 20th anniversary party ended in tragedy when the plane Paul Robinson had chartered for a joy flight exploded mid-flight and plunged into the sea.
Thanks to some strobe lights, dry ice and a wave machine, Ramsay Street residents were left fighting for their life while rescue helicopters scrambled to their aid - but it was too late for David who died. Liljana and Serena's bodies were never found and it was assumed they met a watery fate. Hmmm… does that sound a little familiar?
28. The Eclipse
Image copyright Fremantle
Set around an annular eclipse, episode 6,646 in May 2013 saw the lives of several Ramsay Street residents change. Detective Mark Brennan returned from the dead, Kyle Canning did serious damage to his eyesight by looking at the sun (after his dog Bossy ran away with his safety glasses) and there was also a child kidnapping.
It also saw the return of Brad Willis (complete with head transplant) to the street with his wife and two children (pictured above).
29. The Erinsborough tornado
Image copyright Fremantle
The residents of Ramsay Street were left in a spin when a tornado unexpectedly hit Erinsborough in August 2014.
There were broken ribs, the cracking of a prosthetic leg, and a marriage proposal, but it was unfortunate Kyle who was found trapped in a portable toilet when the wind hit. Let's hope he flushed first.
Poor Lou Carpenter became trapped in Harold's Store, lodging a piece of food in his throat. Luckily, Susan Kennedy was on hand to perform an emergency tracheotomy and save his life. As you do.
30. Neighbours vs Zombies
Image copyright Youtube
A 2014 web-only Halloween special saw several Neighbours characters come back to life... or, rather, death.
The cast included Drew Kirk (Dan Paris) who died in a horse riding accident in 2002, and Stingray Timmins (Ben Nicholas), who was written out with a brain aneurysm in 2007.
To give the spooky mini-series a twist, the dead were unaware they'd passed away. "Could a dead person punch you in the arm?" Stingray asked a slightly startled Bailey Turner.
The answer, it transpired, was yes.
Additional research by Mark Savage and Caroline Briggs.
| Scott Robinson and Charlene Mitchell |
Which 1959 film, starring Hayley Mills, is based on a short story by Noel Calef called ‘Rodolphe et le Revolver’? | Neighbours » Television.AU
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Neighbours
Neighbours cast in 1988: Back row (l to r): Stefan Dennis, Fiona Corke, Paul Keane, Anne Charleston, Jason Donovan, Kylie Minogue, Lisa Armytage, Ian Smith, Annie Jones, Craig McLachlan. Middle row: Anne Haddy, Alan Dale, Vivean Gray, Guy Pearce. Front: Kristian Schmid, Sally Jensen.
Neighbours — the longest running drama production on Australian television — was created by Reg Watson of Grundy Television Productions in the early 1980s. Watson was no stranger to devising popular drama, having masterminded a number of other soaps for Grundys, including Prisoner (a.k.a Prisoner Cell Block H) and Sons And Daughters.
In its early stages, Neighbours had a number of working titles including One Way Street and Living Together, but the essential premise was the same — the day to day lives of a suburban neighbourhood — loosely based on the neighbourhood of Watson’s own childhood.
Neighbours was reportedly offered to the Nine Network who declined in 1982. Though the Seven Network already had a successful drama line-up headed by A Country Practice and Sons And Daughters, the network purchased Neighbours in 1984. The plan was for Neighbours to provide a strong drama-based lead-in to the evening news, emulating a similar strategy employed by Nine in the late 1970s with The Young Doctors.
With an initial production budget of $8 million, Neighbours made its debut on Monday 18 March 1985, but from day one it was headed for trouble as the members of the Seven Network — ATN7 Sydney, HSV7 Melbourne, BTQ7 Brisbane and ADS7 Adelaide — ended up slotting the series in different timeslots. HSV7 and ADS7 scheduled it weeknights 6.00pm, leading into the news at 6.30pm. While ATN7, which had their one-hour news at 6.00pm, slotted Neighbours at 5.30pm putting it squarely up against the hugely popular game show Perfect Match – another Grundy production. BTQ7, who delayed their premiere by a week, did the opposite and scheduled it at 7.00pm following their news and current affairs hour.
Neighbours enjoyed a solid following in Melbourne where it is produced, and also in Brisbane and Adelaide. However any chance of the show’s survival was dependent on the support of Sydney, which was not forthcoming from the viewers. Then network politics between rivals Sydney and Melbourne got involved, with ATN7 all but withdrawing any support for the series. Having failed to grab a decent audience at 5.30pm, ATN7 then shifted Neighbours to the even less-appealing 3.30pm timeslot, while the other Seven’s maintained their respective timeslots. Despite heavy lobbying by HSV to keep the series, the Seven Network management ultimately put its support behind its Sydney-based dramas A Country Practice and Sons And Daughters, claiming there was no money for a third series. By September 1985, Neighbours was cancelled by Seven after 170 episodes.
Elaine Smith, Peter O’Brien and Ally Fowler (Picture: TV Week, 1986)
Despite the cancellation, Grundys executive Ian Holmes still had faith in the concept and then did the unthinkable and offered the series to rival Network Ten. Ten accepted the offer, creating Australian television history as it was the first time a drama series had ever swapped networks.
Although Ten had a popular early evening line-up with Perfect Match at 5.30pm and Eyewitness News at 6pm, the network was somewhat let down by re-runs of the US series MASH at 7pm. Ten immediately decided to slot Neighbours into 7pm, hoping to create a strong link between Eyewitness News and the evening schedule.
Production for Neighbours began at Ten’s Melbourne studios in Nunawading in November 1985. Conveniently, the real-life neighbourhood (Pin Oak Court) that formed the exterior for ‘Ramsay Street’, was located in the Melbourne suburb of Vermont South, only a short drive away from Nunawading. Following a heavy advertising campaign over the normally quiet summer period, Neighbours made its debut on Ten at 7.00pm on Monday, 20 January 1986.
In inheriting the series from Seven, Ten ordered considerable changes to the direction of the series, predominantly in the casting, to reflect a more youthful approach. Joining the cast in the transition to Ten were relatively unknown talents such as Jason Donovan, Guy Pearce, Charlene Fenn, Geoff Paine and later Annie Jones and Craig McLachlan. Also joining the cast were more familiar faces Ally Fowler, previously from Sons And Daughters, Anne Charleston who had just come out of a failed Grundy’s soap Possession, and Vivean Gray, then better known as the gossipy Mrs Jessop from The Sullivans.
Dr Karl Kennedy’s (Alan Fletcher) affair with Sarah Beaumont (Nicola Charles) sparked a boost in ratings (Picture: TV Week, 1999)
Then in April 1986, a seventeen-year-old Kylie Minogue, best known from the children’s drama The Henderson Kids, joined Neighbours as tomboy-ish Charlene Mitchell. The romantic pairing of Minogue’s character with Scott Robinson (Jason Donovan) turned out to be the biggest drawcard for the series, creating major hysteria whenever they appeared in public. The wedding of Scott and Charlene in July 1987 became the highest ever rating episode of the series and one of the highest rating soap opera episodes ever in Australia. Also in mid-1987, Minogue recorded a cover version of the 1960s hit Locomotion which was an immediate success and set the precedent for soapie stars to become pop stars — though Minogue remains Neighbours‘ most successful discovery. She left Neighbours in 1988, having won five TV Week Logies, including the Gold Logie, and set out on her new career as an international recording star. Neighbours also proved to be a springboard to international fame for others including Alan Dale, Jason Donovan, Guy Pearce, Natalie Imbruglia, Peter O’Brien, Daniel MacPherson, Holly Valance, Jesse Spencer and Delta Goodrem.
In the early months on Ten, Neighbours still struggled to catch on in Sydney while becoming increasingly popular elsewhere. An ongoing campaign to send cast members to Sydney for promotional appearances eventually paid dividends for Ten. The Seven Network could only look on as Neighbours became a huge national success for Ten, until they decided in 1987 to learn from their mistake and have another attempt at an early evening soap — Home And Away.
The next step for Grundys was to take Neighbours overseas. By October 1986, Neighbours had secured a low-profile daytime timeslot on the BBC. The perennial sunshine, cheerful characters and leafy streets of suburban Ramsay Street provided a stark contrast to the somewhat gloomier (though still popular) British soaps such as EastEnders and Coronation Street, and viewers became hooked. The increasing problem was that the BBC screened Neighbours in the early afternoons, causing havoc with school attendances as teenagers flocked to TV sets to keep up with the series. Alison Grade, daughter of BBC executive Michael Grade, was an avid Neighbours fan and suggested to her father that Neighbours be moved to an evening timeslot to make it more accessible. In January 1988, Alison got her wish and Neighbours was shifted to 5.30pm weeknights. Within weeks, Neighbours had risen to the top of the British ratings, knocking Coronation Street and EastEnders from the top spot. At its peak in popularity in the United Kingdom, Neighbours was watched by over 20 million viewers, seemingly including members of the British royal family as Neighbours cast members were later invited to appear at a Royal Variety Performance. Almost twenty years after Neighbours‘ BBC debut, British fans continue to make the journey to Melbourne to visit the real-life ‘Ramsay Street’, and the Global Television Studios where the program is produced.
The success of Neighbours in the United Kingdom led to the series being sold to as many as 57 countries — including many countries across Europe, Asia and even Africa. The series has been sold to Canada and has also appeared in the United States.
Despite the growing popularity of Neighbours overseas, by the early 1990s the series’ popularity was fading in Australia as popular cast members inevitably move on to other ventures. Network Ten was also experiencing its own downfall as ratings overall began to plunge, as did its finances and the network eventually going into receivership. Neighbours was one of the few programs to survive the downfall of Ten, undoubtedly due to the immense overseas support the program had.
After a disastrous year in 1990, Ten began to fight back in 1991 with a new programming strategy and a complete image overhaul, targetting the younger 16-39 demographic. Neighbours, and Ten’s other evening soap E Street, became a key component in the revival of the network. In January 1992, Seven decided to move its evening soap Home And Away into the all-important 7pm timeslot up against Neighbours. The result was less than spectacular for both parties as the audience ended up being split between both soaps. By March, Ten moved Neighbours into the 6.30pm timeslot to avoid direct competition from Home And Away and to provide an alternative to current affairs programs on Seven and Nine.
Neighbours continued through the 1990s with varying degrees of popularity as a new generation of characters were introduced though veteran performers such as Anne Haddy, Anne Charleston, Ian Smith and Tom Oliver would provide some link to the shows earlier era. By 1993, Haddy had become the only original cast member to still be in the series and continued until ill health forced her to retire in 1997. (Anne Haddy later passed away in 1999)
Anne Charleston, Kym Valentine, Dan Paris and Melissa Bell celebrating Neighbours’ 15th anniversary (Picture: TV Week, 2000)
The series enjoyed a renewed popularity by the late 1990s sparked by the extra-marital affair of character Dr Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) with his secretary Sarah Beaumont (Nicola Charles). Ratings improved again when Dr Karl’s infidelities surfaced again with a more recent affair with Isabel ‘Izzy’ Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte).
In celebrating Neighbours‘ 20th anniversary, a number of former cast members returned for guest appearances — the most prominent being original cast member Stefan Dennis, who played Paul Robinson from 1985 to 1993, returning for an ongoing period. The series has also been acknowledged on its milestone by being entered into the TV Week Logie Awards‘ Hall Of Fame.
Although Neighbours was a long-running fixture for the BBC in the United Kingdom, the series changed networks in 2008 when the rights were picked up by commercial broadcaster Channel 5.
In 2011 Network Ten made a controversial decision to shift Neighbours from its primary channel to its secondary digital-only channel, Eleven. The move saw Neighbours lose a chunk of its fanbase in Australia, although the series regularly tops the ratings of the digital multi-channels.
Now as it approaches its 30th year, Neighbours continues to screen around the world. Fan websites, including detailed episode guides and character profiles, have sprung up online and enjoy a growing popularity (links to some of these sites appear below). The series has won many awards over the years including Logies for Most Popular Drama Series and Gold Logies to cast members Kylie Minogue (1988) and Craig McLachlan (1990).
Related Links:
| i don't know |
‘The Telephone Song’ and ‘Last Night of the World’ are songs from which musical? | MISS SAIGON - OVERTURE LYRICS
Overture Lyrics
Miss Saigon - Saigon, April 1975
Overture
(A Friday night in April 1975. Backstage at an after-hours club in Saigon.
Vietnamese bar-girls are getting into costumes.)
GIRLS
tonight I will be Miss Saigon
GIGI
tonight you'll be Miss "jumped upon"
GIRLS
I'll win a GI and be gone
GIGI
he'll screw you with your crown still on
MIMI
what happens when the Cong attack?
GIGI
they'll rip the hot pants off your back
ALL GIRLS
the VC all wear basic black
(a new girl, KIM, is trying to stuff cotton into her bra.)
KIM
is this the way you make a chest?
GIGI
hey, give that virgin act a rest
ALL GIRLS
"you are my first American"
(they laugh)
why does it take all day?
get your asses on stage... I'm raising cash tonight
GIRLS
tonight I will be Miss Saigon
ENGINEER
tell yourself that your passport's standing at the bar
GIRLS
tonight I will be Miss Saigon
ENGINEER
each day these little bums of yours are worth less and less
rake in the dollars now before the market falls too far
(the ENGINEER looks through the door into the club.)
ENGINEER
look who I got out here
I can still engineer
it's like the old days, my little gamines
GIRLS
you know who's out here? a gang of marines!
GIRLS
we'll clean them out the American way
GIRLS
for something free, they don't care what they pay
(turns to KIM)
why are you in that dress?
ah! it's my new princess
ah, yes...
that bridal gown gives you some class
lower your eyelids as you pass
men pay a lot for virgin ass
allez! allez! allez!
get out and do your song!
don't make the show too long
voila'! on stage all! welcome to...
Dreamland!!!
Miss Saigon - Saigon, April 1975 Tracklist
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<table class="songlyrics" style="width: 100%; table-layout: fixed;"><col width="40" /><col /><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Miss Saigon - Miss Saigon - Saigon, April 1975 Album Lyrics</th></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">1.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/overture-lyrics/" title="Overture Lyrics Miss Saigon">Overture</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">2.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/sun-and-moon-lyrics/" title="Sun And Moon Lyrics Miss Saigon">Sun And Moon</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">3.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-ceremony-dju-vui-vaj-lyrics/" title="The Ceremony (Dju Vui Vaj) Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Ceremony (Dju Vui Vaj)</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">4.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-dance-lyrics/" title="The Dance Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Dance</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">5.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-deal-lyrics/" title="The Deal Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Deal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">6.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-heat-is-on-in-saigon-lyrics/" title="The Heat Is On In Saigon Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Heat Is On In Saigon</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">7.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-last-night-of-the-world-lyrics/" title="The Last Night Of The World Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Last Night Of The World</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">8.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-movie-in-my-mind-lyrics/" title="The Movie In My Mind Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Movie In My Mind</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">9.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-telephone-song-lyrics/" title="The Telephone Song Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Telephone Song</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">10.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/this-money-is-yours-lyrics/" title="This Money Is Yours Lyrics Miss Saigon">This Money Is Yours</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">11.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/what-s-this-i-find-lyrics/" title="What's This I Find Lyrics Miss Saigon">What's This I Find</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">12.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/why-god-why-lyrics/" title="Why God Why? Lyrics Miss Saigon">Why God Why?</a></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="sl-credit"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon-lyrics/" title="Miss Saigon Lyrics">Miss Saigon Lyrics</a> provided by <a href="/" title="Lyrics">SongLyrics.com</a></p>
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| Miss Saigon |
Malia and Natasha are the daughters of which US President? | MISS SAIGON - OVERTURE LYRICS
Overture Lyrics
Miss Saigon - Saigon, April 1975
Overture
(A Friday night in April 1975. Backstage at an after-hours club in Saigon.
Vietnamese bar-girls are getting into costumes.)
GIRLS
tonight I will be Miss Saigon
GIGI
tonight you'll be Miss "jumped upon"
GIRLS
I'll win a GI and be gone
GIGI
he'll screw you with your crown still on
MIMI
what happens when the Cong attack?
GIGI
they'll rip the hot pants off your back
ALL GIRLS
the VC all wear basic black
(a new girl, KIM, is trying to stuff cotton into her bra.)
KIM
is this the way you make a chest?
GIGI
hey, give that virgin act a rest
ALL GIRLS
"you are my first American"
(they laugh)
why does it take all day?
get your asses on stage... I'm raising cash tonight
GIRLS
tonight I will be Miss Saigon
ENGINEER
tell yourself that your passport's standing at the bar
GIRLS
tonight I will be Miss Saigon
ENGINEER
each day these little bums of yours are worth less and less
rake in the dollars now before the market falls too far
(the ENGINEER looks through the door into the club.)
ENGINEER
look who I got out here
I can still engineer
it's like the old days, my little gamines
GIRLS
you know who's out here? a gang of marines!
GIRLS
we'll clean them out the American way
GIRLS
for something free, they don't care what they pay
(turns to KIM)
why are you in that dress?
ah! it's my new princess
ah, yes...
that bridal gown gives you some class
lower your eyelids as you pass
men pay a lot for virgin ass
allez! allez! allez!
get out and do your song!
don't make the show too long
voila'! on stage all! welcome to...
Dreamland!!!
Miss Saigon - Saigon, April 1975 Tracklist
1
Embed
Get the embed code
<table class="songlyrics" style="width: 100%; table-layout: fixed;"><col width="40" /><col /><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Miss Saigon - Miss Saigon - Saigon, April 1975 Album Lyrics</th></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">1.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/overture-lyrics/" title="Overture Lyrics Miss Saigon">Overture</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">2.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/sun-and-moon-lyrics/" title="Sun And Moon Lyrics Miss Saigon">Sun And Moon</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">3.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-ceremony-dju-vui-vaj-lyrics/" title="The Ceremony (Dju Vui Vaj) Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Ceremony (Dju Vui Vaj)</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">4.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-dance-lyrics/" title="The Dance Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Dance</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">5.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-deal-lyrics/" title="The Deal Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Deal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">6.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-heat-is-on-in-saigon-lyrics/" title="The Heat Is On In Saigon Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Heat Is On In Saigon</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">7.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-last-night-of-the-world-lyrics/" title="The Last Night Of The World Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Last Night Of The World</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">8.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-movie-in-my-mind-lyrics/" title="The Movie In My Mind Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Movie In My Mind</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">9.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/the-telephone-song-lyrics/" title="The Telephone Song Lyrics Miss Saigon">The Telephone Song</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">10.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/this-money-is-yours-lyrics/" title="This Money Is Yours Lyrics Miss Saigon">This Money Is Yours</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">11.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/what-s-this-i-find-lyrics/" title="What's This I Find Lyrics Miss Saigon">What's This I Find</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sl-td-left">12.</td><td class="sl-td-right"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon/why-god-why-lyrics/" title="Why God Why? Lyrics Miss Saigon">Why God Why?</a></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="sl-credit"><a href="http://www.songlyrics.com/miss-saigon-lyrics/" title="Miss Saigon Lyrics">Miss Saigon Lyrics</a> provided by <a href="/" title="Lyrics">SongLyrics.com</a></p>
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| i don't know |
Gimpo International Airport is located in which Asian city? | Seoul Gimpo Airport (GMP) Information: GMP Airport in Seoul Area, Republic Of Korea
Seoul Gimpo International Airport (GMP)
Airport Information
(Seoul, Republic Of Korea)
Previously known as Kimpo International Airport, Seoul Gimpo International Airport (GMP) is now South Korea's second-biggest air facility, having being overtaken by Incheon International Airport in terms of flight capacity and passenger throughput. Having first opened in 1971, Gimpo Airport is still a relatively modern facility, providing air travel to major cities in South Korea and some international destinations.
Gimpo International Airport can be found on the southern side of Han River and within the western region of Seoul, near to Banghwa, Bucheon, Kimpo and Sky Park. The main regional airlines include Asiana (previously known as Seoul Airlines) and also Korean Air, an award-winning national carrier.
Countless bus services connect the airport with downtown Seoul, Incheon Airport and beyond. The city's comprehensive underground rail (Seoul Subway Line 5) links various parts of central Seoul, while taxis offer several different options for connecting passengers with their onward destinations. Taxis are the best way to reach the prestigious Yonsei University, which lies close by and to the south-east, and is home to more than 35,000 students.
About Seoul Tourism
Famous to many for hosting the 1988 Olympic Games, Seoul is South Korea's largest city and gleaming capital, with plenty to offer visitors. Amongst the most interesting historical sights around Seoul are the five palaces of the Joseon Dynasty - Changdeokgung, Changgyeonggung, Deoksugung, Gyeongbokgung and Gyeonghuigung.
Various shrines and temples make interesting visiting close to Gimpo Airport (GMP), such as Bongeunsa, Dongmyo and Jongmyo. For some insight into the country's history, the National Folk Museum is worth finding and is located within the Gyeongbok Palace complex, while for others, Seoul offers everything you could possibly want to know about Korean history and is also acclaimed for its bold contemporary architecture.
Contact Seoul Gimpo International Airport (GMP):
Address: No 274 Gwahea-Dong, Gangseo-Ku, Seoul, 157-711, South Korea
Airport Code: GMP
| Seoul |
In food, ‘E’ numbers 140-149 are which colour? | Korea’s First FBO Set to Open Soon in Seoul | Business Aviation News: Aviation International News
Korea’s First FBO Set to Open Soon in Seoul
by Charles Alcock
- April 9, 2016, 8:00 PM
The new Gimpo Business Aviation Center in Seoul is due to open in May and will be South Korea’s first purpose-built FBO.
Korea Airport Corp. (KAC) and its partner Avjet Asia expect to open their new FBO at Seoul’s Gimpo International Airport next month. The Gimpo Business Aviation Center, which will effectively be the first purpose-built FBO in South Korea, includes a passenger terminal with customs and immigration controls and a large hangar that can accommodate up to eight large jets simultaneously.
Avjet Asia will manage the FBO under an agreement made with KAC in December 2013, providing all standard ground handling services. In the future, the Seoul-based subsidiary of U.S. private aviation group Avjet Corp., may consider partnerships to expand the range of services the facility offers to include aircraft maintenance.
In addition to attracting traffic specifically operating in and out of South Korea, Avjet Corp. chairman and CEO Marc Foulkrod believes the new FBO will become a popular transit stop for business aviation traffic in northeast Asia. Seoul is less than a two-hour flight to Beijing.
Gimpo International Airport is located just 14 kilometers (nine miles) west of the Seoul’s downtown district. The South Korean capital’s main gateway, Incheon International Airport, is 48 km (30 miles) from the city center.
Last month, Avjet Corp. sold its aircraft management and charter division to Jet Aviation. Avjet’s managed fleet includes a mix of Boeing Business Jets, Gulfstream 650s and Hawker 800s. Avjet Asia was not part of this acquisition and remains under Foulkrod’s ownership, along with aircraft sales and brokerage business Avjet Global Sales and Avjet Pagosa Springs.
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British actress Audrey Kathleen Ruston was better known by what name? | Audrey Kathleen Ruston (1929 - 1993) - Genealogy
Audrey Kathleen Ruston
"Edda van Heemstra / Audrey Kathleen Hepburn-Ruston"
Birthdate:
Elsene, Bruxelles, Région de Bruxelles-Capitale, Belgique
Death:
Tolochenaz, Morges District, Vaud, Switzerland
Immediate Family:
Half sister of Arnoud Robert Alexander Quarles van Ufford, Jonkheer and <private> Quarles van Ufford
Occupation:
May 4 1929 - Ixelles, Belgium
Death:
Jan 20 1993 - Tolochenaz, Switzerland
Parents:
Joseph Anthony Hepburn-ruston, Ella Ruston (born Van Heemstra)
Ex-husband:
Joseph Victor Anthony Hepburn Ruston, Ella Hepburn Ruston-van Heemstra
Siblings:
Arnold Robert Alexander Quarles Van Ufford, Ian Edgar Bruce Quarles Van Ufford
Ex-husband:
May 4 1929 - Ixelles, Belgium
Death:
Jan 20 1993 - Tolochenaz, Vaud, Switzerland
Parents:
Joseph V.a. Ruston, Ella Ruston (born Van Heemstra)
Ex-husband:
May 4 1929 - Ixelles Belgium
Death:
Joseph Victor Anthony Ruston, Ella Ruston (born Van Heemstra)
Siblings:
Arnold Robert Alexander Quarles Van Ufford, Ian Edgar Bruce Quarles Van Ufford
Ex-husband:
May 4 1929 - Elsene Brussel
Death:
Jan 20 1993 - Tolochenaz Vaud Zwitserland
Parents:
Joseph Victor Anthony Hepburn-ruston, Ella Barones Van Heemstra
Brother:
Arnold Robert Alexander Jhr Quarles Van Ufford
Husband:
Andrea Paola Mario Graaf Dotti
Husband:
May 4 1929 - Elsene, België
Death:
Jan 20 1993 - Tolochenaz, Zwitserland
Parents:
Joseph Victor Anthony Hepburn Ruston, Ella Van Heemstra Barones
Siblings:
May 4 1929 - Ixelles/Elsene, Belgien
Death:
Jan 20 1993 - Tolochenaz, Lausanne, Schweiz
Parents:
Joseph Victor Anthony Ruston, Ella Ruston (geboren Van Heemstra)
Husband:
May 4 1929 - Brussels (Ixelles) Belgium
Death:
Jan 20 1993 - Tolochenaz, Vaud, Switzerland
Parents:
Joseph Victor Anthony Hepburn-ruston, Ella Van Heemstra
Siblings:
Arnoud Robert Alexander Quarles Van Ufford, Ian Edgar Bruce Quarles Van Ufford
Ex-husband:
May 4 1929 - Brussel, 48 Rue Keyenveld in Ixelles
Death:
Jan 20 1993 - Tolochenaz, Vaud, Switzerland
Parents:
Joseph Victor Anthony Hepburn-ruston, Ella, Baronnes Heemstra, Van
Siblings:
Arnoud Robert Alexander Quarles Van Ufford, Ian Edgar Bruce Quarles Van Ufford
Ex-husband:
ex-husband's child
About Audrey Hepburn
Born in Ixelles, Belgium as Audrey Kathleen Ruston, Hepburn spent her childhood chiefly in the Netherlands, including German-occupied Arnhem, Netherlands, during the Second World War. She studied ballet in Arnhem and then moved to London in 1948, where she continued to train in ballet and worked as a photographer's model. She appeared in a handful of European films before starring in the 1951 Broadway play Gigi. Hepburn played the lead female role in Roman Holiday (1953), winning an Academy Award, a Golden Globe and a BAFTA for her performance. She also won a Tony Award for her performance in Ondine (1954).
Hepburn became one of the most successful film actresses in the world and performed with such notable leading men as Gregory Peck, Rex Harrison, Humphrey Bogart, Gary Cooper, Cary Grant, Henry Fonda, William Holden, Fred Astaire, Peter O'Toole, and Albert Finney. She won BAFTA Awards for her performances in The Nun's Story (1959) and Charade (1963), and received Academy Award nominations for Sabrina (1954), The Nun's Story (1959), Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961) and Wait Until Dark (1967).
She starred as Eliza Doolittle in the film version of My Fair Lady (1964), becoming only the third actor to receive $1,000,000 for a film role. From 1968 to 1975 she took a break from film-making, mostly to spend more time with her two sons. In 1976 she starred with Sean Connery in Robin and Marian. In 1989 she made her last film appearance in Steven Spielberg's Always.
Her war-time experiences inspired her passion for humanitarian work, and although she had worked for UNICEF since the 1950s, during her later life she dedicated much of her time and energy to the organization. From 1988 until 1992, she worked in some of the most profoundly disadvantaged communities of Africa, South America and Asia. In 1992, Hepburn was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador. In 1999, she was ranked as the third greatest female star of all time by the American Film Institute.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audrey_Hepburn
Audrey Hepburn (4 May 1929(1929-05-04) – 20 January 1993(1993-01-20)) was a British actress and humanitarian.
Born in Ixelles, Belgium as Audrey Kathleen Ruston, Hepburn spent her childhood chiefly in the Netherlands, including German-occupied Arnhem, Netherlands, during the Second World War. She studied ballet in Arnhem and then moved to London in 1948, where she continued to train in ballet and worked as a photographer's model. She appeared in several European films before starring in the 1951 Broadway play Gigi. Hepburn played the lead female role in Roman Holiday (1953), winning an Academy Award, a Golden Globe and a BAFTA for her performance. She also won a Tony Award for her performance in Ondine (1954). She was also a member of the International Best Dressed List since 1961.
Hepburn became one of the most successful film actresses in the world and performed with notable leading men such as Gregory Peck, Rex Harrison, Humphrey Bogart, Gary Cooper, Cary Grant, Henry Fonda, William Holden, Burt Lancaster, Fred Astaire, James Garner, Peter O'Toole and Albert Finney. She won BAFTA Awards for her performances in The Nun's Story (1959) and Charade (1963) and received Academy Award nominations for Sabrina (1954), The Nun's Story (1959), Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961) and Wait Until Dark (1967).
She starred as Eliza Doolittle in the film version of My Fair Lady (1964), becoming only the third actor to receive $1,000,000 for a film role. From 1968 to 1975 she took a break from film-making to spend more time with her two sons. In 1976, she starred with Sean Connery in Robin and Marian. In 1989, she made her last film appearance in Steven Spielberg's Always.
Her war-time experiences inspired her passion for humanitarian work and, although she had worked for UNICEF since the 1950s, during her later life she dedicated much of her time and energy to the organization. From 1988 until 1992, she worked in some of the most profoundly disadvantaged communities of Africa, South America and Asia. In 1992, Hepburn was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador. In 1999, she was ranked as the third greatest female star of all time by the American Film Institute.
Early life
Born Audrey Kathleen Ruston[1] on Rue Keyenveld (French)/ Keienveldstraat (Dutch) in Ixelles/Elsene, a municipality in Brussels, Belgium, she was the only child of Joseph Victor Anthony Ruston (1889–1980), an English banker of Irish descent,[2] and his second wife Ella van Heemstra, the former Baroness Ella (1900–1984), a Dutch aristocrat, who was a daughter of a former governor of Dutch Guiana,[2] and who spent her childhood in the Huis Doorn manor house outside Doorn, that was subsequently the residence in exile of the former German Emperor, Wilhelm II.
Her father later prefixed the surname of his maternal grandmother, Kathleen Hepburn, to the family's and her surname became Hepburn-Ruston.[2] She had two half-brothers, Jonkheer Arnoud Robert Alexander "Alex" Quarles van Ufford (1920–1979) and Jonkheer Ian Edgar Bruce Quarles van Ufford b. 1924, by her mother's first marriage to a Dutch nobleman, Jonkheer Hendrik Gustaaf Adolf Quarles van Ufford.[2]
Although born in Belgium, Hepburn had British citizenship and attended school in England as a child.[3] Hepburn's father's job with a British insurance company meant the family travelled often between Brussels, England, and the Netherlands. From 1935 to 1938, Hepburn was educated at Miss Rigden's School, an independent girls' school in the village of Elham, Kent, south east England.
World War II
In 1935, Hepburn's parents divorced and her father, a Nazi sympathiser, left the family. Both parents were members of the British Union of Fascists in the mid-1930s according to Unity Mitford, a friend of Ella van Heemstra and a follower of Adolf Hitler.
Hepburn referred to her father's abandonment as the most traumatic moment of her life. Years later, she located him in Dublin, Ireland through the Red Cross. Although he remained emotionally detached, she stayed in contact with him and supported him financially until his death.[9]
In 1939, her mother moved her and her two half-brothers to their grandfather's home in Arnhem in the Netherlands, believing the Netherlands would be safe from German attack. Hepburn attended the Arnhem Conservatory from 1939 to 1945, where she trained in ballet along with the standard school curriculum. In 1940, the Germans invaded the Netherlands. During the German occupation, Hepburn adopted the pseudonym Edda van Heemstra, modifying her mother's documents because an 'English sounding' name was considered dangerous, with her mother feeling that "Audrey" might indicate her British roots too strongly. Being English in the occupied Netherlands was not an asset; it could have attracted the attention of the occupying German forces and resulted in confinement or even deportation. Edda was never her legal name, also it was a version of her mother's name Ella.[10]
By 1944, Hepburn had become a proficient ballerina. She secretly danced for groups of people to collect money for the Dutch resistance. She later said, "The best audience I ever had made not a single sound at the end of my performances".[11] After the Allied landing on D-Day, living conditions grew worse, and Arnhem was subsequently devastated by Allied artillery fire that was part of Operation Market Garden. During the Dutch famine that followed, over the winter of 1944, the Germans blocked the resupply routes of Dutch people's already limited food and fuel supplies as retaliation for railway strikes that were held to hinder the German occupation. People starved and froze to death in the streets. Hepburn and many others resorted to making flour out of tulip bulbs to bake cakes and biscuits.
Hepburn's half-brother, Ian van Ufford, spent time in a German labour camp. Suffering from malnutrition, Hepburn developed acute anemia, respiratory problems, and edema.[13] In 1991, Hepburn said "I have memories. More than once I was at the station seeing trainloads of Jews being transported, seeing all these faces over the top of the wagon. I remember, very sharply, one little boy standing with his parents on the platform, very pale, very blond, wearing a coat that was much too big for him, and he stepped on to the train. I was a child observing a child".[14]
One way that Audrey Hepburn passed the time was by drawing. Some of her childhood artwork can be seen today.[15] When the country was liberated, United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration trucks followed.[16] Hepburn said in an interview she ate an entire can of condensed milk and then got sick from one of her first relief meals because she put too much sugar in her oatmeal.[17] Hepburn's wartime experiences later led her to become involved with UNICEF.
Early career
In 1945, after the war, Hepburn left the Arnhem Conservatory and moved to Amsterdam, where she took ballet lessons with Sonia Gaskell.[18] Hepburn appeared as a stewardess in a short tourism film for KLM,[19] before travelling with her mother to London. Gaskell provided an introduction to Marie Rambert, and Hepburn studied ballet at the "Ballet Rambert", supporting herself with part time work as a model. Hepburn eventually asked Rambert about her future. Rambert assured her that she could continue to work there and have a great career, but the fact that she was relatively tall (1.7m/5 ft 7) coupled with her poor nutrition during the war would keep her from becoming a prima ballerina. Hepburn trusted Rambert's assessment and decided to pursue acting, a career in which she at least had a chance to excel.[20] After Hepburn became a star, Rambert said in an interview, "She was a wonderful learner. If she had wanted to persevere, she might have become an outstanding ballerina".[21]
Hepburn's mother worked menial jobs in order to support them and Hepburn needed to find employment. Since she trained to be a performer all her life, acting seemed a sensible career. She said, "I needed the money; it paid ₤3 more than ballet jobs".[22] Her acting career began with the educational film Dutch in Seven Lessons (1948). She played in musical theatre in productions such as High Button Shoes and Sauce Piquante in the West End. Her theatre work revealed that her voice was not strong and needed to be developed, and during this time she took elocution lessons with the actor Sir Felix Aylmer.[23] Part time modelling work was not always available and Hepburn registered with the casting officers of Britain's film studios in the hope of getting work as an extra.
Hepburn's first role in a motion picture was in the British film One Wild Oat in which she played a hotel receptionist. She played several more minor roles in Young Wives' Tale, Laughter in Paradise, The Lavender Hill Mob, and Monte Carlo Baby.
During the filming of Monte Carlo Baby, Hepburn was chosen to play the lead character in the Broadway play Gigi, that opened on 24 November 1951, at the Fulton Theatre and ran for 219 performances.[24] The writer Colette, when she first saw Hepburn, reportedly said "Voilà! There's our Gigi!"[25] She won a Theatre World Award for her performance.[24] Hepburn's first significant film performance was in the Thorold Dickinson film Secret People (1952), in which she played a prodigious ballerina. Hepburn did all of her own dancing scenes.
Her first starring role was with Gregory Peck in the Italian-set Roman Holiday (1953). Producers initially wanted Elizabeth Taylor for the role but director William Wyler was so impressed by Hepburn's screen test (the camera was left on and candid footage of Hepburn relaxing and answering questions, unaware that she was still being filmed, displayed her talents), that he cast her in the lead. Wyler said, "She had everything I was looking for: charm, innocence and talent. She also was very funny. She was absolutely enchanting and we said, 'That's the girl!'"[26]
The movie was to have had Gregory Peck's name above the title in large font with "Introducing Audrey Hepburn" beneath. After filming had been completed, Peck called his agent and, predicting correctly that Hepburn would win the Academy Award for Best Actress, had the billing changed so that her name also appeared before the title in type as large as his.[27]
Hepburn and Peck bonded during filming and there were rumours that they were romantically involved; both denied it. Hepburn, however, added, "Actually, you have to be a little bit in love with your leading man and vice versa. If you're going to portray love, you have to feel it. You can't do it any other way. But you don't carry it beyond the set".[28] Due to the instant celebrity that came with Roman Holiday, Hepburn's illustration was placed on the 7 September 1953, cover of TIME.[29]
Hepburn's performance received much critical praise. A. H. Weiler noted in The New York Times, "Although she is not precisely a newcomer to films, Audrey Hepburn, the British actress who is being starred for the first time as Princess Ann, is a slender, elfin and wistful beauty, alternately regal and childlike in her profound appreciation of newly found, simple pleasures and love. Although she bravely smiles her acknowledgement of the end of that affair, she remains a pitifully lonely figure facing a stuffy future".[30] Hepburn would later call Roman Holiday her dearest movie, because it was the one that made her a star.
After filming Roman Holiday for four months, Hepburn returned to New York and performed in Gigi for eight months. The play was performed in Los Angeles and San Francisco in its last month.
She was signed to a seven-picture contract with Paramount with twelve months in between films to allow her time for stage work.[31]
Hollywood stardom
Following Roman Holiday, she starred in Billy Wilder's Sabrina with Humphrey Bogart and William Holden. During the shooting of the film, Hepburn was sent to a then young and upcoming fashion designer Hubert de Givenchy to decide on her wardrobe.
When he was told that "Miss Hepburn" was coming to see him, the person who came to Givenchy's mind was Katharine Hepburn. He was disappointed to see Audrey Hepburn and told her that he didn't have much time to spare, but she asked for just a few minutes to pick out a few pieces for Sabrina.[27] Shortly after, Givenchy and Hepburn developed a lasting friendship, and she was often a muse for many of his designs. They formed a lifelong friendship and partnership.
During the filming of Sabrina, Hepburn and the already-married Holden became romantically involved and she hoped to marry him and have children. She broke off the relationship when Holden revealed that he had undergone a vasectomy.
In 1954, Hepburn returned to the stage to play the water sprite in Ondine in a performance with Mel Ferrer, whom she would marry later in the year. During the run of the play, Hepburn was awarded the Golden Globe for Best Motion Picture Actress and the Academy Award, both for Roman Holiday. Six weeks after receiving the Oscar, Hepburn was awarded the Tony Award for Best Actress for Ondine. Audrey Hepburn is one of only three actresses to receive a Best Actress Oscar and Best Actress Tony in the same year (the others were Shirley Booth and Ellen Burstyn).[1]
By the mid-1950s, Hepburn was not only one of the biggest motion picture stars in Hollywood, but also a major fashion influence. Her gamine and elfin appearance and widely recognised sense of chic were both admired and imitated. In 1955, she was awarded the Golden Globe for World Film Favorite - Female.[34]
Having become one of Hollywood's most popular box-office attractions, Hepburn co-starred with actors such as Humphrey Bogart in Sabrina, Henry Fonda in War and Peace, Fred Astaire in Funny Face, William Holden in Paris When It Sizzles, Maurice Chevalier and Gary Cooper in Love in the Afternoon, Anthony Perkins in Green Mansions, Burt Lancaster and Lillian Gish in The Unforgiven, Shirley MacLaine and James Garner in The Children's Hour, George Peppard in Breakfast at Tiffany's, Cary Grant in Charade, Rex Harrison in My Fair Lady, Peter O'Toole in How to Steal a Million and Sean Connery in Robin and Marian.
Rex Harrison called Audrey Hepburn his favourite leading lady, although he initially felt she was badly miscast as Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady (many accounts[specify] indicate that she became great friends with British actress and dancer Kay Kendall, who was Harrison's wife); Cary Grant loved to humour her and once said, "All I want for Christmas is another picture with Audrey Hepburn;"[35] and Gregory Peck became a lifelong friend.
After her death, Peck went on camera and tearfully recited her favourite poem, "Unending Love" by Rabindranath Tagore.[36]
A common perception of the time was that Bogart and Hepburn did not get along; however, Hepburn has been quoted as saying, "Sometimes it's the so-called 'tough guys' that are the most tender hearted, as Bogey was with me".
Funny Face in 1957 was one of Hepburn's favourites because she got to dance with Fred Astaire.[citation needed] Then in 1959's The Nun's Story came one of her most daring roles. Films in Review stated: "Her performance will forever silence those who have thought her less an actress than a symbol of the sophisticated child/woman. Her portrayal of Sister Luke is one of the great performances of the screen".[38]
Otto Frank even asked her to play his daughter Anne's onscreen counterpart in the 1959 film The Diary of Anne Frank,[citation needed] but Hepburn, who was born the same year as Anne, was almost 30 years old, and felt too old to play a teenager. The role was eventually given to Millie Perkins.
Hepburn's Holly Golightly in 1961's Breakfast at Tiffany's became an iconic character in American cinema. She called the role "the jazziest of my career".[39] Asked about the acting challenge of the role, she replied, "I'm an introvert. Playing the extroverted girl was the hardest thing I ever did".[40] In the film, she wore trendy clothing designed by herself and Givenchy, and added blonde streaks to her brown hair, a look that she would keep off-screen as well.
In 1963, Hepburn starred in Charade, her first and only film with Cary Grant, who had previously withdrawn from the starring roles in Roman Holiday and Sabrina. He was sensitive as to their age difference and requested a script change so that Hepburn's character would be the one to romantically pursue his.[citation needed]
Released after Charade was Paris When It Sizzles, a film that paired Hepburn with William Holden, who nearly ten years before had been her leading man in Sabrina. The film, called "marshmallow-weight hokum",[41] was "uniformly panned";[42] Behind the scenes, the set was plagued with problems: Holden tried without success to rekindle a romance with the now-married actress; that, combined with his alcoholism made the situation a challenge for the production. Hepburn did not help matters: after principal photography began, she demanded the dismissal of cinematographer Claude Renoir after seeing what she felt were unflattering dailies.[42] Superstitious, she insisted on dressing room 55 because that was her lucky number (she had dressing room 55 for Roman Holiday and Breakfast at Tiffany’s). She insisted that Givenchy, her long-time designer, be given a credit in the film for her perfume.[42]
In 1964, Hepburn starred in My Fair Lady which was said to be the most anticipated movie since Gone with the Wind.
Hepburn was cast as Eliza Doolittle instead of Julie Andrews, who had originated the role on Broadway, but had no film experience as yet. The decision not to cast Andrews was made before Hepburn was chosen. Hepburn initially refused the role and asked Jack Warner to give it to Andrews, but when informed that it would either be her or Elizabeth Taylor, who was also vying for the part, she accepted the role.
The casting of a non-singer in the lead role of a major musical proved to be very controversial. Several critics[specify] felt that Hepburn was not believable as a Cockney flower girl, and that at 35 she was rather old for the part since Eliza was supposed to be about 20. However, according to an article in Soundstage magazine, "Everyone agreed that if Julie Andrews was not to be in the film, Audrey Hepburn was the perfect choice".[43]
Hepburn recorded vocals, but was later told that her vocals would be replaced by Marni Nixon. She walked off the set but returned early the next day to apologise for her "wicked" behaviour.[citation needed] Footage of several songs with Hepburn's original vocals still exist and have been included in documentaries and the DVD release of the film, though to date, only Nixon's renditions have been released on LP and CD.
Some of her original vocals remained in the film: a section of "Just You Wait", one line of a verse to "I Could Have Danced All Night" and the reprise of "Just You Wait". When asked about the dubbing of an actress with such distinctive vocal tones, Hepburn frowned and said, "You could tell, couldn't you? And there was Rex, recording all his songs as he acted ... next time —" She bit her lip to keep from saying any more.[40]
Aside from the dubbing, many critics agreed that Hepburn's performance was excellent. Gene Ringgold said, "Audrey Hepburn is magnificent. She is Eliza for the ages".[43]
The controversy over Hepburn's casting reached its height at the 1964–65 Academy Awards season, when Hepburn was not nominated for best actress while Andrews was, for Mary Poppins. The media tried to play up a rivalry between the two actresses as the ceremony approached, even though both women denied any such bad feelings existed and got along well. Andrews won the award.[citation needed]
Two for the Road was a non-linear and innovative movie tracing the course of a troubled marriage. Director Stanley Donen said that Hepburn was more free and happy than he had ever seen her, and he credited that to Albert Finney.[44]
Wait Until Dark in 1967 was a difficult film. It was an edgy thriller in which Hepburn played the part of a blind woman being terrorised. In addition, it was produced by Mel Ferrer and filmed on the brink of their divorce. Hepburn is said to have lost fifteen pounds under the stress. On the bright side, she found co-star Richard Crenna to be very funny, and she had a lot to laugh about with director Terence Young. They both joked that he had shelled his favorite star 23 years before; he had been a British Army tank commander during the Battle of Arnhem. Hepburn's performance was nominated for an Academy Award.
Final roles
From 1967 onward, after fifteen highly successful years in film, Hepburn decided to devote more time to her family and acted only occasionally. After her divorce from Ferrer, she married Italian psychiatrist Dr. Andrea Dotti and had a second son, after a difficult pregnancy that required near-total bed rest. After her separation from Dotti, she attempted a comeback, co-starring with Sean Connery in the period piece Robin and Marian in 1976, which was moderately successful.
Hepburn finally returned to cinema in 1979, taking the leading role of Elizabeth Roffe in the international production of Bloodline, directed again by Terence Young, sharing top billing with Ben Gazzara, James Mason and Romy Schneider. Author Sidney Sheldon revised his novel when it was reissued to tie into the film, making her character a much older woman to better match the actress' age. The film, an international intrigue amid the jet-set, was a critical and box office failure.
Hepburn's last starring role in a cinematic film was with Ben Gazzara in the comedy They All Laughed, directed by Peter Bogdanovich. The film was overshadowed by the murder of one of its stars, Bogdanovich's girlfriend, Dorothy Stratten; the film was released after Stratten's death but only in limited runs. In 1987, she co-starred with Robert Wagner in a tongue-in-cheek made-for-television caper film, Love Among Thieves, which borrowed elements from several of Hepburn's films, most notably Charade and How to Steal a Million.
Hepburn's last motion picture role, a cameo appearance, was as an angel in Steven Spielberg's Always, filmed in 1988. This film was only moderately successful. In the early 1990s, Hepburn completed two entertainment-related projects. In the spring and summer of 1990, she filmed her final performance before the camera, on location in seven countries, as host of the television documentary series entitled Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn. A one-hour special preceded the series, debuting on PBS in March, 1991; the series' debut on PBS, for which she was awarded an Emmy posthumously, followed in 1993 the day after her death. She recorded a spoken word album, Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales featuring readings of classic children's stories, which would win her a posthumous Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children.
Personal life
.In 1952, she was engaged to the young James Hanson.[45] She called it "love at first sight;" however, after having her wedding dress fitted and the date set, she decided the marriage would not work, because the demands of their careers would keep them apart most of the time.[46] In the early 1950s, she dated future Hair producer Michael Butler.[47] Hepburn married twice, first to American actor Mel Ferrer, and then to an Italian doctor, Andrea Dotti. She had a son with each – Sean in 1960 by Ferrer, and Luca in 1970 by Dotti. Her elder son's godfather was the novelist A. J. Cronin, who resided near Hepburn in Lucerne.
Hepburn met Mel Ferrer at a party hosted by Gregory Peck. She had seen him in the film Lili and was captivated by his performance.[48] Ferrer later sent Hepburn the script for the play Ondine and Hepburn agreed to play the role. Rehearsals started in January 1954 and Hepburn and Ferrer were married on 24 September.[49] Hepburn claimed that they were inseparable and were very happy together, despite the insistence from gossip columns that the marriage would not last. She did, however, admit that he had a bad temper.[50] Ferrer was rumoured to be too controlling of Hepburn and had been referred to by others as being her Svengali--an accusation that Hepburn laughed off.[51], William Holden was quoted as saying, "I think Audrey allows Mel to think he influences her".
Before having their first child, Hepburn had two miscarriages, the first in March 1955.[citation needed] In 1959, while filming The Unforgiven, she broke her back after falling off a horse onto a rock. She spent weeks in the hospital and later had a miscarriage that was said to have been induced by physical and mental stress. While she was resting at home, Mel Ferrer brought her the fawn from the movie Green Mansions to keep as a pet. They called him Ip, short for Pippin.
One year after Marilyn Monroe sang "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" to President John F. Kennedy, Hepburn, the President's favourite actress, sang "Happy Birthday, Dear Jack" to him, on what turned out to be his final birthday (29 May 1963).[52]
Hepburn had several pets, including a Yorkshire Terrier named Mr. Famous, who was hit by a car and killed. To cheer her up, Mel Ferrer got her another Yorkshire named Assam of Assam. She also kept Ip; they made a bed for him out of a bathtub. Sean Ferrer had a Cocker Spaniel named Cokey. When Hepburn was older, she had two Jack Russell Terriers. The marriage to Ferrer lasted 14 years, until 5 December 1968; their son was quoted as saying that Hepburn had stayed in the marriage too long. In the later years of the marriage, Ferrer was rumoured to have had a girlfriend on the side, while Hepburn had an affair with her Two for the Road co-star Albert Finney. She denied the rumours, but director Stanley Donen said, "with Albert Finney, she was like a new woman. She and Albie have a wonderful thing together; they are like a couple of kids. When Mel wasn't on set, they sparkled. When Mel was there, it was funny. Audrey and Albie would go rather formal and a little awkward".[53] The couple separated before divorcing.
She met Italian psychiatrist Andrea Dotti on a cruise and fell in love with him on a trip to some Greek ruins. She believed she would have more children, and possibly stop working. She married him on 18 January 1969. Although Dotti loved Hepburn and was well-liked by Sean, who called him "fun", he began having affairs with younger women. The marriage lasted thirteen years and ended in 1982, when Hepburn felt Luca and Sean were old enough to handle life with a single mother.[citation needed] Though Hepburn broke off all contact with Ferrer (she would only speak to him twice in the remainder of her life), she remained in touch with Dotti for the benefit of Luca. Andrea Dotti died in October 2007 from complications of a colonoscopy. Mel Ferrer died of heart failure in June 2008 at age ninety.
Hepburn was much more careful when she was pregnant with Luca in 1969; she rested for months and passed the time by painting before delivering Luca by caesarean section. Hepburn had her final miscarriage in 1974.[54] Hepburn is associated with the poem "Time-Tested Beauty Tips" (although the author is humorist Sam Levenson),[55] which she used to recite to her sons. The poem includes verses such as, "For beautiful hair, let a child run his or her fingers through it once a day", and, "For a slim figure, share your food with the hungry".
From 1980 until her death, she lived with the actor Robert Wolders. She died of appendiceal cancer at her home in Switzerland at the age of 63.
Work for UNICEF
Soon after Hepburn's final film role, she was appointed goodwill ambassador to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). Grateful for her own good fortune after enduring the German occupation as a child, she dedicated the remainder of her life to helping impoverished children in the poorest nations. Hepburn's travels were made easier by her wide knowledge of languages; she spoke seven languages fluently, including French, Italian, Spanish, English, Dutch, and German.[59]
Though she had done work for UNICEF in the 1950s, starting in 1954 with radio presentations, this was a much higher level of dedication. Those close to her[who?] say that the thoughts of dying, helpless children consumed her for the rest of her life. Her first field mission was to Ethiopia in 1988. She visited an orphanage in Mek'ele that housed 500 starving children and had UNICEF send food. Of the trip, she said, "I have a broken heart. I feel desperate. I can't stand the idea that two million people are in imminent danger of starving to death, many of them children, [and] [sic] not because there isn't tons of food sitting in the northern port of Shoa. It can't be distributed. Last spring, Red Cross and UNICEF workers were ordered out of the northern provinces because of two simultaneous civil wars... I went into rebel country and saw mothers and their children who had walked for ten days, even three weeks, looking for food, settling onto the desert floor into makeshift camps where they may die. Horrible. That image is too much for me. The 'Third World' is a term I don't like very much, because we're all one world. I want people to know that the largest part of humanity is suffering".[60]
In August 1988, Hepburn went to Turkey on an immunization campaign. She called Turkey "the loveliest example" of UNICEF's capabilities. Of the trip, she said, "the army gave us their trucks, the fishmongers gave their wagons for the vaccines, and once the date was set, it took ten days to vaccinate the whole country. Not bad".[citation needed]
In October, Hepburn went to South America. In Venezuela and Ecuador, Hepburn told Congress, "I saw tiny mountain communities, slums, and shantytowns receive water systems for the first time by some miracle – and the miracle is UNICEF. I watched boys build their own schoolhouse with bricks and cement provided by UNICEF".
Hepburn toured Central America in February 1989, and met with leaders in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala. In April, Hepburn visited Sudan with Wolders as part of a mission called "Operation Lifeline". Because of civil war, food from aid agencies had been cut off. The mission was to ferry food to southern Sudan. Hepburn said, "I saw but one glaring truth: These are not natural disasters but man-made tragedies for which there is only one man-made solution – peace".[citation needed]
In October, Hepburn and Wolders went to Bangladesh. John Isaac, a UN photographer, said, "Often the kids would have flies all over them, but she would just go hug them. I had never seen that. Other people had a certain amount of hesitation, but she would just grab them. Children would just come up to hold her hand, touch her – she was like the Pied Piper".
In October 1990, Hepburn went to Vietnam in an effort to collaborate with the government for national UNICEF-supported immunization and clean water programs.
In September 1992, four months before she died, Hepburn went to Somalia. Hepburn called it "apocalyptic" and said, "I walked into a nightmare. I have seen famine in Ethiopia and Bangladesh, but I have seen nothing like this – so much worse than I could possibly have imagined. I wasn't prepared for this". "The earth is red – an extraordinary sight – that deep terracotta red. And you see the villages, displacement camps and compounds, and the earth is all rippled around them like an ocean bed. And those were the graves. There are graves everywhere. Along the road, around the paths that you take, along the riverbeds, near every camp – there are graves everywhere".[citation needed]
Though scarred by what she had seen, Hepburn still had hope. "Taking care of children has nothing to do with politics. I think perhaps with time, instead of there being a politicization of humanitarian aid, there will be a humanization of politics". "Anyone who doesn't believe in miracles is not a realist. I have seen the miracle of water which UNICEF has helped to make a reality. Where for centuries young girls and women had to walk for miles to get water, now they have clean drinking water near their homes. Water is life, and clean water now means health for the children of this village". "People in these places don't know Audrey Hepburn, but they recognize the name UNICEF. When they see UNICEF their faces light up, because they know that something is happening. In the Sudan, for example, they call a water pump UNICEF".
In 1992, President George H. W. Bush presented her with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of her work with UNICEF, and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded her The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award for her contribution to humanity. This was awarded posthumously, with her son accepting on her behalf.
Death
In 1992, when Hepburn returned to Switzerland from her visit to Somalia, she began to feel abdominal pains. She went to specialists and received inconclusive results, so she decided to have it examined while on a trip to Los Angeles in October.
On 1 November, doctors performed a laparoscopy and discovered abdominal cancer that had spread from her appendix.[61] It had grown slowly over several years, and metastasised not as a tumour, but as a thin coating over her small intestine. The doctors performed surgery and then put Hepburn through 5-fluorouracil Leucovorin chemotherapy.[62] A few days later, she had an obstruction. Medication was not enough to dull the pain, so on 1 December, she underwent surgery a second time. After one hour, the surgeon decided that the cancer had spread too far and could not be removed.
Because Hepburn was unable to fly on a commercial aircraft, Givenchy arranged for Rachel Lambert "Bunny" Mellon to send her private Gulfstream jet, filled with flowers, to take Hepburn from California to Switzerland.[63] Hepburn died of cancer on 20 January 1993( 1993-01-20), in Tolochenaz, Vaud, Switzerland, and was interred there.
At the time of her death, she was involved with Robert Wolders, a Dutch actor who was the widower of film star Merle Oberon. She had met Wolders through a friend, in the later stage of her marriage to Dotti. After Hepburn's divorce was final, she and Wolders started their lives together, although they never married. In 1989, after nine years with him, she called them the happiest years of her life. "Took me long enough", she said in an interview with Barbara Walters. Walters then asked why they never married. Hepburn replied that they were married, just not formally.[citation needed]
Enduring popularity
Hepburn was voted "most beautiful woman of all time" in a poll of beauty experts by Evian.[64][65] Her fashion styles also continue to be popular among women.[66] Contrary to her recent image, although Hepburn did enjoy fashion, she did not place much importance on it. She preferred casual, comfortable clothes.[67] In addition, she never considered herself to be very attractive. She said in a 1959 interview, "you can even say that I hated myself at certain periods. I was too fat, or maybe too tall, or maybe just plain too ugly... you can say my definiteness stems from underlying feelings of insecurity and inferiority. I couldn't conquer these feelings by acting indecisive. I found the only way to get the better of them was by adopting a forceful, concentrated drive".[68]
The 2000 American made-for-television film, The Audrey Hepburn Story, starred Jennifer Love Hewitt in the title role. Hewitt also co-produced the film.[69] The film concluded with footage of the real Audrey Hepburn, shot during one of her final missions for UNICEF. Several versions of the film exist; it was aired as a mini-series in some countries, and in a truncated version on America's ABC television network, which is also the version released on DVD in North America. Emmy Rossum, in one of her first film roles, portrayed Hepburn as a young teen in the film.
In 2006, the Sustainable Style Foundation inaugurated the Style & Substance Award in Honor of Audrey Hepburn to recognise high profile individuals who work to improve the quality of life for children around the world. The first award was given to Hepburn posthumously and received by the Audrey Hepburn Children's Fund, a non-profit organization that was started in 1994 in New York and relocated to Los Angeles in 1998 where it remains today.
Hepburn's image is widely used in advertising campaigns across the world. In Japan, a series of commercials used colourised and digitally enhanced clips of Hepburn in Roman Holiday to advertise Kirin black tea. In the US, Hepburn was featured in a Gap commercial which ran from September 7, 2006, to October 5, 2006. It used clips of her dancing from Funny Face, set to AC/DC's "Back in Black", with the tagline "It's Back - The Skinny Black Pant". To celebrate its "Keep it Simple" campaign, the Gap made a sizeable donation to the Audrey Hepburn Children's Fund.[70] The "little black dress" from Breakfast at Tiffany's, designed by Givenchy, sold at a Christie's auction on 5 December 2006, for £467,200 (approximately $920,000), almost seven times its £70,000 pre-sale estimate. This is the highest price paid for a dress from a film.[71] The proceeds went to the City of Joy Aid charity to aid underprivileged children in India. The head of the charity said, "there are tears in my eyes. I am absolutely dumbfounded to believe that a piece of cloth which belonged to such a magical actress will now enable me to buy bricks and cement to put the most destitute children in the world into schools".[72] The dress auctioned by Christie's was not the one that Hepburn actually wore in the movie.[73] Of the two dresses that Hepburn did wear, one is held in the Givenchy archives, while the other is displayed in the Museum of Costume in Madrid.[72]
A subsequent auction of Hepburn's film wardrobe, in London in December 2009, raised £270,200 ($437,000), including £60,000 for the black Chantilly lace cocktail gown from How to Steal a Million. Half the proceeds were donated to 'All Children in School,' a joint venture of The Audrey Hepburn Children's Fund and UNICEF.[74]
Filmography
1948 Nederlands in 7 lessen Airline Stewardess Documentary (English: Dutch in Seven Lessons)
1951 One Wild Oat Hotel receptionist
Laughter in Paradise Cigarette girl
Monte Carlo Baby Linda Farell Discovered by French novelist Colette during filming and cast as Gigi for the Broadway play
Young Wives' Tale Eve Lester
The Lavender Hill Mob Chiquita
1952 The Secret People Nora Brentano
Nous irons à Monte Carlo Melissa Walter French version of Monte Carlo Baby (English: We Will Go to Monte Carlo)
1953 Roman Holiday Princess Ann Academy Award for Best Actress
BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
1954 Sabrina Sabrina Fairchild Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
Nominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
1956 War and Peace Natasha Rostova Nominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
1957 Funny Face Jo Stockton
Love in the Afternoon Ariane Chavasse/Thin Girl Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
1959 Green Mansions Rima Directed by Mel Ferrer
The Nun's Story Sister Luke (Gabrielle van der Mal) BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
1960 The Unforgiven Rachel Zachary
1961 Breakfast at Tiffany's Holly Golightly Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
The Children's Hour Karen Wright
1963 Charade Regina "Reggie" Lampert BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
1964 Paris When It Sizzles Gabrielle Simpson
My Fair Lady Eliza Doolittle Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
1966 How to Steal a Million Nicole Bonnet
1967 Two for the Road Joanna Wallace Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Wait Until Dark Susy Hendrix Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
1976 Robin and Marian Lady Marian
1979 Bloodline Elizabeth Roffe Her only R-rated film
1981 They All Laughed Angela Niotes
1989 Always Hap
1949 High Button Shoes Chorus Girl Musical Theatre
Sauce Tartare Chorus Girl Musical Theatre
1950 Sauce Piquante Featured Player Musical Theatre
1951 Gigi Gigi Opened on Broadway at the Fulton Theatre, 24 November 1951.
Theatre World Award
1952 CBS Television Workshop Episode entitled "Rainy Day at Paradise Junction"
1954 Ondine Water Nymph Opened on Broadway, 18 February - 26 June, co-starring Mel Ferrer
Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play
1957 Mayerling Maria Vetsera Producers' Showcase live production. Costarring Mel Ferrer as Prince Rudolf. Released theatrically in Europe.
1987 Love Among Thieves Baroness Caroline DuLac Television movie.
1993 Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn Herself PBS miniseries;
Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement - Informational Programming
Awards and honors
She won the 1953 Academy Award for Best Actress for Roman Holiday. She was nominated for Best Actress four more times; for Sabrina, The Nun's Story, Breakfast at Tiffany's, and Wait Until Dark. She was not nominated for her performance as Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady, one of her most acclaimed performances. For her 1967 nomination, the Academy chose her performance in Wait Until Dark over her critically acclaimed performance in Two for the Road. She lost to Katharine Hepburn (in Guess Who's Coming to Dinner). Audrey Hepburn is one of the few people who have won an Emmy, a Grammy, an Oscar, and a Tony Award.
Academy Award: Best Actress for Roman Holiday (1954) and posthumously The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (1993).
Golden Globe award: Best Motion Picture Actress for Roman Holiday (1954).
Tony Award: Best Actress for Ondine (1954) and Special Achievement award (1968).
Grammy Award: Best Spoken Word Album for Children (1993) for Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales (posthumous).
Emmy Award: Outstanding Individual Achievement - Informational Programming (1993) for the "Flower Gardens" episode of her documentary series, Gardens of the World (posthumous).
Hepburn won the Henrietta Award in 1955 for the world's favourite actress, the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1990 and the Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award in 1992. Hepburn was posthumously awarded the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award later in 1993.[75]
In December 1992, one month before her death, Hepburn received the Presidential Medal of Freedom for her work in UNICEF.[76] This is one of the two highest awards a civilian can receive in the United States.[77][78] She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1652 Vine Street.
In 2003, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp illustrated by Michael J. Deas[79] honouring her as a Hollywood legend and humanitarian. It has a drawing of her which is based on a publicity photo from the movie Sabrina. Hepburn is one of the few non-Americans to be so honoured. As well, in 2008, Canada Post issued a series of pre-paid postcards based on the work of Yousuf Karsh, one of which was a portrait of Hepburn.[80]
Hepburn was only one of two people to wear the Tiffany Diamond,[81] the other being Mrs. Sheldon Whitehouse at the 1957 Tiffany Ball. Hepburn was a member of the International Best Dressed List and elevated into its Hall of Fame in 1961.
She was posthumously awarded The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for her humanitarian work. She received a posthumous Grammy Award for her spoken word recording, Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales in 1994, and in the same year, won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement for Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn, thereby becoming one of a few people to receive an Academy, Emmy, Grammy and Tony award.
О Audrey Hepburn (русский)
Born in Ixelles, Belgium as Audrey Kathleen Ruston, Hepburn spent her childhood chiefly in the Netherlands, including German-occupied Arnhem, Netherlands, during the Second World War. She studied ballet in Arnhem and then moved to London in 1948, where she continued to train in ballet and worked as a photographer's model. She appeared in a handful of European films before starring in the 1951 Broadway play Gigi. Hepburn played the lead female role in Roman Holiday (1953), winning an Academy Award, a Golden Globe and a BAFTA for her performance. She also won a Tony Award for her performance in Ondine (1954).
Hepburn became one of the most successful film actresses in the world and performed with such notable leading men as Gregory Peck, Rex Harrison, Humphrey Bogart, Gary Cooper, Cary Grant, Henry Fonda, William Holden, Fred Astaire, Peter O'Toole, and Albert Finney. She won BAFTA Awards for her performances in The Nun's Story (1959) and Charade (1963), and received Academy Award nominations for Sabrina (1954), The Nun's Story (1959), Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961) and Wait Until Dark (1967).
She starred as Eliza Doolittle in the film version of My Fair Lady (1964), becoming only the third actor to receive $1,000,000 for a film role. From 1968 to 1975 she took a break from film-making, mostly to spend more time with her two sons. In 1976 she starred with Sean Connery in Robin and Marian. In 1989 she made her last film appearance in Steven Spielberg's Always.
Her war-time experiences inspired her passion for humanitarian work, and although she had worked for UNICEF since the 1950s, during her later life she dedicated much of her time and energy to the organization. From 1988 until 1992, she worked in some of the most profoundly disadvantaged communities of Africa, South America and Asia. In 1992, Hepburn was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador. In 1999, she was ranked as the third greatest female star of all time by the American Film Institute.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audrey_Hepburn
Audrey Hepburn (4 May 1929(1929-05-04) – 20 January 1993(1993-01-20)) was a British actress and humanitarian.
Born in Ixelles, Belgium as Audrey Kathleen Ruston, Hepburn spent her childhood chiefly in the Netherlands, including German-occupied Arnhem, Netherlands, during the Second World War. She studied ballet in Arnhem and then moved to London in 1948, where she continued to train in ballet and worked as a photographer's model. She appeared in several European films before starring in the 1951 Broadway play Gigi. Hepburn played the lead female role in Roman Holiday (1953), winning an Academy Award, a Golden Globe and a BAFTA for her performance. She also won a Tony Award for her performance in Ondine (1954). She was also a member of the International Best Dressed List since 1961.
Hepburn became one of the most successful film actresses in the world and performed with notable leading men such as Gregory Peck, Rex Harrison, Humphrey Bogart, Gary Cooper, Cary Grant, Henry Fonda, William Holden, Burt Lancaster, Fred Astaire, James Garner, Peter O'Toole and Albert Finney. She won BAFTA Awards for her performances in The Nun's Story (1959) and Charade (1963) and received Academy Award nominations for Sabrina (1954), The Nun's Story (1959), Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961) and Wait Until Dark (1967).
She starred as Eliza Doolittle in the film version of My Fair Lady (1964), becoming only the third actor to receive $1,000,000 for a film role. From 1968 to 1975 she took a break from film-making to spend more time with her two sons. In 1976, she starred with Sean Connery in Robin and Marian. In 1989, she made her last film appearance in Steven Spielberg's Always.
Her war-time experiences inspired her passion for humanitarian work and, although she had worked for UNICEF since the 1950s, during her later life she dedicated much of her time and energy to the organization. From 1988 until 1992, she worked in some of the most profoundly disadvantaged communities of Africa, South America and Asia. In 1992, Hepburn was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador. In 1999, she was ranked as the third greatest female star of all time by the American Film Institute.
Early life
Born Audrey Kathleen Ruston[1] on Rue Keyenveld (French)/ Keienveldstraat (Dutch) in Ixelles/Elsene, a municipality in Brussels, Belgium, she was the only child of Joseph Victor Anthony Ruston (1889–1980), an English banker of Irish descent,[2] and his second wife Ella van Heemstra, the former Baroness Ella (1900–1984), a Dutch aristocrat, who was a daughter of a former governor of Dutch Guiana,[2] and who spent her childhood in the Huis Doorn manor house outside Doorn, that was subsequently the residence in exile of the former German Emperor, Wilhelm II.
Her father later prefixed the surname of his maternal grandmother, Kathleen Hepburn, to the family's and her surname became Hepburn-Ruston.[2] She had two half-brothers, Jonkheer Arnoud Robert Alexander "Alex" Quarles van Ufford (1920–1979) and Jonkheer Ian Edgar Bruce Quarles van Ufford b. 1924, by her mother's first marriage to a Dutch nobleman, Jonkheer Hendrik Gustaaf Adolf Quarles van Ufford.[2]
Although born in Belgium, Hepburn had British citizenship and attended school in England as a child.[3] Hepburn's father's job with a British insurance company meant the family travelled often between Brussels, England, and the Netherlands. From 1935 to 1938, Hepburn was educated at Miss Rigden's School, an independent girls' school in the village of Elham, Kent, south east England.
World War II
In 1935, Hepburn's parents divorced and her father, a Nazi sympathiser, left the family. Both parents were members of the British Union of Fascists in the mid-1930s according to Unity Mitford, a friend of Ella van Heemstra and a follower of Adolf Hitler.
Hepburn referred to her father's abandonment as the most traumatic moment of her life. Years later, she located him in Dublin, Ireland through the Red Cross. Although he remained emotionally detached, she stayed in contact with him and supported him financially until his death.[9]
In 1939, her mother moved her and her two half-brothers to their grandfather's home in Arnhem in the Netherlands, believing the Netherlands would be safe from German attack. Hepburn attended the Arnhem Conservatory from 1939 to 1945, where she trained in ballet along with the standard school curriculum. In 1940, the Germans invaded the Netherlands. During the German occupation, Hepburn adopted the pseudonym Edda van Heemstra, modifying her mother's documents because an 'English sounding' name was considered dangerous, with her mother feeling that "Audrey" might indicate her British roots too strongly. Being English in the occupied Netherlands was not an asset; it could have attracted the attention of the occupying German forces and resulted in confinement or even deportation. Edda was never her legal name, also it was a version of her mother's name Ella.[10]
By 1944, Hepburn had become a proficient ballerina. She secretly danced for groups of people to collect money for the Dutch resistance. She later said, "The best audience I ever had made not a single sound at the end of my performances".[11] After the Allied landing on D-Day, living conditions grew worse, and Arnhem was subsequently devastated by Allied artillery fire that was part of Operation Market Garden. During the Dutch famine that followed, over the winter of 1944, the Germans blocked the resupply routes of Dutch people's already limited food and fuel supplies as retaliation for railway strikes that were held to hinder the German occupation. People starved and froze to death in the streets. Hepburn and many others resorted to making flour out of tulip bulbs to bake cakes and biscuits.
Hepburn's half-brother, Ian van Ufford, spent time in a German labour camp. Suffering from malnutrition, Hepburn developed acute anemia, respiratory problems, and edema.[13] In 1991, Hepburn said "I have memories. More than once I was at the station seeing trainloads of Jews being transported, seeing all these faces over the top of the wagon. I remember, very sharply, one little boy standing with his parents on the platform, very pale, very blond, wearing a coat that was much too big for him, and he stepped on to the train. I was a child observing a child".[14]
One way that Audrey Hepburn passed the time was by drawing. Some of her childhood artwork can be seen today.[15] When the country was liberated, United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration trucks followed.[16] Hepburn said in an interview she ate an entire can of condensed milk and then got sick from one of her first relief meals because she put too much sugar in her oatmeal.[17] Hepburn's wartime experiences later led her to become involved with UNICEF.
Early career
In 1945, after the war, Hepburn left the Arnhem Conservatory and moved to Amsterdam, where she took ballet lessons with Sonia Gaskell.[18] Hepburn appeared as a stewardess in a short tourism film for KLM,[19] before travelling with her mother to London. Gaskell provided an introduction to Marie Rambert, and Hepburn studied ballet at the "Ballet Rambert", supporting herself with part time work as a model. Hepburn eventually asked Rambert about her future. Rambert assured her that she could continue to work there and have a great career, but the fact that she was relatively tall (1.7m/5 ft 7) coupled with her poor nutrition during the war would keep her from becoming a prima ballerina. Hepburn trusted Rambert's assessment and decided to pursue acting, a career in which she at least had a chance to excel.[20] After Hepburn became a star, Rambert said in an interview, "She was a wonderful learner. If she had wanted to persevere, she might have become an outstanding ballerina".[21]
Hepburn's mother worked menial jobs in order to support them and Hepburn needed to find employment. Since she trained to be a performer all her life, acting seemed a sensible career. She said, "I needed the money; it paid ₤3 more than ballet jobs".[22] Her acting career began with the educational film Dutch in Seven Lessons (1948). She played in musical theatre in productions such as High Button Shoes and Sauce Piquante in the West End. Her theatre work revealed that her voice was not strong and needed to be developed, and during this time she took elocution lessons with the actor Sir Felix Aylmer.[23] Part time modelling work was not always available and Hepburn registered with the casting officers of Britain's film studios in the hope of getting work as an extra.
Hepburn's first role in a motion picture was in the British film One Wild Oat in which she played a hotel receptionist. She played several more minor roles in Young Wives' Tale, Laughter in Paradise, The Lavender Hill Mob, and Monte Carlo Baby.
During the filming of Monte Carlo Baby, Hepburn was chosen to play the lead character in the Broadway play Gigi, that opened on 24 November 1951, at the Fulton Theatre and ran for 219 performances.[24] The writer Colette, when she first saw Hepburn, reportedly said "Voilà! There's our Gigi!"[25] She won a Theatre World Award for her performance.[24] Hepburn's first significant film performance was in the Thorold Dickinson film Secret People (1952), in which she played a prodigious ballerina. Hepburn did all of her own dancing scenes.
Her first starring role was with Gregory Peck in the Italian-set Roman Holiday (1953). Producers initially wanted Elizabeth Taylor for the role but director William Wyler was so impressed by Hepburn's screen test (the camera was left on and candid footage of Hepburn relaxing and answering questions, unaware that she was still being filmed, displayed her talents), that he cast her in the lead. Wyler said, "She had everything I was looking for: charm, innocence and talent. She also was very funny. She was absolutely enchanting and we said, 'That's the girl!'"[26]
The movie was to have had Gregory Peck's name above the title in large font with "Introducing Audrey Hepburn" beneath. After filming had been completed, Peck called his agent and, predicting correctly that Hepburn would win the Academy Award for Best Actress, had the billing changed so that her name also appeared before the title in type as large as his.[27]
Hepburn and Peck bonded during filming and there were rumours that they were romantically involved; both denied it. Hepburn, however, added, "Actually, you have to be a little bit in love with your leading man and vice versa. If you're going to portray love, you have to feel it. You can't do it any other way. But you don't carry it beyond the set".[28] Due to the instant celebrity that came with Roman Holiday, Hepburn's illustration was placed on the 7 September 1953, cover of TIME.[29]
Hepburn's performance received much critical praise. A. H. Weiler noted in The New York Times, "Although she is not precisely a newcomer to films, Audrey Hepburn, the British actress who is being starred for the first time as Princess Ann, is a slender, elfin and wistful beauty, alternately regal and childlike in her profound appreciation of newly found, simple pleasures and love. Although she bravely smiles her acknowledgement of the end of that affair, she remains a pitifully lonely figure facing a stuffy future".[30] Hepburn would later call Roman Holiday her dearest movie, because it was the one that made her a star.
After filming Roman Holiday for four months, Hepburn returned to New York and performed in Gigi for eight months. The play was performed in Los Angeles and San Francisco in its last month.
She was signed to a seven-picture contract with Paramount with twelve months in between films to allow her time for stage work.[31]
Hollywood stardom
Following Roman Holiday, she starred in Billy Wilder's Sabrina with Humphrey Bogart and William Holden. During the shooting of the film, Hepburn was sent to a then young and upcoming fashion designer Hubert de Givenchy to decide on her wardrobe.
When he was told that "Miss Hepburn" was coming to see him, the person who came to Givenchy's mind was Katharine Hepburn. He was disappointed to see Audrey Hepburn and told her that he didn't have much time to spare, but she asked for just a few minutes to pick out a few pieces for Sabrina.[27] Shortly after, Givenchy and Hepburn developed a lasting friendship, and she was often a muse for many of his designs. They formed a lifelong friendship and partnership.
During the filming of Sabrina, Hepburn and the already-married Holden became romantically involved and she hoped to marry him and have children. She broke off the relationship when Holden revealed that he had undergone a vasectomy.
In 1954, Hepburn returned to the stage to play the water sprite in Ondine in a performance with Mel Ferrer, whom she would marry later in the year. During the run of the play, Hepburn was awarded the Golden Globe for Best Motion Picture Actress and the Academy Award, both for Roman Holiday. Six weeks after receiving the Oscar, Hepburn was awarded the Tony Award for Best Actress for Ondine. Audrey Hepburn is one of only three actresses to receive a Best Actress Oscar and Best Actress Tony in the same year (the others were Shirley Booth and Ellen Burstyn).[1]
By the mid-1950s, Hepburn was not only one of the biggest motion picture stars in Hollywood, but also a major fashion influence. Her gamine and elfin appearance and widely recognised sense of chic were both admired and imitated. In 1955, she was awarded the Golden Globe for World Film Favorite - Female.[34]
Having become one of Hollywood's most popular box-office attractions, Hepburn co-starred with actors such as Humphrey Bogart in Sabrina, Henry Fonda in War and Peace, Fred Astaire in Funny Face, William Holden in Paris When It Sizzles, Maurice Chevalier and Gary Cooper in Love in the Afternoon, Anthony Perkins in Green Mansions, Burt Lancaster and Lillian Gish in The Unforgiven, Shirley MacLaine and James Garner in The Children's Hour, George Peppard in Breakfast at Tiffany's, Cary Grant in Charade, Rex Harrison in My Fair Lady, Peter O'Toole in How to Steal a Million and Sean Connery in Robin and Marian.
Rex Harrison called Audrey Hepburn his favourite leading lady, although he initially felt she was badly miscast as Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady (many accounts[specify] indicate that she became great friends with British actress and dancer Kay Kendall, who was Harrison's wife); Cary Grant loved to humour her and once said, "All I want for Christmas is another picture with Audrey Hepburn;"[35] and Gregory Peck became a lifelong friend.
After her death, Peck went on camera and tearfully recited her favourite poem, "Unending Love" by Rabindranath Tagore.[36]
A common perception of the time was that Bogart and Hepburn did not get along; however, Hepburn has been quoted as saying, "Sometimes it's the so-called 'tough guys' that are the most tender hearted, as Bogey was with me".
Funny Face in 1957 was one of Hepburn's favourites because she got to dance with Fred Astaire.[citation needed] Then in 1959's The Nun's Story came one of her most daring roles. Films in Review stated: "Her performance will forever silence those who have thought her less an actress than a symbol of the sophisticated child/woman. Her portrayal of Sister Luke is one of the great performances of the screen".[38]
Otto Frank even asked her to play his daughter Anne's onscreen counterpart in the 1959 film The Diary of Anne Frank,[citation needed] but Hepburn, who was born the same year as Anne, was almost 30 years old, and felt too old to play a teenager. The role was eventually given to Millie Perkins.
Hepburn's Holly Golightly in 1961's Breakfast at Tiffany's became an iconic character in American cinema. She called the role "the jazziest of my career".[39] Asked about the acting challenge of the role, she replied, "I'm an introvert. Playing the extroverted girl was the hardest thing I ever did".[40] In the film, she wore trendy clothing designed by herself and Givenchy, and added blonde streaks to her brown hair, a look that she would keep off-screen as well.
In 1963, Hepburn starred in Charade, her first and only film with Cary Grant, who had previously withdrawn from the starring roles in Roman Holiday and Sabrina. He was sensitive as to their age difference and requested a script change so that Hepburn's character would be the one to romantically pursue his.[citation needed]
Released after Charade was Paris When It Sizzles, a film that paired Hepburn with William Holden, who nearly ten years before had been her leading man in Sabrina. The film, called "marshmallow-weight hokum",[41] was "uniformly panned";[42] Behind the scenes, the set was plagued with problems: Holden tried without success to rekindle a romance with the now-married actress; that, combined with his alcoholism made the situation a challenge for the production. Hepburn did not help matters: after principal photography began, she demanded the dismissal of cinematographer Claude Renoir after seeing what she felt were unflattering dailies.[42] Superstitious, she insisted on dressing room 55 because that was her lucky number (she had dressing room 55 for Roman Holiday and Breakfast at Tiffany’s). She insisted that Givenchy, her long-time designer, be given a credit in the film for her perfume.[42]
In 1964, Hepburn starred in My Fair Lady which was said to be the most anticipated movie since Gone with the Wind.
Hepburn was cast as Eliza Doolittle instead of Julie Andrews, who had originated the role on Broadway, but had no film experience as yet. The decision not to cast Andrews was made before Hepburn was chosen. Hepburn initially refused the role and asked Jack Warner to give it to Andrews, but when informed that it would either be her or Elizabeth Taylor, who was also vying for the part, she accepted the role.
The casting of a non-singer in the lead role of a major musical proved to be very controversial. Several critics[specify] felt that Hepburn was not believable as a Cockney flower girl, and that at 35 she was rather old for the part since Eliza was supposed to be about 20. However, according to an article in Soundstage magazine, "Everyone agreed that if Julie Andrews was not to be in the film, Audrey Hepburn was the perfect choice".[43]
Hepburn recorded vocals, but was later told that her vocals would be replaced by Marni Nixon. She walked off the set but returned early the next day to apologise for her "wicked" behaviour.[citation needed] Footage of several songs with Hepburn's original vocals still exist and have been included in documentaries and the DVD release of the film, though to date, only Nixon's renditions have been released on LP and CD.
Some of her original vocals remained in the film: a section of "Just You Wait", one line of a verse to "I Could Have Danced All Night" and the reprise of "Just You Wait". When asked about the dubbing of an actress with such distinctive vocal tones, Hepburn frowned and said, "You could tell, couldn't you? And there was Rex, recording all his songs as he acted ... next time —" She bit her lip to keep from saying any more.[40]
Aside from the dubbing, many critics agreed that Hepburn's performance was excellent. Gene Ringgold said, "Audrey Hepburn is magnificent. She is Eliza for the ages".[43]
The controversy over Hepburn's casting reached its height at the 1964–65 Academy Awards season, when Hepburn was not nominated for best actress while Andrews was, for Mary Poppins. The media tried to play up a rivalry between the two actresses as the ceremony approached, even though both women denied any such bad feelings existed and got along well. Andrews won the award.[citation needed]
Two for the Road was a non-linear and innovative movie tracing the course of a troubled marriage. Director Stanley Donen said that Hepburn was more free and happy than he had ever seen her, and he credited that to Albert Finney.[44]
Wait Until Dark in 1967 was a difficult film. It was an edgy thriller in which Hepburn played the part of a blind woman being terrorised. In addition, it was produced by Mel Ferrer and filmed on the brink of their divorce. Hepburn is said to have lost fifteen pounds under the stress. On the bright side, she found co-star Richard Crenna to be very funny, and she had a lot to laugh about with director Terence Young. They both joked that he had shelled his favorite star 23 years before; he had been a British Army tank commander during the Battle of Arnhem. Hepburn's performance was nominated for an Academy Award.
Final roles
From 1967 onward, after fifteen highly successful years in film, Hepburn decided to devote more time to her family and acted only occasionally. After her divorce from Ferrer, she married Italian psychiatrist Dr. Andrea Dotti and had a second son, after a difficult pregnancy that required near-total bed rest. After her separation from Dotti, she attempted a comeback, co-starring with Sean Connery in the period piece Robin and Marian in 1976, which was moderately successful.
Hepburn finally returned to cinema in 1979, taking the leading role of Elizabeth Roffe in the international production of Bloodline, directed again by Terence Young, sharing top billing with Ben Gazzara, James Mason and Romy Schneider. Author Sidney Sheldon revised his novel when it was reissued to tie into the film, making her character a much older woman to better match the actress' age. The film, an international intrigue amid the jet-set, was a critical and box office failure.
Hepburn's last starring role in a cinematic film was with Ben Gazzara in the comedy They All Laughed, directed by Peter Bogdanovich. The film was overshadowed by the murder of one of its stars, Bogdanovich's girlfriend, Dorothy Stratten; the film was released after Stratten's death but only in limited runs. In 1987, she co-starred with Robert Wagner in a tongue-in-cheek made-for-television caper film, Love Among Thieves, which borrowed elements from several of Hepburn's films, most notably Charade and How to Steal a Million.
Hepburn's last motion picture role, a cameo appearance, was as an angel in Steven Spielberg's Always, filmed in 1988. This film was only moderately successful. In the early 1990s, Hepburn completed two entertainment-related projects. In the spring and summer of 1990, she filmed her final performance before the camera, on location in seven countries, as host of the television documentary series entitled Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn. A one-hour special preceded the series, debuting on PBS in March, 1991; the series' debut on PBS, for which she was awarded an Emmy posthumously, followed in 1993 the day after her death. She recorded a spoken word album, Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales featuring readings of classic children's stories, which would win her a posthumous Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children.
Personal life
.In 1952, she was engaged to the young James Hanson.[45] She called it "love at first sight;" however, after having her wedding dress fitted and the date set, she decided the marriage would not work, because the demands of their careers would keep them apart most of the time.[46] In the early 1950s, she dated future Hair producer Michael Butler.[47] Hepburn married twice, first to American actor Mel Ferrer, and then to an Italian doctor, Andrea Dotti. She had a son with each – Sean in 1960 by Ferrer, and Luca in 1970 by Dotti. Her elder son's godfather was the novelist A. J. Cronin, who resided near Hepburn in Lucerne.
Hepburn met Mel Ferrer at a party hosted by Gregory Peck. She had seen him in the film Lili and was captivated by his performance.[48] Ferrer later sent Hepburn the script for the play Ondine and Hepburn agreed to play the role. Rehearsals started in January 1954 and Hepburn and Ferrer were married on 24 September.[49] Hepburn claimed that they were inseparable and were very happy together, despite the insistence from gossip columns that the marriage would not last. She did, however, admit that he had a bad temper.[50] Ferrer was rumoured to be too controlling of Hepburn and had been referred to by others as being her Svengali--an accusation that Hepburn laughed off.[51], William Holden was quoted as saying, "I think Audrey allows Mel to think he influences her".
Before having their first child, Hepburn had two miscarriages, the first in March 1955.[citation needed] In 1959, while filming The Unforgiven, she broke her back after falling off a horse onto a rock. She spent weeks in the hospital and later had a miscarriage that was said to have been induced by physical and mental stress. While she was resting at home, Mel Ferrer brought her the fawn from the movie Green Mansions to keep as a pet. They called him Ip, short for Pippin.
One year after Marilyn Monroe sang "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" to President John F. Kennedy, Hepburn, the President's favourite actress, sang "Happy Birthday, Dear Jack" to him, on what turned out to be his final birthday (29 May 1963).[52]
Hepburn had several pets, including a Yorkshire Terrier named Mr. Famous, who was hit by a car and killed. To cheer her up, Mel Ferrer got her another Yorkshire named Assam of Assam. She also kept Ip; they made a bed for him out of a bathtub. Sean Ferrer had a Cocker Spaniel named Cokey. When Hepburn was older, she had two Jack Russell Terriers. The marriage to Ferrer lasted 14 years, until 5 December 1968; their son was quoted as saying that Hepburn had stayed in the marriage too long. In the later years of the marriage, Ferrer was rumoured to have had a girlfriend on the side, while Hepburn had an affair with her Two for the Road co-star Albert Finney. She denied the rumours, but director Stanley Donen said, "with Albert Finney, she was like a new woman. She and Albie have a wonderful thing together; they are like a couple of kids. When Mel wasn't on set, they sparkled. When Mel was there, it was funny. Audrey and Albie would go rather formal and a little awkward".[53] The couple separated before divorcing.
She met Italian psychiatrist Andrea Dotti on a cruise and fell in love with him on a trip to some Greek ruins. She believed she would have more children, and possibly stop working. She married him on 18 January 1969. Although Dotti loved Hepburn and was well-liked by Sean, who called him "fun", he began having affairs with younger women. The marriage lasted thirteen years and ended in 1982, when Hepburn felt Luca and Sean were old enough to handle life with a single mother.[citation needed] Though Hepburn broke off all contact with Ferrer (she would only speak to him twice in the remainder of her life), she remained in touch with Dotti for the benefit of Luca. Andrea Dotti died in October 2007 from complications of a colonoscopy. Mel Ferrer died of heart failure in June 2008 at age ninety.
Hepburn was much more careful when she was pregnant with Luca in 1969; she rested for months and passed the time by painting before delivering Luca by caesarean section. Hepburn had her final miscarriage in 1974.[54] Hepburn is associated with the poem "Time-Tested Beauty Tips" (although the author is humorist Sam Levenson),[55] which she used to recite to her sons. The poem includes verses such as, "For beautiful hair, let a child run his or her fingers through it once a day", and, "For a slim figure, share your food with the hungry".
From 1980 until her death, she lived with the actor Robert Wolders. She died of appendiceal cancer at her home in Switzerland at the age of 63.
Work for UNICEF
Soon after Hepburn's final film role, she was appointed goodwill ambassador to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). Grateful for her own good fortune after enduring the German occupation as a child, she dedicated the remainder of her life to helping impoverished children in the poorest nations. Hepburn's travels were made easier by her wide knowledge of languages; she spoke seven languages fluently, including French, Italian, Spanish, English, Dutch, and German.[59]
Though she had done work for UNICEF in the 1950s, starting in 1954 with radio presentations, this was a much higher level of dedication. Those close to her[who?] say that the thoughts of dying, helpless children consumed her for the rest of her life. Her first field mission was to Ethiopia in 1988. She visited an orphanage in Mek'ele that housed 500 starving children and had UNICEF send food. Of the trip, she said, "I have a broken heart. I feel desperate. I can't stand the idea that two million people are in imminent danger of starving to death, many of them children, [and] [sic] not because there isn't tons of food sitting in the northern port of Shoa. It can't be distributed. Last spring, Red Cross and UNICEF workers were ordered out of the northern provinces because of two simultaneous civil wars... I went into rebel country and saw mothers and their children who had walked for ten days, even three weeks, looking for food, settling onto the desert floor into makeshift camps where they may die. Horrible. That image is too much for me. The 'Third World' is a term I don't like very much, because we're all one world. I want people to know that the largest part of humanity is suffering".[60]
In August 1988, Hepburn went to Turkey on an immunization campaign. She called Turkey "the loveliest example" of UNICEF's capabilities. Of the trip, she said, "the army gave us their trucks, the fishmongers gave their wagons for the vaccines, and once the date was set, it took ten days to vaccinate the whole country. Not bad".[citation needed]
In October, Hepburn went to South America. In Venezuela and Ecuador, Hepburn told Congress, "I saw tiny mountain communities, slums, and shantytowns receive water systems for the first time by some miracle – and the miracle is UNICEF. I watched boys build their own schoolhouse with bricks and cement provided by UNICEF".
Hepburn toured Central America in February 1989, and met with leaders in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala. In April, Hepburn visited Sudan with Wolders as part of a mission called "Operation Lifeline". Because of civil war, food from aid agencies had been cut off. The mission was to ferry food to southern Sudan. Hepburn said, "I saw but one glaring truth: These are not natural disasters but man-made tragedies for which there is only one man-made solution – peace".[citation needed]
In October, Hepburn and Wolders went to Bangladesh. John Isaac, a UN photographer, said, "Often the kids would have flies all over them, but she would just go hug them. I had never seen that. Other people had a certain amount of hesitation, but she would just grab them. Children would just come up to hold her hand, touch her – she was like the Pied Piper".
In October 1990, Hepburn went to Vietnam in an effort to collaborate with the government for national UNICEF-supported immunization and clean water programs.
In September 1992, four months before she died, Hepburn went to Somalia. Hepburn called it "apocalyptic" and said, "I walked into a nightmare. I have seen famine in Ethiopia and Bangladesh, but I have seen nothing like this – so much worse than I could possibly have imagined. I wasn't prepared for this". "The earth is red – an extraordinary sight – that deep terracotta red. And you see the villages, displacement camps and compounds, and the earth is all rippled around them like an ocean bed. And those were the graves. There are graves everywhere. Along the road, around the paths that you take, along the riverbeds, near every camp – there are graves everywhere".[citation needed]
Though scarred by what she had seen, Hepburn still had hope. "Taking care of children has nothing to do with politics. I think perhaps with time, instead of there being a politicization of humanitarian aid, there will be a humanization of politics". "Anyone who doesn't believe in miracles is not a realist. I have seen the miracle of water which UNICEF has helped to make a reality. Where for centuries young girls and women had to walk for miles to get water, now they have clean drinking water near their homes. Water is life, and clean water now means health for the children of this village". "People in these places don't know Audrey Hepburn, but they recognize the name UNICEF. When they see UNICEF their faces light up, because they know that something is happening. In the Sudan, for example, they call a water pump UNICEF".
In 1992, President George H. W. Bush presented her with the Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of her work with UNICEF, and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded her The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award for her contribution to humanity. This was awarded posthumously, with her son accepting on her behalf.
Death
In 1992, when Hepburn returned to Switzerland from her visit to Somalia, she began to feel abdominal pains. She went to specialists and received inconclusive results, so she decided to have it examined while on a trip to Los Angeles in October.
On 1 November, doctors performed a laparoscopy and discovered abdominal cancer that had spread from her appendix.[61] It had grown slowly over several years, and metastasised not as a tumour, but as a thin coating over her small intestine. The doctors performed surgery and then put Hepburn through 5-fluorouracil Leucovorin chemotherapy.[62] A few days later, she had an obstruction. Medication was not enough to dull the pain, so on 1 December, she underwent surgery a second time. After one hour, the surgeon decided that the cancer had spread too far and could not be removed.
Because Hepburn was unable to fly on a commercial aircraft, Givenchy arranged for Rachel Lambert "Bunny" Mellon to send her private Gulfstream jet, filled with flowers, to take Hepburn from California to Switzerland.[63] Hepburn died of cancer on 20 January 1993( 1993-01-20), in Tolochenaz, Vaud, Switzerland, and was interred there.
At the time of her death, she was involved with Robert Wolders, a Dutch actor who was the widower of film star Merle Oberon. She had met Wolders through a friend, in the later stage of her marriage to Dotti. After Hepburn's divorce was final, she and Wolders started their lives together, although they never married. In 1989, after nine years with him, she called them the happiest years of her life. "Took me long enough", she said in an interview with Barbara Walters. Walters then asked why they never married. Hepburn replied that they were married, just not formally.[citation needed]
Enduring popularity
Hepburn was voted "most beautiful woman of all time" in a poll of beauty experts by Evian.[64][65] Her fashion styles also continue to be popular among women.[66] Contrary to her recent image, although Hepburn did enjoy fashion, she did not place much importance on it. She preferred casual, comfortable clothes.[67] In addition, she never considered herself to be very attractive. She said in a 1959 interview, "you can even say that I hated myself at certain periods. I was too fat, or maybe too tall, or maybe just plain too ugly... you can say my definiteness stems from underlying feelings of insecurity and inferiority. I couldn't conquer these feelings by acting indecisive. I found the only way to get the better of them was by adopting a forceful, concentrated drive".[68]
The 2000 American made-for-television film, The Audrey Hepburn Story, starred Jennifer Love Hewitt in the title role. Hewitt also co-produced the film.[69] The film concluded with footage of the real Audrey Hepburn, shot during one of her final missions for UNICEF. Several versions of the film exist; it was aired as a mini-series in some countries, and in a truncated version on America's ABC television network, which is also the version released on DVD in North America. Emmy Rossum, in one of her first film roles, portrayed Hepburn as a young teen in the film.
In 2006, the Sustainable Style Foundation inaugurated the Style & Substance Award in Honor of Audrey Hepburn to recognise high profile individuals who work to improve the quality of life for children around the world. The first award was given to Hepburn posthumously and received by the Audrey Hepburn Children's Fund, a non-profit organization that was started in 1994 in New York and relocated to Los Angeles in 1998 where it remains today.
Hepburn's image is widely used in advertising campaigns across the world. In Japan, a series of commercials used colourised and digitally enhanced clips of Hepburn in Roman Holiday to advertise Kirin black tea. In the US, Hepburn was featured in a Gap commercial which ran from September 7, 2006, to October 5, 2006. It used clips of her dancing from Funny Face, set to AC/DC's "Back in Black", with the tagline "It's Back - The Skinny Black Pant". To celebrate its "Keep it Simple" campaign, the Gap made a sizeable donation to the Audrey Hepburn Children's Fund.[70] The "little black dress" from Breakfast at Tiffany's, designed by Givenchy, sold at a Christie's auction on 5 December 2006, for £467,200 (approximately $920,000), almost seven times its £70,000 pre-sale estimate. This is the highest price paid for a dress from a film.[71] The proceeds went to the City of Joy Aid charity to aid underprivileged children in India. The head of the charity said, "there are tears in my eyes. I am absolutely dumbfounded to believe that a piece of cloth which belonged to such a magical actress will now enable me to buy bricks and cement to put the most destitute children in the world into schools".[72] The dress auctioned by Christie's was not the one that Hepburn actually wore in the movie.[73] Of the two dresses that Hepburn did wear, one is held in the Givenchy archives, while the other is displayed in the Museum of Costume in Madrid.[72]
A subsequent auction of Hepburn's film wardrobe, in London in December 2009, raised £270,200 ($437,000), including £60,000 for the black Chantilly lace cocktail gown from How to Steal a Million. Half the proceeds were donated to 'All Children in School,' a joint venture of The Audrey Hepburn Children's Fund and UNICEF.[74]
Filmography
1948 Nederlands in 7 lessen Airline Stewardess Documentary (English: Dutch in Seven Lessons)
1951 One Wild Oat Hotel receptionist
Laughter in Paradise Cigarette girl
Monte Carlo Baby Linda Farell Discovered by French novelist Colette during filming and cast as Gigi for the Broadway play
Young Wives' Tale Eve Lester
The Lavender Hill Mob Chiquita
1952 The Secret People Nora Brentano
Nous irons à Monte Carlo Melissa Walter French version of Monte Carlo Baby (English: We Will Go to Monte Carlo)
1953 Roman Holiday Princess Ann Academy Award for Best Actress
BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
1954 Sabrina Sabrina Fairchild Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
Nominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
1956 War and Peace Natasha Rostova Nominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
1957 Funny Face Jo Stockton
Love in the Afternoon Ariane Chavasse/Thin Girl Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
1959 Green Mansions Rima Directed by Mel Ferrer
The Nun's Story Sister Luke (Gabrielle van der Mal) BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
1960 The Unforgiven Rachel Zachary
1961 Breakfast at Tiffany's Holly Golightly Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
The Children's Hour Karen Wright
1963 Charade Regina "Reggie" Lampert BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
1964 Paris When It Sizzles Gabrielle Simpson
My Fair Lady Eliza Doolittle Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
1966 How to Steal a Million Nicole Bonnet
1967 Two for the Road Joanna Wallace Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Wait Until Dark Susy Hendrix Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
1976 Robin and Marian Lady Marian
1979 Bloodline Elizabeth Roffe Her only R-rated film
1981 They All Laughed Angela Niotes
1989 Always Hap
1949 High Button Shoes Chorus Girl Musical Theatre
Sauce Tartare Chorus Girl Musical Theatre
1950 Sauce Piquante Featured Player Musical Theatre
1951 Gigi Gigi Opened on Broadway at the Fulton Theatre, 24 November 1951.
Theatre World Award
1952 CBS Television Workshop Episode entitled "Rainy Day at Paradise Junction"
1954 Ondine Water Nymph Opened on Broadway, 18 February - 26 June, co-starring Mel Ferrer
Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play
1957 Mayerling Maria Vetsera Producers' Showcase live production. Costarring Mel Ferrer as Prince Rudolf. Released theatrically in Europe.
1987 Love Among Thieves Baroness Caroline DuLac Television movie.
1993 Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn Herself PBS miniseries;
Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement - Informational Programming
Awards and honors
She won the 1953 Academy Award for Best Actress for Roman Holiday. She was nominated for Best Actress four more times; for Sabrina, The Nun's Story, Breakfast at Tiffany's, and Wait Until Dark. She was not nominated for her performance as Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady, one of her most acclaimed performances. For her 1967 nomination, the Academy chose her performance in Wait Until Dark over her critically acclaimed performance in Two for the Road. She lost to Katharine Hepburn (in Guess Who's Coming to Dinner). Audrey Hepburn is one of the few people who have won an Emmy, a Grammy, an Oscar, and a Tony Award.
Academy Award: Best Actress for Roman Holiday (1954) and posthumously The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (1993).
Golden Globe award: Best Motion Picture Actress for Roman Holiday (1954).
Tony Award: Best Actress for Ondine (1954) and Special Achievement award (1968).
Grammy Award: Best Spoken Word Album for Children (1993) for Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales (posthumous).
Emmy Award: Outstanding Individual Achievement - Informational Programming (1993) for the "Flower Gardens" episode of her documentary series, Gardens of the World (posthumous).
Hepburn won the Henrietta Award in 1955 for the world's favourite actress, the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 1990 and the Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award in 1992. Hepburn was posthumously awarded the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award later in 1993.[75]
In December 1992, one month before her death, Hepburn received the Presidential Medal of Freedom for her work in UNICEF.[76] This is one of the two highest awards a civilian can receive in the United States.[77][78] She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1652 Vine Street.
In 2003, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp illustrated by Michael J. Deas[79] honouring her as a Hollywood legend and humanitarian. It has a drawing of her which is based on a publicity photo from the movie Sabrina. Hepburn is one of the few non-Americans to be so honoured. As well, in 2008, Canada Post issued a series of pre-paid postcards based on the work of Yousuf Karsh, one of which was a portrait of Hepburn.[80]
Hepburn was only one of two people to wear the Tiffany Diamond,[81] the other being Mrs. Sheldon Whitehouse at the 1957 Tiffany Ball. Hepburn was a member of the International Best Dressed List and elevated into its Hall of Fame in 1961.
She was posthumously awarded The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for her humanitarian work. She received a posthumous Grammy Award for her spoken word recording, Audrey Hepburn's Enchanted Tales in 1994, and in the same year, won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement for Gardens of the World with Audrey Hepburn, thereby becoming one of a few people to receive an Academy, Emmy, Grammy and Tony award.
| Audrey Hepburn |
Which is the largest city in Scotland by population? | Audrey Hepburn - IMDb
IMDb
Actress | Soundtrack
Audrey Hepburn was born Audrey Kathleen Hepburn-Ruston on May 4, 1929 in Brussels, Belgium. She was a blue-blood and a cosmopolitan from birth. Her mother, Ella van Heemstra, was a Dutch baroness; Audrey's father, Joseph Victor Anthony Hepburn-Ruston, was born in Úzice, Bohemia, of English and Austrian descent, and worked in business. After her ... See full bio »
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Won 1 Oscar. Another 22 wins & 39 nominations. See more awards »
Known For
1949 Sauce Tartare (TV Movie)
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- Episode #8.4 (2012) ... (performer: "Moon River")
2010 20 to 1 (TV Series documentary) (performer - 1 episode)
2009 Johnny Mercer: The Dream's on Me (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "Moon River")
2006 Gilmore Girls (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
1991 Here's Looking at You, Warner Bros. (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "The Rain in Spain" - uncredited)
1991 Great Performances (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- The Fred Astaire Songbook (1991) ... (performer: "He Loves and She Loves", "'s Wonderful")
1981 AFI Life Achievement Award: A Tribute to Fred Astaire (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "'S Wonderful")
1964 My Fair Lady (performer: "Why Can't the English?" (1956), "Wouldn't It Be Loverly" (1956), "Just You Wait" (1956), "The Rain in Spain" (1956), "I Could Have Danced All Night" (1956), "You Did It" (1956), "Just You Wait (Reprise)" (1956), "Show Me" (1956), "The Flower Market" (1956), "Without You" (1956) - uncredited)
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In the US television series, what type of car did Starsky and Hutch drive? | Starsky and Hutch 1975 Ford Gran Torino - Classic TV Cars
Classic TV Cars
The A-Team fought crime in this 1983 GMC Van
Starsky and Hutch 1975-76 Ford Gran Torino
Starsky and Hutch was a television cop show created by William Blinn and played between 1975 and 1979 on ABC. The show featured two California policemen, the dark-haired David Starsky (Paul Michael Glaser) playing the driver and the blond Ken 'Hutch' Hutchinson (David Soul). Their radio handle was "ZEBRA-3" and their street car was an eye catching tomato red, 1975-76 Ford Gran Torino automobile with a wide white stripe.
Ford Gran Torino Details
Year: 1975-76
Make & Model: Ford Gran Torino
Engine: 351 c.i. Cleveland V-8 rated at 250 hp (400 c.i. and 460 c.i. V8s were optional and also used)
Carburetor: Four barrel carb
Transmission: XPL type C-6 Automatic Transmission
Wheels: Magnum 500 with HR78 x 14/B Radial Firestone Tires
Color: Bright Red (2B)
Other Notables: Black vinyl interior with white trim, color-keyed sport mirrors, AM-FM radio with 8-Track, heavy duty suspension, air shocks on the rear end, special stripe, sport steering wheel, bumper protection and manual air conditioning.
The show started by using a 1975 Gran Torino and updated to the 1976 model for its second, third and fourth seasons. These cars were built at a time in history when horsepower was being replaced by fuel economy and environmental standards . The forty four hundred pound Ford was not the quickest off the block with the base 351 c.i. engine - it really wasn't a muscle car but it just looked good. In 1976 Ford introduced a very limited edition (1,002) Starsky and Hutch replicas of the Gran Torino. It was the same car that was used in the show and could run up to over $7,000 with all the options. The 1976 Torino was the last and final Gran Torino before Ford replaced it with the LTD name and product line.
Video of a Starsky and Hutch chase scene with the Ford Gran Torino
Pictures of the Starsky and Hutch Ford Gran Torino
© Classic TV Cars
This website is not associated with the studios and rights holders of the various TV shows. All copyrights relating to these television shows and the cars are held by the respective entities.
| Gran Torino |
What replaced the iron in the board game Monopoly? | They've still got it! David Soul and Paul Michael Glaser return as 1970s detectives Starsky and Hutch for special fan event | Daily Mail Online
They've still got it! David Soul and Paul Michael Glaser return as 1970s detectives Starsky and Hutch for special fan event
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As the stars of Starsky and Hutch, Paul Michael Glaser and David Soul became international icons, their characters a byword for cool.
And the veteran actors showed that they are still as suave today as in their 1970s heyday when they appeared at a special fan event in Venice Beach.
Detective Dave Starsky's iconic 1976 Ford Gran Torino - who some might say was the real star of the show - still managed to turn plenty of heads.
Dream sequence: Paul Michael Glaser returned to his famous role of Detective Dave Starsky at the weekend
But while the famous red and white car was there, some fans might have been disappointed that David, 69 and Paul, 70, left the chunky knitwear at home for the special event.
David, whose Kenneth 'Hutch' Hutchinson used to wear a brown leather coat, opted for a tropical print shirt and a pair of aviators.
Meanwhile, Paul left the chunky cardigan his character, Detective Dave Starsky became associated with, in the archives, choosing a pair of beige slacks and a blue jumper.
Who wants a ride? Fans were able to go for a drive around in the famous Ford Gran Torino from the show
No leather jacket? David Soul's character, Hutch, used to love wearing a brown leather coat as he solved crime
Many people have harboured a secret dream to take a ride through the streets of Los Angeles in the back of Starsky and Hutch's iconic car.
And this weekend, two lucky fans did have a chance to go for a drive with the show's stars after winning the prize in a special charity auction.
The prize - a ride around the block with Starsky behind the wheel and Hutch riding shotgun, just like in the show - sold for $1850.
Left the cardigan at home? Paul Michael Glaser's character used to wear a chunky knit as he busted crooks
Eye for the ladies: The actors had driven around two fans who had bid for the opportunity to hang out with them in a special auction
Starsky And Hutch enjoyed success on ABC where it ran for four seasons from 1975 until 1979.
Fans tuned in to see them catch criminals, solve murders and pick up the pieces from when drug busts went awry.
The car chases involving the Gran Torino - known to fans as Zebra Three after their radio call, or the Striped Tomato, became iconic and fans bought imitation ones for thousands of dollars.
Thrilled: One of the fans who had won the auction beams after taking a drive around with Starsky and Hutch in the famous car
Cool dude: David Soul showed he's still got a lot of charisma as he strutted around in a pair of aviator sunglasses
The famous car: One fan (far right) showed his devotion to the TV series by wearing a Starsky -esque cardigan
Last September Paul pleaded not guilty to drug charges following an arrest in May.
He was charged with possession of marijuana and drug paraphernalia after guests staying at the Hilton Garden Inn in Bowling Green, Kentucky, complained about the smell of marijuana on his floor.
The arrest came just hours after the 69-year-old actor read an extract from his young adult novel, Chrystallia and the Source of Light, to pupils at a local middle school.
David also found himself dealing with the police last year - but as a murder victim when he guest-starred in an episode of Inspector Morse spin-off, Lewis.
Typical cops: Starsky and Hutch share a bag of donuts as they crack another case
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Zoey Barkow, Kevin Peyton, Eddie Walzer and Fitch Cooper are all characters in which US television series? | Nurse Jackie - Official Series Site | SHOWTIME
Nurse Jackie
Winner of 6 Primetime Emmy Awards
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Edie Falco's Favorite Moment from the Show
About The Series
Edie Falco stars in her Emmy� winning role as Nurse Jackie, a skilled nurse with a nasty drug habit. She lies, she cheats, she steals, she hurts, she bamboozles friends, fools family, pops pills and breaks hearts. But you still root for her because on the worst day of your life, hers is the only face you want to see. With an addict's survival skills and an attitude that just won't quit, she'll do whatever it takes to hold onto the things that truly matter to her -- her friends, her family and her job.
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Monday, Feb 13 at 10 PM ET/PT
REPLAY: Season 1, Episode 1
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previous
Season 7
Nurse Jackie Peyton faces her biggest challenge yet as the whole truth about her addiction is seemingly out to everyone.
Season 7
Season 6
Jackie falls off the wagon and manages to alienate her children, her boyfriend, her coworkers and her new sponsor in the process; Zoey continues her relationship with Dr. Prentiss and considers returning to school; Kevin remarries.
Season 6
Season 5
Jackie begins a new relationship while struggling to remain sober; Coop tangles with a hot but incompetent new intern; Akalitus deals with memory loss; Grace rebels in a big way leading to a showdown between Jackie and Kevin.
Season 5
Season 4
Jackie hits rock bottom and finally goes to rehab; All Saints is taken over by a new director who makes life miserable for the ER staff; Kevin files for divorce from Jackie and full custody of the girls.
Season 4
Season 3
Jackie's addiction becomes unmanageable, while Kevin behaves evasively, O'Hara becomes ER chief, Coop's mothers divorce, and Eddie, who is back at the hospital, begins dating Jackie's newly single sister-in-law.
Season 3
Season 2
Jackie's affair is over, forcing her to find more creative ways to score drugs, which arouses suspicions at home and work; Jackie is irritated when Coop is chosen as the new "face" of the hospital in a marketing campaign.
Season 2
Season 1
Jackie's marriage and her job in the emergency room are jeopardized by her affair with pharmacist Eddie and by her drug addiction, which is threatened when Eddie is replaced by an automated pill dispenser.
| Nurse Jackie |
What are the first names of the parents of Kate, Duchess of Cambridge? | Watch Nurse Jackie Series Online - Episodes, Cast & Reviews : Telepisodes
Nurse Jackie
Nurse Jackie
Watch Nurse Jackie episodes online for free here at Telepisodes via the links provided in each episode page. Nurse Jackie is an American television show that features Edie Falco as Jackie Peyton, an emerency room nurse at All Saint’s Hospital in New York City. For Jackie, “Every day is a high wire act of juggling patients, doctors, fellow nurses and her own indiscretions.”
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Hinge, Saddle, Pivot and Gliding are all types of what in the human body? | Gliding Joint - Pivot Joints
Home > Skeletal System > Bones of the Leg and Foot > Types of Joints > Gliding Joint
Gliding Joint
A gliding joint, also known as a plane joint or planar joint, is a common type of synovial joint formed between bones that meet at flat or nearly flat articular surfaces. Gliding joints allow the bones to glide past one another in any direction along the plane of the joint – up and down, left and right, and diagonally. Slight rotations can also occur at these joints, but are limited by the shape of the bones and the elasticity of the joint capsule surrounding them....
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Full Gliding Joint Description
[Continued from above] . . . Unlike most synovial joints, the angle formed between the bones at a gliding joint does not change significantly – just their position relative to one another.
The basic structure of synovial joints provides flexibility to gliding joints while limiting their movements in order to prevent injury. Synovial membrane lining the joint capsule produces oily synovial fluid to lubricate the joint and reduce friction. The fibrous joint capsule and its associated ligaments hold the bones together, limiting the extent to which they can glide and preventing dislocation. Articular cartilage between the bones provides a smooth, rubbery surface that both aids in the gliding motion and acts as a shock absorber during impacts to the bones.
Many gliding joints are formed in the appendicular skeleton between the carpal bones of the wrist; between the carpals and the metacarpals of the palm; between the tarsal bones of the ankle; and between the tarsals and the metatarsals of the foot. These small bones form many flattened facets between one another to provide exceptional flexibility to the hands and feet. The acromioclavicular (AC) joint of the shoulder is another gliding joint that greatly increases the flexibility of the shoulder and provides a pivot point for the shoulders to be elevated or depressed around.
Gliding joints are also formed in the axial skeleton throughout the neck and trunk to improve the flexibility of these regions. Two sets of gliding joints in the thoracic region – one set between the sternum (breast bone) and ribs at the sternocostal joints, and the other between the vertebrae and ribs at the vertebrocostal joints – permit the ribs to elevate and depress slightly and change the volume of the thoracic cavity. These slight rib movements are necessary to perform the vital process of breathing.
Another set of gliding joints is found between the facets of the twenty-six vertebrae at the intervertebral joints. These gliding joints allow for the flexion, extension, lateral flexion, and rotation of the trunk while maintaining the strength of the vertebral column that supports the body’s weight and protects the spinal cord.
Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor
| Joint |
‘Songs My Mother Taught Me’ is a 1995 autobiography by which US actor? | Types of Joints | The Skeleton & Bones | Anatomy & Physiology
The Skeleton & Bones
Types of Joints
Types of Joints
A joint is the point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of joints; Fibrous (immoveable), Cartilaginous (partially moveable) and the Synovial (freely moveable) joint.
Fibrous joints
Fibrous (synarthrodial): This type of joint is held together by only a ligament. Examples are where the teeth are held to their bony sockets and at both the radioulnar and tibiofibular joints.
Cartilaginous
Cartilaginous (synchondroses and sympheses): These joints occur where the connection between the articulating bones is made up of cartilage for example between vertebrae in the spine.
A cartilagenous joint between two vertebrae
Synchondroses are temporary joints which are only present in children, up until the end of puberty. For example the epiphyseal plates in long bones. Symphesis joints are permanant cartilagenous joints, for example the pubic symphesis.
Synovial Joints
Synovial (diarthrosis): Synovial joints are by far the most common classification of joint within the human body. They are highly moveable and all have a synovial capsule (collagenous structure) surrounding the entire joint, a synovial membrane (the inner layer of the capsule) which secretes synovial fluid (a lubricating liquid) and cartilage known as hyaline cartilage which pads the ends of the articulating bones. There are 6 types of synovial joints which are classified by the shape of the joint and the movement available.
Types of Synovial Joint
The hinged joint is found at the elbow and the knee and movements available are flexion and extension.
The pivot joint is found at the top of the spine (atlas and axis bones) and allows rotation of the neck.
Joint Type
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Bati beer is brewed in which African country? | The Best Beer from Ethiopia: RateBeer.com
Best By Country
Best Beers Of Ethiopia
The following are the highest rated beers brewed in Ethiopia as they appear in the ranks at RateBeer.com. Beer scores are weighted means so that more ratings for a beer increase the score's tendency to the beer's actual mean.
Include Retired
| Ethiopia |
The Golden Cage is an annual award given to the best goalkeeper in football in which European country? | From lumps to lager | The Economist
From lumps to lager
The race to slake a continent’s thirst
Mar 24th 2012
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STATISTICS seldom do justice to Africa. Take beer consumption. The average African sips a mere 8 litres of commercially produced beer a year. Compared with the 70 litres or so quaffed by the average American, it sounds like Africans are bunch of party-poopers. But this is not so.
Africans chug admirable quantities of homebrew, made from sorghum, millet or more or less anything fermentable (see picture). A survey by SABMiller, a London-listed brewer, found that Africa's homebrew market is four times bigger than the formal market, measured by volume.
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Brewers are betting that Africa's fast-growing middle class will want to trade up. Homebrew can be excellent, but it is highly variable, sometimes lumpy and lacks a certain cachet. SABMiller, which operates in 37 African countries, is trying to woo homebrew-lovers with sorghum and cassava beers that are consistently good. They are slightly sweeter and fuller-bodied than a mainstream lager, and cost a third less (though still far more than untaxed homebrew). SABMiller's Eagle, the world's first clear sorghum lager, launched in 2002 and brewed in Uganda, is already one of east Africa's best-selling beers. Demand for SAB's Impala, the world's first commercially produced cassava beer, brewed in Mozambique, is already outstripping supply after its launch four months ago.
SAB (formerly South African Breweries) was founded in 1895 to quench the thirst of gold prospectors around Johannesburg. Though now a global firm, it is pouring investment into Africa. Before its acquisition of Foster's of Australia in December, Africa (excepting South Africa) accounted for only 12% of SABMiller's sales, including soft drinks and bottling. Yet Africa attracts nearly a third of the group's total investments—$1.75 billion in the past four years, most of it on beer. The group's lager revenue on the continent, excluding South Africa, is growing by double digits.
With its French joint-venture partner, Castel, SABMiller has 60% of Africa's commercial beer market in volume terms, including a near-monopoly in South Africa. But other global brewers are keen to expand in Africa too, as they seek growth markets to compensate for flat or falling beer sales in the rich world. Heineken, already the biggest brewer in Nigeria, recently paid a princely $163m for two Ethiopian breweries put up for sale by the government. With Diageo, the leader in Kenya, these four brewers account for around 80% of the African market.
So far profit margins do not match those on offer in the rich world. But things should improve as incomes rise. Sales, which doubled by volume in the past ten years to over 100,000 hectolitres, could swell by 50% in the next ten years, reckons Morgan Stanley, a bank. The main bottleneck appears to be capacity. Most of SABMiller's 17 African breweries are operating at or near full throttle.
SABMiller's experience in Africa helps. It woos tipplers not only with traditional African beers but also non-alcoholic malt drinks, another fast-growing business. This plugs the brand and nudges people to trade up, from homebrew to mass-produced beer and finally to premium brands.
Some fret that brewers' sexy ads promote alcohol abuse. Graham Mackay, SABMiller's boss, brushes such criticism aside. His firm is a “force for good”, he says: it creates legions of jobs, provides a steady income for farmers and is the biggest taxpayer in some countries. It also sells cold drinks in a hot continent whose billion citizens are just starting to have a bit of spare cash. That's not a bad strategy.
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What is the capital of US state Minnesota? | Minnesota State Capitol, Saint Paul - TripAdvisor
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Minnesota State Capitol, Saint Paul
Is this attraction popular with tourists?
Yes
Is this attraction a "must-see" location?
Yes
Does this attraction provide visitors with a taste of the local culture?
Yes
No
Unsure
Does this attraction require above average amounts of physical activity (long walks, climbs, stairs or hikes)?
Yes
Does this attraction have good scenic or skyline views?
Yes
Is this attraction good for couples?
Yes
Is this attraction suitable for all ages?
Yes
Is this attraction pet friendly?
Yes
Would this be a good sunny day activity?
Yes
Would this be a good hot day activity?
Yes
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Address: 75 Rev Dr Martin Luther King Jr Blvd, Saint Paul, MN 55155-1605
Phone Number:
Sun 1:00 pm - 4:00 pm
Mon - Fri 8:30 am - 5:00 pm
Sat 10:00 am - 3:00 pm
Description:
Note: The Minnesota State Capitol is currently closed to the public through...
Note: The Minnesota State Capitol is currently closed to the public through early 2017 for restoration.
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Terrible
“Under Construction/Restoration”
Minnesota's state Capitol is a beautiful structure both inside and out. It is under restoration and not open to the public at present. It is expected to re-open in early 2017... read more
Reviewed September 21, 2016
Book a tour $60.00and up
0.9 miles
172 Reviews from our TripAdvisor Community
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“Closed”
Reviewed September 29, 2016
We are on our quest to visit every state capitol and were disappointed this one was shrouded in scaffolding and canvas with the grounds all fenced off and under extensive renovation. Our pictures will reflect a building under construction. Beautiful, grounds on a sunny, clear day. Difficult to stop since parking seems limited and roads around the area are under... More
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“Under Construction/Restoration”
Reviewed September 21, 2016
Minnesota's state Capitol is a beautiful structure both inside and out. It is under restoration and not open to the public at present. It is expected to re-open in early 2017. Many beautiful surprises have been found by the meticulous craft persons who are doing the work. It will be so exciting to see this incredible building returned to it's... More
Helpful?
| Paul the Apostle |
What is the first name of US actor and film director Spike Lee? | Minnesota: Map, History, Population, Facts, Capitol, Flag, Tree, Geography, Symbols
Nicknames: North Star State; Gopher State; Land of 10,000 Lakes
Origin of name: From a Dakota Indian word meaning “sky-tinted water”
10 largest cities (2012): Minneapolis , 392,880; St. Paul , 290,770; Rochester , 108,992; Duluth , 86,211; Bloomington, 86,033 Brooklyn Park, 77,752; Plymouth, 72,928; St. Cloud, 65,986; Eagan, 64,854; Woodbury, 64,496
Land area: 79,610 sq mi. (206,190 sq km)
Geographic center: In Crow Wing Co., 10 mi. SW of Brainerd
Number of counties: 87
Largest county by population and area: Hennepin, 1,152,425 (2010); St. Louis, 6,226 sq mi.
State forests: 58 (nearly 4 million ac.)
State parks: 72
2015 resident population est: 5,489,594
2010 resident census population (rank): 5,303,925 (21). Male: 2,632,132; Female: 2,671,793. White: 4,524,062 (88.0%); Black: 274,412 (4.4%); American Indian: 60,916 (1.0%); Asian: 214,234 (3.5%); Other race: 103,000 (1.4%); Two or more races: 125,145 (1.8%); Hispanic/Latino: 250,258 (4.0%). 2010 population 18 and over: 4,019,862; 65 and over: 683,121; median age: 37.3.
Following the visits of several French explorers, fur traders, and missionaries, including Jacques Marquette , Louis Joliet , and Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle , the region was claimed for Louis XIV by Daniel Greysolon, Sieur Duluth , in 1679.
The U.S. acquired eastern Minnesota from Great Britain after the Revolutionary War and 20 years later bought the western part from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Much of the region was explored by U.S. Army lieutenant Zebulon M. Pike before the northern strip of Minnesota bordering Canada was ceded by Britain in 1818.
The state is rich in natural resources. A few square miles of land in the north in the Mesabi , Cuyuna, and Vermilion ranges produce more than 75% of the nation's iron ore. The state's farms rank high in yields of corn, wheat, rye, alfalfa, and sugar beets. Other leading farm products include butter, eggs, milk, potatoes, green peas, barley, soybeans, oats, and livestock.
Minnesota's factories produce nonelectrical machinery, fabricated metals, flour-mill products, plastics, electronic computers, scientific instruments, and processed foods. The state is also a leader in the printing and paper-products industries.
Minneapolis is the trade center of the Midwest, and the headquarters of the world's largest super-computer and grain distributor. St. Paul is the nation's biggest publisher of calendars and law books. These “twin cities” are the nation's third-largest trucking center. Duluth has the nation's largest inland harbor and now handles a significant amount of foreign trade. Rochester is home to the Mayo Clinic, a world-famous medical center.
Tourism is a major revenue producer in Minnesota, with arts, fishing, hunting, water sports, and winter sports bringing in millions of visitors each year.
Among the most popular attractions are the St. Paul Winter Carnival; the Tyrone Guthrie Theatre, the Institute of Arts, Walker Art Center, and Minnehaha Park, in Minneapolis; Boundary Waters Canoe Area; Voyageurs National Park; North Shore Drive; the Minnesota Zoological Gardens; and the state's more than 10,000 lakes.
See more on Minnesota:
Selected famous natives and residents:
LaVerne, Maxene, and Patti Andrews singers;
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Lappi is what type of foodstuff? | Lappi cheese Pictures
Lappi cheese Pictures
High moisture mozzarella is often packaged in tubs or bags filled with water--this keeps it soft but...
Lappi Pronunciation: LAP-pee Notes: This is a mild semi-soft cheese from the Lapland region of...
| Cheese |
Aamisepa Varajane is a variety of which vegetable? | Real Lapland - Review of Restaurant Lappi, Helsinki, Finland - TripAdvisor
Review of Restaurant Lappi
Annankatu 22, Helsinki 00100, Finland (Kampinmalmi)
+358 9 645550
Restaurant details
Good for: Families with children, Business meetings, Special occasions, Romantic, Large groups, Local cuisine, Kids
Dining options: Dinner, Lunch, Late Night, Accepts American Express, Accepts Mastercard, Accepts Visa, Free Wifi, Full Bar, Highchairs Available, Private Dining, Reservations, Seating, Serves Alcohol, Waitstaff, Wheelchair Accessible
Neighborhood: Kampinmalmi
“Real Lapland”
Reviewed February 25, 2010
Lappi is the first and, on my opinion, much authentic Lapland restaurant placed on south from Polar Circle.
The wooden made interior and star night sky on celling create real Nordic atmosphere.
Among dishes it is need to remind about reindeer and deep fried cheese.
I had visited Lappi few times. including special occasion (birthday party) and every dinner here was very remembered.
One thing more - if you will have no reservation, you can spend some time at the bar, waiting when some table will be free.
Value
Ask Zuevy about Restaurant Lappi
This review is the subjective opinion of a TripAdvisor member and not of TripAdvisor LLC.
754 reviews from our community
Visitor rating
“Overdone and over the top”
Reviewed December 14, 2009
Although this restaurant serves 'traditional' food, it's a bit overdone.
Everything is made of wood, which gives it a cosy, wintery atmosphere.
All money is spent onthe carpenter's bill, and it has to be paid up for as quickly as possible. No cushions on the benches, no welcoming traditional aperitif. The small bottle of water presented on your table, will cost you another 2.7 euro on top of your bill.
The food is brought in quick, I don't know if it's a plus. You can take a peak in the kitchen to see how your food is prepared. Presentation of the food is ok, although you have to keep eating, as the last pieces of meat end vegs will turn quickly cold.
As a whole, it is a very expensive restaurant, profiting from the need to eat reindeer and elk. Service is good, but a tourist trap for the unknowing.
Value
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Which British monarch donated the King’s Cup for the Cowes Week Race? | Inside the Royal Yacht Squadron: a rare view – Yachting World
TAGS: Royal Yacht Squadron Bicentenary Regatta
Flags flutter from the ramparts, race officers look down from the imposing starting platform, and at ten-minute intervals mighty brass cannon fire with such power that spectactors lining the shore wince and plunge their fingers into their ears.
The Royal Yacht Squadron’s Castle clubhouse is best known to most sailors as the centre of the action at Cowes Week. Puffs of smoke in the aftermath of the bangs waft across the water towards the fleets of yachts, their crews’ faces pinched with concentration as they plan their beat up the rocky Island shore.
No first-timer to Cowes Week can fail to be awestruck by the Castle. Competitors mill around before their starts, staring at the flags and course-boards, getting a sight down the startline straight into the windows.
Looking is as near as most sailors ever get to this most aristocratic of clubs. Members will repair to the Squadron after racing, taking tea on the lawn, before entering the Castle for cocktails before a party or the fabulous Squadron Ball, but for the rest, the Castle itself, built by Henry VIII to repel the French, is a visual symbol of the club’s exclusivity.
The Platform, from where Cowes Week starts are signalled. Photo: YPS/Boat Exclusive
The most prestigious club in Britain, possibly the world, is wreathed in mystique. The only way to join this club of Kings, Lords, Hons and Sirs is to be invited by a member and be subject to a secret ballot. The fact that the membership list reads like Debretts is an indication of most sailors’ chances of being invited.
It’s said that wealthy tea merchant Sir Thomas Lipton was blackballed for being ‘in trade’, which is why his 1898 bid for the America’s Cup was sponsored by the Royal Ulster YC. He was allowed in eventually, but died just two years later so scarcely had time to enjoy the Castle’s delights.
Some accept a blackballing with grace, others kick up a stink, like the owner of a 150-ton schooner who, the story goes, sent a message to the club that he was anchored within close range and would commence shelling unless he received a personal apology from Percy Shelley, son of the famous poet, who had blackballed him.
Flying the white ensign
The appeal of being a member is obvious. Who wouldn’t want to fly the white ensign from their stern? The Squadron is the only yacht club with a Royal Navy warrant to do so, granted in 1829. And who wouldn’t want to walk boldly in to meet and drink with the great and the good?
I asked the current commodore, the Hon Christopher Sharples why, when a number of royal clubs are struggling to find new members, the Squadron has a healthy waiting list. “It’s a very fine club,” he responded. “People enjoy the standards and the tremendous history. Members treat the Castle as a much-loved country home.”
RYS commodore, the Hon Christopher Sharples
Originally named The Yacht Club, it was founded on 1 June 1815 by a group of 42 gentleman yachting enthusiasts. Five years later, member King George IV conferred the Royal in the club’s title and in 1833 King William IV renamed the club the Royal Yacht Squadron. Members met in the Thatched House Tavern in St James’s, London, and in Cowes twice a year for dinner.
Today there are 535 members and dinner is served in the magnificent Members’ Dining Room, under the painted gaze of illustrious past admirals and commodores. The room is adorned with silver trophies and scenes of the high seas, and waiters bring course after course from the kitchens and wine cellars below. There are bedrooms for overnight stays, a room for members to keep their ‘mess kit’ or black tie, which is required dress on Saturday nights, and even gun lockers for shooting parties.
But sailing is the club’s raision d’être and neither a title nor a fortune are a guarantee of entry. The club professes that “any gentleman or lady actively interested in yachting” is eligible for nomination.
The Library, a peaceful sanctuary as well as an important archive. Photo: YPS/Boat Exclusive
The Squadron was where yacht racing was born. In the early 1800s the aristocracy came to Cowes to socialise and cruise in their boats. The first races were duels between the yachts of the day, then rules for fleet racing were drawn up. The first club regatta, later to become Cowes Week, was in 1826. For more than a century the reigning monarch would be there to present the King’s or Queen’s trophy.
Some of history’s greatest yachtsmen are on the Squadron’s membership roll: Sir Thomas Sopwith, John Illingworth, Sir Francis Chichester, Sir Alec Rose, Sir Robin Knox-Johnston. Ties with the Navy are strong and some of British maritime history’s most famous names have been Squadron members, not least Nelson’s vice-admiral Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy who commanded HMS Victory at the Battle of Trafalgar, Admiral Lord Cochrane who was the inspriation for C.S. Forester’s Hornblower novels and Admiral Sir Jeremy Black, captain of the aircraft carrier HMS Invincible during the Falklands War.
The public’s more usual view
Perhaps the club is still best known around the world for hosting the race around the Isle of Wight in 1851 won by the schooner America, which took home what became known as the America’s Cup. The Squadron donated the Cup itself in 1851 and mounted a number of challenges to win it back.
More than 160 years later the America’s Cup has still never been won by a British challenger, but now the commodore believes the Royal Yacht Squadron has “the best chance we have ever had” with its sponsorship of Ben Ainslie Racing as official British challenger for the 2017 Cup.
| George IV of the United Kingdom |
Which country is bordered by the Gaza Strip, Israel, Libya and Sudan? | h2g2 - Cowes Castle, Isle of Wight, UK - Edited Entry
Cowes Castle, Isle of Wight, UK Content from the guide to life, the universe and everything
Cowes Castle, Isle of Wight, UK
Created
Earthworks Castles | Tudor Castles | Castle Glossary
Cowes Castle is one of four castles and three smaller defensive structures built on the Isle of Wight during the reign of King Henry VIII . Of these seven, Cowes Castle is the oldest to still exist, although greatly modified. It is now home to one of the world's most prestigious sporting organisations, the Royal Yacht Squadron .
The Henrician Castles
Throughout history, the Isle of Wight has frequently been invaded and raided, but it was not until the reign of King Henry VIII that an attempt was made to defend the whole island and the surrounding area on the mainland.
Four castles were built on the Isle of Wight; Cowes Castle, East Cowes Castle and Sandown Castle, constructed between the late 1530s and early 1540s; and Yarmouth Castle , built in 1547. These were supported by three smaller structures; a small fort at St Helens, known as St Helen's Bulwark; Worsley's Tower, built in 1525; and Sharpenode Blockhouse, also built in 1547. Most of these were constructed at the mouths of the principal rivers. The western Yar was defended by Yarmouth Castle, the river Medina by both Cowes Castle and East Cowes Castles, and the eastern Yar was defended by St Helen's Bulwark. Sandown Bay, the largest beach on the island and the only spot on its south coast undefended by cliff, was to be defended by Sandown Castle. Worsley's Tower and Sharpenode Blockhouse defended the western entrance to the Solent.
The mainland side of the Solent and Southampton Water were similarly defended at this time, by Hurst Castle, Calshot Castle , St Andrew's or Hamble Castle, Netley Castle and Southsea Castle. The stone for these castles came from the dissolved abbeys of Quarr, Beaulieu and Netley 1 .
When King Henry VIII left the Catholic church in 1538, his traditional enemies, Francis I, King of France and the Emperor Charles V of Spain, signed a peace treaty and were encouraged by Pope Paul III to invade England. In response, Henry VIII began a national building programme of castles to defend England from invasion. This preparation was well justified: a full French invasion of the Island took place in 1545, in the same battle in which the Mary Rose sank. The French, perhaps weary of the new castle at Cowes, did not attempt to penetrate the river Medina and instead landed at Bonchurch, Sandown, Yaverland , Whitecliff Bay, Bembridge and St Helens.
History of Cowes Castle
In 1540, Lord Admiral and Earl of Southampton, William Fitzwilliam and Lord St John William Paulet 2 were given the responsibility of planning the defences of the centre and west of the Solent. After surveying the tides and landscape, by taking boats into the Solent and noting where the wind and tide influenced ships, they recommended positions for building four castles, including the two either side of the River Medina on the Isle of Wight. These were East Cowes Castle 3 and West Cowes Castle, or Cowes Castle as it is known today.
Using stone from the dissolved Abbeys of Quarr and Beaulieu, Thomas Bertie, Henry's Master Mason who also built Calshot Castle, constructed Cowes Castle. His design was for a small, round, two-storey tower protected by single-storey rectangular wings to the east and west. There was a barbican, a semi-circular or D-shaped gun platform, to the front of the castle, with a rectangular walled defensive ditch to the rear, land-facing side. The semi-circular gun platform and the roofs of the tower and wings were pierced for cannon, and the castle was armed with 11 guns, as well as bows and arrows. The castle was commanded by a captain, a porter and three gunners. During Queen Elizabeth I's reign, the captain was paid a shilling a day, the porter 8d and the gunners 3d each. These rates were identical to those paid at Netley Castle in the same period.
Noted poet and historian John Leland wrote in 1545:
The two huge Cowes that bellow from the shore
Shake east and west with their tremendous roar;
They guard fair Newport and the lofty Isle
From fierce invaders and their cruel spoil.
The two Great Cowes that in loud thunder roar,
This on the eastern, that on the western shore.
One of the first captains of Cowes Castle was Captain Sommers who, on his tomb in Whippingham Church in nearby East Cowes, is recorded as having lived until the age of one hundred.
King Charles' Visit
In 1631 King Charles I dined at Cowes Castle. This event is described by Sir John Oglander 4 in his memoirs with the words:
The 5th of August [King Charles I] dined betimes, and went ...to Cowes Castle, and there had ye pinnace to carry him, and one of ye Whelpes 5 to attend him. He had ye ordinance of ye Castle three times shot of, and all ye ships saluted him...
This I may truly say both in coming, going, and staying, he received all ye honour and contentment that this Island could possibly give him... He went away well pleased, and while he was at Cowes... I never saw a braver company, nor a greater entertainment in my life. He had sent him in by ye country – a hogshead of sack, claret, and white wine; a fat ox, fish of all sorts, pewettes, guiles, rabbits, pigeons, pheasants, partridges, chicken, etc. Never was any Captain of ye Island braver entertained, or nobler used and respected by ye country; and we live in expectation of ye like from him.
The Civil War
During the Civil War (1642-46) Cowes Castle twice played a role in the battle between the Crown and Parliament. On the outbreak of war, the Isle of Wight and the nearby key port of Portsmouth declared for the king. The Island's castles of Cowes, Sandown, Yarmouth and Carisbrooke all declared for the king, although the Island's capital, Newport had declared for Parliament. The Royal Navy , despite its name, also supported Parliament. The Navy proceeded to blockade its home port of Portsmouth, with the 44-gun Charles, commanded by Captain Swanley, leading the blockade 6 .
On Friday 12 August, 1642, the captain of Cowes Castle, Humphrey Turney, fired its cannon at an enemy for the first and only time. Humphrey Turney supported Charles I, as did Colonel Goring, Governor of Portsmouth. The Royal Navy ship, HMS Lion 7 commanded by Captain Louis Dick, fired on two Royalist ships heading for Portsmouth with supplies. Records state:
In a furie with his own hand [Captain Turney] gave fire to one piece of ordnance and shot at the said ship the Lion.
The firing of Cowes Castle's gun caused the outbreak of Civil War on the Island, but this defiance did not last long. On 13 August, Parliament ordered the Navy to support the Newport militia to capture the Island's castles. On 14 August, the Royalist forces launched a pre-emptive strike against the Parliamentary Newport militia, and on Monday 15 August, the captains of Sandown and Cowes Castle and their men rode to Newport to arrest the leader of the Parliamentary troops on the Island, the Mayor of Newport. A confused battle occurred in the streets of Newport, but while Captain Turney and his forces were engaged in the battle in Newport the Lion landed troops in Cowes and captured many Royalists, including Nicholas Weston, MP for Newtown. Captain Turney attempted to negotiate for his release, but was himself captured and arrested. The Royalists had lost the key battle for Newport.
On 17 August, leaderless, and with most of its men captured after the unsuccessful attack on Newport, Cowes Castle surrendered. The castle was re-garrisoned with Parliamentary troops. The other castles in the area beheld similar fates. The following day, 18 August, Sandown Castle and Hurst Castle surrendered. Yarmouth Castle was besieged for five days before surrendering on 22 August. Calshot Castle, Netley Castle and St Andrew's Castle all originally declared for the King, but were quickly surrendered to Parliament. On 23 August, the Island's key castle, Carisbrooke, was besieged by 600 men. Although Carisbrooke had weapons and supplies for over 1,500 men, after the attack on Newport only 20 men remained, and so it too surrendered.
On 13 November, 1647, King Charles I arrived in Cowes and expected to stay in the castle. Cowes Castle, however, was full and so the king was forced to stay in a nearby alehouse before travelling to Carisbrooke Castle, where he would be imprisoned. King Charles wrote that he 'had most confidence of the Isle of Wight, that they would have stood for him, than any of the other parts of my kingdom'.
Sir John Oglander and Sir John Berkeley would both describe King Charles' visit to Cowes Castle in their memoirs. Sir John Berkeley wrote:
We all went over that night to the Cowes. In the morning his Majesty went with the Governor to Carisbrooke, and was met in the way by divers gentlemen of the Island; from whom we learnt that we were more fortunate than we were aware of; for the whole Island was unanimously for the King ... The King, with Hammond 8 , Captain Baskett, Captain of Cowes Castle ... landed at Cowes from Tichfield House on Saturday afternoon, November 13; and after passing the night at an alehouse in the town, Cowes Castle then being used as a prison, arrived the next morning at Carisbrooke Castle.
In 1648, the peace treaty between King and Parliament known as the Treaty of Newport was negotiated in nearby Newport, however, the army had effectively taken over the country from Parliament and so the treaty was never implemented.
After the Civil War during the Commonwealth, the castle still had a role to play in the battle between King and Parliament. In 1650, Sir William D'Avenant 9 was held in Cowes Castle. He had been captured by Cromwell's Navy in the Channel whilst on a mission for the exiled Queen Henrietta Maria. D'Avenant was imprisoned for high treason. While in Cowes Castle, he spent his time profitably by writing Gondibert, before being taken to be imprisoned in the Tower. In 1652, he was released.
Post Civil War
In 1692, during the War of the Grand Alliance 10 , King Louis XIV of France planned to launch an invasion of England. With the invasion fleet gathering in the anchorage of La Hogue near Point Barfleur in north-west France, Cowes Castle was surveyed to assess its ability to withstand the invasion threat. This survey concluded:
The walls [of Cowes Castle] are rent from top to bottom and [the tower] is in great danger of falling to the ground with every cannons firing.
In 1716 most of the round tower was therefore demolished. The castle was repaired and by 1725 only the rear of the tower and the ends of the wings remained from the original Henrician castle. The castle was later re-armed with 11 nine-pounder cannon. After the end of the Napoleonic War, the castle remained armed, despite being increasingly out-of-date.
Cowes – Coastal Yachting Resort
In 1756, the Vine Hotel, now the site of the Fountain Arcade, installed sea water baths. This was the first step in Cowes becoming a fashionable spa resort for the aristocracy, who were prevented from taking part in the Grand Tour of Europe due to war on the continent.
In 1795, John Albin's History of the Isle of Wight from the Earliest Times of Authentic Information to the Present Period was published. This described the castle with the words:
It is the first [castle] which usually attracts the traveller's or stranger's attention. It commands the road as you approach the town, on the west side; the building is but small and the battery is of a semicircular form, so that the embrasures admit the guns to be pointed in a manner which would defend or annoy an approaching enemy for a large space, if well directed and resolutely supported. It has eleven guns, nine pounders, mounted, with good apartments for the captain and gunners, and was built at the same time as Yarmouth and Sandown ... in the time of Henry the Eighth.
In 1820, Ray's Isle Of Wight described Cowes as:
The streets of Cowes are narrow and ill built, but from the manner in which they rise one above another from the water's edge they do have a singular and not unpleasing appearance both from the sea and the opposite bank of the river. The convenience of this town for bathing has of late years occasioned it to become the resort of much fashionable company, also the general accommodations are very good.
Cowes Castle was described in A Guide to all the Watering and Sea-Bathing Places For 1813 with the words:
The bathing-machines are placed near ... the vicinity of the castle; and from the manner in which they are constructed, and the position they occupy, a person may safely commit himself to the bosom of Neptune at almost any state of the tide.
Cowes Castle was erected by Henry VIII. It stands of the west side of the Medina, near the bathing-machines; and, though useless as a place of defence, still maintains a captain, one master and five other gunners. A sentry is always on duty here, but it would be difficult to point out what he has to guard, unless it be the bathers' clothes.
When Lord Anglesey became Captain of Cowes Castle, he upgraded the castle to become a country house, adding windows and gardens. Lord Angelsey was a keen yachtsman and a member of the Royal Yacht Squadron. He died in 1854, and was succeeded as captain of Cowes Castle by Lord Raglan, who died in 1855. At the time of Lord Raglan's death, when the defences of the Isle of Wight were being modernised 11 it was realised that Cowes Castle was outdated, especially in view of the experience gained from the Crimean War. The Government therefore decommissioned the castle. Cowes Castle was initially leased to Lord Conyngham and later, in 1855, to the Royal Yacht Squadron.
History Of The Royal Yacht Squadron
The Isle of Wight, and Cowes in particular, has a long proud tradition of royal yachting. Britain's first royal yacht, Queen Elizabeth I's Rat of Wight was built in Cowes in 1588, and sailed against the Spanish Armada. In 1673, a royal yacht was named Isle of Wight. Following in this tradition, two royal yachts were named Osborne after Osborne House in East Cowes.
Racing at Cowes is believed to have started with smugglers and the customs men. It then developed into a game in which fishing boats and pilot cutters vied to show off their skills. In 1776, naval vessels competed at Cowes; in 1788, cutters raced annually around the island; and by 1811, the Duke of Gloucester gambled on the results.
On June 1st, 1815, before the sailing season started, a group of 42 men who enjoyed racing around Cowes met at the Thatched House Tavern in St James's Street, London, and decided to form a yacht club. They agreed to meet for dinner twice a year, once in London and once in Cowes, to pursue their mutual interest. This was set down in the 10th rule of the club's founding, which stated that on the 24th August each year, a dinner would be held in Cowes at 4 o'clock. Before the lease and purchase of Cowes Castle, this dinner was held in the Vine Hotel.
In 1817, the Earl of Yarborough, first Commodore of the Yacht Club, invited the Prince Regent to join the club. In 1820, when the Prince Regent became George IV, the club was renamed the Royal Yacht Club.
In the early years, the Royal Yacht Club's emphasis was on sailing together in formation as a squadron, led by a commodore who was initially elected on a daily basis. To this end, the Royal Yacht Club considered signals and flags as a high priority. As early as 1815, the Royal Yacht Club composed a Club Book of Signals, arranged by the Admiralty Librarian John Finlaison with the assistance of Sir Home Popham. Over the next 80 years, the Royal Yacht Squadron developed its own code and language of signals, before adopting the mercantile code in 1896. Some of the phrases it uniquely developed signals for include:
Can you lend me your band?
Have you any ladies aboard?
Send me 300 oysters.
Curiously, the mercantile code does not have a code for 'Send me 300 oysters'.
In 1824, the first recorded Round the Island Race took place. In 1826, the Royal Yacht Club held its first three-day regatta. Racing became a principal feature of the annual regatta, which soon became the popular Cowes Week , which still takes place each year today. From 1827, George IV presented a cup as the prize for the winner of the King's Cup race. A newspaper reported:
These gentlemen, by building fast vessels and bestowing prizes upon the best sailors, create a spirit of emulation among the different branches of the artificers connected with nautical affairs, and by introducing for trial new and extended machinery, perform services which no individual could or would undertake. So unrivalled are some of the yachts in the cut of sails and beauty of construction that they have received considerable attention from the government.
In 1825, Charles Pelham, Lord Yarborough was elected the first Commodore of the Royal Yacht Club. In 1826, the year of the first regatta at Cowes, Yarborough's new yacht, the Falcon, was launched. This was a three-masted ship, equal to a 20-gun ship of the Royal Navy. Yarborough wished to make a statement to the Royal Navy that the Royal Yacht Club was able to make a serious contribution in the event of war. In 1827, Lord Yarborough sailed the Falcon to the eastern Mediterranean along with a Royal Navy squadron, and played an active auxiliary role in the battle of Navarino Bay 12 . In 1831, he was appointed the Vice Admiral of Hampshire.
The Royal Navy was impressed with and purchased some of the Royal Yacht Club members' vessels. These included local East-Cowes-built yacht Waterwitch, owned by Lord Belfast, which served as 10-gun sloop HMS Waterwitch until 1861. The Duke of Portland's yacht Pantaloon, was also bought by the Royal Navy, and used as the template for the next generation of Navy ten-gun brigs. In 1829, as a reward for the services that the Royal Yacht Club had performed, the Admiralty issued a warrant to allow members of the Royal Yacht Squadron to fly the Navy's white ensign 13 . All other British yachts fly red or, exceptionally the blue 14 ensigns. Despite this, racing remained a minor diversion and not the focus of the club.
In 1833, William IV 15 invited the Royal Yacht Club members to form a Naval Volunteer Force. The Royal Yacht Club was renamed the Royal Yacht Squadron. The Commodore, Lord Yarborough 16 , assured the king that:
it will be ever our most earnest wish and desire to promote, in every way in our power, naval science and architecture.
America's Cup
The America's Cup 17 was designed in London in 1848 by jeweller Robert Garrard as a stock item and not intended as a trophy. This ewer was purchased by Lord Anglesey, the Captain of Cowes Castle, who presented it to the Royal Yacht Squadron as a racing trophy.
It was the Royal Yacht Squadron that gave the challenge that was to become the America's Cup in 1851. The Commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron, the Earl of Wilton, offered the 100 Guinea trophy 'open to yachts of all nations, to be sailed under the sailing regulations of the Royal Yacht Squadron round the Isle of Wight'.
John Stevens, Commodore of the New York Yacht Club, answered with the words:
The New York Yacht Club, in order to test the merits of the different models of the schooners of the Old and New World, propose through Commodore Stevens to the Royal Yacht Squadron to run the yacht America against any number of schooners belonging to any of the yacht squadrons of the Kingdom, to be selected by the Commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron.
The America won the race, and when the captain of Cowes Castle, Lord Anglesey, went aboard the America he could not resist leaning heavily over the stern to check that she did not have a propeller, and was only saved from falling overboard by Commodore Stevens seizing Lord Anglesey's wooden leg.
The Castle and the Royal Yacht Squadron
In 1855, the Royal Yacht Squadron moved into Cowes Castle. The Royal Yacht Squadron employed architect Anthony Salvin to convert the castle into a luxurious clubhouse. Anthony Salvin was a pupil of John Nash 18 and considered an expert at restoring mediæval castles, having worked on Carisbrooke Castle , Alnwick Castle, Scotney Castle and the Tower of London.
Salvin made substantial alterations, adding the castle's Platform, the Western Tower, and even a Ballroom. The Royal Yacht Squadron moved in officially in 1858, after the premises was inspected by Prince Albert and the Prince of Wales, who lived in Osborne House across the river Medina from Cowes Castle in East Cowes.
The Isle of Wight Observer was a little sceptical of the new-look castle, and wrote:
Some have compared the front to a monastery and the rear of the building to a noblemen's mews, while others have declared it, from its irregular appearance, to resemble a discipline establishment. One might think it had sprung up out of the fumes of the cook's stockpot ... a mixture of everything.
In 1858, Emperor Napoleon III joined the Squadron, and many Kings, Queens and other rulers have joined, including Kaiser Wilhelm 19 . Every British monarch since King George IV has been a member of the Royal Yacht Squadron. King Edward VII and King George V were both Commodores of the Royal Yacht Squadron and frequently raced the royal yacht Britannia.
In 1871 and 1872, the exiled French Emperor Napoleon III 20 and wife Eugénie came to Cowes to attend the annual Cowes Week regatta, staying at the Marine Hotel in 1871 and Beaulieu House in 1872. Jennie Jerome later described a trip onboard Napoleon's yacht with the words, 'I can see now the Emperor leaning against the mast looking old, ill and sad... He seemed to have nothing to live for.'
In 1873, Jennie Jerome returned to Cowes for the Cowes Week Regatta and attended a ball onboard the Ariadne held in honour of the Russian Czarevich and Czarevna. At this ball, Jennie Jerome danced a quadrille with Randolph Churchill, and they met again the following day near Cowes Castle at Prince's Green. After another dinner in Cowes, Randolph Churchill proposed to Jennie Jerome, they soon married and in 1874 the future Prime Minister Winston Churchill was born. Lady Randolph Churchill later described Cowes in the early 1870s with the words:
It was delightfully small and peaceful. No glorified villas, no esplanade or pier , no bands, no motors or crowded tourist-steamers ... The Royal Yacht Squadron did not resemble a perpetual garden party or the roadstead a permanent regatta ... The Prince and Princess of Wales and many foreign royalties could walk about and amuse themselves without being photographed or mobbed.
The Squadron bought the Castle and grounds outright from the Crown in 1917 and made some minor changes in the 1920s.
Nelson's Handbook to the Isle of Wight, it's history, topography and antiques especially adapted to the wants of the tourist and excursionist, published in 1866, described the castle with the words:
West Cowes Castle was one of the circular forts built by Henry VIII about 1538-9, for the defence of the southern coast. During the Commonwealth and Protectorate, it was much used as a prison, and here D'Avenant, the poet, dramatist and father of English Opera, was confined in 1651, and wrote a portion of his epic of 'Gondibert'. In 1781 its military establishment only consisted of a captain, paid 10 shillings per diem, a master gunner and five other gunners, the garrison here, and in the town, however, amounting to 668 men. Its inutility as a fortress having become sufficiently apparent, since the formation of the stronger defences at Hurst and Yarmouth, it was sold by the Government, in 1856-7, to the Royal Yacht Club, who have repaired, rebuilt, and re-fitted it at considerable expense, and now employ its miniature battery for peaceful ceremonials and royal salutes.
HMS Vectis
During the Second World War, the Royal Yacht Squadron donated Cowes Castle to the Admiralty for war work, for a token rent of a shilling a year. Cowes Castle was renamed HMS Vectis 21 and suffered some damage in the Battle of Britain as Cowes, being one of the island's industrial towns and involved in the construction of warships and aircraft, was heavily bombed 22 .
HMS Vectis was one of Lord Louis Mountbatten's Combined Operations Command headquarters. Much of the planning of the Allied Assault on Dieppe took place in Cowes Castle, with the local area used as a training ground. Sadly, the raid on Dieppe failed; 3,363 of the 4,961 Canadians sent to Dieppe died, as did 247 British Commandos, with 2,200 British and Canadian troops captured. The hard-learnt lessons did at least ensure success when Combined Operations had a role in the D-Day landings.
Post-War
The next major alterations took place in 1964, when Prince Philip was Commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron. In 1964, the castle was adapted to accommodate the needs of ladies, who previously were restricted to using only the lawn. In 1928, the Royal Yacht Squadron had bought the nearby Castle Rock ballroom 23 to be the Ladies Annexe, but in 1964, it was felt that women should be able to access Cowes Castle itself, and a Ladies' Dining Room was added to the castle. The stone for this addition to the castle came from John Nash's second East Cowes Castle, which was sadly demolished in 1963. This meant that the stonework matched and was in keeping with the rest of the building. The balcony was added in 'Festival of Britain' style, and in 1988, the Ladies Drawing Room was linked to the platform.
Finally in 2000, an award-winning pavilion, designed by Sir Thomas Croft to resemble an orangery, was opened by the Royal Yacht Squadron Admiral Prince Phillip.
The castle's cannon, which originally belonged to William IV's yacht Royal Adelaide 24 , fire to start yachtsmen in their races. During Cowes Week, these cannon fire at five-minute intervals to start the races in which 4,000 yachtsmen compete.
In 2001, the Royal Yacht Squadron hosted the America's Cup 150th Jubilee, a celebration of the 150th anniversary of the oldest sailing race, the around-the-Island race that first took place on August 22nd, 1851, won by the yacht America. Over 200 of the world's most beautiful yachts gathered in Cowes to celebrate.
Cowes Castle is a Grade II* Listed Building , located close to National Cycle Route 23 and, as it is positioned on the coast, is passed by people walking the Isle of Wight Coastal Path .
Other Castles and Historic Sites Nearby:
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Gruson, L. M. and Chang, M. W. Berloque dermatitis mimicking child abuse. Arch.Pediatr.Adolesc.Med. 2002;156(11):1091-1093. View abstract.
Guerrini, A., Lampronti, I., Bianchi, N., Zuccato, C., Breveglieri, G., Salvatori, F., Mancini, I., Rossi, D., Potenza, R., Chiavilli, F., Sacchetti, G., Gambari, R., and Borgatti, M. Bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso) fruit extracts as gamma-globin gene expression inducers: phytochemical and functional perspectives. J Agric.Food Chem. 5-27-2009;57(10):4103-4111. View abstract.
Guth, S., Habermeyer, M., Schrenk, D., and Eisenbrand, G. Update of the toxicological assessment of furanocoumarins in foodstuffs (Update of the SKLM statement of 23/24 September 2004)--Opinion of the Senate Commission on Food Safety (SKLM) of the German Research Foundation (DFG). Mol.Nutr.Food Res 2011;55(5):807-810. View abstract.
Hansen, T. M. and Hansen, B. The effect of aromatherapy on health complaints. A randomised, controlled trial. International Journal of Essential Oil Therapeutics 2007;1(2):67-71.
Hongratanaworakit, T. Aroma-therapeutic effects of massage blended essential oils on humans. Nat.Prod.Commun. 2011;6(8):1199-1204. View abstract.
Hotta, M., Nakata, R., Katsukawa, M., Hori, K., Takahashi, S., and Inoue, H. Carvacrol, a component of thyme oil, activates PPARalpha and gamma and suppresses COX-2 expression. J Lipid Res 2010;51(1):132-139. View abstract.
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Kimura, M., Mori, T., Suzuki, H., Endo, S., and Kawano, K. EEG Changes in Odor Effects after the Stress of Long Monotonous Work. Journal of International Society of Life Information Science 2001;19(2):271-274.
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La Pera, L., Saitta, M., Di Bella, G., and Dugo, G. Simultaneous determination of Cd(II), Cu(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) in citrus essential oils by derivative potentiometric stripping analysis. J.Agric.Food Chem. 2-26-2003;51(5):1125-1129. View abstract.
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Mandalari, G., Bennett, R. N., Kirby, A. R., Lo Curto, R. B., Bisignano, G., Waldron, K. W., and Faulds, C. B. Enzymatic hydrolysis of flavonoids and pectic oligosaccharides from bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso) peel. J.Agric.Food Chem. 10-18-2006;54(21):8307-8313. View abstract.
Mandalari, G., Nueno, Palop C., Tuohy, K., Gibson, G. R., Bennett, R. N., Waldron, K. W., Bisignano, G., Narbad, A., and Faulds, C. B. In vitro evaluation of the prebiotic activity of a pectic oligosaccharide-rich extract enzymatically derived from bergamot peel. Appl.Microbiol.Biotechnol. 2007;73(5):1173-1179. View abstract.
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Mollace, V., Ragusa, S., Sacco, I., Muscoli, C., Sculco, F., Visalli, V., Palma, E., Muscoli, S., Mondello, L., Dugo, P., Rotiroti, D., and Romeo, F. The protective effect of bergamot oil extract on lecitine-like oxyLDL receptor-1 expression in balloon injury-related neointima formation. J.Cardiovasc.Pharmacol.Ther. 2008;13(2):120-129. View abstract.
Mollace, V., Sacco, I., Janda, E., Malara, C., Ventrice, D., Colica, C., Visalli, V., Muscoli, S., Ragusa, S., Muscoli, C., Rotiroti, D., and Romeo, F. Hypolipemic and hypoglycaemic activity of bergamot polyphenols: from animal models to human studies. Fitoterapia 2011;82(3):309-316. View abstract.
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Ramful, D., Bahorun, T., Bourdon, E., Tarnus, E., and Aruoma, O. I. Bioactive phenolics and antioxidant propensity of flavedo extracts of Mauritian citrus fruits: potential prophylactic ingredients for functional foods application. Toxicology 11-28-2010;278(1):75-87. View abstract.
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Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Masucci, L., Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Plotti, G., Zanetti, S., and Fadda, G. In vitro activity of bergamot natural essence and furocoumarin-free and distilled extracts, and their associations with boric acid, against clinical yeast isolates. J.Antimicrob.Chemother. 2005;55(1):110-114. View abstract.
Rombola, L., Corasaniti, M. T., Rotiroti, D., Tassorelli, C., Sakurada, S., Bagetta, G., and Morrone, L. A. Effects of systemic administration of the essential oil of bergamot (BEO) on gross behaviour and EEG power spectra recorded from the rat hippocampus and cerebral cortex. Funct.Neurol. 2009;24(2):107-112. View abstract.
Saitta, M., Di Bella, G., Salvo, F., Lo, Curto S., and Dugo, G. Organochlorine pesticide residues in Italian citrus essential oils, 1991-1996. J.Agric.Food Chem. 2000;48(3):797-801. View abstract.
Sakurada, T., Mizoguchi, H., Kuwahata, H., Katsuyama, S., Komatsu, T., Morrone, L. A., Corasaniti, M. T., Bagetta, G., and Sakurada, S. Intraplantar injection of bergamot essential oil induces peripheral antinociception mediated by opioid mechanism. Pharmacol.Biochem.Behav. 2011;97(3):436-443. View abstract.
Sanguinetti, M., Posteraro, B., Romano, L., Battaglia, F., Lopizzo, T., De Carolis, E., and Fadda, G. In vitro activity of Citrus bergamia (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes. J.Antimicrob.Chemother. 2007;59(2):305-308. View abstract.
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Trombetta, D., Cimino, F., Cristani, M., Mandalari, G., Saija, A., Ginestra, G., Speciale, A., Chirafisi, J., Bisignano, G., Waldron, K., Narbad, A., and Faulds, C. B. In vitro protective effects of two extracts from bergamot peels on human endothelial cells exposed to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). J Agric.Food Chem. 7-28-2010;58(14):8430-8436. View abstract.
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In humans, citguatera is an illness caused by eating contaminated what? | What gives Earl Grey tea its taste? - The Boston Globe
What gives Earl Grey tea its taste?
December 20, 2010
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What in Earl Grey tea makes it taste and smell the way it does? Is the scent used only for tea?
Earl Grey is named for a British prime minister of the 1830s. The history of how he got the tea that is rather unclear, but it was probably a gift to him.
The well-known flavor and smell of Earl Grey tea come from the addition of bergamot oil. Bergamot is a type of citrus fruit, often called a bergamot orange, that is about the size of an orange, but yellow like a lemon.
The juice is more bitter than grapefruit juice, but less sour than lemon. The flavoring oil comes from the skin of the fruit, as do other citrus oils.
Most of these fruits are grown in Calabria, Italy, but there is also significant production in France and in the Ivory Coast in Africa. Interestingly, the fruits produced in these different places have different scents in their oil, due to the differences in soil composition.
Aside from its use in flavoring tea, bergamot oil has important uses in the perfume industry. It can be combined well with other fragrances, and about half of women’s perfumes and a third of men’s have bergamot oil in them.
Bergamot has some interesting chemicals in it. Some, like bergapten, can increase the skin’s sensitivity to light. If you apply bergamot oil to your skin it will act as a sort of reverse sunscreen and make it more likely that you will burn. Chemicals like bergapten were once used in “tanning accelerator’’ lotions to help make people tan faster.
What they really do is increase skin damage that can lead to skin cancer. Oddly, some skin disorders, including psoriasis, eczema, and vitiligo, can be helped by a carefully controlled version of the same process, designed to treat the disease while minimizing dangerous effects.
Another interesting chemical from bergamot is bergamottin, which can interfere with the metabolism of many drugs. This substance, and similar ones, can be found in large amounts in grapefruit, which is why your doctor may tell you to avoid grapefruits and grapefruit juice with some medications.
As with bergapten, there’s actually an upside to this: Bergamottin and its relatives might be used someday to help some drugs remain in the body longer.
Ask Dr. Knowledge is written by Northeastern University physicist John Swain. E-mail questions to [email protected] .
© Copyright 2010 Globe Newspaper Company.
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Which is the only planet in our solar system to have water in three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas? | 23 Places We've Found Water in Our Solar System
So You Dropped Your Phone in the Toilet, Now What?
23 Places We've Found Water in Our Solar System
Oceans, Ices, Vapors: Turns out the Solar System isn't so parched. We survey the moons and planets where scientists are finding water in all its forms.
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By John Wenz
Mar 16, 2015
Last week brought the news that Enceladus likely has a warm salty ocean , and that liquid water lurks beneath the surface of Ganymede . These findings are continuing to chip away at the once-held belief that the solar system was dry and barren, bereft of water.
The hunt for extraterrestrial life has turned to our own cosmic backyard
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It seems there are few places in the solar systems without some amount of water, whether liquid or solid. There's even a small amount of water vapor on Venus, something like 20 parts-per-million. And every time a source of liquid water is found or suggested, it brings up the chances of life on that world because of the way water acts as a solvent – facilitating the metabolic processes at the most basic level of life. That's why the hunt for extraterrestrial life (quite doubtfully of an intelligent sort, though we've found some quite remarkable octopuses on Earth) has turned from distant solar systems to our own cosmic backyard.
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Here's the breakdown of all the water we know about in the solar system, and what form it comes in.
Oceans
All But Confirmed:
Europa
Europa has been the biggest contender for life for years now, with a craggy icy crust hinting in almost every way at an ocean below. Thanks to the tidal effects from Jupiter (friction inside the moon created by the pull of the planet's gravity), the water would be kept liquid and possibly even warm below the icy crust, helped by possible hydrothermal vents.
There's been some evidence of ice geysers shooting from the surface of Europa, as well as evidence that the ocean could have Hadley Cells —warm water radiating from the moon's equator. Europa could provide the possibility not just for life, but, if the conditions were just right, even complex life.
Enceladus
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We've known of tiny, sleepy Enceladus since 1789. The diameter is just 310 miles, smaller even than Ceres and Vesta, the two largest objects in the asteroid belt. Compare that to Europa, slightly smaller than our Moon at a 1,950 mile diameter. Never mind its small size: This is one of the most intriguing places in the solar system and best candidates for a warm, wet, salty ocean. It has as high a probability for life, if not higher, than Europa.
Enceladus orbits near the rings of Saturn. In fact, watery eruptions from Enceladus' ice geysers comprise the F-Ring of the gas giant—the moon spews 1,000 tons of water into space every hour, according to Phil Plait at Bad Astronomy , along with organic molecules, salt, and other materials. Recent research suggests the ocean is also very warm thanks to the tidal effects from Saturn. The tug causes hydrothermal activity, which warms the oceans and causes the geysers, all in the kinds of hot beds that sprouted life on Earth.
The Probablies
Ganymede
Ganymede is the largest moon in our solar system, bigger than even the planet Mercury. Astronomers had long suspected that an ocean lies beneath the 100-mile-thick ice crust at the surface, and in a new study , aurorae activity suggest that the ocean is somewhat warm and definitely salty. Unlike Europa, no ice geyser activity has yet been spotted. This could be because of a reduced tidal effect on the moon, which is further from Jupiter than Europa. Unlike Europa, it doesn't have the cross-hatched icy surface showing consistent geologic surface activity. Still, the signs are good that Ganymede is harboring an ocean.
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The Maybes
Callisto
Callisto is similar in composition to Ganymede and, as the furthest out of the four Galilean moon of Jupiter, is bombarded with the least amount radiation. It also has a magnetic field, adding some additional protection.
We know there's water here—what we don't know is to what extent it's liquid. Callisto's relative lack of geologic activity suggests that the moon might not be able to sustain an ocean without the presence of some kind of anti-freeze compound within, meaning that there could be just a whole lot of ice in there. However, as the farthest out of the satellites, it could make an interesting destination for exploration, allowing you to avoid the harsher effects of Jupiter's radiation while remotely exploring the other moons for signs of oceans and life.
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Mars
NASA
The Red Planet probably once had oceans, including one covering a good chunk of the northern hemisphere. There are traces of water left on the surface, including compounds from the evaporation of the ancient ocean, as well as seasonal water ices covering the surface of the planet. There is some evidence pointing to occasional melting on the surface as well.
That much is clear. But there's an intriguing possibility that Mars still has water underneath the surface, possibly in the forms of aquifers. Theoretically, these underground waterways could still host microbial life under the surface of Mars. The question, then, is whether this water exists as ice or liquid, and how much of it lurks beneath the soil. An entire ocean's worth is unlikely, but a significant amount of subsurface water isn't.
Future missions, like the Mars 2020 rover and Russia's ExoMars probe, will look specifically for signs of organics and water under the martian surface.
Dione
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The team behind NASA's Cassini probe, which has turned up many of the exciting findings about Saturn and its moon, joking called Dione a "weaker copycat of Enceladus ." This Saturnian moon is much less active now than in the past, but it shows signs of geologic activity, including giant mountain peaks and other evidence pointing to a warmer history. It's possible that the moon retains enough of that heat for a small ocean to exists.
Pluto (and maybe Charon)
New Horizons will fly by Pluto this summer , becoming the first spacecraft to directly visit the world once known as the ninth planet. It may discover something that once seemed unlikely: an ocean.
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Pluto is still seen mostly as an icy world. However, the tidal forces from its orbit with its largest moon Charon—combined with what scientists the violent formation of the system (a large collision likely formed Pluto and its five moons out of the same materials)—means Pluto could have hosted a ocean, and leaves open the outside possibility that it's still around.
Noticeably Absent
Titan
It seems odd not to be able to include Titan, Saturn's largest and arguably most fascinating satellite, on this list. Titan has some of the most abundant pools of liquid found anywhere in the solar system, but those come in the form of methane, a hydrocarbon chain that's good for life, but not necessarily as we know it.
Still, Titan deserves to be mentioned in any tally of potentially habitable places because of its resemblance to early Earth. So here it is.
Icy Bodies
Mimas
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Mimas, the "Death Star moon ," is pretty much one big snowball. There doesn't seem to be much more to it than water ice. Yet a few unusual features hint at something weird on Mimas. The moon wobbles as it orbits Saturn, which indicates something unusual going on beneath the surface. The Cassini team says that it could be an ocean. But only maybe. The other chief possibility is that Mimas has a football-shaped core giving it the unusual tilt.
At around the size of Enceladus, the moon is too small to retain the heat from its formation, so any ocean on Mimas would have to have an outside force acting on it—possibly radioactive decay.
Triton
Triton as seen by Voyager 2
NASA
Neptune's largest moon, Triton, looks a lot like Pluto. There's a reason for that. Its retrograde (backwards) orbit in comparison to the rest of the system suggests that Triton could be a captured Kuiper Belt object, and not something that formed alongside the planet. The moon's surface seems to be a mix of methane and water ices, much like Pluto, and there's the outside chance of an internal ocean, provided there is enough heating or radioactive decay.
The moon likely has geysers, but instead of water they probably shoot nitrogen, giving the moon a thin atmosphere. We just don't know much else about Triton because the only close-up imaging came from Voyager 2's flyby in 1989 .
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Titania, Oberon, and Umbriel
The same thing goes for Uranian moons: We need a better look at them. But preliminary indications show that Titania and Oberon are likely ice and rocky materials. Neither has, at the time, enough evidence to support liquid water hypotheses without an anti-freeze agent like ammonia.
Umbriel, too, is largely composed of ice, but is even less likely to have an ocean. It does, however, contain a bright spot of ice near one of its poles, likely the effect of a crater impact on the surface. There is also evidence of carbon dioxide gasses trapped under the surface.
Tethys, Rhea, and Iapetus
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These moons of Saturn appear similarly frozen, though there's an outside chance of liquid water on Rhea. These worlds are relatively inert, though Iapetus shows evidence of water sublimation (moving directly from solid to gas) on the surface. While these moons may not be good candidates for liquid water, they demonstrate the sheer abundance of water in the outer solar system.
The Kuiper Belt
There are hundreds of known objects out in the Kuiper Belt, where Pluto resides, many of them believed to be icy. The dwarf planets Eris and Haumea are believed to be similar to Pluto in composition, with water ice on the surface. But these small worlds have been discovered only in the last decade. There are also a few dwarf planet candidates that are known to be icy in nature, including Varuna, Quaoar, and Orcus. The latter has some indication of cryovolcanism and could potentially have a liquid ocean.
There are also a number of comets in the Kuiper Belt and beyond that are believed to be composed of water. This includes the first identified member of the Oort Cloud, Sedna.
A Little Bit of Water
Mercury
| Earth |
Hals is German for which part of the body? | Interesting Facts about the Earth
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Interesting Facts about the Earth
Are you curious about the planet that we live in? Looking for some exciting, interesting facts about Earth? The following article is just for you then.
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Our planet is truly very interesting. While 70% of it is covered with water, the most advanced life form on Earth is found on its land mass. It is this life form, that is responsible for the damage to the existence of life. Any guesses which life form it is? Yes, it's us, the mighty bipedal animals that rule this kingdom, and slowly dragging it to ruin.
Interesting Facts
Earth is the only planet in the solar system with plate tectonics. That means that while the core is liquid, the crust floats on the core of the planet.
Around 47% of the crust consists of oxygen.
Earth is a big magnet, with poles at the top and bottom of the planet.
It takes the Earth 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds, to rotate on its axis. That means a day is not exactly 24 hours.
A year is 365.2564 days and not 365 days. The extra .2564 days is why leap years were created.
Earth is the only planet in the Solar System to have water in all three states of matter: (solid) ice, (liquid) sea, rain, etc. and (gas) clouds.
It is believed that millions of years ago, a day was approximately 20 hours long.
The Earth will appear as the brightest of the 8 planets, if viewed from a specific distance in space. This is because the water bodies on it reflect large amount of sunlight.
These were some facts about the planet, let's take a look at what truly makes this planet special.
Things Less Known
El Azizia (Libya) is the hottest place on Earth, and Vostok (Antarctica) is the coldest.
Rain has never been recorded in some parts of the Atacama Desert in Chile.
Venice in Italy is gradually sinking in the water. It is built on 118 sea islets joined by 400 bridges.
A California bristlecone pine name 'Methuselah' is the oldest living tree. It is almost 4600 years old.
The Antarctic Notothenia fish can't freeze in the icy waters of its habitat, as it has a protein in its blood that acts like antifreeze and prevents freezing.
Tiger shark embryos fight each other in their mother's womb. The surviving embryo of the shark is born.
Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateapokaiwhenuakitanatahu, is the name for a hill, 305 meters (1,000 ft) high, close to Porangahau, New Zealand. It is the longest officially recognized name of a place, the name has 85 letters.
There is one chicken for every human being on Earth.
Humans grow by about 0.3 inches every night in sleep, but shrink back to normal during the day.
Bones are five times stronger than steel.
To conclude, I hope that one day when someone else from another planet is writing on interesting facts about our planet, they don't mention this. "Earth is the only planet with life in the milky way. The most progressive life form of which were the Humans, who ironically brought about extinction on the blue planet."
Gagan Dhillon
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Lester and Carolyn Burnham are characters in which 1999 film? | American Beauty (1999) - IMDb
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A sexually frustrated suburban father has a mid-life crisis after becoming infatuated with his daughter's best friend.
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Parental Guidance: Interview with the star of 20th Century Women, Annette Bening
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Won 5 Oscars. Another 103 wins & 96 nominations. See more awards »
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Storyline
Lester and Carolyn Burnham are, on the outside, a perfect husband and wife in a perfect house in a perfect neighborhood. But inside, Lester is slipping deeper and deeper into a hopeless depression. He finally snaps when he becomes infatuated with one of his daughter's friends. Meanwhile, his daughter Jane is developing a happy friendship with a shy boy-next-door named Ricky, who lives with an abusive father. Written by Jessie Skinner <[email protected]>
Rated R for strong sexuality, language, violence and drug content | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
1 October 1999 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
$861,531 (USA) (17 September 1999)
Gross:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Annette Bening recalled women from her youth to inform her performance: "I used to babysit constantly. You'd go to church and see how people present themselves on the outside, and then be inside their house and see the difference. See more »
Goofs
After Lester has been shot, Jane and Ricky Fitts come downstairs to the kitchen to investigate. In the first shot blood is shown dripping from the kitchen table from the POV of Jane and Ricky Fitts looking through a crack in the door. The next shot shows Jane and Ricky opening the door to see Lester dead at the table. The POV then returns back to the dripping blood through the crack in the door despite just showing the audience that Jane and Ricky have already opened the door and discovered Lester. See more »
Quotes
[first lines]
Jane Burnham : I need a father who's a role model, not some horny geek-boy who's gonna spray his shorts whenever I bring a girlfriend home from school. What a lame-o. Someone really should just put him out of his misery.
Ricky Fitts : Want me to kill him for you?
thanks to all at the Donmar Warehouse in London and Dr. Bill and Alice See more »
Connections
a very well done film that continues to amaze me...
7 July 2001 | by reesew18
(Connecticut) – See all my reviews
When I first saw this movie in theaters, I found it to be very funny. When I rented it at home, I found it to be very sad and complex. Looking at it now, I realize that it is surely one of the most extraordinary films ever to come out of Hollywood. To some it may look trite or cliched, or maybe too un-ordinary to be worthy of its praise, but the overall impact of this film is extremely powerful. After you've seen it, you know you've seen something.
A few notable elements stand out. The direction is superb; this is visually a superior film, for the director understands the subtle changes in tone. The writing is equally compelling; the story effortlessly interweaves multiple stories to create one amazing movie. The haunting music is also notable. Lastly is the acting. Kevin Spacey has done excellent films before, and he can add this one to the list. He may be a little to witty to suggest the overshadowed character he portrays, but he simply disappears into the role. Annette Bening is also fine; a less strong role, but she is magnificent none the less. As the teenagers, Thora Birch is able to mesmerize us with one intense look; her "typical teenager" role is fleshed out completely. I enjoyed Mena Suvari's character equally. It seemed that she did not receive as much acclaim, but her performance evokes both innocence and experience, and her scenes toward the end give her a depth unlike any other character. And Wes Bentley, as the video-taping boy next door, is easily the most original character. At first he seems a little tense, but, like Spacey, he sinks into the role. His "purpose" in the film, unlike anyone else's, is a mystery, thus making him the most enigmatic person.
Most films are able to make a lasting impression on its audience, but never has a movie been known to "move" its viewers as much as this movie. It truly says something about life, no matter how predictable or tacky it appears, this film disturbingly shows us how to appreciate our individual lives, so therefore, when they are over, we each have something to remember.
119 of 143 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you?
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| American Beauty |
The majority of the Amazon Rainforest is contained within which country? | Character Analysis of American Beauty 1999 Essay - 683 Words
American Beauty Character Analysis Essay
...American Beauty Character Analysis Everyone knows the Golden Rule: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. But is this necessarily always true? Apparently not to Kevin Spacey as he played the role of Lester Burnham in the 1999 film American Beauty. His rule was "When you've got nothing to lose, you might as well risk everything". Lester Burnham and his wife, Carolyn, portray a...
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What is the name of the US electric car manufacturer, founded in 2003, whose cars include the Model S and the Model X? | Tesla Motors
Knowledge Base > Technology > Technology
Tesla Motors
Tesla Motors, Inc. is a Silicon Valley-based company that designs, manufactures and sells electric cars and electric vehicle powertrain components.
Focused on Marketing, Technology, and Innovation.
Curated Facts
Tesla Motors other co-founders were Martin Eberhard -- a sports car enthusiast who had co-founded and founded startups Network Computing devices Inc. and NuvoMedia (manufacturer of the Rocket ebook), respectively – Marc Tarpenning and Ian Wright, all of whom have since left the company.
Wright has since founded Wrightspeed and is endeavoring to create his own high performance vehicles to compete with Ferrari, Lamborghini and Porsche.
Article: Tesla Motors' Electric Vi...
Tesla Motors intends to spark the public's passion and eco-conscience for electric vehicles. Founded in 2003, the company designs, manufactures, and markets high-performance electric cars and powertrain components. Tesla stylish Roadster is its flagship model, which the company continues to upgrade. The Roadster's operating specs include zero to 60 in less than four seconds and a top speed of 125 mph. The fuel-efficient, fully electric vehicle recharges its lithium-ion batteries from an outlet, and, depending on a driver's speed, is capable of 245 miles per charge. Roadsters are based on Lotus' Elise model; their UK assembly is shifting to a California facility. In mid-2010 Tesla became a publicly-held company.
Article: Tesla Motors, Inc.
"The idea was to land a vehicle with a greenhouse on Mars and establish life there. The problem was finding a rocket. It would have cost about half a trillion dollars for one mission; rockets are not reusable. To make life multiplanetary, you need a transport system that's fully and rapidly reusable. That would lead to a dramatic reduction in costs. In 2002, I started SpaceX to solve those problems."
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What makes the Model S different from the company’s earlier vehicle, the Tesla Roadster, is that it looks like a regular sedan, and is built to seat seven people, five adults and two kids. It’s also priced like a normal car, starting at about $49,000. By contrast, the Tesla Roadster was a two-seater sports car and had a sticker price of $112,000 and up
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| Tesla Motors |
The English city of Sheffield lies on which river? | Tesla Motors - The History Behind Tesla
Tesla Motors
bring the Electric Car to Roads Near You
A Great American Success Story
For many of us, Tesla Motors is synonymous with the introduction of the electric car. Yet there is much more to the story. Tesla Motors may be well-known for popularizing modern electric vehicles, but the company is no stranger to controversy when fighting the good fight to make automobile history.
The History Behind Tesla Motors
Tesla’s story began back in 2003, a mere decade ago. A group of risk-taking engineers from Silicon Valley set out on a mission to prove that electric cars could be the mainstream vehicle choice of this generation.
Since the early years, Tesla Motors has faced tough critics. The company worked hard to beat the odds and turn the automotive industry on its head, challenging traditional vehicle manufacturing and ownership. The reason that Tesla inntovators worked so hard to turn the tide by commercializing the electric car was to benefit drivers, the economy, and the environment.
More accurately, Tesla Motors goes hand-in-hand with a sustainable energy future.
According to Tesla founders, Tesla Motors has one simple goal: “To accelerate the world’s transition to electric mobility with a full range of increasingly affordable electric cars.”
“It’s more than electric, it’s Tesla.”
Besides revolutionizing the electric car in modern America, Tesla has another notable accomplishment under its belt. Tesla was the first new automaker in the US to turn a profit in several decades. In spite of the recent recession, Tesla has thrived. Innovative electric car manufacturer Tesla Motors has quickly become a household name
Speaking of names, where did the company get their catchy name from? Original Tesla Motors founders Mark Tarpenning and Martin Eberhard honed in on the name Tesla for their cutting-edge auto company as a tribute to the inventor himself, Nikola Tesla.
In just a decade, Tesla
Motors has grown to
with 31 store and service locations worldwide
Tesla cars are driven in over 37 countries
Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla lived from 1856 to 1943 in Serbia and the US. He was a well-known inventor and engineer, credited with inventing AC power transmission and the induction motor. Tesla Motors founders believed that Nikola Tesla’s inventions paved the way to a bright future for their company.
According to Tesla Motors: “Without Tesla’s vision and brilliance, our car wouldn’t be possible.”
In fact, we all have Tesla to thank for many of the modern conveniences we enjoy today. Tesla created the alternating current (AC) electrical system that is used to power every home on earth. Even though Thomas Edison is often praised for “inventing” the light bulb, he actually combined the ideas and inventions of a number of men before him that contributed to the light bulb’s design and functionality.
In his early career, Tesla worked for Thomas Edison, though many consider the two rivals:
Tesla actually worked for Edison early in his career. Edison offered to pay him the modern equivalent of a million dollars to fix the problems he was having with his DC generators and motors. Tesla fixed Edison’s machines and when he asked for the money he was promised, Edison laughed him off and had this to say: “Tesla, you don’t understand our American humor.”
Thomas Edison
Without the work of Nikola Tesla, the vision that has supported the success of Tesla Motors wouldn’t be what it is today. Tesla Motors took Nikola Tesla’s spirit of invention and ran with it to bring the modern electric car to the masses.
Understanding the Electric Car
To fully appreciate how Tesla Motors has turned the tables in auto manufacturing, it helps to better understand what the electric car is all about. What makes a car electric? How does it compare to a gas-powered vehicle?
Why would you want to drive an electric car anyway?
Simply put, an electric car runs with an electric motor instead of a gasoline engine. The major attraction of an electric car – and the reason that Tesla Motors has focused their company entirely on electric vehicles – is in how it benefits the environment.
Check out this helpful comparison between electric and gasoline vehicles:
Electric Car
12 cents per mile
Make no mistake – an electric car is distinctly different from a hybrid vehicle.
An electric car is powered completely by electricity, while a hybrid runs with a combination of gasoline and electric power sources to ofer improved fuel efficiency.
Tesla Motors has gone “full electric” in their vehicle design and manufacturing because it provides the greatest benefit to the environment.
Driving electric cars in the US could reduce total carbon dioxide emissions by 30%. While there are other manufacturers around the world that have introduced electric vehicles (EVs) for this purpose, including Mitsubishi in Japan and Think Global in Norway, Tesla Motors remains the top EV contender in the US.
Tesla Motors may be most famous for introducing the first completely electric sports car, the Tesla Roadster, in 2008. Today, there are more than 2300 Roadsters driven emission-free in 37 countries around the world. And the innovation doesn’t stop there – read on to find out more about the Tesla Motors electric car lineup that brought “vehicles of the future” to roadways across the US.
Tesla Car Models and Features
If you’re ready to go electric, you may be wondering what Tesla Motors has to offer. We’ll let the cutting-edge vehicles in the Tesla electric car lineup speak for themselves:
Tesla Roadster
The 2010 Roadster came with a price tag of $109,000
The first vehicle ever produced by Tesla Motors was a ground-breaking, all-electric sports car in 2008.
The Roadster was also the first entirely electric highway-ready vehicle that was mass-produced in the United States.
Likewise, the Roadster was the first car to hit the road running on lithium-ion batteries.
The sporty Roadster was known for its lengthy charge compared to other EVs in production at the time; the Roadster battery offered travel at close to 245 miles before a charge was needed.
It should come as no surprise that the Tesla Roadster made a splash in the automotive world – in 2006, it was recognized as the winner of Time Magazine’s “Best Inventions 2006—Transportation Invention” award. Tesla Roadster production ended in 2012, and next-generation production is expected to begin within five years.
3.7Seconds to 60 mph
Vehicles are built without a tail pipe, eliminating harmful exhaust.
What does the future hold for Tesla electric car innovation?
Elon Musk
After raking in award after award, Tesla can’t be stopped. Tesla CEO Elon Musk has revealed that Tesla will introduce a more affordable sedan and a smaller SUV within the next few years, in addition to their current lineup.
As of late, Tesla production has focused solely on the Model S and Model X. Musk has been quoted as saying that a half-price sedan (compared to the Model S) may be introduced within 3 to 4 years, followed by a smaller SUV afterward. Musk estimates prices as low as $35,000.
Tesla is also at the forefront of self driving car technology. It is going to change the world as we know it. There are still many hurdles to clear but they will be worked out over time. It is going to change the types of auto insurance coverage that insurance companies offer. Some may be eliminate while others may be added. There will certainly be a bureaucratic process between the government and insurance companies.
Of course, Tesla Motors doesn’t offer the only electric vehicles on the road. If you’re wondering how Tesla stacks up against other leading electric cars, take a gander at this.
comparison between the 2011 Tesla Model S and 2011 Nissan Leaf:
2011 tesla model s
7 Hrs (240 Volts)20 Hrs(120 Volts)
Tesla Partners and Facilities
In addition to manufacturing and retailing its own vehicles, Tesla Motors also functions as an Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM). This simply means that Tesla Motors produces electric vehicle powertrain components that can be purchased and sold by other auto manufacturers.
Tesla works in partnership with the following companies:
Daimler
Daimler and Tesla collaborated in 2007 to include Tesla lithium-ion batteries and charging technology in the first 1000 Daimler electric smart cars produced; more collaboration is expected in the future.
Toyota
Toyota and Tesla partnered in electric car development in 2010 with the intention of collaborating on electric vehicles, parts, engineering, and production in the future. Joint venture development included the 2012 electric Toyota RAV4 .
Panasonic
Panasonic and Tesla worked together in 2010 to create a nickel-based lithium-ion battery for electric cars, under the umbrella of Panasonic’s billion-dollar investment in lithium-ion research, development, and production.
Palo Alto, California, is the home of Tesla Motors with facilities located in:
United States
The first Tesla retail store opened in Los Angeles in 2008 with multiple store locations throughout the US to follow, including New York City, Chicago, Boulder, Denver, and Orange County. The Tesla Factory is located in Fremont, California, in the former NUMMI assembly plant.
europe
The European headquarters of Tesla Motors are located in Maidenhead, UK. Tesla stores and galleries have since expanded to Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, and more.
australia
The first Australian Tesla Motors showroom opened in 2010 in Sydney. Both the Roadster and Model S were sold in Australia for as much as A$206,188 and A$120,000 respectively.
asia
Tesla Motors entered the Asian market in 2010 by opening its first showroom in Japan. As of 2011, a Hong Kong branch of Tesla Motors was established. The Hong Kong showroom also serves as a design studio that allowsbuyers to customize their vehicle with touchscreen technology before purchase.
You’re right if you assume that Tesla Motors production is currently taking over the world. Tesla CEO Elon Musk has described this takeover as his “secret plan” to convert world transportation systems into electric mobility.
A number of countries have embraced the electric transportation model simply due to cost savings. Even though an electric car can cost more in an initial investment, depending on the vehicle, you have the potential to save money every time you bypass a gas station on the road.
In a comparison with the 2012 estimated cost of fuel at $3.80 a gallon when driving a gas-powered car at an average of 22 mpg, Tesla shows considerable savings when driving an electric car.
No More Gas Stations
Tesla Motors revealed $154.3 million in losses in 2010.
2012
Tesla Motors launched the Model S sedan; Tesla confirmed Model X small SUV production for early 2014.
2013
Tesla Motors paid back its $465 million government loan nine years early –the only American automaker that has repaid the government in full.
2014
Tesla Motors announced growing sales volumes at the Detroit Auto Show in January 2014; Tesla shares immediately jumped 10%.
10 Fun Facts About Tesla Motors
After Ford, Tesla Motors stands as the second oldest publicly listed automaker in the US.
As an automaker, Tesla Motors broke the mold by setting up headquarters in California instead of the traditional auto manufacturing hub of Detroit, Michigan.
Tesla Motors CEO Elon Musk is the second Silicon Valley man to overtake three companies with more than $1 billion valuations (PayPal, SpaceX, and Tesla Motors).
Tesla CEO Musk divides his time between SpaceX and Tesla Motors 50/50.
The Tesla Roadster is hand-built from riveted-extruded, resin-bonded aluminum to incorporate strength, rigidity, and lightweight design.
The Tesla Model S is recognized for having the largest panoramic sunroof and lowest drag coefficient in any production car.
The Tesla Model S meets roof crush resistant standards at twice NHTSA requirements; the Model S roof actually broke the roof crush testing machine used by the NHTSA!
The Model S was designed with the largest touchscreen dashboard available in any production vehicle at 17 inches.
The Model S was the first electric car to receive the highly coveted Motor Trend Car of the Year Award in 2013.
The Tesla Supercharger network is one of the fastest charging networks available, offering half a battery charge within just 20 minutes.
Tesla Motors Lawsuits
Granted, Tesla Motors’ history isn’t all sunshine and roses. Tesla has had its share of ups and downs, as well as several lawsuits to contend with:
Fisker Automotive
Tesla sued Fisker Automotive in 2008, alleging that the company stole Tesla Motors’ design ideas and confidential information related to hybrid/electric car development. Tesla lost the case in 2008.
Magna International
In 2008, Magna International sued Tesla for outstanding payment after Tesla used Magna to help design the Roadster’s 2-speed transmission. Since then, the Tesla Roadster has excluded the Magna transmission design.
Martin Eberhard
After being forced out of the company in 2009, cofounder Eberhard sued Tesla for slander, libel, and breach of contract; he later dropped the case after a settlement was reached.
Top Gear
Tesla attempted to sue the BBC TV show Top Gear for libel in 2008 when the Roadster was driven in an episode. Tesla claims that the vehicle use was staged to lose a charge while cameras were rolling. Tesla lost the case and has since appealed in a second unsuccessful lawsuit.
Rio Real Estate Investment Opportunities
Rio Real Estate of New Mexico alleged that Tesla agreed to hire them to build a 150,000 ft.² factory in 2007, contingent on a $135 million per year lease over a 10 year span. Tesla ultimately decided to produce the Model S in the former NUMMI plant in California; Rio Real Estate filed a suit against Tesla in 2012.
State of Texas
Tesla lost their fight to secure a dealer license in Virginia since Tesla Motors sells vehicles in stores that don’t meet state franchise, factory-owned dealership laws. Tesla will have to wait until 2015 to apply for the same exemption in Texas; currently, Tesla showrooms in Austin and Houston cannot technically sell vehicles.
Tesla was also forced to issue a safety recall in 2009 for 345 Roadsters that were produced prior to April 22, 2009. Technicians personally visited customers to adjust rear, inner hub flange bolts that could affect driver control over the vehicle.
Another Tesla recall was made in 2010 for the 12 V low-voltage auxiliary cable in 439 Roadsters. After learning that the auxiliarycable could chafe against carbon fiber panel in the vehicle to cause a short with the potential for fire, Tesla recalled the Roadsters to protect against a fire hazard.
Tesla Motors versus The New York Times
As a successful company in the public eye, Tesla Motors has become familiar with its share of criticism. But nothing could prepare Tesla for the backlash from a negative New York Times review published in early 2013.
The review was simply titled “Stalled Out on Tesla’s Electric Highway.”
For Tesla, this negative review came as a major blow. In a nutshell, The New York Times reviewer claimed that the Tesla Model S underperformed within its estimated range. CEO of Tesla Elon Musk believes that this unfavorable review cost Tesla Motors upwards of $1 million in their stock value within just a few days.
According to Musk, “We did actually get a lot of cancellations as a result of The New York Times article.” After The Times story claimed that the Model S fell short of the advertised 300 mile charge range in a cold-weather test drive, Musk was quick to call the story a fake. Musk stands firm against what he calls a “false review,” even writing his own rebuttal to defend Model S performance based on extensive testing done in high temperatures in Death Valley, as well as on pure ice in Minnesota.
Headlines referred to the exchange as the “New York Times versus Tesla feud.” The controversy was finally laid to rest when The New York Times issued its own rebuttal. An updated article confirmed errors in precision and judgment in the original review piece that maligned both Model S performance and new Tesla Supercharger stations on the East Coast.
Tesla Has the Last Laugh
In spite of the recent bad press, Tesla Motors is standing on solid ground. The company now has a whopping $20 billion market value, which is virtually unheard of for a 10-year-old auto manufacturer. Tesla currently makes a mere 1% of Ford’s monthly sales, yet the company has reached close to one third of Ford’s $64 billion market value.
For those familiar with Tesla’s commitment to excellence and ground-breaking history, Tesla Motors represents an American dream come true. Tesla Motors was founded as a humble startup in Silicon Valley in the new millennium. It has since grown into a billion-dollar auto manufacturing company that has led the way in the electric car revolution.
Tesla Motors shares rose 390% in 2013
What is Tesla’s secret to success in beating out the competition, especially traditional gas-powered car manufacturers?
Customers agree that Tesla is known to over-deliver in all advertised vehicle specifications. While many automakers fudge exact mpg estimations or qualify with fine print, drivers have tested Tesla vehicles time and again to confirm that advertised driving range is indeed a reality.
Tesla Motors continues to shine in its commitment to innovation. Though numerous automakers hope to introduce EV’s into a competitive marketplace, Tesla has already broken the mold and left rivals in the dust.
Tesla has completely thrown out the traditional and often-offensive car dealership model (though this still continues to pose a problem in some states). Tesla also focuses on long-lasting customer service, far after a vehicle has been purchased.
Tesla Superchargers for Model S drivers are available for free travel throughout North America in roughly 65 stations; coast-to-coast travel was offered as of winter 2013.
80% of the US and parts of Canada will be served in 2014; 98% of the US and parts of Canada will be served by 2015.
The greatest evidence of Tesla customer support can be seen in the new Supercharger network being implemented throughout the US. This allows owners of Tesla vehicles to drive for free through the country without having to worry about inconvenient charging or lack of charging ports altogether.
By pioneering a high-performance electric car for every driver, Tesla has made automotive history.
Tesla doesn’t plan to stop there. The latest 2013 Model S is now available for order, with accolades like 2013 Motor Trend’s Car of the Year. The 2013 Model S offers 4.2 seconds at 0-60 max acceleration with up to 265 miles in EPA certified range. In addition to boasting zero emissions, the roomy sedan offers 5+2 available seating.
CEO Elon Musk has already made mention of Tesla vehicle innovations anticipated in the near future, including a cheaper sedan and a smaller SUV. In a 2013 TESLive conference devoted to Tesla electric vehicles, Musk revealed that Tesla’s three main goals for the future included the introduction of a European Model S, building more Supercharger stations throughout the US, and preparing for Model X crossover SUV manufacturing.
Musk also projected that 800 cars a week will be sold by the end of 2014.
But what about diehard Tesla devotees still driving the beloved Roadster?
Unfortunately, Tesla Supercharger stations are only compatible with the Model S, but CEO Musk confirms that Roadster drivers can expect some extra attention from Tesla developers within the next year – though new Roadster innovations have not yet been confirmed.
Future Tesla designs may even include an electric truck.
As an automotive pioneer, Tesla Motors has proven that electric vehicles can stand the test of time in speed, performance, and longevity. Tesla itself has picked up speed as a rapidly growing automaker with increasing profits year after year. While the jury is still out as to when every driver in the US will operate an electric vehicle, Tesla Motors is history in the making. Electric vehicles have become mainstream within the past decade; much of this EV popularity can be attributed to Tesla’s spirit, vision, and excellence in electric car design.
Sources:
“Who Is Tesla Named For? – Business Insider.” Business Insider.
“Why Nikola Tesla was the greatest geek who ever lived – The Oatmeal.” Comics, Quizzes, and Stories – The Oatmeal.
“Tesla Motors – Infographics Data Visualization, Encyclopedia, Information Technology, Symbols, Posters.” Infographics Data Visualization, Encyclopedia, Information Technology, Symbols, Posters – Information Graphic Design, Infographics Samples.
“New Cars for 2012: Tesla Full Lineup Info – Car News – Car and Driver.” Car Reviews – New Cars for 2013 and 2014 at Car and Driver.
“Tesla Motors Announces Fourth Car for Future Electric Vehicle Lineup Read more: Tesla Motors Announces Fourth Car for Future Electric Vehicle Lineup | Inhabitat – Sustainable Design Innovation, Eco Architecture, Green Building.” inhabitat.com.
“Electric Vehicles from Tesla Motors | TXU Energy Blog.” TXU Energy Blog.
“What Are Some Mind Blowing Facts About Tesla Motors? – Forbes.” Information for the World’s Business Leaders – Forbes.com.
“Stalled on the E.V. Highway – NYTimes.com.” The New York Times – Breaking News, World News & Multimedia.
“Elon Musk: Bad Review In New York Times Cost Tesla $100 Million – Forbes.” Information for the World’s Business Leaders – Forbes.com.
| i don't know |
Which Chinese dish is traditionally used in a St Paul Sandwich, which originated in a Chinese restaurant in Missouri? | St. Paul Sandwich - Lucky Peach
St. Paul Sandwich
By Peter Meehan
The story of this sandwich goes something like this: Chinese immigrants build railroads across the continent. Egg foo yung—which is not quite a Chinese dish but has become this iconically Chinese dish to Americans—travels with them as they settle. Somebody in St. Louis, Missouri, liberates an egg foo yung pancake from the brown sauce hell it was doomed to (EFY traditionally being these little egg pancakes ensconced in cornstarchy brown sauce like saber-toothed tigers in a tar pit) and sticks it in the sort of sandwich setup more often reserved for fried chicken cutlets or sliced ham. The results are inarguably good, and somehow get attributed to someone from St. Paul, Minnesota, where the sandwich is entirely foreign. Weird story, good sandwich!
This comes from our first cookbook, 101 Easy Asian Recipes , out now. Order our exclusive cookbook bundle , which includes a copy of the book and a one-year subscription to the magazine.
Egg Foo Yung
1/2 C thinly sliced scallions
2 T minced serrano or green bell pepper
1 t soy sauce
1/4 C diced cooked ham, chicken, or beef (optional
2 large eggs
4 slices white sandwich bread, lightly toasted
2 T mayonnaise
8 dill pickle chips
Preparation
Make the egg foo yung: Heat 1 tablespoon oil in a large heavy skillet over medium heat. Add the bean sprouts, scallions, and serrano, and cook, stirring, until the vegetables are sizzling and slightly wilted, about 3 minutes. Transfer to a bowl and let cool slightly. Season the mixture with the soy sauce and a few pinches of salt and white pepper. Stir in the meat (if using).
Crack the eggs into a bowl, then add the cornstarch and beat with a fork to combine. Pour over the vegetable mixture and stir until everything is coated with egg.
Reheat the skillet over medium-low heat and slick with 1 tablespoon oil. Scoop half of the egg batter into the pan and use a spatula to coax it into a tight 4-inch-wide fritter/pancake/patty. Cook until the edges are brown and set, then flip, and continue cooking until the patty is slightly puffed and cooked through, about 6 minutes total. Transfer to a plate lined with paper towels to drain. Repeat to make 2 pancakes. Keep warm.
Assemble the sandwiches: Spread the toasted bread with mayonnaise and top with lettuce, tomato, pickles, and an egg foo yung pancake.
| Egg foo young |
Who conducted interviews lying on a bed in the UK television show ‘The Big Breakfast’? | The Food Timeline: history notes--sandwiches
Who invented the sandwich? When? Where? And Why?
Acknowledging the fact that combinations of bread/pastry filled with meat or cheese and dressed with condiments have been enjoyed since ancient times, Food historians generally attribute the creation of the sandwich, as we know it today, to John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich . This Englishman was said to have been fond of gambling. As the story goes, in 1762, during a 24 hour gambling streak he instructed a cook to prepare his food in such a way that it would not interfere with his game. The cook presented him with sliced meat between two pieces of toast. Perfect! This meal required no utensils and could be eaten with one hand, leaving the other free to continue the game. Sadly, the name of real inventor of the sandwich (be it inventive cook or the creative consumer) was not recorded for posterity.
Recipes for sandwiches were not immediately forthcoming in cookbooks. Why? In England they were (at first) considered restaurant fare. In America? Many colonial cooks in the last half of the 18th century were not especially fond of imitating British culinary trends. Did colonial American cooks make sandwiches? Probably...most likely, though you will be hard pressed to find solid evidence. When viewed in historical context, it is understandable why Americans didn't begin calling their bread and meat combinations "sandwiches" until [long after the Revolution & War of 1812] the late 1830s. The primary difference between early English and American sandwiches? In England beef was the meat of choice; in America it was ham. A simple matter of local protein supply. Or??! A tasty opportunity to promote government split. You decide.
This is what the food historians have to say:
"The bread-enclosed convenience food known as the "sandwich" is attributed to John Montagu, fourth Earl of Sandwich (1718-1792), a British statesman and notorious profligate and gambler, who is said to be the inventor of this type of food so that he would not have to leave his gaming table to take supper. In fact, Montague was not the inventor of the sandwich; rather, during his excursions in the Eastern Mediterranean, he saw grilled pita breads and small canapes and sandwiches served by the Greeks and Turks during their mezes, and copied the concept for its obvious convenience. There is no doubt, however, that the Earl of Sandwich made this type of light repast popular among England's gentry, and in this way, his title has been associated with the sandwich ever since. The concept is supremely simple: delicate finger food is served between two slices of bread in a culinary practice of ancient origins among the Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples. Literary references to sandwiches begin to appear in English during the 1760s, but also under the assumption that they are a food consumed primarily by the masculine sex during late night drinking parties. The connotation does not change until the sandwich moves into general society as a supper food for late night balls and similar events toward the end of the eighteenth century...Charlotte Mason was one of the first English cookbook authors to provide a recipe for sandwiches...During the nineteenth century, as midday dinner moved later and later into the day, the need for hot supper declined, only to be replaced with light dishes made of cold leftovers, ingredients for which the sandwich proved preeminently suitable. Thus the sandwich became a fixture of intimate evening suppers, teas, and picnics, and popular fare for taverns and inns. This latter genre of sandwich has given rise to multitudes of working class creations...During the early years of the railroad, sandwiches proved an ideal form of fast food, especially since they could be sold at train stations when everyone got off to buy snacks...During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the sandwich came into its own, especially as a response to the Temperance Movement. Taverns and saloons offered free sandwiches with drinks in order to attract customers."
---Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, Solomon H. Katz, editor, William Woys Weaver, assoicate editor [Charles Scribner's Sons:New York] 2003, Volume 3 (p. 235-6)
[NOTE: This book has far more information than can be paraphrased here. Ask your librarian to help you find a copy.]
"The invention of the sandwich and its acceptance as an institution is a typical example of the power of the ways of life to prevail over all so-called rules of gastronomy and even established facts of physiology and psychology. Bread, when cut into slices, has always proved a handy foundation for other food. From the buttered bread and thick slice which was used in the Tudor period as the foundation of meat dishes there is a direct line of descent to the sandwich. But according to all the rules of sciences governing nutrition the sandwich should never have been born. If a slice of bread is spread with some other appetizing food it is obvious to both eyes and nose what it is, and there is a definate psychological reaction. When, however, the appealing surface is covered by another slice of bread, it is a matter of guesswork to find out what the filling is. This is not so easy and often the eater does not try to guess at all but is satisfied with something esay to chew and swallow which satisfies his hunger. The sandwich is thus a poor substitute for a single slice of bread, spread with something won can both see and anticipate in advance. That it has all the same become a staple article of diet is in the first place due to its handiness for carrying, as compared with a slice of bread spread only with butter Sandwiches can replace a meal and avoid the necessity of carrying cooking utensils about. Their popularity owes much to the fact that the distances between home and work have increased enormously in recent times, and they can so easily be wrapped up and stowed away in a man's pocket, In the face of these advantages, the physiological and psychological attractions of a single slice with its surface openly displayed could not prevail. Eating a sandwich requires neither crockery nor cutlery, and as the hand comes in contact only with the dry side of the bread the fingers are not smeared; this even creates the fallacy that dirt from the fingers will not adhere to the bread. The ease of handling has led to further uses of the sandwich. In many countries we find sandwiches set down on plates in the home for lunch or tea, and also at snack-bars...one sandwich tastes much the same as another, unless the filling has a very pronounced flavour...It is only high up in the culinary scale that one finds delicacies spread on bread without the coffin-lid which spells death to the flavour."
---The Origin of Food Habits, H.D. Renner [Faber and Faber:London] 1944 (p. 223-4)
"Sandwich. [Said to be named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718-1792), who once spent twenty-four hours at the gaming-table without other refreshment than some slices of cold beef placed between slices of toast. This account of the origin of the word is given by Grosley [in a publication titled] Londres (1770). Grosley's residence in London was in 1765 and he speaks of the word as having then lately come into use.]."
---Oxford English Dictionary
[NOTE: according to this source, the first printed mention of the word sandwich appeared in a journal entry of Edward Gibbon, 24 November 1762 I dined at the Cocoa Tree...That respectable body...affording every evening a sight truly English. Twenty or thirty...of the first men of the kingdom...supping at little tables...upon a bit of cold meat, or a Sandwich'.]
"...[The sandwich] was not known in America until some time later. Eliza Leslie's Directions for Cookery (1837) listed ham sandwiches as a supper dish, but it was not until much later in the century, when soft white bread loaves became a staple of the American diet, that the sandwich became extremely popular and serviceable. By the 1920s white loaf bread was referred to as "sandwich bread" or "sandwich loaf."
---Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p. 283)
[1824] To Make Oyster Loaves [some say this the precursor to the New Orleans Po'Boy ]
"Take little round loaves, cut off the top, scrape out all the crumbs, then out the oysters into a stew pan with the crumbs that came out of the loaves, a little water, and a good lump of butter; stew them together ten or fifteen minutes, then put in a spoonful of good cream, fill your loaves, lay the bit of crust carefully on again, set them in the oven to crisp. Three are enough for a side dish."
---The Virginia House-Wife, Mary Randolph, with Historical Notes and Commentaries by Karen Hess [University of South Carolina Press:Columbia] 1985 (p. 78)
[1832] Sandwiches for Travelers (includs bread notes), The Cook's Own Book, Mrs. N.K.M. Lee [Boston]
"National" food observances (months, weeks, days) are popular in the USA. They are hosted by different organizations for specific purposes.
National Sandwich Day
In the library world, the standard reference tool used for identifying & researching national observances is a book titled Chases' Calendar of Annual Events. The earliest print reference we find for National Sandwich Day comes from Chase's Calendar of Annual Events, 1981 (p. 110). This source does not credit the origination of this day to another source. The entry is presented as fact. November 3rd, generally regarded by moderns as the birthdate of the Fourth Earl of Sandwich , credited for inventing this food. Coincidentally??! The entry for National Sandwich Month disappeared in 1981. Never to return.
"Sandwich Day. Nov. 3. A day to recognize the inventor of the sandwich, John Montague, Fourth Earl of Sandwich, who was born Nov 3, 1718. England's First Lord of the Admirality, Secretary of State of the northern Department, Postmaster General, the man after whom Capt. Cook named the Sandwich Islands in 1778. A rake and a gambler, he is said to have invented the sandwich as a time-saving nourishment while he was engaged in a 24-hour-long gambling session in 1762. He died in London, April 30, 1792."
We thought this was the 'end of the story' until we found this (unofficial?) sandwich proclamation circa 1924. Note: the date of publication is November 2nd. The next day was Lord Montague's birthday. Coincidence? We think not.
"The day of the sandwiches has arrived. It is so proclaimed by placards and posters plastered over the business districts. A new type of lunchroom substantiates the announcement--the 'sandwich house.' It may offer side lines of hot dishes and pastries, but to sandwiches it owes its existence. For them it is known and patronized. In its turn it has served to change the status of the commodity. 'A sandwich used to represent a picnic or a pink tea,' commented one business man addicted to the habit. 'At best it was just a mouthful of something to eat to tide you over until mealtime. Now it is lunch. You may order something to keep it company, but the sandwich is the main thing. It is the corn beef and cabbage, the steak and onions, the liver and bacon of other years.' Restaurant keepers agree.One of them in the financial district, who presides over a chain of sandwich buffets, believes he has hit upon the secret of the business man's desire for his midday meal. Once he was manager of a large hotel where men came in leisurely, ordered lavishly and ate copiously. That day is gone, he is convinced, as he watches throngs file past his counters and stacks of sliced bread, meat and cheese disappear. At one of his lunchrooms he feeds 700 at every lunch hour. When the day is over 1,000 sandwiches have usually been consumed. Only 25 per cent of his patrons, he estimated, call for hot dishes--the rest are sandwich eaters. This development has brought with it all the machinery of sandwich--making, now becoming as common a feature of restaurant windows as the hot cake steam plate New Yorkers know so well. There is a machine that slices the loaves and another that slices the meat. This last, at the press of a button, cuts and stacks ham, tongue, beef and so one without touch of human hands. Sandwich-making is thus facilitated and sandwiches themselves have changed not only in status but also in stature and girth. These sandwiches have little in common with the link tea or picnic offering or even with those pressed slabs in waxed paper piled up at soda fountains, for the business man's lunch is a high stack of bread, meat and salad, combined, and they make it as you order. The vogue of the sandwich is attributed to a considerable extent to the rush of modern business life. Men have no time to sit around leisurely waiting for large orders. They must grab a bite, preferably wholesome and satisfying, but essentially without delay. The sandwich has been found to fill the need. Education, too, it is said, has something to do with the matter. 'Ever since the war people have seemed to understand eating better than they did before,' said one restaurant keeper. 'Before the war you could not get away with the idea that a sandwich was enough lunch for a business man. But somehow they have cone to the conviction that a light lunch is the best thing if they expect to go back to the office and do their best during the afternoon. They have heard, too, that salads are good for you and so they have tried them out and felt much better for the experiment. Salads and sandwiches--they are the style for a business man's lunch today. That is what they want and that is what they get."
---"Sandwiches Flourishing," New York Times, November 2, 1924 (p. XX2)
Our research suggests Chicago-based Wheat Flour Institute's sandwich contest was part of the promotional activities during National Sandwich Month , originating in 1952. The sandwich contest may have launched in 1955. The first winners were announced in 1956. Subsequent contests/promotions bore variant names and co-industry sponsorships likewise varied. General notes, gleaned from the New York Times, here:
"Donut Week," "Honey for Breakfast Week," "National Kraut and Frankfurter Week" are all funny, but even funnier is the fact they apparently succeed as promotional schemes. At least they keep coming, which we judge is a mark of success. Latest "push" of the kind is "National Sandwich Month," which starts Aug. 1, under the auspices of the Wheat Flour Institute, American Bakers Association and the National Restaurant Association. Bearing down on the sandwich in summer makes, we must admit, sound sense. Cooks find the food easy to fix during weather when any culinary effort is taxing. Eaters take kindly to it, too; it temps even on the hot days, which have been all too numerous recently. We speak here, of course, of the main-dish sandwich for lunch or supper, the kinds pictured today...The Wheat Flour Institute estimates that Americans eat about 27,000,000 sandwiches a day, and it turns out that 40 per cent of all restaurant orders call for sandwiches...Since it came into being, at least so the story goes, in the eighteenth century when it was served as a snack to the reluctant-to-leave-the-gambling-table Earl of Sandwich, it has developed to the point where a whole book has been written on it...Newest contribution to its preparation is "Fillings Make the Sandwich," a leaflet of twenty-six spread recipes in quantity portions (twenty-four) and family-size servings. This is available from the Wheat Flour Institute, 309 West Jackson Boulevard, Chicago 6. A stamped self-addressed envelope must accompany a request."
---"Food News: Some Main-Dish Sandwiches, Jane Nickerson, New York Times, July 25, 1952 (p. 20)
"Credit John Montagu, fourth Earl of Sandwich, with an assist for Madison Avenue. When National Sandwich Month is celebrated in August, his memory will be honored by the advertising men who have elaborated on his idea of two centuries ago. A contest is being conducted among the restaurant and hotel personnel by the National Restaurant Association and the Wheat Flour Institute with a view to turning up the best new sandwich ideas suitable for restaurant and hotel service."
---"News of Advertising and Marketing Fields," New York Times, June 13, 1956 (p. 74)
"The sandwich luncheon seems firmly entrenched as a part of the American way of life....This week marked the sixth annual sandwich contest sponsored by the Wheat Flour Institute, and the "twenty best" selected for 1961 appear to bear ou the diversity theme. These twenty (from which a grand winner will be chosen later) bore such all-American titles as Crew Cut, Clam Dig and Peanut Butter Sandwich and foreign accents as Peking Pig and The Viking. The Viking is the creation of Robert Graves of New Orleans, who has submitted three previous winners. It is an interesting concoction featuring cream cheese softened with French dressing, sardines and onion slices placed between slices of French bread spread with garlic butter and garnished with stuffed olives and dill pickles. An even more unusual creation is called The Gypsy, and consists of slices of orange and onion between slices of toast spread with mayonnaise."
---"Sandwich Gets New Look", New York Times, June 3, 1961 (p. 14)
"It was almost enough to make us wish we had brought our own B.L.T. down, hold the mayo, as the "Top Four" contenders chosen from 400 original contestants gathered for the final judging of the 24th annual National Sandwich Idea Contest at the Excelsior Club yesterday. The winner was 30-year-old Jim Weisman, proprietor of Out to Lunch, a "fast-food gourmet sandwich operation" in Little Rock, Ark., for "The Garden," a grilled cheese and vegetable creation on pumpernickel bread...The contest was sponsored by the Wheat Flour Institute, representing the country's leading milllers. This year it was not cosponsored and so no other food was requried for entry. Nor were there the usual assortment of bizarre combination that were so typical in former years...Just a few creations tried the imagination, as they well might try the palate. Among them were the Will Yum Tell, a grilled sandwich of roast pork, sauerkraut, apple sauce, raisins and cheese; the bagelwich, which was similar to a corned beef, swiss cheese and sauerkraut Rubens; the sandwich Wellington, derived from beef Wellington, with a pastry crust topping turkey, ham, relish, mayonnaise and cheese on a bottom slice of rye bread, and the bacon banana bun, built up of those two ingredients on an enriched white bread hot dog roll. "We think a sandwich is as only as good as the bread it is made on," said C. Joan Reynolds, the director of the Wheat Flour Institute. The contest entries were divided into four categories of bread--ethnic (challah, bagels, croissants and pupmpernickle), variety (while wheat, rye, cracked wheat and English muffins), enriched white (hot dog rolls, hamburger rolls and white bread) and hearth (crusty free-formed rolls such as French, Italian, hard rolls and sour dough). No homeamde bread was allowed."
---"A Contest That Lives Not By Bread Alone," Mimi Sheraton, New York Times, August 8, 1979 (p. C3) [NOTE: This article contains a recipe for "The Garden" sandwich. We can forward if you wish.'
"Bob Grinstaff of New York did not enter this year's National Sandwich Contest. Just as well. His elegant open-face sandwiches shimmering with aspic and ornamented with herbs would never had progressed beyond the first round.The 25-year-old-contest sponsored by the Wheat Flour Institute has traditionally acclaimed concoctions such as the "Hawaiian Farmer" with chicken, ham, pineapple, pecans, kumquat and mozzarella, or multiplex cheeseburgers with smiling faces on them...The first of the National Sandwich Contest winner was the now-classic Reuben made with Swiss cheese, sauerkraut, corned beef and Thousand Islands dressing grilled on rye bread. A still unsuccessful search for the equal of that inspiration has justified the contest ever since. This year's grand prize was awarded last week at the Waldorf-Astoria to the St. Helen's Sunnyside Special, consisting of an English muffin with Canadian bacon, pineapple, marmalade and meringue baked with an egg yolk on top. Lois Dowling of Tacoma, Wash., said it took her 20 minutes to prepare."
---"Elegant Creation: A Four-Hour Sandwich, Florence Fabricant," New York Times, August 27, 1980 (p. C3)
Looking for some of the prize-winning recipes? We own a copy of Menu Makers From the National Sandwich Idea Contest, Kathleen M. Thomas, director of Home Economics, Wheat Flour Institute editor [Cahners Books International:Boston] 1976. Original 1956 prize winning Reuben Sandwich recipe here . FoodTimeline library owns copy of this book. Happy to scan/send pages upon request .
Our research indicates that Ziploc (resealable plastic bags) sponsored a National Sandwich Day contest for children, commencing 1987. This contest was held on November 3rd. Comedian Dom Deluise was the celebrity judge. Winners received savings bonds.
"Alison McCleskey's Berry Bananawich - marshmallow creme, peanut butter, bananas and strawberries on a croissant - won Tuesday's Ziploc National Sandwich Day contest. The fifth-grader won $700 in U.S. Savings bonds and $700 for her school, St. John's Episcopal School in Abilene, Texas. Dom Deluise and a panel judged the finals in Los Angeles. Second place tie: second-grader Dan Crawford of Hoffman Estates, Ill., and sixth-grader Kate Warwick of Rome, N.Y."
---"Grand Sandwich," Tracey Wong Briggs, USA Today, November 4, 1987
"Start spreading the news -- the "United Nations Sandwich" has been crowned "America's Favorite Sandwich" by a panel of sandwich experts at the fifth annual Ziploc(R) National Sandwich Day Contest. "United Nations Sandwich," one of six national contest finalists, was created by Aislynn Poquette, a fifth-grader at Tangier Smith Elementary School in Mastic Beach, N.Y. Other top contenders included "Peanut Butter Pumpkin," "Triple Dipple," "The Nose Opener," "Everything Deluxe" and the "Pita Power Snack."
---"United Nations Sandwich captures America's Favorite Sandwich Title," PR Newswire, November 12, 1991
The last reference we find to Ziploc's contest was a poor review from Consumer's Union, circa 1995:
"The magazine bestows four contests with the "dubious honor of being the `most commercial' " for promoting their sponsors' corporate image or excessively using logos and brand names. They are the Oxy 10 $10,000 Scholarship, Playskool's Definitely Dinosaurs Contest for first-graders, Sears Optical's The Eyes Have It! poster contest and Ziploc's National Sandwich Day Contest."
---"Corporate contests often fail students," Tamara Henry, USA Today, April 19, 1995
Recipes are not invented, they evolve. In the case of the Bacon, Lettuce and Tomato sandwich (BLT), culinary evidence confirms this recipe descended from late Victorian-era tea sandwiches. The earliest recipes for BLTs were listed under different names in cookbooks.
Most of the ingredients of the BLT (bread, bacon, lettuce) were known to the Ancient Romans. Methods for toasting bread were also practiced during this time. Tomatoes were introduced to Europe in the 16th century. Mayonnaise? An 18th century French invention. According to the food historians, modern sandwiches were also invented in the 18th century. We searched serveral 19th-20th century European and American cookbooks to pin down the introduction of the BLT. It can be argued that the progenitors of BLTs are Club Sandwiches as they are similar in composition and ingredents. About club sandwiches .
[1920]
"Tomato and Bacon Sandwiches. Cut white bread in 1/4 in. slices, lightly toast slices on one side. Spread untoasted side with mayonnaise dressing; cover half the slices with peeled and thinly sliced firm tomatoes, spread tomatoes with mayonnaise and cover with thin slice of broiled bacon. Cover bacon with lettuce leaves and remaining slices of bread. Cut in triangles and serve with sweet gherkins."
---Calendar of Sandwiches & Beverages, Elizabeth O. Hiller [P.F. Voland Co.:New York] 1920 (unpaginated; recipe is calendared for September Thirtieth.)
[1929]
"Bacon sandwiches. Bacon is an ingredient of many of the sandwiches in this book, but in those under this heading it is the principal one. Sandwiches containing bacon are particularly good for on hikes or picnics. The recipe below is specially suited for such an occasion, when the bacon may be broiled over and open fire in the woods."
---Seven Hundred Sandwiches/Florence A. Cowles [Little, Brown:Boston] 1929 (p. 31)
[NOTE: Cowles also includes recipes for "Summer Sandwich," "Bacon Salad Sandwich," Baconion Sandwich." and more. These sandwiches feature bacon, lettuce, mayonnaise, and other ingredients (pickles, onions etc.). They do not yet include tomato. Recipes for tomato sandwiches (p. 127) and lettuce sandwiches (p. 128-9) do not include bacon.]
Who coined the acronym "BLT," when & why?
We don't know.
John Mariani hypothesizes this term evolved from diner/lunchroom slang: "Lunch counters have provided etymologists and linguists with one of the richest sources of American slang, cant, and jargon, usually based on a form of verbal shorthand bandied back and forth between waiters and cooks. Some terms have entered familiar language of most Americans--"BLT" (a bacon, lettuce, and tomato sandwich)...and others--but most remain part of a bewildering and colorful language specific to the workers in such establishments."
---The Encyclopedia of American Food & Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar Freidman:New York] 1999 (p. 190)
Barry Popik , etymologist expert offers this: "The BLT sandwich (bacon, lettuce, tomato) possibly comes from Chicago and was named after its famed Chicago Tribune writer BLT, or Bert L. Taylor. The "BLT" is first cited in print in 1941." Our gut says the initials/acronym is a coincidence. Colorful columnist Bert Leston Taylor (AKA "BLT") passed away in 1921. We think: if Mr. Taylor did not write sometimes write about food in his columns no one would hypothesize a connection. Still? The idea is intriguing. Why not call this sandwich lettuce, bacon, tomato (LBT), tomato lettuce bacon (TLB) or any other variation on this acromymic theme?
Our survey of historic newspapers/magazines [Proquest Historic Newspapers, NewspaperArchive. com, Readers Guide Retrospective] returned references for "BLT" sandwiches in 1950. Mainstream print evidence confirms the "BLT" raged in the early 1960s but the sandwich acronym was not universally recognized. How else to explain editors feeling compelled to offer readers explanations?
First surfacing during the Great Depression, early descriptions do not indicate this was a "make do" affair for people who could not afford bread. Rather, it was presented as a creative upscale interpretation on a well established theme. In recent years "breadless" sandwiches have been rediscovered as practical solutions for people on bread-free diets. In fact, people have been stripping bread from sandwiches forever. Think: hamburgers without buns. Today's bread alternatives feature thinly sliced meat, "meaty" vegetables (eggplant, portobello mushrooms) and lettuce. These "breadless sandwiches" are often rolled, not sliced.
[1935]
"Three guesses won't reveal the shape and form of the latest innovation in sandwiches. Believe it or not, the newest adaptation of the sandwich is minus the two ever-present slices of bread. Sandwiches, heretofore, have been known as a snack of some particuarly satisfying morsel thrust between slices of bread. At first, the number of slices was limited to two, and then some one devised a way of piling chicken, tomatoes, bacon, lettuce and dressing together in a mountainous form, and the number of slices was accomodatingly rushed up to three. The club sandwich, as it was named, became famous and other combinations just as satisfying to hungry appetites were brought to light, all including the three slices of toasted bread. These were immediately called double-deckers. Then came the discussion--how should we eat a three-tiered sandwich? There was a general controversy over which it should be, and still the battle is waged, fork vs. fingers for sandwiches. To make matters more complicated; and giving the fork a chance for active play, the sandwich loaf made its appearance. This loaf, as you all must know by now, is a delicate triple-layerd affair generously frosted wtih creamy cheese. Now the latest in sandwiches, this breadless affair, simply demands the use of a fork, as you will readily note upon reading the recipe. Here it is--the eggplant-tomato sandwich:
"Eggplant-tomato sandwich:
Cut slices of eggplant about one-quarter inch thick and dip them in beaten egg which has been seasoned with salt and pepper. Then crumb with fine bread crumbs and saute in butter or part butter and fat. When the eggplant is tender, put between each two layers of eggplant a slices of fresh tomato and two strips of bacon about 3 inches in length. The bacon should be previously broiled until crisp and kept warm on the stove. Place soft, melted yellow cheese, on the top layer of each eggplant sandwich and place in the oven until the cheese has melted. Serve immediately after being removed from the oven. Plan to serve two sandwiches for each person, as they are bound to make an immediate hit. Garnish the platter with parsley and stuffed olives or radishes. Try eggplant-tomato sandwiches for buffet supper."
---"'Breadless Sandwich' is Latest Innovation," Dorothea Duncan, Washington Post, January 27, 1935 (p. S6)
[1970]
"Breadless sandwiches are great for snacks, and what a good way to use up small amounts of leftover potato or egg salad and single slices of cold meat. Just put about two tablespoons on a slice of meat and fold the meat slice in half."
---"Kitchen Tip," Chicago Daily Defender, June 4, 1970 (p. 28)
Food historians tell us the practice of serving savory foods before meals was established in ancient cultures. Why? Long before the advent of modern nutrition science, people who studied the relationship between food and the human body recognized the ability of some items to what the appetite and encourage proper digestion. Apicius [Ancient Rome]contains many such recipes. About appetizers .
The serving of savory protein/bread or pastry combinations [croutons, crustades] continued through the Middle ages, migrating toward refined spicy vinegar-based specialties of the Renaissance table. "Canapes," as we known them today, originated in France. They were a creation of classic French cuisine and, as such, were quickly adopted by countries (ex. England, United States) in the habit of following French culinary trends. In other cuisines this concept evolved differently.
What is a canape?
"Canapes--The primary meaning of this word is a slice of crustless bread, cut in rectangular shapes, the size and thickness of which varies depending on the nature of ingredients to be put on them. Canapes which are also called croutons are made of toasted or fried bread and can either be spread with various mixtures or left plain, depending on the nature of the dishes for which they are to serve as an accompaniment. Canapes are mostly used as an accompaniment to winged game, and, in this case, they are spread with a gratin forcemat or some other forcemeat and when actually at table the trail intestines of birds, which are not drawn for cooking, are also spread on the canapes. Recipes for preparing these will be found under the entries entitled Roties...Canapes (hors-d'oeuvre)--These canapes, which are made from crustless bread, home-made bread, common brioche or pastry, are garnished with various compositions. Recipes for this type of canape, some of which are referred to as Canapes a la russe, will be found in the section entitled Hors-D'Oeuvre. See Cold hors-d'oeuvre. Canapes for various dishes--These canapes are cut and browned in the same ways as those described above. They are mostly described as croutons and are used as foundations fro fried or grilled escalopes, noisettes, tournedos, kidneys, etc."
---Larousse Gastronomique, Prosper Montagne [Crown Publishers:New York] 1961 (p. 208)
What is the derivation of the term and when did it begin to appear in English?
This is what the food historians say about canapes:
"Canape. A French word which basically means sofa or couch, has become a culinary term in France since the late 18th century, when it was applied by analogy to the thin pieces of fried or toasted bread which served as supports for various savoury toppings. A century later, in the 1890s, it became in English word referring to a titbit of this kind. Now that yet another hundred years have passed, the usage continues, although it sounds old-fashioned and is most likely to be found in contexts such as catered receptions or 'cocktail parties'...Canapes may be hot or cold. If hot, they come close to what are called savouries in British English.In either case they are capable of being classified as hors d'oeuvres in some culinary contexts. Large canapes trespass on the territory of the open sandwich. In Italy, the term crostini continues to have much the same meaning as the old French usage. Thin slices of toast, cut into e.g. square or diamond shapes are used as a base for a savour topping. "
---Oxford Companion to Food, Alan Davidson [Oxford University Press:Oxford] 1999 (p. 128)
"Canapes are small thin pieces of bread or toast topped with some sort of savoury garnish or spread, and served as snacks with drinks. The word canape means literally 'sofa' in French (it comes ultimately from medieval Latin canopeum, source of English canopy), and the idea behind its gastronomic application is that the toppings--anchovies, caviar, smoked salmon, ham, etc.--sit on the pieces of the bread as if on a sofa. It is a relatively recent introduction into English, first mentioned in Mrs. Beeton's Cookery Book (1890)."
---An A-Z of Food and Drink, John Ayto [Oxford University Press:Oxford] 2002 (p. 53-4)
A survey of canape recipes through time:
[1869:Paris]
"Anchovy canapes.
Cut some slices of crumb of bread, 1/4 inch thick; cut these in pieces 2 1/2 inches long, 1 1/2 inch wide; and fry them in clarified butter, till a nice golden colour; When cold, spread the pieces with Anchovy Butter; Steep some anchovies in cold water; drain, open, and trim them; Place 4 fillets of anchovies, lengthwise, on each piece of bread, leaving three small spaces between the fillets; fill the first space with chopped hard-boiled white of egg; fill the middle space with chopped parsley, and the third with chopped hard-boiled yolk of egg; Dress the canapes in a flat china boat, or small dish, generally used for all these cold Hors d'oeuvre."
---The Royal Cookery Book, Jules Gouffe, translated and adapted for English use by Alphonse Gouffe [Sampson Low, Son & Marston:London] 1869 (p. 409)
[NOTE: This source also contains recipes for shrimp canapes, caviar canapes, crayfish tails canapes, lobster canapes, and smoked salmon canapes.]
[1873:Paris]
What exactly is a chicken burger? Great question! With no exact answer.
Ground protein mixtures bound with egg, bulked with breading, & blasted with spices have been enjoyed from ancient times forwards. Think: fish cakes, croquettes, timbales, & kofta. This is a short course on meatloaf . Recipes and proteins vary according to culture and cuisine. Until recently, most of these dishes required pre-cooked meats. It was a great way to serve leftovers. Today's supermarket meat counters offer an interesting variety of raw ground protein products. All of which can be assembled, formed, combined for cooking on whatever heat source to satisfy whichever course. American food companies offer similar products promoted for convenience.
The term "chicken burger" first surfaces in USA print after WWII. Recipes are all over the culinary map. The unifiying "burger" factor means nestled in a personal-sized bread begging for condiments.
[1946: Barnyard burgers made with ground chicken]
"Chicken Burgers. Barnyard-burgers are made from ground cold chicken, if this delicacy is ever left lying around at your home, or turkey or roast. Onion and bread stuffing may be added, moistened with one or two eggs and and seasoned to taste. Saute until brown in chicken fat and serve on whopping big biscuits."---"Hamburger Recipes are Items for Collectors, With a Range to Suit Cannibal and Gourmet," Corsicana Daily Sun [TX], July 18, 1948 (p. 2) [NOTE: most likely this ground chicken was pre-cooked, see 1957.]
[1955: commercial product]
"It's New. Chicken Burgers, 7 oz, 49 cents."---display ad, News Palladium [Benton Harbor MI], December 15, 1955 (p. 25) [NOTE: no description or illustration.]
[1956: barbecued Barnyard burgers ]
"Chicken burgers. One cup cooked chicken, chopped, 1 egg slightly beaten, 1 cup soft bread crumbs, 2 tablespoons minced parsley, 1 tablespoon minced onion, 1/4 teaspoon salt; dash of pepper. Combine all ingredients and form into 4 patties. Broil until brown on both sides. Serve hot in toasted enriched buns. Garnish with stuffed olive."---"Tuna and Chicken Burgers Add Variety to Barbecue," The Bee [Danville VA], June 7, 1956 (p. 8)
[1957: pre-cooked chicken patties]
"...the newest taste treats of them all...Chicken Burgers, Pre-cooked chicken, ground and seasoned and made into patties. Can be fried or broiled. each 19 cents"---display ad, Berkshire Eagle [MA], January 24, 1957 (p. 28)
[1961: fast food chicken sandwich]
Chicken sandwiches are served on hamburger-type buns with similar condiment/vegetable choices.
[1966: canned chicken burgers]
"Chicken burgers, 2 cans 27 cents."---display ad, Journal-Daily News [Hamilton OH] July 6, 1966 (p. 16)
[1989: chicken burgers promoted as low-cholesterol alternatives]
"If you're worried that you'll have to skip spring and summer barbecues to stay on a heart-health diet, here's some good news for the chef. The test kitchens have developed two new flavorful recipes, low in fat and without added salt that you can serve at yopur next barbecue while you deep your cholesterol in check. Mouth-watering Barbecue Chicken Burgers are a tasty alternative to traditional, high fat foods such as hot dogs and hamburgers. Filled with oats for a hearty texture and flavor, these burgers are a healthy source of cholesterol-lowering soluble fiber....To booste their nutritional benefit, why not serve Barbecue Chicken Burgers on whole wheat buns with lettuce and tomato? For an added burst of flavor, top them with a tangy, yogurt-based sauce, instead of condiments high in sodium...
Barbecue Chicken Burgers
2 1/2 cups finely chopped cooked chicken
1 cup oats (quick or old-fashioned, uncooked)
One 8-ounce carton low fat plain yogurt
1/4 cup chopped onion
1 tablespoon prepared mustard
6 whole wheat hamburger buns, split, toasted.
Lightly coat rack of broiler pan with vegetable oil cooking spray. Combine chicken, oats, 1/2 cup yogurt, onion, egg whites, parsley and 1/2 teaspoon chili powder; mix well. Shape to form 6 burgers. Place on rack of prepared broiler pan or over medium-hot coals on outdoor grill so burgers are 4-5 inches from heat. Broil 5 minutes; turn. Continue broiling 5-7 minutes or until golden brown. For sauce, combine remaining 1/2 cup yogurt, mustard and remaining 1/2 teaspoon chili powder; mix well. Top each burger with 1 tablespoon sauce. Serve on whole wheat bun. Garnish with lettuce and tomato, if desired."---"Enjoy barbecues and still keep cholesterol in check," The Telegraph [Alton IL]. May 31, 1989 (p. B5)
Chicken sandwiches (fast food)
While recipes for breaded, fried, boneless chicken descend from Old World recipes (think: wiener schnitzel , S. Truett Cathy's Atlanta-based Chick-Fil-A is generally credited for introducing chicken sandwiches to the fast food world. They may (or may not) have been the first food restaurant to make a chicken sandwich. They were, however, the first to capitalize on it. In the American land of hamburgers & hot dogs, this was a pretty daring and brilliant move.
"1961 Truett invents the boneless breast of chicken sandwich, calling it a "Chick-fil-A." He perfected the recipe over a four-year period using cooking techniques from his mother�s humble boarding house kitchen."
1/4 cup olives
1/4 cup mayonnaise
Cut three thin slices of white bread. Spread one with shad-roe caviar. Spread another with mayonnaise and sprinkle thickly with minced ham and olives. Butter the remaining slice of bread, then place the slice spread with mayonnaise over the slice spread with the caviar. Put a crisp lettuce leaf on top of each and cover with the plain buttered slice of bread. This makes a sandwich of three layers."
---The New Butterick Cook Book, Flora Rose [1924] (p. 149)
Over the decades there have many variations on this sandwich. Some are for presentation (cutting off the crust, cutting into triangle shapes, garnishes, serving instructions--some cookbooks even have guests making these right at the table!) others tinker with the ingredients:
"Russian Club Sandwiches
Prepare as many slices hot, fresh toast as required. Place a large slice ripe tomato on half the pieces of toast, lay two anchovies on top of tomato, sprinkle a teaspoon finely-chopped celery over, top with mayonnaise dressing, then cover with balance of toast."
---Every Woman's Cook Book, Mrs. Chas. F. Oritz [1926] (p. 592)
Florence A. Cowles' 1929 notes on club sandwiches:
"Who invented and christened the club sandwich? And how, why, when and where? No authoritative answers to these questions are available. One legend has it that a man came home late and hungry from his club one night, raided the ice box and made himself a super-sandwich which he dubbed "club." Another says that the chef of some club made himself a reputation by devising this special type of comestible. Anyway, who cares, and what difference does it make? The club sandwich is here to stay. It is a meal in itself, and a meal which may have highly diversified component parts, as long as the principal specifications of toast, meat and salad ingredients are adhered to. Originally it was constructed on the toppling tower plan, but in any other shape it tastes as good and convenience now dictates a more open formation which may be readily attacked. The club sandwich may consist of anywhere from one to five stories. The foundation is always toast, but the superstructure depends on the maker's fancy--and the materials at hand. The sandwich should be eaten with knife and fork."
---Seven Hundred Sandwiches, Florenece A. Cowles [1929] (p. 184-5)
[NOTE: this book contains 17 different recipes for club sandwiches, including an Open Club Sandwich which is served on three triangular pieces of toast radiating from the center of the plate. Other interesting recipes include the Five Course Sandwich (each layer represents a different course from dessert to appetizer), Picture Club Sandwich (French bread) and Bean Club Sandwich (baked beans, bacon & pickles].
"Russian Club Sandwich This is a miniature course dinner, beginning with fruit cocktail and ending with a sweet. Cut six thin, round slices of bread, the smallest an inch and a half in diameter and the largest four inches. Lay the largest slice on a plate and spread with jam. On it lay the next largest slice of bread and spread with cream cheese. Then the next slice, buttered, and on this lay bacon or chicken with lettuce and mayonnaise. On the fourth piece of bread lay a slice of tomato and on the fifth a slice of cucumber, each slice of bread being buttered and each vegetable having a bit of mayonnaise and lettuce. On the top piece of bread, unbuttered, lay a slice of banana or other fruit and crown with a stuffed olive. If the layers prove topply they may be secured with toothpicks, but avoid this if possible."
---ibid (p. 188)
The general consensus of several American cookbooks published between 1920-1980 suggest the ingredients of the "classic" triple decker club sandwich are:
Toast (white is most often cited, with crust)
Butter/margarine
Food historians generally agree that cooked bread and cheese combinations [in many different forms, textures and tastes] were ancient foods known across most continents and cultures. The earliest recipes for food like these are found in Ancient Roman cookbooks. Modern grilled cheese sandwiches descended from these ancient recipes.
Who invented the grilled cheese Americans know today? We will never know, but we can (given the ingredients) place it in time. Culinary evidence suggests our modern grilled cheese (consisting of processed cheese and sliced white bread) began in the 1920s. That's when affordable sliced bread and inexpensive American cheese hit the market. Goverment issue cookbooks tell us World War II Navy cooks broiled hundreds of "American cheese filling sandwiches" in ship's kitchens. This makes sense. The sandwich was economical, easy to make, met government nutrition standards.
Why is Grilled Cheese paired with Tomato Soup?
Post WWII institutional foodservice (including school cafeterias) paired grilled cheese with tomato soup to provide the required Vitamin C component. It was also economical and easy:
"Soups. The use of canned soups for all types of school food serve can add variety as well as good nutirtion to the menu. They contribute particularly to the small school with minimum equipment and to the school where the teacher must prepare the hot lunch in addition to classroom teaching...Serve a hearty soup and a sandwich to meet the total 2-ounce protein requirement of the Type A lunch."
---School Lunch Recipes Using Canned Foods, Home Economics Divison [National Canners Association:Washington D.C.] 1949 (p. 4)
[NOTE: This booklet mentions tomato soup but not grilled cheese.]
Grilled vs toasted?
Some people wonder about the difference between toasted cheese and grilled cheese. Are they the same thing? On the surface, recipes for both produce somewhat similar results (melted cheese nestled between two slices of crisp, warm, buttered bread). Actually? Food historians tell us this a linguistic puzzle. Notes here:
"Toast...is made by placing a slice of bread in front of dry heat-a fire, a grill, or an electric toaster...Certainly, toast has a long history in Britain. Tost was much used in the Middle Ages, being made in the ordinary way at an open fire...Often toast was spread with toppings...Meat toppings for toast became fashionable in during the 16th century...Towards the end of the 16th century all knds of things began to appear on toast....[including] melted cheese."
---Oxford Companion to Food, Alan Davidson [Oxford University Press:Oxford] 1999 (p. 796-7)
"Grill...to cook by direct exposure to radiant heat, as in when a piece of meat is placed on a grill...The North American word for the verb grill is broil."
---ibid (p. 354)
A survey of American cookbooks reveals that recipes titled for "toasted cheese" sandwiches predate those titled "grilled cheese." Other names for this dish exist too. A careful examination of ingredients and method confirm the connection. The term "grilled cheese" surfaces in American print during the 1930s. This coincides with the introduction of portable electic cooking tools, courtesy of Thomas Alva Edison. The Edicraft brand Sandwich Grill (also Deep Grill Plate, Waffle Baker) were weclomed by modern American housewives. Table cookery was not new: chafing dishes were popular from the 1890s forward. Late 19th/early 20th century American cookbooks regularly offer recipes for cheese toast (melted cheese served on toast points, no top). Cheese is typically grated or creamed into a "butter." Cayenne and mustard, traditional Rarebit ingredients, are not strangers to early grilled cheese.
"Grilled cheese" sandwich recipes through time
[1902]
"Cheese Boxes
Cut stale bread in one-third inch slices, remove crusts, and cut slices in pieces three by one and one-half inches. Remove centres, leaving bread in box-shaped pieces. Fit in each box a slice of mild cheese, sprinkle with salt and paprika, and cover with a thin piece of bread which was removed with the centre. Saute in a hot blazer, using enough butter to prevent burning."
---Chafing Dish Possibilities, Fannie Merritt Farmer [Little, Brown, and Company:Boston] 1902 (p. 134)
[1915]
"Toasted Cheese
Cut white bread in 1/4 in. slices, spread lightly with mustard butter and sprinkle thickly with grated cheese. Cover with buttered slices, press together and arrange in a wire broiler. Toast a delicate brwon on one side, turn and lightly toast on the other side. Serve hot with tea or coffee."
---"July Twenty-Sixth," Calendar of Sandwiches & Beverages, Elizabeth O. Hiller [P.F. Volland Company:Joliet IL] 1915?
[1916]
Tomato or mushroom catchup
Butter
Cut eight thin slices of white bread, remove the crusts and spread with butter. Place thick slices of cheese between the bread and fry in plenty of hot butter in the chafing dish. Serve hot with tomato or mushroom catchup."
---Salads, Sandwiches and Chafing Dish Recipes, Marion H. Neil (p. 23)
[1929]
"Toasted Cheese Sandwich
Allow four tablespoons grated cheese for each sandwich. Mix with a little salad dresing or white sauce to bind. Add a little chopped pimento and spread between slices of buttered bread. Toast ad serve at once."
---Seven Hundred Sandwiches, Florence A. Cowles [Little, Brown, and Company:Boston] 1929 (p. 181)
[1932]
Luncheon: Grilled Cheese Sandwiches, Salad of Mixed Greens, Baked Bananas, Orange Cake, Tea."
---"Today's Menu," Marian Manners, Los Angeles Times, January 20, 1932 (p. A7)[No recipe offered]
[1934]
"Grilled Cheese
Sunday night is a grilling time. Avoiding a pun is difficult, but modern cooking being what it is and modern tastes being what they are, the statement stands and may be accepted quite literally. Grilled cheese sandwiches are no new thing. We get them in drug stores for lunch and at tea rooms for supper. But when the housewife begins to grill there is no limit to the combinations she may use and the delicious Sunday night suppers she may serve. Open-face sandwiches of chreeese and tomato grilled, offer a combination of flavors sure to please the palate."
---"Capital Kitchen: Sunday Night Supper the Time to Bring out the Grill," Susan Mills Washington Post, May 2, 1934 (p. 14)
[NOTE: Edicraft Sandwich Grill , 1934. This photo was publihsed in "Table Cookery," Edicraft. This pocket-sized cooking booklet does not include a recipe for grilled cheese.]
[1936]--Grilled Cheese
("Place cheese between two thin slices of bread. Butter outside of sandwiches lightly, brown in oven.") & Hot Cheese Sandwich ("Sread two slices of bread lightly with creamed butter. On unbuttered side place slice of American cheese. Place second slice of bread over cheese with buttered side out. Watkins Paprika. Place sandwich in broiler, brown on both sides. Do not melt cheese too much."
---Watkins Cook Book [J.R. Watkins Company:Winona MN] 1936 (p. 126)
"Cheese Spread for Toasted Sandwiches. "Cheese Dreams."
The following delicious sandwich spread will keep for a week or more. Scald in a double boiler:
1/2 cup milk
1/2 teaspoon salt
3/4 pound American cheese, diced
Cook thse ingredients ofver hot water for 15 minutes. Stir them constantly. Cool the mixture and keep it in a closed jar in the refrigerator. When ready to use it spread it between:
Rounds of bread
Place on each side of the canapes or sandwiches a generous dab of:
butter
Toast them in a moderate oven 350 degrees F. until they are crisp, or toast them on a broiler."
---Joy of Cooking, Irma Rombauer [Bobbs-Merrill:Indianapolis IN] 1936 (p. 7)
[NOTE: This recipe does not appear in the 1931 1st edition of Joy.]
[1939]
"Toasted Sandwiches
Spread sandwiches with filling but no butter. Brush outside with melted butter and toast in a broiling oven or saute in butter in heavy frying pan or table grill."
---The Boston Cooking School Cook Book, Fannie M. Farmer (p. 719)
[1949]
"Toasted Cheese Sandwiches (sauteed in a skillet) 1/2 pound sharp Parmican or cheddar cheese shredded
2 tablespoons chives, chopped
The Dagwood Sandwich was introduced to the American public April 16, 1936. It was invented by Chic Young and featured in his syndicated comic strip Blondie. Dagwood was Blondie's affable but somewhat bumbling husband.
What were the original ingredients?
Tongue, onion, mustard, sardine, beans and horseradish. A loaf of bread appears on the table but we are not told what kind of bread he used. It appears unsliced. Dagwood's two year old son, Baby Dumpling, watches his father composes the sandwich. Frame 2: Dagwood asks "Here, want to try a bite?" Baby Dumpling runs in the opposite direction shouting "NOOOoo." Frame 3: Baby Dumpling hides, watching dad eat his sandwich. Frame 4: Baby Dumpling pronounces the sandwich "Poison." Dagwood, still eating while reading his newspaper, replies "Stop saying that." [NOTE: we are transcibing from the New Castle News [PA], April 16, 1936 (p. 17). Some newspapers ran different Blondie comics that day.]
Original 1936 comic strip here . Over the years, the Dagwood sandwich grew bigger and typically included everything "but the kitchen sink!" Here is a Dagwood sandwich circa 1944 .
[1947]
Slice of buttered bread
Layer of crisp lettuce (or watercress or endive)
Cold, sliced chicken (or ham or veal or pork or potroast or turkey or cold cuts or bacon or sausage or almost anything)
Thin slices of hard boiled egg (or a fried egg)
Layer of American cheese (or cottage or Swiss or cream cheese)
Sardines (or anchovies or smoked salmon)
Slice of onion
1) In a small bowl, mash the banana with the back of a spoon.
2) Toast the bread lightly.
3) Spread the peanut butter on one piece of toast and the mashed banana on the other.
4) Fry the sandwich in melted butter until each side is golden brown. Cut diagonally and serve hot.
---Are You Hungry Tonight? Elvis' Favorite Recipes, compiled by Brenda Arlene Butler [Gramercy Books:New York] 1992 (p. 20-21)
[NOTE: This book contains dozens of the King's favorite recipes, including Elvis' & Pricilla's Wedding Cake, served May 1, 1967 in Las Vegas (p. 54-63).]
What else did Elvis like to eat?
"If Elvis were to come into our own dining room tonight, he'd say, 'Yes, ma'am,' and 'Thank you, ma'am,' and probably ask for the same kind of good home cooking that his mother, Gladys, put on the table in Tupelo, Mississippi in the late 1930s. Gladys cooked all the traditional Southern favorites. Grits and black-eyed peas were served, ham and bacon were an occasional treat, and there was always fried chicken, cornbread, mashed potatoes, and plenty of homemade country gravy. Elvis Presley was Southern-born and Southern-bred. his culinary tastes never varied far from Southern-style home cooking, altough he was exposed to, and did enjoy, certain Oriental foods that contained such ingredients as pork...Elvis played hard, worked hard, and ate hard, and he preferred rib-sticking kinds of foods. Elvis did not develop much of a taste for exotic or foreign foods. Nor did he consider trying ay dish that contained unusual ingredients or had an odd texture or flavor...At home, the King always specified exactly what foods should be kept on hand, whether at his Graceland masion in Memphis or at his house in Beverly Hills. His list always included fresh, lean, ground round, hamburger buns, rolls, at least six cans of ready-to-bake biscuits, pickles, potatoes, onions, shredded coconut, fudge cookies, assorted fresh fruit, canned sauerkraut, mustard, and peanut butter. His refrigerator also contained at least three bottles of mlk or half-and-half, thin-sliced, lean bacon, vanilla and chocolate ice cream, and freshly squeezed orange juice. His favorite soft drinks are said to have been Pepsi Cola, Nesbitt's Orange, and Shasta Black Cherry. He liked to chew Wrigley's Spearmint, Doublemint, and Juice Fruit gum."
---ibid (p. 6)
Hungry for more? Try The Life and Cuisine of Elvis Presley, David Adler. Your local public librarian can help you get both books. Why buy when you can borrow!
The history of gyros poses some unexpected questions. Certainly, the ingredients (lamb, pita bread, grilled vegetables, & seasonings) were known to Ancient peoples of the Middle East. Kebabs (roasted skewered meat) and other spiced meat minces have been sold by Middle Eastern and Greek street vendors for hundreds of years. Doner kebabs have been popular in Europe (especially Germany) in the second half of the 20th century.
The Arabs, Turks, and Greeks all make a variation on the same theme of vertical rotissing seasoned meat. The Turks call it doner kebabi, the Greeks gyro...and the Arabs shawurma. It is said that the doner kebabi was born in the Anatolian town of Bursa."
--A Mediterranean Feast, Clifford A. Wright [William Morrow:New York] 1999 (p. 115)
"...[one of the] the most highly regarded dishes of Baghdad [9th century AD]: judhaba (also called judhab)...Judhaba was basically roast meat; one thinks of shish kebabs....In the case of judhaba, the first thing to note is that the meat in question is not a skewer or kebab grilled over coals but something sliced off a large cut of meat roasted in a clay oven--an tannur (tandoor)--and then, as we have seen, minced fine. The sweet that accompanies it was actually the essence of the dish, the judhaba proper. It was a sort of sweetened Yorkshire pudding, stuck under the meat as it roasted to catch running fat and meat juices...The only surviving tenth-century cookbook, Kitab al-Tabikh, the contents of which date mostly from the ninth century, gives no fewer than nineteen recipes."
---"What to Order in Ninth-Century Baghdad," Charles Perry, Medieval Arab Cookery, Essays and tranlations by Mxime Rodinson, A.J. Arberry & Charles Perry [Prospect Books:Devon] 2001 (p. 220-1)
Gyros, as we know them today, presumably evolved from this tradition. Food historians generally agree the name "gyro" and the current product are both recent inventions, originating in the New York. According to the New York Times, modern gyros were very popular in the city during the early 1970s. They were marketed as fast food and embraced by diners looking for something different.
"Gyro. A Greek-American sandwich made from rotisserie-roasted, seasoned lamb that is sliced and served with onions in a pocket of pita bread. The word (which first appears in print in 1970) is from the Greek gyros, meaning a "turn" and is pronounced "JEER-o." The dish is better known in America than in Greece and possibly created in New York, where gyros are sold at Greek lunch counters and by street vendors, although some say it originated in the Plaka neighborhood of Athens. It is not a dish found in classic Greek cookery or listed in Greek cookbooks. It also seems possible that the name "gyro" may have some association with the Italian-American sandwich called Hero."
---Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p. 147)
"A sandwich that is said to have originated 2,000 years ago is capturing the attention of Manhattan's quick eaters. The sandwich, a Greek gyro, pronounce "year-oh" is a lamb, tomato and onion concoction nestled in a fold of a soft bread called pita. More than 30 Greek snack stores selling the gyro have opened in Manhattan in the last year, according to the proprieter's estimates. In a heavily trafficked areas such as Times Square, three stores have opened in the last two months. Why has the Greek Gryo gained a prominent place in the fast food race? Store owners, patrons and native Greeks agree that the two major reasons are that the gyro is "different" and "delicious...The increase in the snack's popularity may be related to the large number of Americans who visit Greece and sample the local cuisine...The term gyro denotes a ring or circle and refers to the rotation of the meat as it is cooked. Greek historians attribute the origin of the dish to soldiers from the army of Alexander the great, who skewered their meat on long knives and cooked it by repeated turning over an open firet. Modern gyros are cooked on an electric rotisserie and are sold for prices ranging from 85 cents to $1...A Young Greek couple enjoying a gyro or "doner kebab" at the new Plaza de Athena on Broadway at 45th Street said they thought the food was "close to what it's like in Athens."
---"The Gyro, a Greek Sandwich, Selling Like Hot Dogs," New York Times, September 4, 1971 (p. 23)
"There will be lots of broiled meats, including gyro, that agglomeration of meat sold in booths all over New York, although its Greek provenance is questionable. "We found that people are associating it with Greeks, so we included it," said Harry Raptakis, chairman of the bazaar. "Besides, it might even have some Greek background to it." Of things definitely Greek, there will be souvlaki and shish kebab, which will be broiled atop a 2-by-10 food cinderblock cooking pit. "We only use lamb," said Mr. Raptakis."
---"Joys of Greece at L.I. Fair," Irvin Molotsky, New York Times, June 9, 1978 (p. C21)
"A keen nose for street food once led my husband and me to discover something called doner kebab in the market stalls in Herakleion the capital of Crete, long before it reached New York under the name gyro." ---"Dining a la Cart: Street Food Mirrors the Tastes of a City," Florence Fabricant, New York Times, April 17, 1991 (p.C1, C8)
"Gyro. [Spitted spiced lamb]. Gyro, gyro oli is a favorite children's game, comparable to farmer in the dell, which describes the round-and-round motion of gyro. Since spreading to Greece from the Middle East, industrious Hellenes have brought it to the United States (New York is spinning with gyro restaurants), and one more snack has been added. On a vertical spit, which turns electrically, or is run manually by the mikro (apprentice), the meat is roasted t flavorful crispness." ---The Food of Greece: Food, Folkways and Travel in the Mainland and Islands of Greece, Vilma Lia couras Chantiles [Anteneum:New York] 1975 (p. 155)
[NOTE: This book contains a recipe for gyro on p. 156. Your librarian can help you find it.]
About doner kebab
"A doner kebab is a Turkish specialty consisting of slices of marinated lamb or mutton which are packed in a cylindrical mass on a vertical spit and then grilled as they revolve. Slices are cut from the surface as it reaches the required degree of 'oneness', and are typically eaten with pitta bread or rice. Turkish immigrants have brought it to many parts of Europe, and sicee the early 1970s the doner kebab house has become a familiar part of the British inner-city scene. The term means literally 'turing roast meat', incidentally (doner derives from the verb donmek, 'turn, rotate'); and the Turkish letter o is pronounced similarly to German o (the closest English sound is er). The Arabic word for the dish is shawarma."
---An A to Z of Food & Drink, John Ayto [Oxford University Press:Oxford] 2002 (p. 111)
"Doner kebab...has become a familiar sight in western countries wherever Turkish immigrants have become established...When Turks began to work in large numbers in Germany during the 1960s, their food followed but, although much liked by the immigrants, it did no find favour with Germans until the ofering was dressed up as a pitta bread sandwich filled with the doner meat, a salad of shredded lettuce, and a sauce (usually chilli, barbeque, or garlic). The meat itself may be lamb, beef, or chicken and will be both thinly sliced 'leaves' and minced or minced and ground...Doner kebab is very significant in Austria, Denmark, and Britain... It is also important in Australia, alhtoug it may go under different names (depending upon which immigrant group is more important) such as souvlaki or gyros. In Canada their is a variation called Donair, named after a Halifax restaurant which invented it in 1973. The gyro of Greece (also named for its turning action) is the same but different. Clifford Wright suggests it was not introduced into Greece itself until after the exchange of populations between Turkey and Greece in the 1920s. It too has travelled, particularly to America and Australia...The shawarma of the Middle East...is broadly similar, although the meat may be more highly spiced, and other sauces such as tahini may be offered."
---Oxford Companion to Food, Alan Davidson [Oxford University Press:Oxford] 2nd edition, 2006 (p. 254-5)
"In Turkey, doner kebab consists of thin cuts of lamb laid over warm "fladenbrot," a round flat loaf similar to pita, and steeped in tsatsiki sauce, with tomatoes, onions, and lettuce on the side. It is usually served in sit-down restaurants. In Germany, "doner," has taken on a sandwich form, and is sold from small booths catering to takeout customers. The meat is slowly roasted on a vertical spit, sliced almost paper-thin, and then stuffed into a triangular piece of fladenbrot, topped by the vegetables. For about 60 cents more, a few slabs of feta cheese are included. The sauces - garlic or tomato-based and ranging from tangy to sharp - often vary. "The different doner booths make their own sauces according to their own recipes," says Tuncay Zulkaflu, owner of Knig Doner in Dresden. What makes "Istanbul Doner," another doner booth in Dresden and two-time winner of a magazine-sponsored survey for the city's best doner, so popular? "The sauces," answers a worker there. "It is a very special recipe, but it is a secret, so I can't say [what it is]...There are an estimated 9,300 doner vendors in Germany...As far as the doner's place on the German snack circuit, "It is equal to the bratwurst or bockwurst," says Uwe Stuhrberg, editor at Sax Magazine, which conducted the doner surveys. According to a 1998 study on doner by the Turkish Studies Center at Essen University, the average German eats eight doners per year. Not bad for a sandwich developed less than thirty years ago, when Turkish "guest workers" in Germany, who found themselves unemployed in the midst of the '70s economic crisis, starting selling doners to support their families. Back then, vendors prepared the meat themselves and sold it from street corners. It remained mainly a mom-and-pop industry until German reunification, when vendors tapped into the East German market."
---"More Germans nix kraut for kebabs," Omar Sacirbey, Christian Science Monitor, August 25, 1999, FOOD; Pg. 17
Doner University: Germany kebab qualification for students
Our research indicates Turkish-style kebabs were enjoyed in Germany in the early 19th century. These were coated with bread crumbs. Perhaps this was a forerunner?
"Small chunks of lamb, mutton and pork can be treated in the same way [placed on a spit over a moderate coal fire. As soon as the pieces, which should should not be too close together, begin to exude their fat, they should be sprinkled with a mixture of fine salt and fine breadrumbs and this should be continued until no more fat appears. If this is done carefully and not heedlessly, as happens in most kitchens, each individual piece becomes evenly coated with a crust which can be made more crunchy by an increase in heat just before serving...], rather like the delicious kebabs of Turkey, especially if slices of Spanish or Levantine onions are interspersed with the meat. Tiny branches of bay, sage, rosemary or other bitter, aromatic herbs can also be placed between the pieces of meat as long as they do not create too strong a flavour. The pieces should not be too close together. A little more salt should be applied under the breadcrumbs than is necessary for the eel and, if desired, a little of the favourite household seasoning can also be used."
---The Essence of Cookery, Karl Friedrich Von Rumohr, Translated by Barbara Yeomans, originally published in Germany in 1822 [Prospect Books:London] 1993 (p. 78)
The Horseshoe sandwich belongs to Springfield, Illinios. Local folks confirm the moniker was bestowed for the horse shoe shape of the meat. The french fries represent the nails in the shoe and the oversized platter is the anvil. The "Ponyshoe" sandwich is a smaller version.
"Ask anybody about the inventor of this cardiac-arrest concoction and you're likely to get two or three different names. Some say Joe Schweska created the first Horseshoe at the Old Leland Hotel in 1928. Others point to Steve Tomko at Wayne's Red Coach Inn as the originator. No matter, from the first bite you'll roll your eyes skyward and thank the heavens for such a creation. The Horseshoe is made by laying two pieces of toasted bread on a warm platter, then layering meat (the original recipe called for ham) over the toast. Next smother the entire plate with a rich cheese sauce and circle the platter with crispy french fries. Since its creation more than 70 years ago, many have duplicated the Horseshoe. While there are endless variations of meat and/or vegetable combinations, ranging from ham to corned beef, from bacon and egg to sauted vegetables, most agree that the key to a great Horseshoe is the cheese sauce. Some swear by beer, others use wine, still others are loyal to the Welsh rarebit sauce said to have been used in the original 1928 recipe. For a truly original dish, try the Horseshoe at many local restaurants and pubs, including Norb Andy's, Maldaner's, and D'Arcy's Pint. It's Springfield's original comfort food."
--- Springfield Illinois Convention & Visitors Bureau
"The Horseshoe has been a staple of politicans, public officals, bureaucrats, secretaries, salesmen, and Springfield residents for 50 years. It was created in 1928 at the now-defunct Leland Hotel, once the creme de la creme of late night watering holes for politicians gathered at the state capitol a few blocks away. It is simply an open face sandwich filled with any variety and combination of ingredients and topped with a sharp cheese sauce embedded with french fried potatoes. The combination is not unusual but the appearance is different and unless the diner is particularly fastidious, he can cram his mouth with a combination of meat, egg, potatoes, bread, and sauce with one sweep of a fork. "It's a real meal-in-one sandwich," says Wayne Coumbes, owner of Wayne's Red Coach Inn, which boasts it has the original Horseshoe recipe and serve 300 Horseshoes daily. A chef named Steven Tomko created the Horseshoe for the Leland and Coumbes wound up with the recipe after a series of partnerships in other restaurants, including one that Tomko once operated. "It was named after the horseshoe cut of ham. The hot, sizzler platter it's served on is supposed to represent the blacksmith's anvil and the french fries represent the nails for the horseshoe...Peggy Haynes, a cook at Norb Andy's restaurant, which has been preparing Horseshoes since the late 1950s, recalls that "when the sandwich first was made, the french fries were real thick and they only put a few of them around the edges so they looked like nails stuck in the horseshoe."..."The sauce makes the difference," says Coumbes. The original recipe calls for a white sauce made of butter and cream and a sharp cheddar cheese...At Norb Andy's, the recipe has been doctored to include a dash of white wine, "which cuts the sharpness of the cheese." And other Springfield establishments use a spash of beer to concoct their own versions. Almost every restaurant offers a choice of ham, chicken, turkey, hamburger, egg, and shrimp as a basic filling, and allows two choices without extra charge. Perhaps the most amazing thing about Horseshoes is their price. At the Red Coach Inn, the sandwich sells for $2.25...To the uninitiated palate, the most common taste among the Horseshoe variations is the ham choice, which mingles with the cheese sauce to create a food sensation similar to the Monte Cristo sandwich."
---"Du Jour: The eat horseshoes don't they? Yes, but only in Springfield, F. Richard Cioccone, Chicago Tribune, June 4, 1979 (p. B1)
Open, hot roast beef [or turkey] sandwiches slathered with gravy and served with mashed potatoes are popular in many parts of the country. They are known by different names according to region: "Roast Beef Commercials" in the upper mid-west (Minnesota), "Hot Beef," (South Dakota), "Roast Beef Manhattans" in central mid-west (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois), "Hot Roast Beef Sandwich" on both coasts. These economical belly-filling simple dishes are generally served (no matter what they're called) in working-class eateries and community dinners. Every once in a while you find hot roast beef/turkey type entrees in trendy restaurants experimenting with retro comfort fare.
Where did the idea come from? Cookbooks confirm people have been serving sliced/diced meats mixed with sauce over starches (bread, noodles, rice) for hundreds of years. This type of meal was generally served to family, as it generally used leftovers. Protein sources vary according to place and period: chipped (dried, frizzled) beef on toast was well-known by American pioneers. Many popular variations did not include meat (Welsh Rarebit, Biscuits & Gravy) or included scant pieces of meat in the gravy (ham gravy).
This 1877 recipe for "Beefsteak Toast" is not so very different from the modern version.
[1900]
"Just at present there is a big run on the hot roast beef sandwich, with the bread soaked in gravy, with gravy in the plate and gravy poured over it all. The general appearance is that of a tired ark in a gravy flood. Though unattractive to look at it eats all right, which is the main point. Certain restaurants have been charging 30 cents for it without accessories, but a new pace has been opened in a basement of Nassau Street [New York City] were the price is 20 cents, with mashed or baked potatoes and bread and butter. The saving of 10 cents and the additional provender have drawn to the cellar so large a number of the hungry that hundreds have to wait fifteen or thirty minutes for tables or counters at which to eat."
---"Popular Luncheons," Washington Post, May 16, 1900 (p. 6)
[1935]
"Hot Sandwiches. A very noticeable feature of present day catering is the sandwich--especially the hot sandwich. They are a prominent feature of popular priced and quick luch laces and may of the best hotels run one or more hot sandwiches each day. As generally made in the European plan hotel, two slices of bread are laid on a platter, side by sied; then the sliced meat is placed on the bread, over which is poured the gravy (real gravy, not the messy kind), and alongside it a garnish of mashed potatoes. When well put up, they make a nice luncheon. Suggestions for hot sandwiches:
Hot turkey sandwich, browned sweet potato.
Hot minced chicken sandwich on toast.
Hot capon sandwich, oyster sauce.
Hot fresh ham sandwich, country gravy.
Hot minced chicken sandwich, a la King.
Hot roast turkey sandwich, chicken gravy.
Hot chopped beefsteak sandwich, chili sauce.
Hot sliced chicken sandwich, egg sauce.
Hot roast beef sandwich, au jus."
---Hotel Butcher, Garde Manger and Carver, Frak Rivers [Hotel Monthly Press:Chicago] 1935 (p. 90)
What does "Commericial" mean in this context? It's one of several grades of beef defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture: "Commercial...(in U.S. Government grading of beef) graded between standard and utility."
---Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Stuart Berg Flexner, Editor in Chief [Random House:New York] second edition (p. 411)
"Ted and Dorothy Husted established Wall Drug in 1931...Diners feast on the house specialty--billed as the Hot Beef--a hot roast beef sandwich on white bread with the halves separated by a scoop of mashed potatoes and covered with right brown gravy. It's a true taste of South Dakota."
---American Sandwich: Great Eats From All 50 States, Becky Mercuri [Gibbs Smith:Salt Lake City] 2004 (p. 112)
Recipe-wise, food experts generally consider the Monte Cristo sandwich to be a simple variation of an early 20th century French dish called Croque Monsieur . According to several articles published in newspapers and magazines, Monte Cristo sandwiches were first served in southern California and were very popular in the 1950s-1970s. Therin ends the agreement. The who/what/why/where/when behind the Monte Cristo sandwich is still very much a subject of debate.
"Monte Cristo...Prepare Croque Monsieur...substituting very thinly sliced chicken for the ham and Swiss cheese for the Gruyere."
---Joy of Cooking/Irma S. Rombauer et al, [1997 edition] (p. 191)
[NOTE: the 1976 edition of this book makes no mention of Monte Cristo]
"Monte Cristo sandwich...A sandwich composed of ham, chicken, and Swiss cheese enclosed in bread that is dipped in beaten egg and fried until golden brown. The origin on the name is not known."
---Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p. 209)
"A classic story deserves a classic sandwich, even though nobody knows how the sandwich got its name. It may have been invented in San Francisco in the 1950s."
---"I'm going to see a remake of "The Count of Monte Cristo...," Hartford Courant, January 24, 2002 (p. 10)
"Monte Cristo sandwich invented in the Coronado Hotel in San Diego..." [no date provided] ---"LA really is a bread basket," Los Angeles Times, December 19, 1996 (p. H13)
"...the [Blue Bayou in New Orlean's Square, Disneyland/Anaheim California] restaurant's Monte Cristo sandwich probably has been the most recognizable -- and demanded -- item on the menu since it first appeared in 1966. It hasn't changed since then," said Boll, "and it's become a standard. It's a very, very popular item. We serve about 160 to 200 of them every day. When the first one of the day comes out, everybody who sees it wants to order one. It comes close to the croque monsieur that originated in France."
---"Chef du Jour: Disney's counter of Monte Cristo," Los Angeles Times, July 15, 1993 (p. 36)
The earliest reference we find to a Monte Cristo sandwich is printed in a 1941 menu from Gordon's on Wilshire Blvd., Los Angles. We do not know how these were made.
The oldest recipe we have (so far) for the Monte Cristo sandwich was printed in The Brown Derby Cook Book, 1949. The Brown Derby restaurant is located in Los Angeles, California and is famous for serving Hollywood's elite.
"Monte Cristo Sandwich.
Take three slices of white bread. Butter the first and cover with lean baked ham and chicken. Butter the middle slice on both sides, place on meat, and cover with thinly sliced Swiss cheese. Butter the third slice and place, butter down, over cheese. Trim crusts; cut sandwich in two; secure with toothpicks; dip in light egg batter; fry in butter on all sides until golden brown. Remove toothpicks and serve with currant jelly, strawberry jam, or cranberry sauce."
---The Brown Derby Cookbook [Doubleday & Company:Garden City NY] 1949 (p. 183)
[NOTE: This sandwich appears to be a cross between a club sandwich and a toasted French-style sandwich, two very popular menu items of this period.
[1964]
"Monte Cristo
Spread slice of buttered bread with a slice of cooked hamand a sliced of cooked chicken. Cover with second slice of buttered bread. Butter top of bread and cover with thin slices Swiss cheese. Cover with third slice buttered bread. Trim, cut in half, and fasten with wooden picks. Dip into egg-milk mixture and saute in butter until golden brown on both sides."
---The Sandwich Book, Ann Seranne and Eileen Gaden [Doubleday & Company:Garden City NY] 1964 (p. 71)
An old menu from Disneyland's Tahitian Terrace restaurant features the Monte Cristo.
[NOTE: Disney didn't invent the Monte Cristo, but it is certainly responsible for introducing it to thousands of theme park visitors.]
Several popular American cookbooks published in the 1920s-60s published recipes for sandwiches which are essentially Monte Cristos [ham--sliced & deviled/turkey/chicken sandwiches dipped in egg & then fried to a tasty golden brown], under different names:
Seven Hundred Sandwiches/Florence A. Cowles [1929]
---Hot Ham Sandwich II (p. 174), Fried Cheese Sandwich (p. 180)
Prudence Penny's Cookbook/Prudence Penny--Los Angeles Examiner newspaper [1939]
---French Sandwich (p. 267); John Hall's French Fried Chicken Sandwich (p. 339)
The American Woman's Cook Book/Ruth Berlozheimer [1940]
---Suggestions for Breakfast Sandwiches (p. 155)
Toll House Tried and True Recipes/Ruth Wakefield [1947]
---Toasted Ham Sandwich (p. 245)
The Fireside Cook Book/James Beard [1949]
---French Toasted Cheese Sandwiches (p. 151)
Good Housekeeping Cook Book [1955]
---Baked Ham-And-Egg Sandwiches (p. 358)
---A Concise Encyclopedia of Gastronomy, Andre L. Simon [Harcourt, Brace and Company:New York] 1952 (p. 424)
[1961]
"Croque-Monsieur--A rather fantastic name for a kind of hot sandwich which is served as an hors d'oeurvre or as a small entree. It can also feature in a list of small dishes for lunch, tea, etc. Cut some slices 3 1/2 inches long and 2 1/4 inches wide and 1/8 inch thick, from a fresh loaf, or failing that use some stale bread. Spread with butter on one side only and lay a thin slice of Gruyere cheese on top. Put a slice of lean ham on top of the cheese, and close the sandwich. Fry till golden in a frying pan in clarified butter."
---Larousse Gastronomique, Prosper Montagne [Crown Publishers:New York] 1961(P. 324)
[1964]
"Croque Monsieur
Cut crusts form thinly sliced bread and spread each slice with a paste made by mashing shredded Swiss cheese with cream. Put two slices together with a thin lice of ham between. Dip sandwiches in egg-milk mixture and saute in hot butter until golden brown on both sides."
---The Sandwich Book, Ann Seranne and Eileen Gaden [Doubleday & Company:Garden City NY] 1964 (p. 70)
[1976]
"Croque Monsieur--Cheese Dream
'A rather fantastic name,'says Larousse Gastronomique, 'for a kind of hot sandwich which is served as an hors d'ouevre or as a small entree. It can also feature in the list of small dishes for lunch, tea, etc.' The name of fantasy is a French conceint, but the putting together of ham (or bacon) and cheese, between slices of bread which are then fried to a crusty gold, has some universality about it. New Zealanders, among others, grate the cheese and mix it with beaten egg, as does the chef at Scotland's Fortingall Hotel. It is a 'Cheese Dream' in many English-speaking regions, and there are variastions known as Croque Mademoiselle and Croque Madame--Donn Pearce's recipe, from San Francisco, includes sliced mushrooms; in Paris Simone Beck's puffy feminine version is flavored with cognac, kirsh, or rum, and both are run under the broiler at the last moment. When prepared as appetizing tidbits, the sandwiches are cut up into small mouthfuls. Here is the basic recipe we use, made with whatever cheese needs using up:
8 slices bread (Cheese Bread, page 174, is particularly good)
soft butter
about 1/3 lb. cheese
clarified butter (or equal amounts butter and cooking oil
Remove crusts from the bread slices and butter one side. Trim ham slcies to cover half the bread, place on top, then cover with cheese. (If cheese is a melting type like Mozzarella or a soft-ripened variety, simply break in pieces; a firm cheese should be sliced; a hard one should be grated and mashed with a little butter to make more meltable. Any combinations can be used.) Close the sandwiches with the other pieces of bread, butter side down, and press firmly. Heat a large skillet or pancake griddle, melt several tablespoonfuls of clarified butter (or oil and butter--straight unclarified butter will burn), and when sizzling add the Croques Monsieur. Cook on each side about 3 minutes, pressing down with the spatula and adding a little more butter before turning. Serve the golden Croques hot, cutting in quarters if they are to be used as appetizers."
---The World of Cheese, Evan Jones [Alfred A. Knopf:New York] 1976 (p. 159)
[NOTE: Happy to send the Cheese Bread referenced above.]
These exquisite works of edible art descend from practical traditions:
"Smorrebrod can be anything between heaven and earth. Primarily it consists of a piece of bread of some kind. The Danes make most use of rye bread because it is more suitable than other varieties for many of their sandwiches...Upon the bread something, generally butter, is in most cases spread. As one would expect, when the Danes spread the fine butter for which they are famous, they spread it generously. Not only because it gives them vitamin A or because they like the taste but also because fatstuffs help to keep out the cold. And keeping out the cold is important for most of the Danish year. Though butter ranks first as "the something to spread", spiced lard or pork dripping, maybe even goose or duck dripping, are often used. Not only, in the case of the pork fat, as an economy measure but because the Danes prefer fat to butter when liverpaste, salt meats and most kinds of sausage, are to be the crowning glory of the smorrebrod. When it comes to the question of what to put on the "buttered bread" (The Danish works for "butter" and "to butter" are the same as for "grease" and "to grease" so the expression "buttered bread" include bread spread with dripping of one kind or another) the only answer can be: "There is absolutely nothing edible which cannot be used for smorrebrod". The Danish town housewife patronizes the charcuterie of cooked meat shop around the corner; her country sister may bu certain kinds of pale (literally "something laid on", i.e. any fish, meat, vegetable etc. used on the buttered bread) from the butcher who brings his mobile shop to her door...Above all both town and country housewife will make use of leftovers from paleg. "Leftovers embraces anything from slices of cold pork sausage garnished with a remnant of red cabbage to slices taken from a still substantial joint of meat. It is this use of lefovers which makes smorrebrod such a useful thing to know about in order to be able to cope in an interesting yet substantial manner with those unexpected guests...The average dane has only one hot meal daily. For lunch and/or supper he eats smorrebrod."
---Oskar Davidsen book of Open Sandwiches, compiled by James R. White from traditional Danish recipes and specialties of the House of Oskar Davidsen [Host & Sons Forlag:Copenhagen], 3rd revised edition, 1962 (p. 9-10)
"The Sandwich Story Somewhere in the centre of Copenhagen there ought to be a monument to the man or woman who discovered smorrebrod, the open sandwich which is Denmark's national dish. An appropriate site would be the Town Hall end of the new Hans Andersen Boulevard, for the inventor of smorrebrod obviously had something of a fantasy of the great Danish storyteller. Alas, historians are silent as to the identity of the man wo first placed fish, fowl, meat and vegetables on a piece of buttered bread. Some Danish encyclopedias do not even list one of the most important words in the Danish language. The inventor of the smorrebrodsseddel or sandwich list is, however, known. And nobody has ever disputed that it was not untul old Oskar Davidsen acceeded to the request of young Axel Svensson to be allowed to make something amusing out of the restaurant's sandwich list that open sandwiches in all their infinite variety began to develop into what they are today...The origin of the sandwich is a subject on which even historians can but speculate. Some suggest that recognisable sandwiches were known in ancient Babylon, wothers that a rabbi contrived them for the Passover by placing bitter herbs between two slices of unleavened bread to symbolise Jewish privations in Egypt. When smorrebrod first saw the light of day is equally a matter for speculation. Certainly it appeared centuries before an Earl of Sandwich first placed pieces of meat between two slices of bread to enable his guests to eat without leaving the card table. The Danish workd simply means "buttered bread". But the origins of open sandwiches can be traced back to the days when, in Denmark as elsewhere, a round of bread served as a plate for both hot food and cold. Naturally the rich refrained from eating their plates but these, soaked in nourishing gravy from the main course, invariably found their way to the mouths of the serfs or deserving poor of the parish. And between rich and poor there was doubtless a class which ate both bread-plate and the delicacies which reposed upon it. As yet...this open sandwich could not have been known as smorrebrod for butter was still unknown in Denmark...The earliest mention of the word smorrebrod is found in the works of the playwright Ludvig Holberg (168401754) who describes the diet of the gentry as consisting of soup, salt meat or smorrebrod. No mystery, however, surrounds the invention of the smorrebrodsseddel or printed list of open sandwiches. It was Emil Bjorn, head waiter at the Copenhagen officers' club, who, when harried by shouted orders from the card tables, conceived, in 1883, the idea of lists on which the guests could mark off their requirements. Bjorn's idea was soon adopted by restaurants throughout the country, but many years were to pass before these scant lists were developed into what they are in Denmark today."
---ibid (p. 11-12)
Panini
Our survey of historic cookbooks and food articles confirm grilled sandwiches, including those cooked with special apparatus designed for the purpose, have been popular from the beginning of the 20th century forwards. Electric sandwich makers were just as intriguing to folks in the 1930s as they are they are today. Think: Grilled Cheese . Food historians generally agree panini (plural, the singular is panino), as we Americans know them today, originated in the panintecas (sandwich shops) of Italy, perhaps as early as the 1960s. Our survey of newspaper articles confirms panini origin captured American attention in the mid-1970s. As time progressed, panini evolved from upscale fare to trendy sandwiches for the masses. Industry experts credit novel combinations (ingredients/textures) and the product's *staying power* (they can be made ahead of time) for paninis modern success. In the 1990s, panini nudged their way into family restaurants and institutional menus (colleges, hospitals, airports). Sales of panini grills soared, both commercial and home versions. Frozen panini products happened.
"For centuries bread was the complete meal par excellence, until it became the support or container for a condiment or filling, without losing the identity associated with its linguistic diminutive [panino, diminutive of pane, denotes a sandwich in Itlian--Trans.]"
---Italian Cuisine: A Cultural History, Alberto Capatti & Massimo Montanari [Columbia University Press:New York] 1999 (p. 153)
"Panino..."small bread." Small sandwich. The name was apparently coined at Milan's Paninoteca Bar Quadronno. Panini cresciuti (grown rolls) are fried Sicilian potato rolls containing ham and cheese. From the Latin panis."
---The Dictionary of Italian Food and Drink, John Mariani [Broadway Books:New York] 1998 (p 177-8)
"'Panini' is the Americanized version of the Italian word panino, which means little sandwich and refers to a class of sandwiches that became popular in the United States in the late 1990s. Flavor is the key to panini, which are based on high-quality Italian artisan breads like focaccia or ciabatta. The sandwiches are layered, but not overstuffed, with flavorful combinations of cheeses, meats, or roasted vegetables. Various dressings or condiments are added, and the sandwich is pressed and lightly grilled. Panini-style sandwiches are popular in trendy restaurants throughout the United States."
---Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America, Andrew F. Smith editor [Oxford University Press:New York] 2004, Volume 2 (p. 235)
"[Panini] are said to have originated in Lombardy, Italy, in response to the demand among Milanese office workers for a quick lunch without sacrifice in flavor and quality. In both Italy and the United States, panini are eaten for lunch and as snacks and appetizers. In Italy, sandwich shops traditionally wrap the bottom of the panino in a crisp white paper napkin, providing a practical solution to drips while enchancing aesthetics. Quality Italian bread is an absolute must for a killer panini, and most sandwich chefs will opt for a relatively thin artisan bread like grooved focaccia or ciabatta, slicing it in half horizontally. Panini are always grilled, so most restaurants and cafes have invested in professional grooved sandwich presses that flatten and heat the sandwich while creating a crunch, buttery outer crust."
---American Sandwich: Great Eats from all 50 States, Becky Mercuri [Gibbs Smith:Salt Lake City UT] 2004 (p. 81)
The earliest print reference we find for panini (as a food) in an American newspapers is 1956. We cannot tell from the article if the panini served at this fair is the same as the one commonly found in contemporary menus.
[1954]
"The visitors ate Italian sausage, also pizze fritta, zeppole, calzone, torrone, panini, pepperoni, taralli."
---"Old World Festival in East Harlem," New York Times, July 25, 1954 (p. SM 22)
[1976]
"Another attraction, even for northern Italian visitors to Rome, is the nice price of a meal, now even nicer...Most cafe-bars serve sandwiches--which may be called tramezzini, panini, or medaglioni, depending on their composition..."
--"Revel in Rome's Unholy Year '76," Los Angeles Times, March 7, 1976 (p. G7)
[1976]
"By noon today it is probable that lines will already be forming at the brand new Caffe Orsini, opening at 11:30 this morning at Bonwit Teller's second floor, overlooking 57th Street. Luxuriously decorated with rough white plaster walls, tomato-pink upholstered banquettes, tile inlaid tables and polychromed wooden wall sconces and frames, this Continental style coffee house is an offspring of Orsini's restaurant on 56th Street. The menu will offer stylish Italianate salads and panini sandwiches..."
---"Food and Style: Shoppers Find Both in Store Restaurants," Mimi Sheraton, New York Times, October 7, 1976 (p. 77)
[1982]
"Speaking of Italian foods, many readers wrote in about an earlier reference to "panini." I stated that the only recipe for panini that I could uncover in my research was for panini di pasqua, or Easter Breads. Panini, I was told is simply the plural of the Italian panino, an overall word for rolls. One reader wrote that "the sandwiches you get on small rolls in cafes in Italy are 'panini imbotiti' - stuffed rolls.""
---"Q & A," New York Times, April 14, 1982, (p. C8)
[1985]
"The restaurant also makes a pungently flavorful lasagna, the thin sheets of pasta layered with cheese and so barely sauced that it is reminiscent of the spare food that Kleiman popularized at Verdi. This is not the southern Italy that comes out of No. 10 cans of tomatoes, but the southern Italy of light-handed cooks. There are calzone, both fried and baked (I found the fried version rather bland), and a whole range of wonderful panini, Italian sandwiches stuffed into crusty home-made rolls."
---"Ethinic Places Serve Foods That They Love Best," Ruth Reichl, Los Angeles Times, Jan 13,1985 (p. 86)
[1995]
"I'll bet a hundred bucks that panino, the Italian word for sandwich, will soon slip off your tongue like honey. Pretty soon, you'll start noticing restaurant menus and sandwich shops featuring panini (plural) exclusively. You'll find them at such places as the MOCA (Museum of Contemporary Art) cafe, Il Panino, in the new downtown museum complex, and at a spot in Beverly Hills called Giannino's. You'll see them on the menu at Il Piccolino and at Angeli Caffe, both in Los Angeles, and you'll see them at picnics and party buffets.An Italian might shrug if you ask the origin of panino. Said Celestino Drago, who operates Il Panino, "No one ever asks where or how they came about. They are just there." In Italy, panini are everywhere. They are fast food eaten on the run, to and from work, on the job, in train stations, in cars on the street. Sky-high piles of panini are packed in glass cases at almost every bakery and coffee shop for the hordes who want to grab a bite before or after work or a movie. Mothers pack them in schoolchildren's lunch bags. The ever-growing numbers of young, fast food lovers in Italy, called paninari, prefer the social scene at sandwich shops and McDonald's golden arches to the family dinner table, where every family member should be, but no longer is, to the chagrin of traditionalists bemoaning the disintegration of the Italian family fiber. In Milan, upscale paninotecas have emerged only in the last five years as havens for gourmet sandwich-eaters, who stand at tables to nibble on such fillings as duck or wild boar prosciutto while sipping fine wine. In Los Angeles, the panino has just begun to find a place among those who enjoy Italian flavors and great bread. For it's the bread that distinguishes every panino. The word derives from the word pane, meaning bread. There are dozens of different types of bread used for panini. Every region in Italy boasts a specialty. In Tuscany, you'll find michetta, a roll with a hole in middle, a strong favorite, whereas in Milan the specialty is rosetta, a rosette-shaped roll, and in Genoa it is focaccia, a flatbread with baked-on flavorings such as pesto, garlic butter and onions. The rolls may be elongated, round, square or flat. They may be seasoned or not. We give a few recipes for dough typically used in panini, but you can also use store-bought rolls and loaves found in fancy food shops as well as the neighborhood supermarket. Some Italian bakeries such as Il Fornaio in Beverly Hills and Santa Monica carry several popular panino varieties used by Il Panino, including michetta and ciabatta. Kaiser rolls, onion rolls and the like are ideally suited for panini. Square loaves such as pane in cassetta, ideal for grilling, can easily be substituted with firm-textured white or wheat bread. In Italy, with the exception perhaps of those found at paninotecas in Milan, panino fillings tend to be traditional types-sausage, roast peppers, cheeses, tomatoes, vegetables, mortadella, salamis and other sausages. In Sicily, veal and chicken cutlets are slapped between two pieces of bread. Roast peppers are also a popular panino filling. The panini appearing in Los Angeles, however, are something else. "They are not as fancy as those you'd find at the paninotecas in Milan, because we want to educate slowly, but they are interesting," Drago said. Actually, anything goes. At the MOCA cafe, Il Panino, Drago has introduced eight sandwich fillings that are California variations on the traditional Italian theme. In a sandwich called Milano, sliced turkey is served with California goat cheese, avocado, sun-dried tomatoes, and arugula. A smoked salmon and mascarpone cheese filling is garnished with salmon roe, capers and chives. Evan Kleiman, chef and co-owner of Angeli, a California-style Italian restaurant, fell in love with the sandwiches on her first visit to Italy at the age of 16 and does take-offs on traditional themes. "You open your mind to what is put in between two pieces of bread," she said. A sandwich Kleiman has called panino rustico contains chicken salad, dressed with Dijon mustard and arugula. This and other fillings such as roast pork are found in her book, "Cucina Fresca," co-authored with Viana La Place (Harper & Row: 1985). The roast pork is seasoned with Dijon mustard and topped with pickled onions. Dino Baglioni of Il Piccolino restaurant in Los Angeles serves several types of panini, including some using long, tapered rolls and round ones. They may be filled with red and green peppers and sausages; veal scaloppine with mozzarella cheese or ricotta cheese with prosciutto. There is also a sandwich made with smoked salmon, horseradish and capers. At Giannino's, the paninoteca in Beverly Hills, the sandwiches are simple and basic. Nothing fancy here. The sandwich called Godfather contains ham, mortadella, provolone and mixed peppers; the Capone has capocollo (sausage) and mixed peppers, and the tachinello contains smoked turkey and Swiss cheese." Panino Translated as "little loaf," panino is known throughout Italy as a sandwich you pick up on the go. Now panini are here in Los Angeles to delight the palate and expand the
---"Sandwich Repertoire," Rose Dosti, Los Angeles Times, Jul 23, 1987 (p. 1)
[1995]
"Just watch. In coffee bars, cafes and delis everywhere, soon you'll hear: "Give me a grilled veggie panino." The distinctive little sandwich familiar at way stations on Italian autostradas, the pressed panino (panini in the plural) is gaining a foothold in Washington. Picture a good old grilled cheese, but without the grease, layered with sauteed vegetables or deli meats or a combination. Light, flavorful and, yes, oh-so-trendy, panini (like coffee bars) have leap-frogged across the country. From Seattle to Chicago to Dallas, hot pressed sandwiches, made with focaccia or rustic bread, striped with grill marks, are a have-to-have with that latte. "People want a little something other than sweets at a coffee bar," says Joel Edwards, president of Issaquah, Washington State-based Caffe Andiamo, which manufactures a panini press called Pane Bella Grill. "And for cafe owners panini are a way to attract that 11-to-2 customer base." Edwards credits Nordstrom stores with spreading the craze eastward. All Nordstrom espresso bars feature pressed panini. "What's unique is the press itself," says restaurant consultant Mark Caraluzzi, co-owner of Bistro Bistro and D'Angelo. "It's a gentle heat that crisps the bread but steams the inside so it doesn't dry out." Grill stripes, Caraluzzi contends, let the customer know his sandwich was not browned in a puddle of oil. "We are the grilling country," he says."
---"Let Them Eat Panini," Walter Nicholls, The Washington Post, July 5, 1995, (p. E11)
[2002]
"Panini grills have been around for more than 100 years, but were generally ignored in the United States until the Italian grilled sandwiches made with them began to show up in carryout shops and on restaurant menus. Now these grills are set to become the Belgian-waffle irons of the 21st century. Two years ago, I couldn't find anything called a panini grill. Suddenly, there are all kinds of possibilities. Eat your heart out, Dagwood. Panini are nothing more than grown-up cheese-and-meat sandwiches toasted on a ridged grill that has a weighted top to press down the sandwich to the thickness of a waffle. It is that weighted top that seems to draw men to panini grills. They are the functional equivalent of something you might cook with in the yard. ''Men have taken to the panini grill like they took to barbecue,'' said Michael Chiarello, the host of a cooking show on public television that is based in the Napa Valley. ''Guys just want a general concept of a recipe -- bread and stuff,' he said. ''They don't want to measure anything.'"
---"Presses New and Old Prove That Panini Aren't Picky," Marian Burros, New York Times, July 17, 2002, (p.F6).
Bread of choice for panini? Ciabatta . Compare with
Who invented this popular sandwich, why & when? The when is easy to document, the why is a relatively simple matter of technology, economics & commerce. The who? Is still a mystery.
Let's start with a quick study of the ingredients. Food historians tell us that finely chopped nuts (especially almonds) were regularly used by ancient cooks in a variety of dishes. BUT! It wasn't until the late 19th century that peanut butter...as we know it...came on the market. Did you know that peanut butter was first marketed as a health food? Ancient cooks also knew how to preserve fruit. BUT! It wasn't until the 15th century that modern jellies/jams/preserves were made. Ancient cooks also made bread. BUT! Sliced pre-packaged bread...the stuff we Americans use today to make our peanut butter & jelly sandwiches...didn't happen until the late 1920s. Interesting, yes? More notes on the history of PB&J ingredients:
sliced white bread .
"The first located reference to the now immortal peanut butter and jelly sandwich was published by Julia Davis Chandler in 1901. This immediately became a hit with America's youth, who loved the double-sweet combination, and it has remained a favorite ever since...During the early 1900s peanut butter was considered a delicacy and as such it was served at upscale affairs and in New York's finest tearooms. Ye Olde English Coffee House made a "Peanut Butter and Pimento Sandwich." The Vanity Fair Tea-Room served its peanut butter with watercress...The Colonia Tea-Room served peanut butter on toast triangles and soda crackers. That peanut butter could be combined with so many divers products demonstrated that it was a relatively neutral platform providing a nutty taste and a sticky texture that bound together various ingredients.
Peanut butter sandwiches moved down the class structure as the price of peanut butter declined due to the commercialization of the industry. Peanut butter's use also moved down the age structure of the nation as manufacturers added sugar to the peanut butter, which appealed to children. The relationship between children and peanut butter was cemented in the late 1920s, when Gustav Papendick invented a process for slicing and wrapping bread. Sliced bread meant that children could make sandwiches themselves without slicing the bread with a potentially dangerous knife. As a consequence of low cost, high nutrition, and ease of assembling, peanut butter sandwiches became one of the top children's meals during the Depression. "
---Peanuts: The Illustrious History of the Goober Pea, Andrew F. Smith [University of Illinois Press:Urbana] 2002 (p. 35)
[NOTE: this book is the BEST source for information on the history of peanuts & peanut butter. It is well researched and copiously documented. Ask your librarian to help you find a copy].
"Peanut butter sandwiches moved down the class structure as the price of peanut butter declined. After the invention of sliced bread in the 1920s, children could make their own sandwiches without using a sharp knife. The combination of these two factors helped make peanut butter sandwiches one of the top children's meals in America. Beginning in the 1920s, manufacturers lobbied school cafeterias to buy inexpensive peanut butter. Its flavor was liked by children, and minimum time and equipment were required to prepare it."
---"Peanut Butter," Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, Solomon H. Katz, editor in chief [Thomson Gale:Detroit] 2003, Volume 3 (p. 56) (p. 12)
In the 1920s peanut butter sandwiches were quite adventuresome.
[1923]
"Suggestions for Various Beech-Nut Peanut Butter Sandwiches.
1. One half cupful of Beech-Nut Peanut Butter and aof finely chopped seeded rasiins moistened with two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice.
2. One half cupful each of Beech-Nut Peanut Butter and stoned chopped prunes moistened with two tablespoonfuls of orange juice.
3. Spread slics of bread generously with Beech-Nut Peanut Butter then fill with thick slices of tomato which have been allowed to stand in French dressing for fifteen minutes.
4. Spread slices of bread with Beech-Nut Peanut Butter and fill with chopped celery mixed with one tablespoonful of minced pimientos to each cupful of celery and a little salad dresing. Season with salt and paprika.
5. Blend together equal quantities of Beech-Nut Peanut Butter and cream cheese, spread on slices of bread, lay lettuce leaves moistened wtih French dressing on half the slices, sprinkle generously with stuffed olives and cover with the remaining slices of bread.
6. Spread slices of thinly buttered bread with Beech-Nut Peanut Butter, then with Beech-Nut Orange Marmalade and ccut into finger lengths. These sandwiches are also very delicious toasted before being cut."
---The Beech-Nut Book: A Book of Menus And Recipes, Ida Bailey Allen [Beech-Nut Packing Co.:Canajoharie N.Y.] 1923 (p. 22)
[1928]
Peanut Butter and Apricot Sandwich
Peanut and Pimento Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Raisin Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Apple Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Salted Peanut Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Jam Sandwich
Peanut Salad Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Cabbage Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Orange Sandwich (orange juice & peel)
Peanut Butter amd Marshmallow Sandwich
Peanutpine Sandwich (peanut butter, honey, walnuts, lettuce, pineapple)
Peanut Butter and Prune Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Ham Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Tomato Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Pickle Sandwich
Pimcel Sandwich (celery, pimento, salad dressing, salt & paprika)
Peanut Butter and Ginger Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Currant Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Maple Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Honey Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Strawberry Sandwich (strawberry jam)
Egg and Peanut Butter Sandwich
Peanut Butter & Cherry Sandwich
Dixieland Sandwich (roasted peanuts, fried bacon, pimentos & salad dressing)
Peanut Butter and Banana Sandwich
Peanut and Lettuce Sandwich
Southern Sandwich (tomatoes, mayonnaise & salted peanuts on whole wheat)
Peanut Butter and Chili Sandwich (on wheat)
Peanut Butter, Cheese, and Olive Sandwich
Peanut Butter and Olive Sandwich (with mayo on white or rye)
Peanutraise Sandwich (raisins, peanut butter, brown sugar, salt, lemon juice & orange juice)
---Seven Hundred Sandwiches, Florence A. Cowles [Little,Brown:New York]
Peanuts (aka ground-nuts, ground-peas, goober peas) are a new world food. Archaeological evidence suggests the first peanut butters (ground peanuts, really) were made by Ancient South American Indians. Peanuts were introduced to the the Old World by European explorers. These nuts thrived in Africa. Historians tell us that peanuts were introduced to North America by Europeans via Africa.
Peanut butter, as we know it today, was introduced in the second half of the 19th century. It was originally promoted as a health food. Nut butters were valued for their high protein content and easy digestion. Peanut butter was a perfect alternative to meat in a time when the industry was rife with public health concerns. At first, peanut butter was a food known mostly to wealthy people who frequented health spas. Before long, the product was available to the public at large, though companies targeted their promotions to the upper classes. Recipes for early 20th century fancy tea sandwiches sometimes included "nut butter." When that market was saturated, companies began adding sugar to make the product more appealing to children. Bingo! The popularity of the product soared and to this day is a staple in most American pantries. Peanut butter & jelly sandwiches & Peanut butter cookies have become standard American fare.
Food historians currently entertain several theories regarding the origin (invention, if you will) of peanut butter. While ground peanuts were used by native Amercans and Africans early on, John Harvey Kellogg (of Battle Creek Michigan cereal fame) was the first person to obtain an American patent for the process [1895]. In the late 19th century many American households owned grinders for coffee and meat. Special grinders were also made purposely for grinding nuts.
"Early peanut butters had several problems. The first was that peanut oil has a melting point below room temperature. Gravity separated the oil, which then oxidized and turned rancid. Likewise, salt added to the peanut butter separated and crystallized. Grocers received peanut butter in tubs or pails and were advised to use a wooden paddle to stir it frequently...During the early years of the twentieth century, William Norman, an English chemist, invented a method of saturating unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, thus preventing them from turning rancid. In 1922, Joseph L. Rosefield...applied these principles to peanut butter. He developed a process to prevent oil separation and spoilage in peanut butter. He removed 18 percent of the liquid oil and replaced it with an equal amount of hydrogenated oil, which was solid at room temperature. The result was a semisolid peanut butter; no oil rose to the surface. The peanut butter was thick and creamy and did not stick to the roof of the mouth as much as previous products. Hydrogenated oil permitted a finer grinding of peanuts, which prevented the salt from separating from the peanut butter...Rosefield selected the name 'Skippy' for his new peanut butter. Most likely, the name was derived from a children's comic strip also called 'Skippy...Rosefield introduced creamy and chunky-style peanut butter in 1932. Three years later, the company inaugurated its first wide-mouth peanut-butter jar, which became the industry standard...Peanut butter was born at the end of the nineteenth century as a health and vegetarian food, but by the 1920s it was a major national product...In less than twenty-five years, peanut butter evolved from a hand ground delicacy to a mass-produced commercial commodity sold in almost every grocery store in America. it was employed in virtually every type of food from soups, salads, sauces, and main courses to desserts and snacks of every description. Peanut butter was versatile, inexpensive, available, and ready to use. Its makers appealed to children, who could make their own sandwiches and other peanut butter treats."
---Peanuts: The Illustrious History of the Goober Pea, Andrew F. Smith [University of Illinois Press:Urbana] 2002 (p. 42-44)
Ella Eaton Kellogg's recipe:
Peanut Butter.--A nut butter mill is desirable for the preparation of nut butter at home. If one designed for the purpose is not obtainable, a coffee or hand wheat mill may be used. Blanch the nuts, but do not roast and grind. The meal thus prepared may be cooked by putting it (dry) in the inner cup of a double boiler and cooking as directed for grains, for eight or ten hours. As it is required for use, add water to make of the desired consistency, and cook again for a few minutes, just long enough to bring out the essential oil of the nuts. Water may be added as soon as the nuts are ground, and the mixture placed in a covered bean pot and baked from eight to ten hours in a moderate oven, if preferred."
---Science in the Kitchen, Mrs. Ella Eaton Kellogg [Modern Medicine Publishing Co.:Battle Creek, MI] 1895 (p. 395)
Early promotional literature
"What is the element generally most lacking in the diet of children? Protein or muscle making foods, and vitamine or protective foods. But children are largely goverened by intelligence, and if the right foods are put within their reach they will usually choose the. So keep a jar of Beech-Nut Peanut Butter on your table at all three meals. You will find that the youngsters will love and freely eat it. ou can then feel sure that they will be properly feeding their muscles and stocking their bodies with protective vitamines. Spread slices of bread with Beech-Nut Peanut Butter ready for the children before they are called to the table, and you won't have to coak them to eat."
---The Beech-Nut Book: A Book of Menus And Recipes, Ida Bailey Allen [Beech-Nut Packing Co.:Canajoharie N.Y.] 1923 (p. 12)
Popeye Brand, May 1965, for a variety of sensible reasons.
[1965]
"It starts out as a sturdy jar of peanut butter; it ends up as a lightweight storage unit or bouncing toy. These are some of the qualities attributed to the new unbreakable jar used to package this classic American nut spread...Other virtues possessed by the polyethylene jar include kitchen safety and lower consumer prices resulting from reduced shipping costs. It also adds outdoor convenience when picnicking, traveling and camping. First national distribution of 'bouncing' peanut butter is in a 28-ounce jar size. The container itself weighs one ounce, compared to eight ounces for a glass container of comparable size, and saves six pounds per case in total shipping weight. Transportation saving plus elimination of breakage and handling costs enable the plastic jar of peanut butter to be priced from five to ten cents lower to the consumer, according to the manufacturer. This high-density, blow-molded poly container is tinted in a peanut butter shade, closed with a continuous thread metal top and labeled with foil. The trade name for 'bouncing' peanut butter is Popeye, a product of the Sussex Foods, Inc. Everett Mass." ---"World of New Foods-Plastic Peanut Butter Jar," Daily Gleaner [Kingston Jamaica], dateline New York, August 26, 1965 (p. 18)
"All this time the [Leavitt Corporation of Everett. Mass.] had 'harbored the hope of getting into the peanut butter business in its own right. Mr. [Jean Paul] Weinstein said; So they bought Sussex Foods, Inc., which held the rights to the Popeye name for its product. Again, some sort of fund approach was sought, and in May the company came out with Popeye peanut butter that bounced. Actually, you can't bounce the peanut butter, but you can bounce the container--because it's made of pliable plastic. The Sussex division is on a three-shift basis, now Mr. Weinstein reports, because Popeye peanut butter is bouncing right off the store shelves as fast as they can be put there."
---"Advertising: Another Day in the Nut World," Walter Carlson, New York Times, August 22, 1965 (p. F12)
[1966]
"Bemis ingenuity licks three more problems for industry!...a peanut butter jar that weighs one ounce and won't break...Blow Molded Plastic Containers. One large company got the jump on the competition by being the first to package peanut butter in this lightweight, shatterproof plastic jar, designed, colored and manufactured by Bemis. As a bonus benefit, the manufacturer also reduced his shipping costs substantially. (The new jar is eight times lighter than convention ones.) And it bounces when dropped! No mess from Mom, no cut fingers for Junior. A good peanut butter jar! And we can design and manufacture plastic jars that are just as good for mayonnaise, mustard and other foods."
---display ad, Bemis Company, Inc., [Minneapolis] Wall Street Journal, January 28, 1966 (p. 9)
[What did these early jars look like? "Pik Nik" brand.]
Recommended reading:Creamy & Crunchy: an informal history of peanut butter, the all-American food/Jon Krampner (2013)
[NOTE: This book suggests George Bayle's snack food product may have predated Battle Creek Sanitarium health food. Food for thought.]
[NOTE: This book contains both Fern Snider's (1956) as well as Jane Palmer's (1976) Reuben recipes.]
The �birth� of the Reuben Sandwich. As we know it today. The first National Sandwich Contest , sponsored by the Midwest-based Wheat Flour Institute, selects the �Reuben� for first place winner. Note the thinness of the finished product. NYC deli owners prided themselves on �skyscraper high� sandwiches. This one is strikingly level, like the vast plains of Nebraska:
Reuben
Enriched Russian Rye Bread, 144 slices
Thousand Island dressing, 5 lb, 2 � qt.
Cheese, Swiss, 1-oz slices, 6 lb., 96 slices
Sauerkraut, 1 qt.
Corned beef, �-oz slices, 6 lb. 192 spices.
Method of Preparation
Spread bread with Thousand Island dressing.
On each of 96 slices arrange 1 cheese slice, a scant No. 60 scoop of kraut, and 2 slices of corned beef.
Stack these slices to form 48 sandwiches.
Close the remaining bread slices and fasten with wooden picks.
Grill to order on both slices until browned. Cut diagonally in thirds. Garnish with French fried potatoes.
---Winning Sandwiches for Menu Makers From the National Sandwich Idea Contest, Kathleen M. Thomas, director of Home Economics, Wheat Flour Institute editor [Cahners Books International:Boston] 1976 (p. 30)
[NOTE: the preface of this book states: �The Contest That Gave us the Reuben. For over twenty years the skill of sandwich makers throughout America�s hotel, restaurant, and institutional industry has been encouraged and recognized by the granddaddy of all recipe contests, the National Sandwich Idea Contest� The recipes in this book represent the best of twenty years of sandwich competition, starting with the champion of the first contest in 1956, the now ubiquitous �Reuben.�� (p.2)]
Sloppy joes
During the second half of the nineteenth century ground beef gained popularity in America because it was both economical and nourishing. Recipes for Hamburg Steaks (aka hamburgers) were included in many popular American cookbooks. Cooks often added inexpensive fillers (bread crumbs, ketchup, tomato paste, eggs, sweet peppers, minced onions, Worcestershire sauce, bottled horseradish, pickle relish, mustard, salt & pepper were the most popular) to stretch the meat. This ground beef mixture was then fashioned into meatballs, meat loaves, hamburger stew, and loose meat sandwiches.
Early 20th century American cookbooks offer plenty of sloppy-joe type recipes, though they go by different titles: Toasted Deviled Hamburgers, Good Housekeeping Cook Book, Katharine Fisher [1944] (p. 534); Chopped Meat Sandwiches, Young America's Cook Book, Home Institute of the New York Herald Tribune [1940] (p. 36); Hamburg a la Creole, Prudence Penny's Cookbook, [1939] (p.67); Beef Mironton, The New Butterick Cook Book, Flora Rose [1924] (p. 266); Minced Beef Spanish Syle, Mrs. Rorer's New Cook Book, Sarah Tyson Rorer [1902] (p.157).
Where do sloppy joes fit in?
"The origins of this dish are unknown, but recipes for the dish date back at least to the 1940s. It dates in print to 1935. There is probably no Joe after whom it is named--but its rather messy appearance and tendency to drip off plate or roll makes "sloppy" an adequate description, and "Joe" is an American name of proletarian character and unassailable genuineness. There are many individual and regional variations on the dish. In Sioux City, Iowa, a dish of this type is called a "loosemeat sandwich," created in 1934 at Ye Olde Tavern Inn by Abraham and Bertha Kaled."
--- Encyclopedia of American Food & Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p.297).
"Sloppy Joes...I remember eating these in the 1940s and suspect they may have been a way of stretching precious ground beef during World War II. Apparently not. My friend and colleague Jim Fobel tells me that in his own quest to trace the origin of the Sloppy Joe, he talked to Marilyn Brown, Director of the Consumer Test Kitchen at H.K. Heinz in Pittsburgh (the Heinz "Joe," not surprisingly, is reddened with ketchup). Brown says their research at the Carnegie Library suggests that the Sloppy Joe began in a Sioux City, Iowa, cafe as a "loose meat sandwich" in 1930, the creation of a cook named Joe..."
---The American Century Cookbook: The Most Popular Recipes of the 20th Century, Jean Anderson [Clarkson Potter:New York] 1997 (p. 349)
The state of Iowa does seem to have a history of loose meat sandwiches:
"Sloppy Joe's...any cheap restaurant or lunch counter serving cheap food quickly, since 1940."
---Dictionary of American Slang, Wentworth & Flexner, 2nd supp. edition (p. 488)
"Sloppy...[definition 6] Sloppy Joe, sloppy joe (a) used...to designate a loose-fitting sweater; (b) U.S. a kind of hamburger in which the minced-beef filling is made into a kind of meat sauce;...." [this source traces the phrase *sloppy joe* as it relates to food only as far back as 1961].
---Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition
The U.S. Patent & Trademark Office's TESS trademark database yields 100+ matches on the phrase "sloppy joe," none of which are conclusive.
The earliest recipe we find so far for sloppy joes was printed in 1963:
1/2 lb ground beef
1 can (1 lb) beans and ground beef in barbecue sauce
1/4 cup catsup
3 hamburger buns, split and toasted
1. In medium skillet, saute meat, stirring, until it loses its red color.
2. Add beans and catsup, mixing well. Simmer, uncovered, 5 minutes. Spoon mixture over buns.
---McCall's Cook Book, (p. 625)
Recipe from the McCormick Company, manufacturers of prepackaged Sloppy Joes seasoned mixes
Want to make your own sloppy joes? You will find several recipes listed in RecipeSource . Just run a search on "sloppy joe." You will also find a recipe for sloppy joes in recent editions of The Joy of Cooking, Irma S. Rombauer
Submarine sandwich
Food historians generally agree the modern American sub , hero , wedge , hoagie , grinder, Po'Boy, Rich Girl, gondola, torpedo, zepplin..and their heated cousins Philly cheese steak & Chicago Italian beef are regional variations on the same culinary theme. Vietnamese Banh Mi are current trend. These overstuffed meat, cheese and vegetable oblong-shaped foods nestled between thick Italian or chewy French bread were recipes built on local culinary traditions and ethnic preference. Six-foot sandwiches surface in New York City, circa 1950s.
Old-world filled breads ( calzones, empanadas, pasties, &c. ) were introduced to America in the 19th century by immigrant laborers. The classic "Sub" (salami, cheese, peppers, olives, oil) was introduced to America by immigrants from Southern Italy in the early part of the 20th century. The progenitor of the sub was probably the muffolette . After World War II Italian food gained popularity with mainstream America. Over time, the sub assimilated. This accounts for the use of other meats (turkey, roast beef), cheese (American, Swiss), vegetables (lettuce, tomato) and spreads (mayonnaise, mustard).
---"The Noblest Sandwich of the All," Richard Gehman, Saturday Evening Post, January 1, 1955 (p. 16+)
"Pizzerias may have been among the first Italian-American eateries, but even at the turn of the century distinctions were clear-cut as to what constituted a true ristorante. To be merely a pizzamaker was to be at the bottom of the culinary and social scale; so many pizzeria owners began offering other dishes, including the 'hero' sandwich (also, depending on the region of the United States, called a 'wedge,' a 'hoagie,' a 'sub,' or a 'grinder') made on a Italian loaf of bread with lots of salami, cheese, and peppers."
---America Eats Out, John Mariani [Morrow:New York] 1991 (p. 66)
"I happened to glance through a column that appeared in the New York Times [1957]...in which Manganaro's, the famed food establishment at 492 Ninth Avenue in Manhattan, staked a claim to the original hero. That may be open to debate, but I was interested in that store's beginnings, which I had never read before. "In 1905...James Manganaro, who had been making whale-sized sandwiches of prosciutto and French bread to nourish himself on all-day fishing trips, came from Italy to New York to join his cousin in the grocery business. ..It was James Manganaro who branched into the sandwich business, making them the same way he liked a sandwich--big."
---Craig Claiborne's The New York Times Food Encyclopedia, Craig Claiborne [Times Books:New York] 1985 (p. 212)
Each sub-type sandwich has it's own naming story. Some can be substantiated, others are fine examples of culinary lore.
"During World War II, the commissary of the United States Navy's submarine base in Groton, Connecticut, ordered five hundred hero sandwiches a day from Benedetto Capaldo's Italian deli in New London, where the name 'sub' was soon applied to the item." ---America Eats Out, John Mariani [Morrow:New York] 1991 (p. 114-5)
According the the Oxford English Dictionary, the first print reference for the word "submarine," as it applies to this sandwich, was published in 1955 . That article makes no reference to Capaldo's. The earliest print reference we find stating the word "sub" dates to World War II is this:
"The good folks fo Groton have posted a sign, "You are Entering the Submarine capital of the World," to eliminate confusion, because some people believe that New London, across the Thames River, is the sub capital. And it is, sort of. It's the capital of submarine sandwiches, being the birthplace of that wonderfullly portable meal, introduced to the world by New London's own Benedetto Capaldo. What had originally been a "grinder" because of the way you had to chew to get through the Italian bread became a "sub" during World War II. By then the submarine base commissary was ordering almost 500 sandwiches a day, and Benny had to hire four helpers to stuff the submarine-shaped loaves with salami, tomatoes, cheese, and lettuce. When the sailors eventually left town, they took their discover with them. The Naval Sub Base, usually referred to as the "New London Sub Base," really is in Groton, which long ago was part of New London."
---"The Submarine Capitals of the World," Jamie Kageleiry, Yankee, March 1990 (p. 86) [NB: Local words are sometimes used many years before they hit national print.]
Notes from the Reference Librarians @New London (CT) Public Library confirm Capaldo's:
...searched our old city directories during the World War II time period and found that Benedetto Capaldo was a grocer and his store was located at 357 Bank Street from 1939 - 1943 and then later at 370 Bank Street (1944 - 1954). Presently, 357 Bank Street is a restaurant called Hot Rod Cafe. There is no current lisitng for 370 Bank Street. It appears that 1948 was the last year Benedetto Capaldo was listed in the city directory. Unfortunately, we don't have an index for the newspaper, so I won't be able to search the papers. ...looked through one of the books we have on the history of New London and found a little bit of information. This is from Reinventing New London by John Ruddy, " Legend has it that the New York Fruit Store on Shaw Street was the birthplace of the Italian grinder in the 1920s. Benedetto Capalbo (different spelling), the owner, was reputed to be the first in America to make the famous sandwich, known varioulsy as the hero, hoagie, and sub. Fifty years later, a suggestion that the building belonged on the National Register of Historic Places was met with snickers, and it was torn down."
"Wedge (for the shape of the sandwich, usually cut at an angle) is another common alternative for hero..."
---Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p. 154)
"To the Editor: Your article ''In Hoagieland, They Accept No Substitutes'' (May 28) and the many names for a sandwich on hero bread brought to mind an experience I had in Brooklyn. I have lived in Yonkers all of my life, and we refer to the hero/hoagie/grinder/submarine as a wedge. When I went to a coffee shop in Brooklyn, they had a sign listing meatballs as a sandwich special of the day, and I ordered a meatball wedge and they hand't a clue as to what I was talking about!"
---New York Times, Jun 4, 2003. pg. F.8
"Westchester: Wedge Sandwich
A regional sandwich name in Westchester (Yonkers) for the hero/sub/hoagie is "wedge." Again, I checked the telephone directories.
Yonkers, Mt. Vernon, Bronxville, Tuckahoe
YELLOW PAGES
---"ABOUT PHILIDELPHIA," William Robbins, New York Times, Aprril 17, 1984, (p. A14)
"Settlers from Naples, Sicily, Calabria and Abruzzo poured into South Philadelphia in the 1880's and 1890's, and in the 1950's singers like Mario Lanza, Frankie Avalon, Fabian and Bobby Rydell sprang from these hard streets...According to those who have explored the murky recesses of local food history, hoagies owe their name to the Hog Island shipyard on the Delaware River. During the Depression, or so the story goes, construction workers there used to buy Italian sandwiches from a luncheonette operated by one Al DePalma, who called them ''hoggies.'' Time changed the name to hoagies. Hoagies are not fundamentally different from New York's heroes or Boston's grinders or Everytown's submarines. Call them what you like, but Philadelphia must eat more per capita than anyplace else, and in a city where almost everybody, including Wawa convenience stores, fills eight-inch-long bread rolls with cold cuts, South Philadelphia fills them better than anyone. The bread is the key to quality. So who better to make a great hoagie than a great bakery? That would be Sarcone's, a fixture on Ninth Street, which a few years ago opened a tiny deli a few doors away. Its Old Fashioned Italian (Gourmet) hoagie is a minor masterpiece. A roll with a crunchy seeded crust and a soft, yet densely chewy, interior provides a solid base with plenty of absorptive power. Both are sorely needed after they pile on the prosciutto, coppa, spicy sopressata, provolone, oregano, tomatoes, onions, hot peppers, oil and vinegar."
---"In Hoagieland, They Accept No Substitutes," R. W. APPLE Jr.., New York Times, May 28, 2003, (p. F1)
"Phillufia, or Philly, which is what we kids called the city, was where the epicurean delight made with cold cuts, cheese, tomatoes, pickles, and onions stuffed into a long, hard-crusted Italian bread loaf was invented. The creation of that sandwich took place in tile Italian pushcart section of the city, known as Hog Island. Some linguists contend that it was but a short leap from Hog Island to hoagie. while others claim that the label hoagie arose because only a hog had the appetite or technique to eat one properly."
---"What Did You Say?," Richard Lederer, USA Today, July 2009, (p. 52)
This oversized party food is attributed to the Manangaro family, whose Italian food shops were located at on Ninth Avenue, New York City. References to the sandwich first surface in the mid-1950s. The original sandwich cost $28.50, weighed between 22 & 25 pounds, served between 40-50 people, and was presented on a board crafted for the purpose. Who was responsible for the invention? Therein lies the rub which caused a family feud of epic proportions. Two brothers, Sal and Jimmy Dell'O'rto (direct descendants of the original Manganaro proprietor) claim the honor. Another story credits an unnamed publicist hired to promote the family business.
[1959]
"A Ninth Avenue sandwich shop is offering something different: a 25-pound 'Hero' sandwich six-feet long. Salvatore Dell'Orto said he made one for a customer who wanted something unusual. Since then four others have placed orders. The king-size, multiingredient sandwiches cost $28, are one-foot wide- and are delivered on a board."
---"Six-Foot Sandwich Built in New York," Christian Science Monitor, December 31, 1959 (p. 3)
[1963]
"Perhaps the best-known purveyor of hero sandwiches and her fillings in New York...is Manganaro's, that vast and fantastic Italian emporium at 488 Ninth Avenue (near 38th Street). Manganaro's has, in fact, a six-foot hero that costs $28.50 and must be ordered a day in advance. The sandwich allegedly serves 30 to 40 adults."
---"Food: Hero Sandwich Traced Abroad," Craig Claiborne, New York Times, August 27, 1963 (p. 34)
Manganaro's on Ninth
"At least the Capulets and Montagues didn't have to share a name. Not so the descendants of a 19th-century Neapolitan who opened an Italian deli on Ninth Avenue 107 years ago. In high fairy-tale tradition, the business eventually passed to descendants: four brothers named Dell'Orto who, citing difference in management style, divided it up between the oldest and youngest pairs. That was in 1961, and the family relations were never the same. Salvatore and Vincent, the older brothers, took over the original store, Manganaro's Grosseria Italiano, a prosperous business that sold groceries and had a small sandwich counter in the back. James and Mario, the younger brothers, got the business next door, a budding sandwich shop called Manganaro's Hero Boy. Both businesses were given the right to use the Manganaro name, but relations between them quickly soured. By the early 1960s the two sides had stopped speaking, and since then a trail of litigation has kept the feud alive...The stores locked horns in court in the 1980s, when Hero Boy sued the Grosseria for establishing a telephone line called 'Manangaro's Hero Party Hotline' that sold six food and party hero sandwiches. 'By doing that, he bummed into my business,' said James, asserting that in the 1960's and 1970's he spent considerable sums to promote his six-foot heroes, a sandwich he says Salvatore had hardly dabbled with until the 1980s. But Salvatore strongly disagrees. In fact, he said, 'We originated the six-foot sandwich.'"
---"Family Feud: Manganaro's Against Manganaro's," Tara Bahrampour, New York Times, May 14, 2000 (p. 34)
"The business itself originated in 1893 as Petrucci's Wines and Brandies, where groceries were sold as well. In the 1920's, James Manganaro, an immigrant from Naples, took it over and gave it his name. He did so well that in 1927 he bought the building at 488 Ninth Avenue...In 1955, the six-foot hero was brainstormed when the family and a publicity agent figured that a large hero sandwich would be a good marketing ploy. Dubbed Hero-Boy, the 22-pound extravaganza cost $28.50 in the 1960s (it costs $106 now). Back then, it won such renown that Sal and the sandwich wound up on the quiz show 'I've Got a Secret.' (They stumped the panel). In 1956, the family bought the vacant store next door, and sandwiches, including the six-foot hero, were made there as well...It didn't take long for customers to become confused, placing an order with one Manganaro store, confirming the order with another...How did the feud begin? 'Some checks for use were mistakenly sent next door, and he banked them and never told me about it, Sal said of his brother Jimmy...Jimmy's recollection is quite different."
---"A Family, A Feud and a Six-Foot Sandwich, Glenn Collins, New York Times, December 8, 2001 (p. A1)
Jimmy's side of the story:
"History of Manganaro's Hero Boy. It began on Ninth Avenue in New York City in the late 1800's. From there, a family tradition has evolved into one of the City's most talked about places. There are not many restaurants that can boast on having a 'fifty' year plus background of serving some of the best food in the area and continuing on with the legacy that their family was so proud of. In 1956, with his mother Nina, James Dell'Orto operated the Italian Groceria known as Manganaro's. James decided to take this one step further and got the brilliant idea of doing a hero sandwich that would be the first of its kind and called it the Six Foot Hero Boy. It was an instant success and was the beginning of an Italian-style hero that could feed a party of thirty or forty people. The orders began coming in and Manganaro's Hero Boy began its exciting journey of becoming one of New York's finest eateries."
---SOURCE: HeroBoy.com
[NOTE: In December 2013, the Six-foot hero costs $345.00. It comes with a complete party pack including chips, salad & pasta.] ?
Manganaro's dissolved in 2011. Hero Boy survives in 2013. "Death of a Hero: Iconic Restaurant to Close" , Josh Barbanel, Wall Street Journal, Feburary 28. 2011.
The place? New Orleans. The people? Most commonly attributed to Benny and Clovis Martin. The year? Varies, though most agree the name was made popular during the 1929 streetcar strike. Culinary evidence suggests the sandwich predates the name.
"Po'boy. Also "poorboy." A sandwich made from French bread loaves split in half and filled with a variety of ingredients like ham, beef, cheese, oysters, tomatoes, and gravy. Similar to a hero, they are a specialty of New Orleans, where they were originally called push sandwiches because the meat was pushed along the length of the bread to save the best parts for last. The Po'boy was created in the 1920s by Benny and Clovis Martin, owners of Martin Brothers Grocery, who served the sandwich to striking streetcar workers free of charge (other sources say for fifteen cents) until the strike ended. They used up more than a thousand loaves of bread in one day. Another story says the term is related to the French for a gratuity, pourboire. Nonetheless, the term "poor boy" for a sandwich goes back to 1875. An oyster loaf is a form of po'boy made with oysters."
---Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p. 246)
[NOTE: According to Mr. Mariani, the 1875 reference is from the 2nd edition of the Random House Dictionary of the English Language.]
The Oxford English Dictionary traces the earliest print origin to 1932:
poor boy sandwich.
A kind of large sandwich; = PO' BOY n1932 New Orleans Classified Telephone Directory 108/2 Po Boi Sandwich Shoppe Inc. 1951 N.Y. Herald Tribune 4 July 7/8 The beginning of the Po' Boy sandwich we credited to a sandwich shop in New Orleans. 1978 C. TRILLIN Alice, let's Eat 166 Three hours after we had arrived..I was settled under a tree, almost too full to finish my second hot-sausage po' boy. 1984 P. PRUDHOMME Prudhomme's Louisiana Kitchen x. 268, I think they're superb on sandwiches; we use them on our po boy sandwiches made with French bread and various fillings. 2003 Time Out N.Y. 3 Apr. 35/4 New Orleans raised chef Richard Pierce is serving po'boys and jambalaya at this new restaurant.
Excellent summary with supporting primary documents here . What goes in a Po'Boy ?
[1730]
"Oyster Loaves, the plain Way.
Take the Crumb out, and save the Bit you cut out, then beard your Oysters, and toss them up in some of the Liquor, and some clear Broth, and some Crumbs of Bread, season with a little Nutmeg and Sallt, and squeeze a little Lemon, then put in your Loaves, and egg over the HOle, and cover it with the Piece, and fry them in clarify'd Butter, so serve hot."
---The Complete Practical Cook, or, a New System of the Whole Art and Mystery of Cookery, Charles Carter, facsimile 1730 edition [Ecco Print on demand] (p. 46-47)
[1901]
Philly cheesesteaks, Chicago Italian beef sandwiches, & New Orleans Muffulettas
While the origins of these tasty Italian sandwiches (and their relatives: Greek gyros & souvlakis) are of ancient southern European heritage, food historians generally agree the modern versions were introduced to America by food vendors in the 20th century. Each one is popularly attributed to a specific person, and the *true* recipe is honored. Regional culinary pride at its very finest.
Philly cheese steak: Philadelphia, PA
"Philadelphia Cheese-steak. A sandwich made with thin slices of beef topped with cheese and other condiments and served on a crisp Italian-style roll. It is a specialty of Philadelphia. Its origins have never been satsifactorily explained, although Pat and Harry Olivieri of Pat's Restaurant claim to have created the item in 1930 (although Pat Olivieri claimed to have added the cheese only in 1948)."
---Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, John F. Mariani [Lebhar-Friedman:New York] 1999 (p. 238)
Philly folks order cheese steaks "wit." This means with Cheez Whiz & sauteed onions. The fact Cheez Whiz was introduced in 1953 makes us wonder whether this was a later permuation and/or what was the original cheese. Hmmmmmm....
--- http://www.muffoletta.com/history/
"Certain dishes are so ingrained in this region's stew-pot cuisine that to eliminate them would be unthinkable. One is muffuletta, an Italian submarine-type sandwich with a distinctive olive salad. It was created at Central Grocery Store in the early 1900s and still is sold there. Marie Lupo Tusa, daughter of the grocery's founder, tells the story of the sandwich's origin in her cookbook, Marie's Melting Pot (1980). Sicilian farmers selling produce at the nearby Farmers' Market stopped at the grocery every day for lunch. "They would order some salami, some ham, a piece of cheese, a little olive salad and either long braided Italian bread or round muffuletta bread," Tusa wrote. "In typical Sicilian fashion they ate everything separately." Her father decided it would be easier for the farmers if he cut the bread and put everything on it like a sandwich. After experimenting, he determined that the softer muffuletta bread worked better than the crusty Italian loaves, Tusa says. Shortly, the farmers began asking simply for the "muffuletta."
--- http://www.dispatch.com/news/trips/taste/trad0707.html
USA-centric media concentrates on where to obtain this trendy menu item. They provide scant references to its origin, history and evolution. Our research confirms "banh" is indeed a traditioal food of Vietnam. The origins are ancient and the "true" ingredients are indigenous. The Banh mi celebrated to day is a far cry from Vietnam's street foods. Presumably, this hybrid product was either created from, or inspired by, French culinary influence. Many popular ethnic-based Americanized foods were launched similar fashion. Think: spaghetti & meatballs and California rolls.
None of the articles we read provided a date/decade for the genesis of banh mi. The most daring authors alluded vaguely to the beginning of 18th century French imperial rule. If we had to make an educated guess? We would place this food in the mid-20th century, most likely after WWII. American hero-type sandwiches (Philly Cheese Steaks, New Orleans Po'Boys, etc.) wedged their way onto the American culinary map during 1930s.
What is traditional Vietnamese banh?
"Banh is a word for which there is no satisfactory English equivalent. Spring rolls can be called banh, as can crepes. Sandwiches, and any baked goods are called banh. Sweets and savouries wrapped in leaves to be steamed or grilled are called banh. The only constant is that banh are small culinary bundles or other constructions, often eaten with the hands. Vietnamese who speak English generally refer to them as 'cake'...banh are quintessential street food. The oldest form of banh...what is arguably the world's oldest form of cooking other than simply exposing meat to fire, are those wrapped in leaves. In every market, and on street corners of every city and town, you will see them. Tightly wrapped in green leaves and tied with complex knots that would make a sailor proud, they fill baskets with their abundance...Each region in Vietnam has its own banh, just as each region of France has its own wine. The various ethnig groups prepare different types of banh with their local ingredients. People from the Tay ethnic minority wrap yams in banana leaves and call it banh khoai so. Hmong people use banana leaves to wrap banh ngo non, or young corn banh. Sweet potatoes and cassava are other common ingredients in the highlands. Leaf-wrapped banh are popular and enduring because they are so well suited to local materials and conditions. Leaves provide a container in which foods are cooked, and alos help to preserve the food, and keep it from getting dirty or mouldy. It is so compact and portable that if you have banh, you've alsways got a moveable feast, with no worries about disposing of a plastic wrapper. The most common ingredient in banh is rice both sticky and fluffy. A popular type is 'square cake', kwown in the north a banh chung, a savoury sticky rice preparation filled with mung bean paste and minced pork, wrapped in banana leaves, or the leaves of rushes, and steamed. While these can be found any day of the year, they are also important festival fare...In the central and southern parts of the country this cake is called banh u. The filling is the same, but hte package is intricately folded into a little pyramid...Banh tet, sometimes called Banh day, is said to have been first prepared by votaries on the Hung temple, near Hanoi. Thos is called the birthplace of the Vietnamese people, and its banh is meant to symbolise the continuity of the race, its determination to 'go forth and multiply'. Banh tet is always filled with rice, the gastronomic symbol of fertility."
---World Food: Vietnam, Richard Sterling, Lonely Planet (p. 181-182)
French connection & American introduction
"The French left their Vietnamese colonies with a legion of trained baguette bakers, pate makers and charcutiers who added their own flavorings to sausages and deli meats. This culinary legacy inspired Banh-mi, crunchy rolls piled with Vietnamese-style cold cuts. They are sold on practically every corner in Saigon, and now scores of California shops specialize in them. One of my favorite versions is at My Vi, a fascinating place to while away a lunch hour. At one end of the restaurant, people line up at a portable Chinese-style barbecue for take-out cha-shu and barbecued duck. At the other end, they eat "French submarines." My choice was Banh mi dia-a marvelous sandwich plate of assorted Vietnamese-style cold cuts and pate with two sunny-side-up eggs in the center. A little salad of marinated carrots and fresh chile slices also comes on the plate alongside a huge fluffy mound of wonderful homemade mayonnaise. (The owner gave a discourse on his homemade mayonnaise, which began with, "You take a fresh chicken egg.")"
---"Exotica on Rye," Linda Burum, Los Angeles Times, May 31, 1987 (p. 95)
"Banh mi, Vietnamese sandwiches served on hot, crisp French bread, are everywhere in and around Asian Garden, and the competition keeps the prices down and the quality high-banh mi that, the basic, fresh-chile-spiked barbecued pork sandwich-is usually 99 cents, and it's hard to find a bad one. If you throw in an extra half-buck for the deluxe sandwich, you'll get bits of every pig part you can imagine."
---"'Garden of Eatin'," Jonathan Gold, Los Angeles Times, February 6, 1992 (p. 25)
"The Vietnamese are master sandwich makers, a legacy of their time under the French, when they were introduced to, among other things, French bread and fine coffee. You ordinarily won't find Vietnamese sandwiches, or banh mi, in restaurants, though. They are considered street food, great for a quick snack or lunch."
---"From Memphis to Vietnam," Eric Asimov, New York Times, March 10, 1999 (p. F2)
Trendy fare
"Operators across the country are exploring ways to upgrade the traditional American sandwich. But some are predicting that the next sandwich craze is waiting in the wings in Vietnamese neighborhoods across the country. Banh mi sandwiches - a classic Vietnamese combination of p�t�, ham, sausages or head-cheese, topped with pickled carrots, cucumbers, daikon, fresh cilantro and jalape�os on a French baguette - have been common in cities with large Asian populations for the past two decades. But as more non-Asian diners discover the inexpensive and tasty treat, operators are seeing crossover potential to appeal to a broader audience. Banh mi specifically was mentioned by a study released in April by Packaged Facts, a New York-based market research firm specializing in consumer goods, as one of several Asian dishes with "potential for mainstream appeal." According to Packaged Facts, the total U.S. retail sales of Asian foods increased by 27.3 percent from 2000 to 2004, driven in part by a growing Asian-American population. The sandwich is a classic example of cultural fusion, a vestige of the French colonial era in Vietnam. The bread is French, of course, as is the smear of p�t�, ham and mayonnaise. The rest is Vietnamese, offering a refreshing spice and crunch. A banh mi is essentially a submarine sandwich with an exotic twist. Some use Asian-style barbecued pork, lemongrass chicken and other hot options as well, and most banh mi shops allow guests to customize their orders."
---"Banh mi on a roll," Lisa Jennings, Nation's Restaurant News, May 16, 2005 (p. 41)
"A baguette, still warm from the oven, its golden crust trellised with cracks. Sandwiched inside, a bright green thatch of cilantro and jalapenos, a tangle of pickled carrots and daikon, a smear of pate. Loaded between that, maybe a layer of rich barbecued pork or zesty meatballs, even spicy sardines. This is banh mi, an addictive Vietnamese street food and the culinary pay dirt of French colonialism."
---"COOKING; A slice of Little Saigon; The banh mi sandwich, a fresh baguette with savory fillings, is the quintessential Vietnamese comfort food," Amy Scattergood, Los Angeles Times, November 5, 2008 (p. F1)
"No one knows precisely when the first b�nh m� hit New York, although historians of that ingenious Vietnamese delicacy estimate that it was sometime during the Koch administration [1978-1989], back when there wasn't such a huge market for crackly demi-baguettes, warmed in the oven, slicked with mayo and p�t�, then layered meticulously with a variety of cold cuts and a thatch of pickled and fresh vegetables. One thing is certain: Since that fateful day, the b�nh m� (pronounced bun me) has come into its own, transcending its humble Chinatown origins to infiltrate not only hipster enclaves like Williamsburg, which, in the two years since Silent H opened, has become a b�nh m� hub, but also the menus of cocktail lounges (Pegu Club, which serves a fried-oyster b�nh m�), coffee shops (Roots & Vines, where you can have a b�nh m� with your Counter Culture latte), and even wine bars (Terroir offers a mortadella-stuffed b�nh m�Italiano). It's fair to say, in fact, that the b�nh m� is the new panino, and the toaster oven (found wherever b�nh m� are made, including a new financial-district street cart) the new panini press."
---"Another B�nh M� in the Oven; Is the humble Vietnamese hoagie poised to become New York's No. 1 sandwich?," Robin Raisfeld, Rob Patronite, New York Magazine, April 13, 2009
"In Vietnamese, the word banh mi means "bread," and the sandwich itself is a culinary testament to the influence of French colonialism, which began in the mid- 1800s. During this time, baguettes, along with cream, butter, pte, custards and coffee were introduced to the country, and over the years, consequently morphed into the many French-influenced Vietnamese dishes we know today. Classic French-style crepes became Ban xeo, a rice flour/coconut crepe filled with pork, shrimp and bean sprouts, while a classic French asparagus veloute (a stock-enriched cream-based soup) gets a Vietnamese makeover with the addition of crabmeat, dried shrimp and fish sauce. There are many banh mi variations and options, whether you're taking on the challenge of re-creating one of these sandwiches at home or ordering from a local Vietnamese bakery. In addition to the more common filling of pork or sliced pate, sandwiches can be stuffed with grilled chicken, sardines, even head cheese. When ordering one of these baguettes at a Vietnamese bakery, never fear. Most establishments make life easy by listing each sandwich variation in English and Vietnamese along with a larger- than-life-photo to help you through the process. And the price cannot be beat. For a 12-inch sandwich, you'll get set back $3, and many bakeries have a promotion of buy five, get one free to sweeten the deal that much more."
---"A Vietnam tradition: the banh mi sandwich," Kendra Bailey Morris, The Richmond Times-Dispatch, November 22, 2009 (p. G3)
Pinwheel sandwiches
Pinwheel (aka rolled) sandwiches descend from canapes : fancy 19th century finger sandwiches served with tea or cocktails. Checkerboard sandwiches, ribbon sandwiches, refrigerator cookies and other artfully crafted bit-sized presentations are closely related. The earliest print reference we find for Pinwheel Sandwich in American cookbooks is dated 1929. It is interesting to note this item is not quite the menu item we know today. In the food world, this is not an unusual occurance. Careful examination of ingredients and method often reveal similar recipes with different names. This method is generally a more accruate way to trace the evolution of a specific dish. Modern-style Pinwheel Sandwiches (made with several layers of bread and fillings) surface in the early 1930s. Tortilla Pinwheel sandwiches surfaced in 1987.
Vintage sandwich sampler
[1913]
"Rolled Bread and Butter.
Rolled bread and butter is much preferable to flat slices for afternoon teas, as ladies may hold it without spoiling dainty gloves. Butter the loaf--not a fresh one--having first decrusted it with a very sharp knife; cut a slice as thin as possible and roll each slice with flat of hand--practice soon perfects. Pile the rolls log-fashion, or in a pyramid, on a doyley- covered bread plate; garnish daintily with parsley or cress."
---The American Home Cook Book, Grace E. Denison [Barse & Hopkins Publishers:New York] 1913 (p. 351)
[1916]
Tortilla Pinwheel Sandwiches
Pinwheel (aka rolled) sandwiches descend from canapes: fancy 19th century finger sandwiches served with tea or cocktails. Our survey of historic American newspapers suggest Tortilla Pinwheel sandwiches surfaced in 1987. The fact that tortilla pinwheels were introduced about the same time as New Southwestern Cuisine appears to be a parallel gastronomic coincidence. The earliest recipes in Amerian print call for cream cheese, ham, Dijon mustard, and dill. A far cry from TexMex. Even more intriguing? The first recipe we found actually called for lahvosh (lavash), a traditional Armenian flatbread. About lavosh .
Were these sandwiches Armenian fare? It appears so! The pinwheel presentation, like the use of tortillas, appears to be an Armenian-American adapation.
"Eating food folded in lavash is an Armenian obsession. A wrap made by spreading a filling on lavash and rolling it tightly is called brdooch in the vernacular of an Armenian village. The most common filling for brdooch is salty cheese and herbs. Brdooch was a popular fast food and a basic meal for many generations of Armenian peasants and townsfolk...And the time came when the grandchildren of brdooch-loving Armenians landed in the United States. It's no big surprise that they turned brdooch into an American fast food. Armenian-American food entrepreneurs modified those original small lunches...giving them names like 'Hye Roll' (hye means Armenian), 'Hye Wraps,' and 'Aram Sandwich.' Just as the basis of Mexican food is the tortilla, the foundation of the Armenian brdoock and its modern variations is lavash. The authentic new way of eating a real brdooch is to make a long, pipe-like wrap, hold it with two hands and bite, starting from the top."
---Armenian Food: Fact, Fiction & Folklore, Irina Petrosian and David Underwood [Yerkir Publishing:Bloomington IN] 2006 (p. 30-31)
The first print evidence we find for making pinwheel sandwiches with tortillas is a recipe for "Ham and Cheese Lahvosh Rolls" makes no references to origin, ethnic tradition, "inventor" or company promotion.
"For a light lunch or substantial snack, ham and cheese lahvosh rolls are sure to satisfy any appetite. Crisp lettuce, cream herbed cheese, thinly sliced ham and crunch almonds are all wrapped up in tender, chewy lahvosh bread. Quickly assembled, these rolls stay fresh wrapped in foil in the refrigerator. They may be sliced thick or thin as your appetite commands. These pinwheel sandwiches have a nutritious side too. Ham and cheese both offer protien, and the almonds provide vitamin E, riboflavin , niacin, calcium, iron and dietary fiber...
"Ham 'n' Cheese Lahvosh Rolls
1 chop chopped almonds
2 (8-oz.) packages cream cheese, softened
2 tablespoons Dijon mustard
Thinly sliced, seeded, and drained tomato
Thinly sliced cucumber (use the tiny, almost seedless variety of available
Salt to taste
Fresh mint leaves Sprinkle the bread (lavash) with water to soften...When pliable, arrange the cheese slices in a straight line 4 inches from the bottom, leaving a 2- to 3-inch border on each side. Place the tomato slices and then the cucumber slices over the cheese. Sprinkle with salt on top and with mint leaves. Fold over the sides of the bread, then fold the bottom edge over the filling and roll up tightly like a jelly roll. Serve at once. Makes 1."
---The Cuisine of Armenia, Sonia Uvezian [Hippocrene Books:New York] 1974, 1998 (p. 100-101)
[NOTE: If sliced, this recipe would make a perfect Pinwheel Sandwich.]
The second article we found confirms the Armenian connection. Why were Americans using tortillas? The author suggests it was a matter of product availability:
"Get a rise out of the dinner crowd by serving some delicious, chewy flat bread with ethnic origins. Flat breads are among the most ancient form of baked bread, evoking images of our ancestors heating grainy gobs of dough on a hot rock. But with the invention of modern ovens, we can enjoy the same interesting textures without the trouble of striking flint or grinding our own flour. Pizza and tortillas are the most familiar flat breads to modern Americans...I tried my hand at making from scratch the Armenian or Lebanese-style of flat bread similar to a flour tortilla, only with a huge diameter. But to obtain the size required flipping the bread hand to hand, stretching it gradually much as skilled pizza-makers or strudel makers do, I didn't. Instead. I'd recommend staring with a large flour tortilla for the clever pinwheel sandwiches. Top a large, flexible tortilla with ham sliced paper-thin and leaf lettuce. Roll up tightly into a cylinder and then cut crosswise slices; serve with mustard and mayonnaise mixed together."
---"Chewy flatbreads have ethnic ties," Joyce Rosencrons [Scripps Howard News Service], Daily Intelligencer/Montgomery County Record [PA], August 26, 1987 9p. 19)
The following month, tortilla pinwheels were promoted as nutritious gourmet-on-the-go fare, without a culinary nod to Armenian cuisine.
"The recipes suggested here are terrific late-night study snacks, which are usually prepared with a minimum of fuss at the last minute or can be made ahead, frozen and popped into the microwave for enjoyment later...Quickly assembled pinwheel sandwiches, made with tortillas, almonds and Neufchatel cheese, make a great late-night study snack...
"Late-night Ham and Cheese Rolls
1 chop chopped onions
2 (8-ounce) packages Neufchatel cheese, softened
2 tablespoons Dijon mustard
1 teaspoon fresh dill weed
1 teaspoon dried basil leaves
1/2 cup sliced green onions
6 large flour tortillas
1 pound thinly sliced ham
8 red leaf lettuce leaves
Spread almonds in shallow pan or on baking sheet. Toast at 350 degrees 10 minutes, stirring once or twice until lightly browned. Cool. Blend cheese with mustard, garlic, dill, basil, almonds and green onions. Heat tortillas according to package directions. Spread cheese mixture on 1 side of tortillas, then top with ham and lettuce. Roll tightly, sealing edges. Roll in foil and chill until ready to use. Cut in long diagonal slices, placing cut-side down on serving plate. Makes 6 servings."
---"Nutri-Data," Toni Tipton, Los Angeles Times, September 17, 1987 (p. H34)
Although hot sandwich-type combinations of bread, cheese, meat, and condiments were known to ancient cooks, tuna fish sandwiches are generally considered a 20th century recipe. The canned tuna industry was launched in 1903 and food companies played an active role in promoting their products to the American public. Many companies authored cookbooks and recipe brochures to show housewives how to use their product. Tuna fit neatly into the sandwich market, where diced lobster, crab and salmon mixed with dressings were already in vogue.
Recipes for tuna sandwiches (mostly cold tuna salad) begin to show up regularly in American cookbooks published in the 1920s. These books also contain several recipes for toasted/broiled cheese and meat combinations, though none with tuna. The only hot fish sandwich recipes we find in the 1920s and 1930s are for sardines, without cheese. It is not until after World War II we begin to find recipes for toasted tuna and cheese combinations (either open or closed, broiled or sauteed). They were not called cheese melts but they would have produced a similar product. Consider:
1946: "Tuna Fish Sandwiches with Cheese," Joy of Cooking, Irma Rombauer (p. 30)
---broiled, open with tomatoes & grated cheese (no type specified)
1954: "Tuna buns," Start to Finish, Ann Batchelder (p. 70) [food editor of the Ladies Home Journal]
---baked, open on hamburger buns, cheddar cheese, gherkins
1972: "Tuna Cheesewiches & Broiled Tuna Burgers" Del Monte Kitchens Cook Book (p. M-3)
---baked, closed in foil-wrapped hamburger buns, swiss cheese & ketchup
---broiled, hamburger buns, cheddar cheese
So, when did the name "tuna melt" begin? Jean Anderson, food historian and cook book author, offers this explanation:
"Who came up with this broiled, cheese-topped open-face tuna salad sandwich? And when? The first recipe I could find for anything simliar appears in Ida Baily Allen's Best Loved Recipes of the American People (1973). "Tuna-Cheese Grilled Open Sandwich," she calls it. The catch here is that Ida Baily Allen died in 1973. Best Loved Recipes is clearly a compilation of recipes gathered throughout her long career, which began early in the twentieth century. There are no dates on any of the recipes, or for that matter, any historical notes. My good friend cook book author Sandy Gluck thinks Tuna Melt is a 60s or 70s creation and that the creator may have been a dormitory coed with a toaster-oven. Sandy says the first time she was asked to make a Tuna Melt was in the early 1980s when she was the chef at a restaurant in New York's Chelsea district. Tuna Melt recipes differ from cook to cook because tuna salad recipes, themselves, vary."
---The American Century Cookbook: The Most Popular Recipes of the 20th Century, Jean Anderson [Clarkson Potter:New York] 1997 (p. 344)
The earliest print references we find for "Tuna Melt" are ads publsihed by popular family restaurant chains circa 1975:
"Tuna Melt Banquet. Tuna Salad and American Cheese grilled in butter, served with french fries anda salad with your choice of dressing."---ad, International House of Pancakes (IHOP), Des Moines Register, Alrip 13, 1975 (p. 26)
"Tuna Melt. Tuna and Melted Cheese on Dark Rye Bread Served with French Fried Potatoes and Cole Slaw."---ad, Howard Johnson's restaurant, Los Angeles Times, September 18, 1975 (p. O24).
Western sandwiches
The classic Western Sandwich (aka Denver Sandwich ) is composed of scrambled eggs or egg omelet cooked with ham, onions, green peppers, salt and pepper. It is served hot on toast or rolls.
Americans did not invent the Western Sandwich. Combinations of eggs, meat and spices were enjoyed by ancient people, and evolved in many different cultures and cuisines. Our notes on the history of omelets & scrambled eggs . These recipes arrived on our shores with colonial settlers and immigrant cooks. 17th-19th century English and American cookbooks have plenty of ham and egg recipes which confirm the popularity of this particular combination. Eggs on Toast , Frizzled Ham and Eggs, and other popular recipes from Estelle Woods Wilcox's Buckeye Cookery, [Minneapolis] 1877.
Who came up with the idea?
There are three primary theories regarding the origin of this sandwich in the USA. All are plausible. One camp credits 19th century Chinese cooks working on the western railroads. Like chop suey , some traditional Chinese recipes adapted well to American ingredients. Another other camp attributes this sandwich to Anglo-American food culture. And then? There's Basque piperade .
While Chinese cookbooks offer several recipes centering on eggs (omelets, etc.), Egg Fu Yung appears to be a Chinese-American hybrid based on the non-Chinese ingredients. Modernized recipes (20th century forward) are plentiful; some include standard Chinese vegetables & meat/fish products.
"Other Chinese were cooks for the work gangs, and one of these, I am willing to believe, invented the sandwich that is called a "western" in the states east of the Mississippi and a "Denver" in most of the rest of the country. When a hungry cowboy asked for a sandwich between meals, the story goes, the Chinese cook prepared eggs foo yung by making the traditional Oriental omelet from meats and vegetables at had--in this case the green pepper that was grown by early Spanish in the West, along with onions and some chopped ham. Put between slices of bread, this hasty Chinese creation became the prototype of one of the most American of all sandwiches."
---American Food: The Gastronomic Story, Evan Jones, 2nd edition [Vintage:New York] 1981 (p. 166)
"Foo Yung Eggs, Foo Yung Daan. The Egg Foo Yung that is so popular in Chinese-American (as distinct from Chinese) restaurants deserves an honored place in your repertoire. This type of omelet, together with Chop Suey and Chow Mein, which were invented in America, serves to bridge the gulf between Western and Chinese tastes. In recent years, Egg Foo Yung has fallen in the esteem of those who have become knowledgeable about Chinese food, perhaps because of its past associations. However, any dish is only as good as the ingredients used and the skill of the cook. When properly made, I think this dish is delectable. Egg Foo Yung is not strictly a dish invented for the American taste by Chinese cooks. There was a great tradition from which it drew."
---Jim Lee's Chinese Cook Book, [Harper & Row:New York] 1968 (p. 98-9)
As is common with many popular foods, the recipe precedes the name. And! The recipe has more than one name.
"Western sandwich. The American Heritage Cookbook and Illustrated History of American Eating and Drinking (1964) fixed the origin of this sandwich in Westward Ho days when pioneer women masked the flavor of over-the-hill eggs by mixing them in plenty of onions. Of course those frontier women lacked some of the principal ingredients of the classic Western Sandwich--green and/or red bell peppers. Other food historians believe the sandwich may have originated with chuckwagon cooks, then been refined and embellished over the years. Whatever its origins, the Western Sandwich seems not to have made it into the pages of cookbooks--or onto the menus of restaurants--until well into the twentieth century. In the West, it's often called a "Denver."
---The American Century Cookbook: The Most Popular Recipes of the 20th Century, Jean Anderson [Clarkson Potter:New York] 1997 (p. 349)
"The Western Sandwich was invented by pioneers. It was common for eggs to get "high" after a long haul over hot trails. In order to salvage the eggs, and kill the bad flavor of them, pioneers women mixed eggs with onions and any other seasonings on hand.
1/4 pound ham or 4 slices bacon, diced
1 green pepper, chopped
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Capital of Kuwait
The Capital City of Kuwait (officially named State of Kuwait) is the city of Kuwait City. The population of Kuwait City in the year 2007 was 3,500,000.
Kuwait is an Arabic speaking constitutional monarchy on the coasts of the Persian Gulf ( The Indian Ocean.
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The several Kuwait cities are scattered across the six major governonates of the country. Kuwait City is the capital of Kuwait and the most important of all the cities in Kuwait.
It is the admistartive as well as the commercial capital of the country.
Re-building the infrastructure has become one of the major forays of all the Kuwait cities. Various tourist attractions located all over the cities of Kuwait attract a large number of tourists from across the globe thoughout the year.
The cities are also frequently visited by business travelers and industrialists due to the presence of one of the largest oil reservoir in the world.
Important Cities of Kuwait Some of the important cities of Kuwait include Ali al Salem, Safat Kuwait, Jahrah, Salmiya, Mina al Ahmadi, Al Wafrah, Al Jahrah and Kuwait City among which the later four are the largest cities of Kuwait. Kwait City, the capital of Kuwait is located at the heart of the country and is the main idustrial hub of Kuwait.
Al Wafrah is one of the important Kuwait cities, known for its historical involvement in the Persian Gulf War of 1991. It was reported that the U.S. Marine Expeditionary Force started attacking the Iraqi army through this route.
For further information on Kuwait Cities click on to the following links :
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People born on April 17th have which sign of the Zodiac? | April 17 Birthday Horoscope Personality | Sun Signs
April 17 Birthday Horoscope Personality
Mikki Donaldson Leave a comment
Birthday Meanings Of People Born On April 17th (Zodiac Sign Aries)
IF YOUR BIRTHDAY IS ON APRIL 17, you have a restless ambition that is confident more so than any other Arian. You also are equipped with more patience and self-control. You sound like a dream with your creative and innovative qualities.
The 17th April birthday personality will likely be a great leader who has a knack for finding prosperous opportunities. You have more good qualities but a few of your flaws are that you take yourself too seriously.
You can be too honest and you tend to overspend. Overall, Aries, those of you who are born on this day, are awfully caring and understanding individuals.
If today is your birth day, you need to learn how to laugh at yourselves more and stop being so serious all of the time. This Aries birthdate person usually bounces back quickly from difficulties. You are humble and responsible. On the other hand, this Aries can be prudent and critical of others.
The April 17th birthdate astrology predicts that because you are normally a sensitive person, you can get your feelings hurt easily. Then you slip into this funky mood as if nobody cares about you.
This couldn’t be farther from the truth and you know this, Aries. Brush that negative mood off your shoulders and be happy you’re alive. Life is too short to sulk it away.
The 17 April birthday characteristics show that you are typically cool and mild-mannered but underneath is a smoldering fire with the ability to blaze up at any time.
You probably think about sex many times throughout the day but fear rejection however. You prefer to take the lead in initiating any romantic interest. You are likely to take control so your lovers can go at their own pace.
The April 17 birthday personality believes that a courtship can be the stepping stone to really knowing someone before deciding to make any commitments. You should seek those who share your same unique qualities.
Trust is very important to you but you are very considerate of the needs of your partner. You even make the ultimate compromise if it means that your partner will be happy.
The April 17th birthday horoscope suggests that you should look for opportunities that can be financially beneficial to you and your families. Attaining a position that can pay you above and beyond the usual pay scale helps you climb the ladder of success at a quicker rate.
However, you look for those jobs that do not offer a challenge or any room for advancement. You are capable of many things if you would just take a risk. Those born on this zodiac birth date have good money management skills and resisting the urge to splurge.
You are likely to neglect your body needs. Some Arians take for granted that good health will always be theirs. You will make an appointment but then when the time comes, you cancel but never reschedule. You can be a fussy eater even with a big appetite.
This can pack on the pounds so Aries, you should exercise regularly. Yoga is a recommend choice for exercise and it has other features that do more than strengthen the muscles. It can be used as a relaxation technique that is good for relieving stress.
The 17 April birthdate meaning shows that your personality is greatly influenced by your body. When you are in good health, you are in a good mood. You are a very caring person who perhaps needs to pay more attention to life itself.
You don’t really have any great expectations or ambitions. Aries, you are born under the zodiac sign symbol the Ram. You have the ability to choose the life you want and make it happen. Inspite of everything, you are levelheaded and can come back from difficult situations quickly and easily.
This Day That Year – April 17th In History:
1629 – Commercial fishery first established
1758 – The first US black college graduate, Francis Williams, publishes his poetry
1920 – The NFL is formed (American Professional Football Association)
1937 – Elmer J Fudd, Petunia Pig and Daffy Duck all make their cartoon debut
Celebrities Born On 17 April:
Kimberly Elise, Jennifer Garner, Luke Mitchell, JP Morgan, Reginald Redman Noble, Roddy Piper, Lela Rochon, Tami Roman
April 17 Birth Sign: You Fall Under Star Sign Aries
April 17 Corresponding Rashi (Vedic Moon Sign): Mesh Rashi
April 17 Corresponding Chinese Zodiac Symbol: DRAGON
April 17 Birthdate Planet: Your ruling planet is Mars that stands for aggression, passion, ambition, honor and courage.
April 17 Birth Date Symbols: The Ram Is The Symbol For The Aries Zodiac Sign
April 17 Birthday Tarot Card: Your Birthdate Tarot Card is The Star. This card symbolizes hope, rebirth, positivity and aspirations.
April 17 Birth Day Love Compatibility:
You are most compatible with people born under Sun Sign Sagittarius: This match will be loving and absolutely in tandem with each other.
You are not compatible with people born under Sun Sign Cancer: This relationship can be full of differences.
April 17 Birthdate Numerology: Your Lucky numbers are:
Number 8 – This number signifies a Karmic connection between your inner self and your ambitions.
Number 3 – This number signifies creativity, love, sensitivity and imagination.
Lucky Colors For April 17th Birthday:
Red: This is the color of energy, power, motivation and accuracy.
Green: This is a colour that symbolizes practicality, sympathy, adaptability and loyalty.
Lucky Days For 17 April Birthdate:
Tuesday: The day ruled by the planet Mars symbolizes self-confidence, optimism and enthusiasm.
Saturday: This day is ruled by Saturn and signifies grounding and reality.
April 17 Birth Stone: Your gemstone is Diamond that is associated with making you fearless and overcoming mental ailments.
Ideal Zodiac Birthday Gift For People Born On The 17th Of April: An electric fire-place for the man and the latest gaming console for the woman.
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Which European capital city lies on the River Vistula? | Aries sun Sign | Romantic Compatibility and famous Arians.
Mostly compatible with Leo and Sagittarius.
Can be good with Taurus, Gemini, Aquarius and Pisces.
A 50-50 chance with Scorpio and Virgo.
Doubtful with Cancer, Libra, Capricorn and Aries.
Below is an in-depth analysis of the characteristics of those born under sun sign Aries.
The spring equinox, March 21, is the beginning of the new zodiacal year and Aries, the first sign, is therefore that of new beginnings. The young ram is adventurous, ambitious, impulsive, enthusiastic and full of energy. The Arian is a pioneer both in thought and action, very open to new ideas and a lover of freedom. They welcome challenges and will not be diverted from their purpose except by their own impatience, which will surface if they don't get quick results.
Aries subjects are courageous leaders with a genuine concern for those they command, being responsible people, it is rare that they will use their subordinates to obtain their own objectives as leaders, but occasionally it does happen. They do not make very good followers because they are too "take charge".
Those born under the sun sign Aries may be unwilling to obey or submit to directions for which they can see no reason, or with which they disagree. They are much concerned with self, both positively and negatively - self-reliant but also self centered (sometimes) and concerned with their own personal advancement and physical satisfaction. Their immense energy makes them aggressive and restless, argumentative occasionally, headstrong, quick tempered, easily offended and capable of holding grudges if they feel themselves affronted.
As the first sign in the zodiac, the Arian (as they are referred to), drive is to simply "get something started and lead the way". The Sun in this zodiac position gives the Aries will free rein to express itself. This could be in the form of some leadership role, or by forcing others to look at themselves in a new way. They can accomplish this by knowingly carrying out a deliberate act in the name of some cause that moves them. A negative effect of the sun sign Aries is sometimes unknowingly making it hard for others to relate to you, as you really are.
In your personal relationships Arians are frank, direct and candid, and make enthusiastic and generous friends. You are liable to have a high sex drive and make passionate but fastidious lovers. There is, however, a negative side to your associations with other people. You can easily be irritated by slowness or moderation in your companions and, though yourselves sensitive, ride roughshod over the sensitivities of others.
The intensity of sexual urges can drive Aries to promiscuity and a Don Juan-like counting of conquests of the opposite sex. It can also trick the subject into early unwise marriage which may end disastrously. Arians are highly devoted to their children, even to the point of laying down their own lives, so that they might live. You will not find a more defensive and loving parent in all the zodiac.
It is preferable to be aware of your pioneering spirit and not disregard it. For in acknowledging it you not only enjoy life more, but you avoid being pushed around by others. Your nature is usually push or be pushed, with little middle ground. This can at times be objectionable to others, but you must have the freedom to act, rather then just thinking about it, getting pent-up in the process. At all costs Aries need to avoid negative emotions such as resentment, regret and self-pity, for they would deny you what is essential to your nature: straightforwardness.
Mentally Arians are intellectual and objective, but can be in rare situations bigoted and extremist in religion and politics. They are good champions of lost causes and last-ditch resistance. They are quick-witted but sometimes foolhardy and over optimistic, lacking thoroughness and the ability to evaluate difficulties in the undertakings into which they often rush impulsively. The great need of Aries natives is to exercise an iron self-control, to discipline the qualities and tendencies of their character to the advantage, not the detriment, of the society in which they move.
As an Arian, you like a challenge that will stir you to action. This challenge may just be frustration; or at a more controlled level, you may have clear direction and know what or whom you're fighting for. If your direction is not clear, then ask yourself and listen to your inner voice. You will come up with an answer. An Arian without a direction in which to go, or a without a cause to fight for, would be against your nature and make you more a "sheep" than a ram!
Aries, do not be afraid to be forceful, for this is the very core of your nature. If you feel fear in your heart, then look for a history of negative events in you personal history, such as violence or abuse from others. Being fearful may also indicate a household in childhood that negated independence and personal initiative in you. This could have inhibited your natural urge to go forward into life as the leader and champion you were born to be. Conversely, such bad influences could also have led you to be overly forceful, or to be unsympathetic to your own need and sensitivity.
Those born under the sun sign Aries make good athletes and climbers, doctors, explorers (of new ideas as well as uncharted territory, the latter in these days including adventuring into outer space), soldiers, sailors and airmen, and leaders, though awkward subordinates, in industry and politics.
Much as you are the Ram, there is still the little lamb in you, which means that at times you would attain your goals more easily by gently giving in without resistance to the demands of a given social situation, rather than getting your horns entangled in something larger and more powerful than yourself. This is a talent akin to knowing the difference between what you can change, and what you cannot. This of course takes patience, the acquiring of which is definitely Aries' greatest achievement, along with a sense of your own inner softness.
Possible Health Concerns...
Aries governs the head and brain, and Arians are said to be prone to headaches, particularly migraines, sunstroke, neuralgia and depression. Indigestion and nervous disorders are also threats to you, and your rashness, impetuosity and wholesale physical commitment make you liable to accidents and physical injuries.
Arians like extremes. Physical, emotional and mental, and benefit profoundly by experiencing them; but if your extremism goes too far beyond social acceptability, then expect to be extremely lonely.
Traditional Aries Traits...
Adventurous and energetic, Pioneering and courageous, Enthusiastic and confident, Dynamic and quick-witted.
On the dark side of Aries....
Selfish and quick-tempered, Impulsive and impatient, Foolhardy and daredevil.
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PROBLEMS THAT MAY ARISE FOR THOSE BORN UNDER THE SUN SIGN ARIES, AND THEIR SOLUTIONS...
As with all sun signs, we all have unique traits to our personalities. When these traits are suppressed, or unrealized, problems will arise. However, with astrology we can examine the problem and assess the proper solution based on the sun sign characteristics. As an Arian you may see things below that really strike home. Try the solution, you most likely will be amazed at the results. If you find yourself on the receiving end of the negatives below, it is because you are failing to express the positive.
Problem: Projects that come to nothing. Partnerships full of conflict and argument.
Solution: See your role as the "person with ideas" then, work on inspiring others to carry them out. Develop a higher capacity to "listen" and not speak.
Problem: Lacking real coherence and direction. Failing to contemplate, only pretending to be decisive.
Solution: What springs from your actions is only a reflection of your heart. Soul search and resolve some personal issues you may have buried.
Problem: Always tripping over yourself, inviting conflict and harsh treatment. Getting deflated.
Solution: Learn the art of looking before you leap. Which means first finding out what it is you wish to make happen first, then act.
The Ruling Planet of Aries Is Mars...
Mean distance from the Sun (AU) 1.524
Sidereal period of orbit (years) 1.88
Equatorial radius (km) 3,397
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‘Balls of ‘what’ is a UK television comedy series hosted by Mark Dolan? | Mark Dolan - Comedy & Cabaret - Speakers Corner
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Mark Dolan Biography
Mark Dolan is a comedian , writer and broadcaster, best known for his Channel 4 documentary series which featured the world’s smallest, tallest and hairiest people, as well as the fattest pet! He is a charming, intelligent and highly professional comedian and awards host .
Mark’s Channel 4 show The World's... and Me was a critical and ratings success with a second and third series in various points of production. Also known for hosting the hugely popular Channel 4 comedy show Balls of Steel, Mark made his name in the 2002 hidden camera series, The Richard Taylor Interviews, in which he gave job applicants horrendous interviews.
He appeared on Sky One's movie review show Popcorn, and is currently presenting a new panel show for Channel 4, the Mad Bad Ad Show, alongside fellow comedians Micky Flanagan and Mark Watson. Mark was also the face of Sky's flagship movie show 35mm...
Mark Dolan is a comedian , writer and broadcaster, best known for his Channel 4 documentary series which featured the world’s smallest, tallest and hairiest people, as well as the fattest pet! He is a charming, intelligent and highly professional comedian and awards host .
Mark’s Channel 4 show The World's... and Me was a critical and ratings success with a second and third series in various points of production. Also known for hosting the hugely popular Channel 4 comedy show Balls of Steel, Mark made his name in the 2002 hidden camera series, The Richard Taylor Interviews, in which he gave job applicants horrendous interviews.
He appeared on Sky One's movie review show Popcorn, and is currently presenting a new panel show for Channel 4, the Mad Bad Ad Show, alongside fellow comedians Micky Flanagan and Mark Watson. Mark was also the face of Sky's flagship movie show 35mm for four years.
Mark's run at the 2007 Edinburgh Fringe Festival was highly successful and critically acclaimed. His one man show, 'I'm Here to Help' is a hilarious combination of stand up and chat. Mark's natural charm and wit created one of the festival's biggest hits.
In 2006, Mark helped launch More 4 as the host of The Last Word, a late night topical discussion show in which he grilled the great and the good on the day's big stories. Mark has also fronted shows for E4, including its launch comedy series Show Me The Funny, and hosted a spooky series for Channel Five, controversially entitled Urban Legends.
Mark’s life as a stand−up comedian began in 2000, when he reached the final of Channel 4's So You Think You're Funny Competition. Mark continues to delight audiences across the land with his specky charm, and has a Saturday night residency at Soho's Amused Moose Comedy Club.
With a background in radio, Mark has stayed close to the medium in which his career began. Alongside the aforementioned C4 radio show, Mark is a regular presenter on LBC radio and BBC London, as well as being a panellist on a wide variety of Radio 4 comedy shows.
For further information or to book Mark Dolan, call us on +44 (0)20 7607 7070 or email [email protected]
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As a host, I do everything in my power to ‘own’ the evening. I invest a lot of time prior…
Great personality and humor. A unique character for stage performance. I was really happy to with him and his own way how to implement his
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Mark Dolan is a comedian, TV presenter and writer, best known for his Channel 4 documentary series 'The World's...and Me', which featured the world's smallest, tallest and hairiest people, as well as the fattest pet! The show was a critical and ratings success with three series, the latest of which was transmitted in 2010.
Mark's debut book, inspired by the hit series, 'The World's Most Extraordinary People ...and Me' was published in 2010 by Harper Collins.
Mark hosted all three series of the raucous Channel 4 hit comedy show 'Balls of Steel' from 2005 to 2008. In 2007 he hosted 'Urban Legends' a spooky series for Channel Five.
Mark currently indulges his passion for film, as the writer and presenter of Sky's flagship movie show 35mm, in which he reviews the latest cinema releases and interviews the stars behind and in front of the camera. He has hosted 35mm since 2008. He is also a guest contributor on LBC's Breakfast Show.
Mark is one of the UK comedy circuit's most in demand MCs, with a Saturday night residency at Soho's leading comedy venue The Amused Moose. Following a successful run in 2007 of his Edinburgh Festival one man show 'I'm Here to Help!', in which he helped solve the audience's problems, Mark took a new show to the 2011 Fringe Festival entitled 'Sharing Too Much'.
As a live MC, Mark delights audiences with a mix of topical humour, warm audience interaction and an unrivalled, polished delivery.
As a broadcaster, Mark launched both E4 and More 4 respectively as host of both the comedy show 'Show Me The Funny' on E4, and 'The Last Word', the topical late night talk show on More 4. His breakthrough came as star of 'The Richard Taylor Interviews' - the hidden camera job interview show for C4.
Mark is a highly versatile live presenter and compere, having hosted the launch party of the Edinburgh Festival in front of an audience of 2000, presiding over the glittering Filmon.com launch in Central London, and exclusively hosting the Dark Knight Premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square for Warner Bros. He also hosted the 1st Annual Freelancer of the Year Awards, the Financial Times PIPA Awards, and the 4th Annual Conch Awards (sponsored by Pinewood Studios). In addition, Mark has chaired the Sky Movies Debate: Which is The Best Batman Movie?, acted as host and question master at Sky Media's Pub Movie Quiz, and hosted the World Photography Awards in Cannes...to name but a few!
Mark's is a charming, quirky, intelligent and highly witty host, bringing a wealth of experience and professionalism to any event.
Mark Dolan was a dream to work with, absolutely fantastic from start to finish. From the minute he arrived to the very end Mark fully embraced the event with his charm and professional wisdom. On stage Mark captured the Pimm's theme perfectly with a seamless and effortless comic flow throughout which extended off stage with his constant personal interaction embracing the entire occasion including all the guests, staff and crew. Pimms My Summer Party campaign winner's event 2011
Mark did a fantastic job - he was a great host and remained in control of the debate throughout, managing each speaker's allotted time and engaging with the audience when the debate was opened to the floor. He had obviously spent time preparing for the debate and this, coupled with his extensive film knowledge, made him the perfect host for this event. The crowd response to him was really great too everyone we spoke to in the audience loved him and found him very funny! Sky Movies Batman debate
Just wanted to pass on our thanks to Mark for Thursday, he was absolutely brilliant we couldn't have asked for any better, just what we wanted. It was a great evening, big success, so thank you both for helping us bring it together. Freelancer of the Year Awards
Comedian, TV presenter and writer, Mark is best known for his Channel 4 series 'The World’s...and Me. A popular broadcaster, host and MC, he's presented shows on E4, More 4 and hosted many corporate Awards.
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Who was US President during the Cuban Missile Crisis? | Cuban Missile Crisis - Cold War - HISTORY.com
Cuban Missile Crisis
A+E Networks
Introduction
During the Cuban Missile Crisis, leaders of the U.S. and the Soviet Union engaged in a tense, 13-day political and military standoff in October 1962 over the installation of nuclear-armed Soviet missiles on Cuba, just 90 miles from U.S. shores. In a TV address on October 22, 1962, President John Kennedy (1917-63) notified Americans about the presence of the missiles, explained his decision to enact a naval blockade around Cuba and made it clear the U.S. was prepared to use military force if necessary to neutralize this perceived threat to national security. Following this news, many people feared the world was on the brink of nuclear war. However, disaster was avoided when the U.S. agreed to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev’s (1894-1971) offer to remove the Cuban missiles in exchange for the U.S. promising not to invade Cuba. Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey.
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Discovering the Missiles
After seizing power in the Caribbean island nation of Cuba in 1959, leftist revolutionary leader Fidel Castro (1926-) aligned himself with the Soviet Union. Under Castro, Cuba grew dependent on the Soviets for military and economic aid. During this time, the U.S. and the Soviets (and their respective allies) were engaged in the Cold War (1945-91), an ongoing series of largely political and economic clashes.
Did You Know?
The actor Kevin Costner (1955-) starred in a movie about the Cuban Missile Crisis titled "Thirteen Days." Released in 2000, the movie's tagline was "You'll never believe how close we came."
The two superpowers plunged into one of their biggest Cold War confrontations after the pilot of an American U-2 spy plane making a high-altitude pass over Cuba on October 14, 1962, photographed a Soviet SS-4 medium-range ballistic missile being assembled for installation.
President Kennedy was briefed about the situation on October 16, and he immediately called together a group of advisors and officials known as the executive committee, or ExCom. For nearly the next two weeks, the president and his team wrestled with a diplomatic crisis of epic proportions, as did their counterparts in the Soviet Union.
A New Threat to the U.S.
For the American officials, the urgency of the situation stemmed from the fact that the nuclear-armed Cuban missiles were being installed so close to the U.S. mainland–just 90 miles south of Florida . From that launch point, they were capable of quickly reaching targets in the eastern U.S. If allowed to become operational, the missiles would fundamentally alter the complexion of the nuclear rivalry between the U.S. and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which up to that point had been dominated by the Americans.
Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev had gambled on sending the missiles to Cuba with the specific goal of increasing his nation’s nuclear strike capability. The Soviets had long felt uneasy about the number of nuclear weapons that were targeted at them from sites in Western Europe and Turkey, and they saw the deployment of missiles in Cuba as a way to level the playing field. Another key factor in the Soviet missile scheme was the hostile relationship between the U.S. and Cuba. The Kennedy administration had already launched one attack on the island–the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961–and Castro and Khrushchev saw the missiles as a means of deterring further U.S. aggression.
Weighing the Options
From the outset of the crisis, Kennedy and ExCom determined that the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba was unacceptable. The challenge facing them was to orchestrate their removal without initiating a wider conflict–and possibly a nuclear war. In deliberations that stretched on for nearly a week, they came up with a variety of options, including a bombing attack on the missile sites and a full-scale invasion of Cuba. But Kennedy ultimately decided on a more measured approach. First, he would employ the U.S. Navy to establish a blockade, or quarantine, of the island to prevent the Soviets from delivering additional missiles and military equipment. Second, he would deliver an ultimatum that the existing missiles be removed.
In a television broadcast on October 22, 1962, the president notified Americans about the presence of the missiles, explained his decision to enact the blockade and made it clear that the U.S. was prepared to use military force if necessary to neutralize this perceived threat to national security. Following this public declaration, people around the globe nervously waited for the Soviet response. Some Americans, fearing their country was on the brink of nuclear war, hoarded food and gas.
Showdown at Sea
A crucial moment in the unfolding crisis arrived on October 24, when Soviet ships bound for Cuba neared the line of U.S. vessels enforcing the blockade. An attempt by the Soviets to breach the blockade would likely have sparked a military confrontation that could have quickly escalated to a nuclear exchange. But the Soviet ships stopped short of the blockade.
Although the events at sea offered a positive sign that war could be averted, they did nothing to address the problem of the missiles already in Cuba. The tense standoff between the superpowers continued through the week, and on October 27, an American reconnaissance plane was shot down over Cuba, and a U.S. invasion force was readied in Florida. (The 35-year-old pilot of the downed plane, Major Rudolf Anderson, is considered the sole U.S. combat casualty of the Cuban missile crisis.) “I thought it was the last Saturday I would ever see,” recalled U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara (1916-2009), as quoted by Martin Walker in “The Cold War.” A similar sense of doom was felt by other key players on both sides.
A Deal Ends the Standoff
Despite the enormous tension, Soviet and American leaders found a way out of the impasse. During the crisis, the Americans and Soviets had exchanged letters and other communications, and on October 26, Khrushchev sent a message to Kennedy in which he offered to remove the Cuban missiles in exchange for a promise by U.S. leaders not to invade Cuba. The following day, the Soviet leader sent a letter proposing that the USSR would dismantle its missiles in Cuba if the Americans removed their missile installations in Turkey.
Officially, the Kennedy administration decided to accept the terms of the first message and ignore the second Khrushchev letter entirely. Privately, however, American officials also agreed to withdraw their nation’s missiles from Turkey. U.S. Attorney General Robert Kennedy (1925-68) personally delivered the message to the Soviet ambassador in Washington , and on October 28, the crisis drew to a close.
Both the Americans and Soviets were sobered by the Cuban Missile Crisis. The following year, a direct “hot line” communication link was installed between Washington and Moscow to help defuse similar situations, and the superpowers signed two treaties related to nuclear weapons. The Cold War was far from over, though. In fact, another legacy of the crisis was that it convinced the Soviets to increase their investment in an arsenal of intercontinental ballistic missiles capable of reaching the U.S. from Soviet territory.
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| John F. Kennedy |
A titi is what type of animal? | Cuban Missile Crisis - Oct 22, 1962 - HISTORY.com
Cuban Missile Crisis
Publisher
A+E Networks
In a televised speech of extraordinary gravity, President John F. Kennedy announces that U.S. spy planes have discovered Soviet missile bases in Cuba. These missile sites—under construction but nearing completion—housed medium-range missiles capable of striking a number of major cities in the United States, including Washington , D.C. Kennedy announced that he was ordering a naval “quarantine” of Cuba to prevent Soviet ships from transporting any more offensive weapons to the island and explained that the United States would not tolerate the existence of the missile sites currently in place. The president made it clear that America would not stop short of military action to end what he called a “clandestine, reckless, and provocative threat to world peace.”
What is known as the Cuban Missile Crisis actually began on October 15, 1962—the day that U.S. intelligence personnel analyzing U-2 spy plane data discovered that the Soviets were building medium-range missile sites in Cuba. The next day, President Kennedy secretly convened an emergency meeting of his senior military, political, and diplomatic advisers to discuss the ominous development. The group became known as ExCom, short for Executive Committee. After rejecting a surgical air strike against the missile sites, ExCom decided on a naval quarantine and a demand that the bases be dismantled and missiles removed. On the night of October 22, Kennedy went on national television to announce his decision. During the next six days, the crisis escalated to a breaking point as the world tottered on the brink of nuclear war between the two superpowers.
On October 23, the quarantine of Cuba began, but Kennedy decided to give Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev more time to consider the U.S. action by pulling the quarantine line back 500 miles. By October 24, Soviet ships en route to Cuba capable of carrying military cargoes appeared to have slowed down, altered, or reversed their course as they approached the quarantine, with the exception of one ship—the tanker Bucharest. At the request of more than 40 nonaligned nations, U.N. Secretary-General U Thant sent private appeals to Kennedy and Khrushchev, urging that their governments “refrain from any action that may aggravate the situation and bring with it the risk of war.” At the direction of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. military forces went to DEFCON 2, the highest military alert ever reached in the postwar era, as military commanders prepared for full-scale war with the Soviet Union.
On October 25, the aircraft carrier USS Essex and the destroyer USS Gearing attempted to intercept the Soviet tanker Bucharest as it crossed over the U.S. quarantine of Cuba. The Soviet ship failed to cooperate, but the U.S. Navy restrained itself from forcibly seizing the ship, deeming it unlikely that the tanker was carrying offensive weapons. On October 26, Kennedy learned that work on the missile bases was proceeding without interruption, and ExCom considered authorizing a U.S. invasion of Cuba. The same day, the Soviets transmitted a proposal for ending the crisis: The missile bases would be removed in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba.
The next day, however, Khrushchev upped the ante by publicly calling for the dismantling of U.S. missile bases in Turkey under pressure from Soviet military commanders. While Kennedy and his crisis advisers debated this dangerous turn in negotiations, a U-2 spy plane was shot down over Cuba, and its pilot, Major Rudolf Anderson, was killed. To the dismay of the Pentagon , Kennedy forbid a military retaliation unless any more surveillance planes were fired upon over Cuba. To defuse the worsening crisis, Kennedy and his advisers agreed to dismantle the U.S. missile sites in Turkey but at a later date, in order to prevent the protest of Turkey, a key NATO member.
On October 28, Khrushchev announced his government’s intent to dismantle and remove all offensive Soviet weapons in Cuba. With the airing of the public message on Radio Moscow, the USSR confirmed its willingness to proceed with the solution secretly proposed by the Americans the day before. In the afternoon, Soviet technicians began dismantling the missile sites, and the world stepped back from the brink of nuclear war. The Cuban Missile Crisis was effectively over. In November, Kennedy called off the blockade, and by the end of the year all the offensive missiles had left Cuba. Soon after, the United States quietly removed its missiles from Turkey.
The Cuban Missile Crisis seemed at the time a clear victory for the United States, but Cuba emerged from the episode with a much greater sense of security.The removal of antiquated Jupiter missiles from Turkey had no detrimental effect on U.S. nuclear strategy, but the Cuban Missile Crisis convinced a humiliated USSR to commence a massive nuclear buildup. In the 1970s, the Soviet Union reached nuclear parity with the United States and built intercontinental ballistic missiles capable of striking any city in the United States.
A succession of U.S. administrations honored Kennedy’s pledge not to invade Cuba, and relations with the communist island nation situated just 80 miles from Florida remained a thorn in the side of U.S. foreign policy for more than 50 years. In 2015, officials from both nations announced the formal normalization of relations between the U.S and Cuba, which included the easing of travel restrictions and the opening of embassies and diplomatic missions in both countries.
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Pieter, Griet, Maria Thins and Cornelia Vermeer are all characters in which 2008 play? | Girl With A Pearl Earring: Maria Thins
Girl With A Pearl Earring
This Blog is for the Year 10 students studying The Girl With The Pearl Earring. Students are to write a post on one of the characters within the text (50 words minimum) detailing one section of the text (page number must be included) that improved their understanding of the character and why. In addition to this post students must also write an additional comment for any two posts, discussing whether they agree/disagree/don't understand the other person's post and why (minimum of 25 words).
| Girl with a Pearl Earring |
A ‘classical’ guitar is popularly referred to as what nationality? | Girl With A Pearl Earring Characters | Cast List of Characters From Girl With A Pearl Earring
List of Girl With A Pearl Earring Characters
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List of Girl with a Pearl Earring characters, with pictures when available. These characters from the movie Girl with a Pearl Earring are ordered by their prominence in the film, so the most recognizable roles are at the top of the list. From main characters to cameos and minor roles, these characters are a huge part of what made the movie so great. The names of the actors who played each character are listed below as well, so use this Girl with a Pearl Earring character list to find out who portrayed your favorite role.
This list includes Griet's Father, Griet's Mother and more items.
If you're wondering, "What are the character's names in Girl with a Pearl Earring?" then this list will have what you're looking for.
You can sort this list of Girl with a Pearl Earring roles alphabetically by clicking on "Name" at the top of the list. If one of your favorite characters is missing, then feel free to add them by typing in their name at the bottom of the list.
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Johannes Vermeer Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Pieter Van Ruijven Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Griet's Father Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Griet's Mother Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Tanneke Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Cornelia Vermeer Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Catharina Bolnes Vermeer Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Maria Thins Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Griet Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Pieter Girl with a Pearl Earring
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Who sang with James Taylor on hits Mockingbird and How Sweet It Is? | James Taylor | New Music And Songs |
James Taylor
About James Taylor
When people use the term "singer/songwriter" (often modified by the word "sensitive") in praise or in criticism, they're thinking of James Taylor. In the early '70s, when he appeared with his introspective songs, acoustic guitar, and calm, understated singing style, he mirrored a generation's emotional exhaustion after tumultuous times. Just as Bing Crosby's reassuring voice brought the country out of the Depression and through World War II, Taylor's eased the transition from '60s activism and its attendant frustrations into the less political, more inward-looking '70s. He was rewarded with a series of hit albums and singles (surprisingly, many of the latter were covers of old songs rather than his own compositions), and he managed to survive his initial fame to achieve lasting popularity. He continued to tour successfully for decades, and, starting with his 1970 breakthrough Sweet Baby James, all but one of his regular album releases for the rest of the century went gold or platinum, while his 1976 Greatest Hits album achieved a diamond certification reflecting sales of more than ten million copies.
Taylor was the son of Dr. Isaac and Gertrude Taylor. His three brothers Alex (1947-1993), Livingston, and Hugh -- and his sister Kate -- all became musicians and recorded albums of their own. In 1951, Dr. Taylor was appointed dean of the medical school at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and the family moved from New England to the South. Taylor studied cello as a child, but first took up the guitar in 1960. In 1963, he began attending Milton Academy, a prep school in Massachusetts. That summer, he met fellow guitarist Danny "Kootch" Kortchmar while staying on Martha's Vineyard, and the two formed a folk duo. Taylor dropped out of school at 16 and formed a band with his brother Alex. Having moved to New York, he suffered from depression and checked himself into McLean Psychiatric Hospital in Massachusetts, a stay that would inspire some of his early songs. While there, he earned a high-school diploma. Upon release, he returned to New York in 1966 and formed a new group, the Flying Machine, with Kortchmar and Joel O'Brien. The band played in Greenwich Village and was signed to a fledgling record label, Rainy Day Records (the name taken from Taylor's song "Rainy Day Man"). It released one single, "Brighten Your Night with My Day"/"Night Owl," both songs written by Taylor. The record was unsuccessful, and the band broke up in the spring of 1967.
By 1968, Taylor had become addicted to heroin. In an attempt to overcome his addiction, he moved to London, where he submitted a demo tape to Peter Asher, former member of Peter & Gordon, then working for the Beatles' Apple Records label. As a result, Taylor was signed to Apple and recorded his debut solo album, James Taylor, released in the U.K. in December 1968 and in the U.S. in February 1969. Initially, it received little attention. A more pressing concern, however, was that Taylor had not been able to kick heroin. As a result, he returned to the U.S. and checked into the Austin Riggs Hospital in Massachusetts. By July 1969, he had recovered sufficiently to make his solo debut at the Troubadour nightclub in Los Angeles, but soon after he was in a motorcycle accident and broke both of his hands, which put him out of commission for several months.
Freed of his Apple Records contract, Taylor signed to Warner Bros., moved to California, and, retaining Asher as his manager and producer, recorded his second album, Sweet Baby James. It was released in February 1970 and became a major success during the course of the year, spurred by the single "Fire and Rain," a song that reflected on his experiences in mental institutions, which peaked in the Top Five in October, the same month that Sweet Baby James achieved the same status on the LP charts. With that, interest in Taylor's first album was re-stimulated, and it belatedly reached the charts along with the single "Carolina on My Mind," as did James Taylor & the Original Flying Machine: 1967, a short collection of unfinished recordings made by his '60s band. Sweet Baby James then spawned a second hit single, "Country Road," which peaked in the Top 40 in March 1971. The same month, Taylor appeared on the cover of Time magazine, touted as the founder and leading proponent of the "singer/songwriter" trend in popular music.
Meanwhile, Taylor acted in a feature film, Two-Lane Blacktop, co-starring with the Beach Boys' Dennis Wilson. It was not successful, and Taylor didn't pursue an acting career, though the movie has been well-reviewed since then. Taylor also worked on a new album, returning to record stores in April 1971 with Mud Slide Slim & the Blue Horizon. As he toured the U.S., the LP spent the summer in the Top Ten, eventually peaking just below the top of the charts, paced by its first single, "You've Got a Friend," written by Carole King, which hit number one in July and went gold. A second single, "Long Ago and Far Away," reached the Top 40, and the album eventually sold more than two million copies. On March 14, 1972, Taylor won the 1971 Grammy for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male, for "You've Got a Friend."
Taylor took what was then considered a long time -- more than a year and a half -- to come up with his next album, One Man Dog, released in November 1972. On November 3, 1972, during an appearance at Radio City Music Hall in New York, he announced to the crowd that he had married singer/songwriter Carly Simon earlier in the day. Simon was already well-known for the hits "That's the Way I've Always Heard It Should Be" and "Anticipation," and would soon top the charts with "You're So Vain." One Man Dog marked a fall-off in Taylor's record sales, though it went gold, reached the Top Five, and spawned a Top 20 single in "Don't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight."
Taylor was next heard from in January 1974, when he sang a duet with his wife, "Mockingbird," a cover of the 1963 hit by Inez & Charlie Foxx, on her Hotcakes album. Released as a single, the recording reached the Top Five and went gold. That spring, Taylor launched a major tour in anticipation of his next album, Walking Man, released in June. Though it reached the Top 20, the album was a commercial disappointment, failing to go gold or produce a chart single. But Taylor bounced back the following year with the May release of Gorilla. Again, he succeeded by reviving an old hit, this time Marvin Gaye's 1964 song "How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)," which reached the Top Five, helping the album become a Top Ten, gold-selling hit.
In the Pocket, Taylor's seventh album, was his third annual warm-weather release, appearing in June 1976. Its single was the singer's own "Shower the People," which reached the Top 40, while the album made the Top 20 and went gold. Nearing the end of his Warner Bros. contract, Taylor re-recorded a couple of his Apple songs for his Greatest Hits LP, released in November. It became a perennial seller. With that, in a major coup, he was signed by Columbia. His debut for the label, JT, was released in June 1977. Once again, a revival spurred its sales, as Taylor covered Jimmy James' 1959 song "Handy Man" and took it into the Top Five, followed by a Top 20 showing for his own "Your Smiling Face." With such stimulation, JT reached the Top Five and sold over two million copies. On February 23, 1978, Taylor picked up a second Grammy for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male, for "Handy Man."
Along with Paul Simon, Taylor was a featured singer on Art Garfunkel's cover of "(What A) Wonderful World," previously a hit for Sam Cooke and Herman's Hermits, which peaked in the Top 20 in March 1978. Taylor next became involved with the Broadway musical Working, based on Studs Terkel's bestseller, writing three songs for it. The show ran a scant 25 performances after opening on May 14, 1978, but Taylor reclaimed "Millworker" and "Brother Trucker" for his next album. Meanwhile, his duet with Carly Simon on a revival of the Everly Brothers' "Devoted to You" peaked in the Top 40 in September.
Flag, marking a nearly two-year break between albums, appeared in April 1979, its Top 40 hit single being a revival of the 1963 Drifters hit "Up on the Roof." Despite the lack of a really big hit single, the LP reached the Top Ten and went platinum. That September, Taylor performed at Madison Square Garden in the No Nukes concerts, later being featured in the No Nukes triple LP and in the No Nukes concert film.
Taylor embarked on a national tour in the summer of 1980, despite not having a current album to promote. From here on, recurrent touring became a regular part of his career and contributed to his longevity as an artist. That fall, he appeared on the children's album In Harmony 2, singing "Jelly Man Kelly." The album won the 1981 Grammy for Best Recording for Children. He toured extensively during 1981, releasing Dad Loves His Work in February. The album reached the Top Ten and went gold, spurred by the Top Ten success of the single "Her Town Too," written by Taylor, J.D. Souther, and Waddy Wachtel, Taylor's most successful original composition since "Fire and Rain."
Taylor continued to tour frequently in the early '80s, a period when his marriage to Carly Simon came to an end (they were divorced in 1983). Often, his performances took place overseas. In January 1985, he performed at the Rock in Rio concert in Brazil, a show that resulted in the Brazil-only release Live in Rio. His next studio album, following a gap of more than four years, was That's Why I'm Here, released in October 1985. As usual, his record label issued a cover song as the single; in this case it was Buddy Holly's "Everyday," which didn't get very far up the charts. Nevertheless, Taylor's long career and constant touring had brought him a permanent audience ready to buy his records, and the album eventually went platinum. On December 14, 1985, he married for the second time, to Kathryn Walker; a month later, he was on tour in Australia.
Road work continued to be Taylor's primary occupation in the mid-'80s, but he came off tour long enough to finish another album, Never Die Young, only a little more than two years after That's Why I'm Here, released in January 1988. The title song, issued as a single, barely reached the charts, but Never Die Young was another million-seller. The late '80s and early '90s saw more extensive worldwide touring. New Moon Shine, Taylor's 13th regular album release, came in October 1991, the same month that he sold out six consecutive shows at the Paramount Theater in New York; the disc stayed in the charts nearly a year and sold a million copies.
Despite his consistent draw as a concert attraction, Taylor had never released a live album in the U.S. until the August 1993 appearance of Live, a two-CD set that went platinum within months. Columbia, which had never had a Taylor compilation to promote, trimmed the album down to a single disc of hits for the 1994 release (Best Live). Taylor was divorced from his second wife in 1996. His next album, Hourglass, released in May 1997, demonstrated his continuing appeal by entering the charts in the Top Ten. On February 25, 1998, it won the 1997 Grammy for Best Pop Album. In October the same year, Columbia issued the DVD Live at the Beacon Theatre while Billboard magazine was honoring Taylor with their highest accolade, the Century Award.
By 2000, Taylor's first Greatest Hits collection had sold over ten million copies, earning him the RIAA's Diamond Award. Taylor was also inducted into both the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame and the Songwriter's Hall of Fame in 2000, and at the end of the year, Columbia issued Greatest Hits, Vol. 2, covering the years 1977-1997. Fans who had waited five years for new material were awarded with October Road in 2002, an album that earned two Grammy nominations and eventually went platinum. A year later, The Best of James Taylor became the first compilation to cover material from his years with Apple, Warner Bros., and Columbia. In 2004, he appeared on the television show The West Wing, released Christmas Album, and sang the national anthem before game two of the World Series. Two years later, Taylor released James Taylor at Christmas and made an appearance on the soundtrack for the Pixar film Cars. In 2007, the CD/DVD One Man Band was released on the Hear Music label. An album featuring a dozen cover versions of various songs, simply and appropriately called Covers, followed a year later in 2008, also from Hear Music. A sequel, Other Covers, appeared in 2009.
Following a highly successful dual tour with Carole King, Taylor and King released a concert CD/DVD set called Live at the Troubadour in 2010. Never one to shy away from his political views, Taylor was active during Barack Obama's 2012 re-election campaign, performing at both the Democratic National Convention and then in January 2013 at the president's second inauguration. In April of 2015, Taylor debuted the single "Today, Today, Today" in advance of a new album called Before This World. Featuring guest spots from Sting and Yo-Yo Ma, Before This World was Taylor's first album of new material since 2002's October Road and there was a pent-up demand for the record: upon its June 16 release, it entered the Billboard 200 at number one, becoming his first-ever chart-topping LP. ~ William Ruhlmann, Rovi
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At which ‘Field’ was Richard III’s final battle? | James Taylor — Listen for free on Spotify
James Taylor
Play on Spotify
When people use the term "singer/songwriter" (often modified by the word "sensitive") in praise or in criticism, they're thinking of James Taylor.
In the early '70s, when he appeared with his introspective songs, acoustic guitar, and calm, understated singing style, he mirrored a generation's emotional exhaustion after tumultuous times. Just as Bing Crosby 's reassuring voice brought the country out of the Depression and through World War II, Taylor's eased the transition from '60s activism and its attendant frustrations into the less political, more inward-looking '70s. He was rewarded with a series of hit albums and singles (surprisingly, many of the latter were covers of old songs rather than his own compositions), and he managed to survive his initial fame to achieve lasting popularity. He continued to tour successfully for decades, and, starting with his 1970 breakthrough Sweet Baby James, all but one of his regular album releases for the rest of the century went gold or platinum, while his 1976 Greatest Hits album achieved a diamond certification reflecting sales of more than ten million copies.
Taylor was the son of Dr. Isaac and Gertrude Taylor. His three brothers Alex (1947-1993), Livingston , and Hugh -- and his sister Kate -- all became musicians and recorded albums of their own. In 1951, Dr. Taylor was appointed dean of the medical school at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and the family moved from New England to the South. Taylor studied cello as a child, but first took up the guitar in 1960. In 1963, he began attending Milton Academy, a prep school in Massachusetts. That summer, he met fellow guitarist Danny "Kootch" Kortchmar while staying on Martha's Vineyard, and the two formed a folk duo. Taylor dropped out of school at 16 and formed a band with his brother Alex . Having moved to New York, he suffered from depression and checked himself into McLean Psychiatric Hospital in Massachusetts, a stay that would inspire some of his early songs. While there, he earned a high-school diploma. Upon release, he returned to New York in 1966 and formed a new group, the Flying Machine , with Kortchmar and Joel O'Brien. The band played in Greenwich Village and was signed to a fledgling record label, Rainy Day Records (the name taken from Taylor's song "Rainy Day Man"). It released one single, "Brighten Your Night with My Day"/"Night Owl," both songs written by Taylor. The record was unsuccessful, and the band broke up in the spring of 1967.
By 1968, Taylor had become addicted to heroin. In an attempt to overcome his addiction, he moved to London, where he submitted a demo tape to Peter Asher, former member of Peter & Gordon , then working for the Beatles ' Apple Records label. As a result, Taylor was signed to Apple and recorded his debut solo album, James Taylor, released in the U.K. in December 1968 and in the U.S. in February 1969. Initially, it received little attention. A more pressing concern, however, was that Taylor had not been able to kick heroin. As a result, he returned to the U.S. and checked into the Austin Riggs Hospital in Massachusetts. By July 1969, he had recovered sufficiently to make his solo debut at the Troubadour nightclub in Los Angeles, but soon after he was in a motorcycle accident and broke both of his hands, which put him out of commission for several months.
Freed of his Apple Records contract, Taylor signed to Warner Bros., moved to California, and, retaining Asher as his manager and producer, recorded his second album, Sweet Baby James. It was released in February 1970 and became a major success during the course of the year, spurred by the single "Fire and Rain," a song that reflected on his experiences in mental institutions, which peaked in the Top Five in October, the same month that Sweet Baby James achieved the same status on the LP charts. With that, interest in Taylor's first album was re-stimulated, and it belatedly reached the charts along with the single "Carolina on My Mind," as did James Taylor & the Original Flying Machine: 1967, a short collection of unfinished recordings made by his '60s band. Sweet Baby James then spawned a second hit single, "Country Road," which peaked in the Top 40 in March 1971. The same month, Taylor appeared on the cover of Time magazine, touted as the founder and leading proponent of the "singer/songwriter" trend in popular music.
Meanwhile, Taylor acted in a feature film, Two-Lane Blacktop, co-starring with the Beach Boys ' Dennis Wilson . It was not successful, and Taylor didn't pursue an acting career, though the movie has been well-reviewed since then. Taylor also worked on a new album, returning to record stores in April 1971 with Mud Slide Slim & the Blue Horizon. As he toured the U.S., the LP spent the summer in the Top Ten, eventually peaking just below the top of the charts, paced by its first single, "You've Got a Friend," written by Carole King , which hit number one in July and went gold. A second single, "Long Ago and Far Away," reached the Top 40, and the album eventually sold more than two million copies. On March 14, 1972, Taylor won the 1971 Grammy for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male, for "You've Got a Friend."
Taylor took what was then considered a long time -- more than a year and a half -- to come up with his next album, One Man Dog, released in November 1972. On November 3, 1972, during an appearance at Radio City Music Hall in New York, he announced to the crowd that he had married singer/songwriter Carly Simon earlier in the day. Simon was already well-known for the hits "That's the Way I've Always Heard It Should Be" and "Anticipation," and would soon top the charts with "You're So Vain." One Man Dog marked a fall-off in Taylor's record sales, though it went gold, reached the Top Five, and spawned a Top 20 single in "Don't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight."
Taylor was next heard from in January 1974, when he sang a duet with his wife, "Mockingbird," a cover of the 1963 hit by Inez & Charlie Foxx, on her Hotcakes album. Released as a single, the recording reached the Top Five and went gold. That spring, Taylor launched a major tour in anticipation of his next album, Walking Man, released in June. Though it reached the Top 20, the album was a commercial disappointment, failing to go gold or produce a chart single. But Taylor bounced back the following year with the May release of Gorilla. Again, he succeeded by reviving an old hit, this time Marvin Gaye 's 1964 song "How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)," which reached the Top Five, helping the album become a Top Ten, gold-selling hit.
In the Pocket, Taylor's seventh album, was his third annual warm-weather release, appearing in June 1976. Its single was the singer's own "Shower the People," which reached the Top 40, while the album made the Top 20 and went gold. Nearing the end of his Warner Bros. contract, Taylor re-recorded a couple of his Apple songs for his Greatest Hits LP, released in November. It became a perennial seller. With that, in a major coup, he was signed by Columbia . His debut for the label, JT, was released in June 1977. Once again, a revival spurred its sales, as Taylor covered Jimmy James ' 1959 song "Handy Man" and took it into the Top Five, followed by a Top 20 showing for his own "Your Smiling Face." With such stimulation, JT reached the Top Five and sold over two million copies. On February 23, 1978, Taylor picked up a second Grammy for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male, for "Handy Man."
Along with Paul Simon , Taylor was a featured singer on Art Garfunkel 's cover of "(What A) Wonderful World," previously a hit for Sam Cooke and Herman's Hermits , which peaked in the Top 20 in March 1978. Taylor next became involved with the Broadway musical Working, based on Studs Terkel's bestseller, writing three songs for it. The show ran a scant 25 performances after opening on May 14, 1978, but Taylor reclaimed "Millworker" and "Brother Trucker" for his next album. Meanwhile, his duet with Carly Simon on a revival of the Everly Brothers ' "Devoted to You" peaked in the Top 40 in September.
Flag, marking a nearly two-year break between albums, appeared in April 1979, its Top 40 hit single being a revival of the 1963 Drifters hit "Up on the Roof." Despite the lack of a really big hit single, the LP reached the Top Ten and went platinum. That September, Taylor performed at Madison Square Garden in the No Nukes concerts, later being featured in the No Nukes triple LP and in the No Nukes concert film.
Taylor embarked on a national tour in the summer of 1980, despite not having a current album to promote. From here on, recurrent touring became a regular part of his career and contributed to his longevity as an artist. That fall, he appeared on the children's album In Harmony 2, singing "Jelly Man Kelly." The album won the 1981 Grammy for Best Recording for Children. He toured extensively during 1981, releasing Dad Loves His Work in February. The album reached the Top Ten and went gold, spurred by the Top Ten success of the single "Her Town Too," written by Taylor, J.D. Souther , and Waddy Wachtel, Taylor's most successful original composition since "Fire and Rain."
Taylor continued to tour frequently in the early '80s, a period when his marriage to Carly Simon came to an end (they were divorced in 1983). Often, his performances took place overseas. In January 1985, he performed at the Rock in Rio concert in Brazil, a show that resulted in the Brazil-only release Live in Rio. His next studio album, following a gap of more than four years, was That's Why I'm Here, released in October 1985. As usual, his record label issued a cover song as the single; in this case it was Buddy Holly 's "Everyday," which didn't get very far up the charts. Nevertheless, Taylor's long career and constant touring had brought him a permanent audience ready to buy his records, and the album eventually went platinum. On December 14, 1985, he married for the second time, to Kathryn Walker; a month later, he was on tour in Australia.
Road work continued to be Taylor's primary occupation in the mid-'80s, but he came off tour long enough to finish another album, Never Die Young, only a little more than two years after That's Why I'm Here, released in January 1988. The title song, issued as a single, barely reached the charts, but Never Die Young was another million-seller. The late '80s and early '90s saw more extensive worldwide touring. New Moon Shine, Taylor's 13th regular album release, came in October 1991, the same month that he sold out six consecutive shows at the Paramount Theater in New York; the disc stayed in the charts nearly a year and sold a million copies.
Despite his consistent draw as a concert attraction, Taylor had never released a live album in the U.S. until the August 1993 appearance of Live, a two-CD set that went platinum within months. Columbia , which had never had a Taylor compilation to promote, trimmed the album down to a single disc of hits for the 1994 release (Best Live). Taylor was divorced from his second wife in 1996. His next album, Hourglass, released in May 1997, demonstrated his continuing appeal by entering the charts in the Top Ten. On February 25, 1998, it won the 1997 Grammy for Best Pop Album. In October the same year, Columbia issued the DVD Live at the Beacon Theatre while Billboard magazine was honoring Taylor with their highest accolade, the Century Award.
By 2000, Taylor's first Greatest Hits collection had sold over ten million copies, earning him the RIAA's Diamond Award. Taylor was also inducted into both the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame and the Songwriter's Hall of Fame in 2000, and at the end of the year, Columbia issued Greatest Hits, Vol. 2, covering the years 1977-1997. Fans who had waited five years for new material were awarded with October Road in 2002, an album that earned two Grammy nominations and eventually went platinum. A year later, The Best of James Taylor became the first compilation to cover material from his years with Apple , Warner Bros., and Columbia . In 2004, he appeared on the television show The West Wing, released Christmas Album, and sang the national anthem before game two of the World Series. Two years later, Taylor released James Taylor at Christmas and made an appearance on the soundtrack for the Pixar film Cars. In 2007, the CD/DVD One Man Band was released on the Hear Music label. An album featuring a dozen cover versions of various songs, simply and appropriately called Covers, followed a year later in 2008, also from Hear Music . A sequel, Other Covers, appeared in 2009.
Following a highly successful dual tour with Carole King , Taylor and King released a concert CD/DVD set called Live at the Troubadour in 2010. Never one to shy away from his political views, Taylor was active during Barack Obama 's 2012 re-election campaign, performing at both the Democratic National Convention and then in January 2013 at the president's second inauguration. In April of 2015, Taylor debuted the single "Today, Today, Today" in advance of a new album called Before This World. Featuring guest spots from Sting and Yo-Yo Ma , Before This World was Taylor's first album of new material since 2002's October Road and there was a pent-up demand for the record: upon its June 16 release, it entered the Billboard 200 at number one, becoming his first-ever chart-topping LP. ~ William Ruhlmann, Rovi
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What was S Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh City called before 1976? | Vietnam.com: Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon)
Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon)
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Ho Chi Minh City (Sai Gon)
Ho Chi Minh City is commonly known as Saigon or by the abbreviation HCMC. Although it is not the capital of Vietnam, it is the largest city in Vietnam and it was the capital of the former Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). As the throbbing commercial and economical center of Vietnam, Saigon is always busy, and the heat, the noise of the traffic and crowds can be overwhelming. Be nice to Saigon: it rewards patient tourists with a fascinating glimpse of Vietnam, of its past and present, and it will always be developing ahead of all cities in Vietnam.
Ho Chi Minh City is located in the southeastern region of Vietnam, it has a muggy, tropical climate with an average of 75% humidity. Rainy season runs from May to late November, with December to April being the driest, coolest months.
The city is somewhat chaotic, boasting an electric, near palpable energy. Ho Chi Minh City is one of Southeast Asia’s liveliest cities. For the casual visitor, Saigon – as its still called by all but the city officials who live here – can seem a chaotic mess of traffic-clogged roads and urban bustle. But zillions of expats and Vietnamese immigrants couldn’t imagine living anywhere else.
If asked for a symbol of Saigon, it would surely be the motorbike. More than three million of them move along the streets. Cruising along boulevards and narrow streets, the crowds of private easy-riders and xe om (motorbike taxi) belong to the image of the city. Hectic markets, stylistic cafés, massage and acupuncture clinics, centuries-old pagodas, modern skyscrapers and ramshackle shops selling all kinds of goods all try to attract customers amid the surreal urban collage. Saigon is one of the most forward-looking cities driving the current economic boom. Investments are materialized in new lavish hotels and restaurants, trendy nightclubs and high-end boutiques as well as modern expensive development areas and neighborhoods.
Saigon has now some 10 million inhabitants in the greater HCMC area, 7 million in the city itself; it has almost 7% of the total population of Vietnam. The population is growing rapidly, with a rate of about 200 thousand per year. About 90% of the population is ethnic Vietnamese. Another 8% of HCMC residents are Chinese; they make up the largest Chinatown in Vietnam, Cho Lon. Most residents of Ho Chi Minh City are Buddhist or practice ancestor worship, but about 15% are Roman Catholic or Protestant. Other religious groups such as Islam and Hinduism are found in smaller numbers.
Ho Chi Minh City began as a small fishing village called Prey Nokor, inhabited by Khmer people originally from what is now Cambodia. Over time, Vietnamese refugees fleeing civil wars elsewhere in Vietnam filled the region. By the end of the 17th century, under the Nguyen dynasty, Vietnam had completely absorbed Prey Nokor, which was by then known as Saigon. The French arrived in 1859 and conquered Saigon and later the rest of Vietnam.
With its wide boulevards and French-inspired architecture, Saigon became known as "the Pearl of the Far East" (Hòn ngọc Viễn Đông) and "Paris in the Orient." Many visitors claim that this charm is still present in the city.
Independence movements against French colonial rule, led by liberation movements, were organized by the Viet Minh and others. In 1954 Ho Chi Minh's communist Viet Minh forces defeated the French in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, causing them to withdraw from Vietnam. Subsequently, Vietnam was partitioned into North and South Vietnam, with the government of the South, the Republic of Vietnam, holding its seat in Saigon. On April 30, 1975, North Vietnamese troops captured Saigon, ending the Vietnam War. Following North Vietnam's victory, Vietnam was unified and the capital of the reunified Vietnam became Hanoi . Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City.
Saigon: getting around and transportation
• Air
Most domestic flights from Tan Son Nhat Airport are operated by Viet¬nam Airlines. Pacific Airlines also offers the HCMC-Hanoi and HCMC- Da Nang routes, while Sasco flies between HCMC and the Con Dao Islands. Tan Son Nhat Airport was one of the three busiest airports in the world in the late 1960s. The runways are still lined with lichen-covered, mortar-proof aircraft-retaining walls, hangars and other military structures.
• Bus
Intercity buses depart from and arrive at a variety of stations around HCMC. Cho Lon bus station (Le Quang Sung Street, north of Binh Tay Market) is the most convenient place to get buses to My Tho and other Mekong Delta towns. Buses to the Mekong Delta also depart from Mien Tay bus station (Ben Xe Mien Tay, Tel. 825 5955). This huge station is about 10km west of HCMC in An Lac, a part of the Binh Chanh district. Buses to travel north leave from Mien Dong bus station (Ben Xe Mien Dong; Tel. 829 4056), in Binh Thanh district about 5km from central HCMC on Hwy 13 (Quoc Lo 13, the continuation of Xo Viet Nghe Tinh Street). Destinations are Buon Ma Thuot (12 hours, 110 thousand Dong), Da Nang (26 hours, 200 thousand Dong), Hai Phong (53 hours (!), 340 thousand Dong), Nha Trang (11 hours, 75 thousand Dong), Hanoi (49 hours, 320 thousand Dong), Hué (24 hours , 220 thousand Dong), among others.
• Car and motorbike
Inquire at almost any tourist café, travel agent or your hotel to arrange car rental. Car rental will include a driver as it is against the law for foreigners to drive in Vietnam without a Vietnamese license. Motorbikes are available for about US$10 per day.
• Train
Trains from Saigon train station (Ga Sai Gon; Tel. 823 0105; 1 Nguyen Thong Street, District 3; ticket office 7.15-11 a.m. & 1-3 p.m.) serve cities along the coast north of HCMC. Train tickets can be purchased from Saigon Railways Tourist Services (Tel. 836 7640; fax 837 5224; 275C Pham Ngu Lao Street; 7.30-11.30 a.m. & 1-4.30 p.m.) or from most travel agents.
• Boat
Hydrofoils (US$10, 1 hour 15 min) depart for Vung Tau almost hourly from Bach Dang jetty on Ton Duc Thang Street (contact Petro Express, Tel. 821 0650 at the jetty). Travelers who have time can ask (at the dock, Ham Nghi Street, at the river end, Tel. 829 7892) for departures to destinations in the Me Kong Delta like An Giang, Vinh Long, Ca Mau, My Tho, among others. Tickets can be purchased on the boat.
Hotels and accommodation
Low priced
Family Inn Saigon
| Ho Chi Minh City |
The moss Sphagnum produces what traditional ancient fuel? | Ho Chi Minh City - Lonely Planet
Ho Chi Minh City
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Welcome to Ho Chi Minh City
Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is Vietnam at its most dizzying: a high-octane city of commerce and culture that has driven the country forward with its pulsating energy. A chaotic whirl, the city breathes life and vitality into all who settle here, and visitors cannot help but be hauled along for the ride... Read More
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The Mossbauer effect refers to which sort of radiation? | Radiation Basics | Radiation Protection | US EPA
Radiation Protection
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Radiation Basics
Radiation is energy. It can come from unstable atoms that undergo radioactive decay , or it can be produced by machines. Radiation travels from its source in the form of energy waves or energized particles.
There are two kinds of radiation: ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation.
Ionizing radiation has so much energy it can knock electrons out of atoms, a process known as ionization. Ionizing radiation can affect the atoms in living things, so it poses a health risk by damaging tissue and DNA in genes. Ionizing radiation comes from radioactive elements, cosmic particles from outer space and x-ray machines.
Non-ionizing radiation has enough energy to move atoms in a molecule around or cause them to vibrate, but not enough to remove electrons. Examples of this kind of radiation are radio waves, visible light, and microwaves.
EPA’s mission in radiation protection is to protect human health and the environment from the ionizing radiation that comes from human use of radioactive elements. EPA does not regulate the non-ionizing radiation that is emitted by electrical devices such as radio transmitters or cell phones (See: Radiation Information from Other Agencies ).
The energy of the radiation shown on the spectrum below increases from left to right as the frequency rises.
Alpha Particles
Alpha particles (α) are positively charged and made up of two protons and two neutrons from the atom’s nucleus. Alpha particles come from the decay of the heaviest radioactive elements, such as uranium , radium and polonium. Even though alpha particles are very energetic, they are so heavy that they use up their energy over short distances and are unable to travel very far from the atom.
The health effect from exposure to alpha particles depends greatly on how a person is exposed. Alpha particles lack the energy to penetrate even the outer layer of skin, so exposure to the outside of the body is not a major concern. Inside the body, however, they can be very harmful. If alpha-emitters are inhaled, swallowed, or get into the body through a cut, the alpha particles can damage sensitive living tissue. The way these large, heavy particles cause damage makes them more dangerous than other types of radiation. The ionizations they cause are very close together - they can release all their energy in a few cells. This results in more severe damage to cells and DNA.
Beta Particles
Beta particles (β) are small, fast-moving particles with a negative electrical charge that are emitted from an atom’s nucleus during radioactive decay. These particles are emitted by certain unstable atoms such as hydrogen-3 ( tritium ), carbon-14 and strontium-90 .
Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, but are less damaging to living tissue and DNA because the ionizations they produce are more widely spaced. They travel farther in air than alpha particles, but can be stopped by a layer of clothing or by a thin layer of a substance such as aluminum. Some beta particles are capable of penetrating the skin and causing damage such as skin burns. However, as with alpha-emitters, beta-emitters are most hazardous when they are inhaled or swallowed.
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays (γ) are weightless packets of energy called photons. Unlike alpha and beta particles, which have both energy and mass, gamma rays are pure energy. Gamma rays are similar to visible light, but have much higher energy. Gamma rays are often emitted along with alpha or beta particles during radioactive decay.
Gamma rays are a radiation hazard for the entire body. They can easily penetrate barriers that can stop alpha and beta particles, such as skin and clothing. Gamma rays have so much penetrating power that several inches of a dense material like lead, or even a few feet of concrete may be required to stop them. Gamma rays can pass completely through the human body; as they pass through, they can cause ionizations that damage tissue and DNA.
X-Rays
Because of their use in medicine, almost everyone has heard of x-rays. X-rays are similar to gamma rays in that they are photons of pure energy. X-rays and gamma rays have the same basic properties but come from different parts of the atom. X-rays are emitted from processes outside the nucleus, but gamma rays originate inside the nucleus. They also are generally lower in energy and, therefore less penetrating than gamma rays. X-rays can be produced naturally or by machines using electricity.
Literally thousands of x-ray machines are used daily in medicine. Computerized tomography, commonly known as a CT or CAT scan, uses special x-ray equipment to make detailed images of bones and soft tissue in the body. Medical x-rays are the single largest source of man-made radiation exposure. Learn more about radiation sources and doses. X-rays are also used in industry for inspections and process controls.
There are different but interrelated units for measuring radioactivity and its effects:
1 mrem Dose Equals...
Background radiation
Background radiationRadiation that is always in the environment. The majority of background radiation occurs naturally and a small fraction comes from man-made elements. is present on Earth at all times. The majority of background radiation occurs naturally from minerals and a small fraction comes from man-made elements. Naturally occurring radioactive minerals in the ground, soil, water and your body produce background radiation, as does cosmic radiation from outer space. There can be large variances in natural background radiation levels from place to place, as well as changes in the same location over time.
Cosmic Radiation
Cosmic radiation consist of extremely energetic particles that strike the Earth's atmosphere from space. The annual dose of cosmic radiation that people receive depends on elevation. The higher the altitude, the higher the dose. That is why those living in Denver, Colorado (altitude of 5,280 feet) receive a higher annual radiation dose from cosmic radiation than someone living at sea level (altitude of 0 feet). Learn more about cosmic radiation in RadTown USA, EPA's radiation education web area for students and teachers.
Radioactive Materials in the Earth and in Our Bodies
Uranium and thorium naturally found in the earth are called primordial
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The mountain ash, Sorbus aucuparia, and its berry is called what? | Radioactivity
Radioactivity
Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear instability. Because the nucleus experiences the intense conflict between the two strongest forces in nature, it should not be surprising that there are many nuclear isotopes which are unstable and emit some kind of radiation. The most common types of radiation are called alpha , beta , and gamma radiation, but there are several other varieties of radioactive decay.
Radioactive decay rates are normally stated in terms of their half-lives , and the half-life of a given nuclear species is related to its radiation risk . The different types of radioactivity lead to different decay paths which transmute the nuclei into other chemical elements. Examining the amounts of the decay products makes possible radioactive dating .
Radiation from nuclear sources is distributed equally in all directions, obeying the inverse square law .
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Alpha Radioactivity
Composed of two protons and two neutrons, the alpha particle is a nucleus of the element helium. Because of its very large mass (more than 7000 times the mass of the beta particle) and its charge, it has a very short range . It is not suitable for radiation therapy since its range is less than a tenth of a millimeter inside the body. Its main radiation hazard comes when it is ingested into the body; it has great destructive power within its short range. In contact with fast-growing membranes and living cells, it is positioned for maximum damage.
Alpha particle emission is modeled as a barrier penetration process. The alpha particle is the nucleus of the helium atom and is the nucleus of highest stability .
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Alpha Barrier Penetration
The energy of emitted alpha particles was a mystery to early investigators because it was evident that they did not have enough energy, according to classical physics, to escape the nucleus. Once an approximate size of the nucleus was obtained by Rutherford scattering, one could calculate the height of the Coulomb barrier at the radius of the nucleus. It was evident that this energy was several times higher than the observed alpha particle energies. There was also an incredible range of half lives for the alpha particle which could not be explained by anything in classical physics.
The resolution of this dilemma came with the realization that there was a finite probability that the alpha particle could penetrate the wall by quantum mechanical tunneling . Using tunneling, Gamow was able to calculate a dependence for the half-life as a function of alpha particle energy which was in agreement with experimental observations.
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Which country originated the motor scooter? | SCOOTER ORIGINS AND HISTORY
SCOOTER ORIGINS & SCOOTER HISTORY
The origins of the scooter date back to the late nineteenth century, although definitions of such depend often on opinion rather than fact.
The first successful production two-wheeler was the Hildebrand & Wolfmueller, patented in Munich in 1894. It had a step-through frame, with its fuel tank mounted on the down tube. The engine was a parallel twin, mounted low on the frame, with its cylinders going fore-and-aft. It was water-cooled and had a radiator built into the top of the rear fender. The bike became the first powered two wheel vehicle to be offered to the public on a production basis and was crucial in its move away from the foot pedal as the main source of engine power.
Although commercially the bike was not a massive money spinner, it paved the way for a new generation of affordable and practical transport. It wasn't, however, until the end of WW2 that the scooter really came into its own.
The modern scooter was born in the Lambratte area of Milan, as was the brainchild one Ferdinado Innocenti, who was born in Bescia on 1st September 1891. Following the war there was a dire need to mobilize Italy once more, and government help was given to any company interested in addressing this need.
Inspired by some military motorcycles he had seen in Rome, he approached his designer Corradino D'ascanio to discuss the project and the first blueprints of the scooter we know and love today were formed.
Unfortunately the two men could not always agree, and D'ascanio left to join the Piaggio company to work on aircraft design, until such times as he and Piaggio created the 'Vespa'.
Not sitting on his laurels, however, Innocenti, his General Director Guiseppe Lauro and an engineer named Pierluigi Torre designed a scooter, which was unveiled in 1947 at the Paris Motor Show. The scooter was named after the region where the factory stood, and the river it stood on. The 'Lambretta' was born.
The first Lambretta, the Lambretta 'A', first went on sale on December 23rd 1947. It was economical (160-180mpg at a time when petrol was severely rationed), with a moderate top speed of 45mph, and a direct air-cooled engine with 123cc. During its first 12 months of sale the 'A' model, which was available in five different colours (green, red, beige, blue and grey), went on to sell 9,000 units.
The first Vespa was produced in 1946, had a 98cc engine and a top speed of 47mph. The first Vespa 125cc was produced two years later in 1948...Let battle commence!
WE MAY HAVE MADE SOME MISTAKES...
BUT AMERICA IS STILL THE WORLDS GREATEST COUNTRY
You cannot help the poor by destroying the rich.
You cannot strengthen the weak by weakening the strong.
You cannot bring about prosperity by discouraging thrift.
You cannot lift the wage earner up by pulling the wage payer down.
You cannot further the brotherhood of man by inciting class hatred.
You cannot build character and courage by taking away people's initiative and independence.
You cannot help people permanently by doing for them, what they could and should do for themselves.
Quote By... Rev. William J. H. Boetcker, a Presbyterian clergyman.
for the opportunity to serve you
and may safety & good judgment chase you while on the road!
GekGo WorldWide
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A mouflon is a Coriscan wild species of what domesticated creature? | History | Retro Scooters | Piaggio Scooters | Piaggio USA
HISTORY
A GREAT CHAPTER IN ITALIAN HISTORY
Piaggio boasts a long-standing history in Italian industry and mobility. Back in 1882, Enrico Piaggio opened a factory for the production of naval supplies. This was followed, two years later, by the founding of Piaggio & C by Rinaldo Piaggio, engaged from 1889 in the railways sector.
The company made its début in the aeronautical field in 1916, and after a series of ups and downs, finally approached the world of two-wheeled vehicles. In 1964 the aeronautical (I.A.M. Rinaldo Piaggio) and motorcycle (Piaggio & C.) divisions split to become two independent companies, with the latter paving the way for the birth of Italian mobility, in the wake of the economic boom enjoyed in those years.
As from the 1960s, Piaggio began to churn out a series of highly successful products.
Ciao, the forefather of the modern moped, was born in 1967.
Between 1990 and 1994, Piaggio turned out the Sfera, the first scooter to feature a plastic bodywork, followed by Hexagon, a milestone in the maxi-scooter segment. Between 1973 and 1988, the Bravo moped was a big hit, and a series of new vehicles were introduced, such as Cosa, Superbravo and Grillo.
Born as a 50cc moped in 1997 and instantly carving out a place for itself on the market as a highly innovative product, Liberty soon become one of the most popular high-wheeled scooters around: the credit goes to its young and dynamic line, excellent build quality, and competitive price. A distinctive feature for its category is a great attention to detail.
The year 2001 saw the début of Beverly, an extraordinarily agile, reliable and safe scooter that revolutionized the market, quickly becoming the absolute leader in terms of sales in the competitive and prestigious "high wheel" sector. The following year, it was completely overhauled in style and technology, flaunting a new elegant and distinctive look and offering top-rate equipment and finishings, as always with the guarantee of top safety and performance. In 2012, the range of best-selling Piaggio high-wheeled scooters was enriched with a new model - the Beverly SportTouring, fitted with a new 350cc engine (as compact as 300cc but with the performance of 400cc) - that interprets the class and elegance of Beverly in a sports version. The newborn is the first scooter in the world to be equipped with ABS/ASR, to exploit the vehicle's maximum performance in complete safety.
The Piaggio Mp3 is a tilting three-wheeled scooter offering safety, road grip and a stability unattainable with a two-wheeled vehicle, combined with considerable power and agility, making for pure fun and maximum driving pleasure. These winning features have earned the Mp3 enormous success since its launch in 2006. The use of three wheels, two of which at the front, was a revolutionary technical intuition that has led to a truly unique scooter and has redefined the very concept of dynamic stability. This winning formula has led to the proliferation of versions over the years, to meet the needs of the most extensive customer base, culminating in the Mp3 Hybrid, the first scooter in the world with a parallel hybrid drive and plug-in technology, and the Mp3 Yourban, which offers a more urban and casual use of the excellent stability and safety features of the Mp3
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The nymph Daphne became a laurel tree escaping which Greek god? | DAPHNE - Laurel Nymph of Greek Mythology
DAPHNE
Laurel (daphnê)
Apollo and Daphne, Greco-Roman mosaic from Antioch C2nd-3rd A.D., Hatay Archeology Museum
DAPHNE was a Naiad-nymph of the river Ladon of Arkadia or the Peneios (Peneus) in Thessalia. She was loved by the god Apollon who pursued her until she grew exhausted and cried out to Gaia (Gaea) for help. The goddess transformed into a laurel tree which Apollon then adopted as his sacred plant.
In a festival at Delphoi (Delphi), a branch of a sacred laurel tree was brought to the shrine from the Thessalian vale of Tempe. This rite would suggest that the Thessalian version of the Daphne myth was the oldest.
The Delphians also had a closely related myth about a certain Daphnis who they describe as the Oreiad-nymph prophetess of Gaia at the shrine before Apollon assumed control.
FAMILY OF DAPHNE
PARENTS
[1] LADON (Pausanias 10.7.8, Philostrarus Life of Apoll. of Tyana 1.16, Statius Thebaid 4.289, Nonnus Dionysiaca 42.386)
[2] PENEIOS (Hyginus Fabulae 203, Ovid Metamorphoses 1.452)
[3] AMYCLAS (Diodorus of Elaea Frag, Phylarchus Frag, Parthenius Love Romances 15)
ENCYCLOPEDIA
DAPHNE (Daphnê), a fair maiden who is mixed up with various traditions about Apollo. According to Pausanias (x. 5. § 3) she was an Oreas and an ancient priestess of the Delphic oracle to which she had been appointed by Ge. Diodorus (iv. 66) describes her as the daughter of Teiresias, who is better known by the name of Manto. She was made prisoner in the war of the Epigoni and given as a present to Apollo. A third Daphne is called a daughter of the rivergod Ladon in Arcadia by Ge (Paus. viii. 20. § 1; Tzetz. ad Lycoph. 6; Philostr. Vit. Apollon. i. 16), or of the river-god Peneius in Thessaly (Ov. Met. i. 452; Hygin. Fab. 203), or lastly of Amyclas. (Parthen. Erot. 15.) She was extremely beautiful and was loved and pursued by Apollo. When on the point of being overtaken by him, she prayed to her mother, Ge, who opened the earth and received her, and in order to console Apollo she created the ever-green laurel-tree (daphnê), of the boughs of which Apollo made himself a wreath. Another story relates that Leucippus, the son of Oenomaüs, king of Pisa, was in love with Daphne and approached her in the disguise of a maiden and thus hunted with her. But Apollo's jealousy caused his discovery during the bath, and he was killed by the nymphs. (Paus. viii. 20. § 2; Parthen. l. c.) According to Ovid (Met. i. 452, &c.) Daphne in her flight from Apollo was metamorphosed herself into a laurel-tree.
Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES
Apollo and Daphne, Athenian red-figure hydria C5th B.C., British Museum
Parthenius, Love Romances 15 (trans. Gaselee) (Greek poet C1st B.C.) :
"From the elegiac poems of Diodoros of Elaia [unknown date] and the twenty-fifth book of Phylarkhos (Phylarchus) [Greek historian C3rd B.C.] :
This is how the story of Daphne, the daughter of Amyklas (Amyclas), is related. She used never to come down into the town, nor consort with the other maidens; but she got together a large pack of hounds and used to hunt, either in Lakonia (Laconia), or sometimes going into the further mountains of the Peloponnese. For this reason she was very dear to Artemis, who gave her the gift of shooting straight. On one occasion she was traversing the country of Elis, and there Leukippos (Leucippus), the son of Oinomaus (Oenomaus), fell in love with her; he resolved not to woo her in any common way, but assumed women's clothes, and, in the guise of a maiden, joined her hunt. And it so happened that she very soon became extremely fond of him, nor would she let him quit her side, embracing him and clinging to him at all times. But Apollon was also fired with love for the girl, and it was with feelings of anger and jealousy that he saw Leukippos always with her; he therefore put it into her mind to visit a stream with her attendant maidens, and there to bathe. On their arrival there, they all began to strip; and when they saw that Leukippos was unwilling to follow their example, they tore his clothes from him: but when they thus became aware of the deceit he had practiced and the plot he had devised against them, they all plunged their spears into his body. He, by the will of the gods, disappeared; but Daphne, seeing Apollon advancing upon her, took vigorously to flight; then, as he pursued her, she implored Zeus that she might be translated away from mortal sight, and she is supposed to have become the bay tree which is called daphne after her."
Pausanias, Description of Greece 8. 20. 2 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) :
"The Ladon [of Arkadia (Arcadia)] is the most lovely river in Greece, and is also famous for the legend of Daphne that the poets tell . . . Leukippos (Leucippus) fell in love with Daphne, but despaired of winning her to be his wife by an open courtship, as she avoided all the male sex. The following trick occurred to him by which to get her. Leukippos was growing his hair long for the river Alpheios (Alpheus). Brading his hair as though he were a maiden, and putting on woman's clothes, he came to Daphne and said that he was a daughter of Oinomaos (Oenomaus), and would like to share her hunting. As he was thought to be a maiden, surpassed the other maidens in nobility of birth and skill in hunting, and was besides most assiduous in this attentions, he drew Daphne into a deep friendship. The poets who sing of Apollon's love for Daphne make an addition to the tale; that Apollon became jealous of Leukippos because of his success in his love. Forthwith Daphne and the other maidens conceived a longing to swim in the Ladon, and stripped Leukippos in spite of his reluctance. Then, seeing that he was no maid, they killed him with their javelins and daggers."
Pausanias, Description of Greece 10. 7. 8 :
"The reason why a crown of laurel is the prize for a Pythian victory is in my opinion simply and solely because the prevailing tradition has it that Apollon fell in love with the daughter of Ladon [i.e. Daphne]."
Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 1. 16 (trans. Conybeare) (Greek biography C1st to C2nd A.D.) :
"[In Antiokhos (Antioch), Asia Minor is] the temple of Apollon Daphnaios (Daphnaeus, Of the Laurel), to which the Assyrians attach the legend of Arkadia (Arcadia). For they say that Daphne, the daughter of Ladon, there underwent her metamorphosis, and they have a river flowing there, the Ladon, and a laurel tree is worshipped by them which they say was substituted for the maiden."
Pseudo-Hyginus, Fabulae 203 (trans. Grant) (Roman mythographer C2nd A.D.) :
"When Apollo was pursuing the virgin Daphne, daughter of the river Peneus, she begged for protection from Terra (Earth) [Gaia], who received her, and changed her into a laurel tree. Apollo broke a branch from it and placed it on his head."
Ovid, Metamorphoses 1. 452 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"Daphne Peneia (Daughter of Peneus) was the first love of great Phoebus [Apollon], a love not lit by chance unwitting, but by Cupido's (Love's) [Eros'] spiteful wrath. Delius [Apollon], proud in victory saw Cupido [Eros] draw his bow's taut arc, and said : ‘Mischievous boy, what are a brave man's arms to you? That gear becomes my shoulders best. My aim is sure; I wound my enemies, I wound wild beasts; my countless arrows slew but now the bloated Python, whose vast coils across so many acres spread their blight. You and your loves! You have your torch to light them Let that content you; never claim my fame!’ And Venus' [Aphrodite's] son [Eros] replied : ‘Your bow, Phoebus, may vanquish all, but mine shall vanquish you. As every creature yields to power divine, so likewise shall your glory yield to mine.’
Then winging through the air his eager way he stood upon Parnasos' shady peak, and from his quiver's laden armoury he drew two arrows of opposing power, one shaft that rouses love and one that routs it. The first gleams bright with piercing point of gold; the other, cull and blunt is tipped with lead. This one he lodged in Nympha Peneis' [Daphne's] heart; the first he shot to pierce Apollo to the marrow. At once he loves; she flies the name of love, delighting in the forest's depths, and trophies of the chase, a Nympha to vie with heaven's virgin huntress Phoebe [Artemis]; a careless ribbon held her straying hair. Many would woo her; she, rejecting them all, manless, aloof, ranged the untrodden woods nor cared what love, what marriage rites might mean. Often her father [the River-God Peneios (Peneus)] said, ‘My dearest daughter, it is my due to have a son-in-law.’ Often her father said, ‘It is my due, child of my heart, to be given grandchildren.’
She hated like a crime the bond of wedlock and, bashful blushes tingeing her fair cheeks, with coaxing arms embraced him and replied : ‘My dear, dear father grant I may enjoy virginity for ever; this Diana [Artemis] was granted by her father.’
He, indeed, yielded, but Daphne--why, her, loveliness thwarts her desire, her grace denies her prayer. Phoebus saw her, loved her, wanted her--her for his bride, and, wanting, hoped--deceived by his own oracles; and, as the stubble flames in the harvest fields or as a hedge catches alight when some late wayfarer chances his torch too close or, in the dawn, discards its smouldering embers, so love's fire consumed the god, his whole heart was aflame, and high the hopes that stoked his fruitless passion. He sees the loose disorder of her hair and thinks what if it were neat and elegant! He sees her eyes shining like stars, her lips--but looking's not enough!--her fingers, hands, her wrists, her half-bare arms--how exquisite! And sure her hidden charms are best! But she flies swifter than the lightfoot wind nor stops to hear him calling : ‘Stay, sweet Nympha Peneis (Peneid Nymph)! Oh, stay! I am no foe to fear. Lambs flee from wolves and hinds from lions, and the fluttering doves from eagles; every creature flees its foes. But love spurs my pursuit. Oh, you will fall and briars graze your legs--for shame!--and I, alas, the cause of your distress! The ground you race across is rough. You run too fast! Check your swift flight, and I'll not chase so fast. Yet ask who loves you. No rough forester am I, no unkempt shepherd guarding his flocks an herds. You do not know--you fly, you madcap girl, because you do not know. I am the lord of Delphi; Tenedos and Patara and Claros are my realms. I am the son of Juppiter [Zeus]. By me things future, past and present are revealed; I shape the harmony of songs and strings. Sure are my arrows, but one surer still has struck me to the heart, my carefree heart. The art of medicine I gave the world and all men call me "Healer"; I possess the power of every herb. Alas! That love no herb can cure, that skills which help afford to all mankind fail now to help their lord!’
More he had tried to say, but she in fear fled on and left him and his words unfinished. Enchanting still she looked--her slender limbs bare in the breeze, her fluttering dress blown back, her hair behind her streaming as she ran; and flight enhanced her grace. But the young god, could bear no more to waste his blandishments. And (love was driving him) pressed his pursuit. And as a beagle sees across the stubble a hare and runs to kill and she for life--he almost has her; now, yes now, he's sure she's his; his straining muzzle scrapes her heels; and she half thinks she's caught and, as he bites, snatches away; his teeth touch--but she's gone. So ran the god and girl, he sped by hope and she by fear. But he, borne on the wings of love, ran faster, gave her no respite, hot on her flying heels and breathing close upon her shoulders and her tumbling hair. Her strength was gone; the travail of her flight vanquished her, and her face was deathly pale. And then she was at the river, swift Peneus, and called : ‘Help, father, help! If mystic power dwells in your waters, change me and destroy my baleful beauty that has pleased too well.’
Scarce had she made her prayer when through her limbs a dragging languor spread, her tender bosom was wrapped in thin smooth bark, her slender arms were changed to branches and her hair to leaves; her feet but now so swift were anchored fast in numb stiff roots, her face and had became the crown of a green tree; all that remained of Daphne was her shining loveliness. And still Phoebus loved her; on the trunk he placed his hand and felt beneath the bark her heart still beating, held in his embrace her branches, pressed his kisses on the wood; yet from his kisses the wood recoiled. ‘My bride,’ he said, ‘since you can never be, at least, sweet laurel, you shall be my tree. My lure, my locks, my quiver you shall wreathe.’ . . . Thus spoke the god; the laurel in assent inclined her new-made branches and bent down, or seemed to bend, her head, her leafy crown."
Ovid, Heroides 15. 23 ff (trans. Showerman) (Roman poetry C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) :
"Take up the lyre and quiver--you will be Apollo manifest . . . Phoebus [Apollon] loved Daphne."
Statius, Thebaid 4. 289 ff (trans. Mozley) (Roman epic C1st A.D.) :
"Ladon, almost, O Pythian [Apollon], the father of thy bride [Daphne]."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 15. 310 ff (trans. Rouse) (Greek epic C5th A.D.) :
"Ah, how many a song sang Phoibos (Phoebus) [Apollon]! While Daphne heard him, but felt no pleasure at heart."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 16. 356 ff :
"[The nymph Nikaia (Nicaea), who was raped by Dionysos in her sleep, accuses the Nymphs of failing to warn her :] ‘Alas for maidenhead, stolen by that vagabond Bakkhos (Bacchus)! Hamadryas Nymphai (Hamadryad Nymphs), whom shall I blame for Hypnos (Sleep), Eros (Love), trickery and wine, are the robbers of my maiden state! . . . Why did not Daphne (the Laurel) speak out--"Maiden, beware, drink not the deceiving water!"?’"
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 33. 210 ff :
"She told how the knees of that unwedded Nymphe [Daphne] fled swift on the breeze, how she ran once from Phoibos (Phoebus) [Apollon] quick as the north wind, how she planted her maiden foot by the flood of a longwinding river, by the quick stream of Orontes, when the Earth (Gaia) opened beside the wide mouth of a marsh and received the hunted girl into her compassionate bosom . . . the god never caught Daphne when she was pursued, Apollon never ravished her . . . and [he] always blamed Gaia (Earth) for swallowing the girl before she knew marriage."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 42. 255 ff :
"Sing first Daphne, sing the erratic course of Ekho (Echo), and the answering note of the goddess who never fails to speak, for these two despised the desire of gods."
Nonnus, Dionysiaca 42. 386 ff :
"How the daughter of Ladon [Daphne], that celebrated river, hated the works of marriage and the Nymphe became a tree with inspired whispers, she escaped the bed of Phoibos (Phoebus) [Apollon] but she crowned his hair with prophetic clusters."
ANCIENT GREEK & ROMAN ART
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Rene Descartes’ quote ‘Cogito ergo sum’ means what in English? | The Naiad Nymph – Daphne – and Immortal Monday | Debra Kristi's Blog
The Naiad Nymph – Daphne – and Immortal Monday
Posted on October 15, 2012 by Debra Kristi
Oh, to love without return. To be pursued without end. This is the story of our immortals, Daphne and Apollo. We explored Apollo a few weeks ago on Immortal Monday, and at that time some interest was expressed in learning more about Daphne.
Image via Wikipedia
Daphne, the daughter of the river god, Peneus, was a lovely Naiad Nymph – a female spirit who presided over bodies of running water: brooks, streams, wells, fountains, springs and the like. The Greek gods would have viewed her as a minor nature deity. But nymphs were often depicted as beautiful, young women who loved to dance and sing. A loving nature that set them apart from the restricted and decorous wives of the Greek people and their gods. A nature that made the nymphs most attractive to many men. I think it’s safe to assume Daphne fit into this category.
A nymph, such as Daphne, was typically bound to a particular place – a stream or pond. And it’s possible that she would have lived out her days in such a place. As a nymph, she is considered to be ageless. She would stay forever beautiful and young, and may never die. But that does not necessarily make her, or any nymph, immortal. They are not truly impervious. But if a nymph were to mate with a god, their offspring could be fully immortal.
Daphne would never have children to test that theory. She was a sweet, vivacious virgin when Apollo angered Eros enough for what came next. Eros, irritated with Apollo’s boosts of being better with the bow and arrow, took two arrows – one tipped in gold and sharp at the edge, another dull and dipped in lead. With the gold he shot Apollo, creating an undying love for Daphne. With the other he shot Daphne, causing unconditional hate where Apollo was concerned. Apollo could chase Daphne to the ends of the nine realms, Daphne would never return his love.
Tired and fearful of Apollo, Daphne prayed and begged for her father’s help. He answered, turning the young Daphne into a laurel tree. Still enamored with the beautiful nymph, Apollo declared the laurel tree sacred and took leaves from its branches to adorn his attire.
One can learn an important lesson or two from the myth of Daphne and Apollo. Had Apollo not insulted Eros in the first place the whole mess may have been avoided. And even though Apollo was a little out of his mind at this point, had he not relentlessly stalked Daphne, she may not have had to ditch the life she knew for that of a tree. The situation definitely could have been handled better.
For fun, a little short depicting the story between Apollo and Daphne.
Given the choice, would you pick the life of a nymph? Dancing barefoot in nature sounds pretty good to me! What do you think of the myth regarding Daphne and Apollo? Considering the lessons here, should it be required reading for every high school student?
Did you know that nymphs who mated with the god Poseidon, were believed to give birth to the mythical creatures, Cyclops?
Also, the words nymphomania and nymphet are derived from the word nymph.
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Reminders: It’s never too late to jump on the Thor tour. All you need to do is drop me a line. Thor has his own page now, by which you can track his progress, catch up on older updates, or just check out fun trivia, videos, and pictures that will be added to on a regular basis. Check it out! Find the link at the top of the page. We should be hearing from our guy real soon. Look for the next check-in this Wednesday, the 17th.
Also, this blog will be relocating to a self-hosted site at some point during the month of November. I hope you’ll follow us to the new digs. My fabulous designer, Laird Sapir , and I have some pretty amazing ideas (I think) and I hope you’ll enjoy what we create there.
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Crown Derby is what sort of antique? | Antique Royal Crown Derby | Pottery & Porcelain Price Guide | Antiques & Collectibles Price Guide
Royal Crown Derby
Royal Crown Derby
Royal Crown Derby Company, Ltd. is a name used on porcelain beginning in 1890. There is a complex family tree that includes the Derby, Crown Derby, and Royal Crown Derby porcelains. The Royal Crown Derby mark includes the name and a crown. The crown was first used in the mark that appeared on Derby porcelain in 1775 after the permission of King George III. The words Made in England were used after 1921. The company became part of the Allied English Potteries Group in 1964. It was bought in 2000 and is now privately owned.
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| Porcelain |
The removal of salt from brine to produce fresh water is commonly named what? | Great deals from Vintage Veruca Antiques | eBay Stores
Member id verucaantiques ( Feedback Score Of 9914
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Vintage Veruca Antiques Buy & Sell located in Manitoba, Canada. We specialize in mid century modern design, art glass, antique porcelain, art pottery, bone china dinnerware, silver, crystal, vintage and antique estate jewelry.
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What was the German WWII air force called? | World War II for Kids: WW2 Aircraft
WW2 Aircraft
Importance of Aircraft
Although World War I was the first major war that involved aircraft, it was during World War II that aircraft took on one of the most important roles of war. Some battles were fought almost entirely in the air.
North American P-51 Mustangs
Source: US Air Force
Major Battles in the Air
The first major attacks in World War II were made by German aircraft in the takeover of countries such as Denmark, Poland, and the Netherlands. Later, Germany would attempt to destroy England's Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain . During this battle, German planes dropped thousands of bombs on England for over three months straight. The Allies later countered with a major air attack on D-Day during the Invasion of Normandy. They launched around 14,000 sorties (airplane attacks) in one day.
There were also major air battles in the Pacific during World War II. The first major attack was when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941. Later, aircraft played major roles in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, and the Battle of Guadalcanal. The final blow in the war was also struck by aircraft when atomic bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Types of Planes
There were three major types of planes used in World War II including fighters, bombers, and transport planes.
Fighters
Japanese Zero
Source: Naval History and Heritage Command
Fighter planes are designed for air-to-air combat. They are fast and agile. During World War II fighter planes were used to gain air superiority over a battlefield. They would try to shoot down the enemy's bomber planes and also protect their own bombers. Fighter planes were armed with high powered machine guns and cannons.
Spitfire
by Adrian Pingstone
Some of the more famous fighter planes during World War II included the German Messerschmitt Bf 109, the British Spitfire, the Japanese Zero, and the U.S. P51 Mustang.
Bombers
Bombers were larger planes that were designed to carry and drop bombs on enemy targets. There were different sizes of bomber planes including light, medium, and heavy. Light bombers took out smaller targets like armored vehicles. Some light bombers could also take off and land from an aircraft carrier. The heavy bombers could fly long distances and were used to take out larger targets such as cities and large military complexes. Bombers often had machine gun turrets including a tail gunner that would help to fight off enemy fighter planes.
B-29 Bomber by Unknown
Famous bomber planes of World War II include the German Heinkel He 111 (medium bomber), the British Avro 863 Lancaster (heavy bomber), the U.S. Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (heavy bomber), and the U.S. Boeing B-29 Superfortress (heavy bomber).
Transport
Transport planes were important during the war. They carried troops and supplies to different areas around the world. Many of these planes were civilian aircraft and passenger planes that were adapted to be used by the air force. Transport planes included the U.S. Douglas C-47 Skytrain and the U.S. C54 Skymaster.
Air Forces of World War II
Germany - The German air force was called the Luftwaffe. The Luftwaffe played a major role in helping Germany to take control of much of western Europe at the start of the war.
Britain - The British air force was the Royal Air Force (or the RAF). They used radar to help hold off the Germans in the Battle of Britain.
United States - The United States air force was called the Army Air Forces (or the AAF). The U.S. built up their air force after they were initially defeated by Japan's superior air power at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines.
Soviet Union - The air force of the Soviet Union was called the Soviet Air Force. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had produced over 36,000 of the Ilyushin II-10 ground-attack fighter.
Interesting Facts about the Aircraft of World War II
The Japanese used a tactic called Kamikaze where they would purposely crash a plane into an enemy ship to sink it. The Soviet Union used a similar tactic to bring down German aircraft.
Airplanes also played an important role in the war at sea through the use of aircraft carriers.
Around 12,000 heavy bombers were shot down during the war.
The United States manufactured around 276,000 aircraft during the war.
Learn More about World War II:
Overview:
| Luftwaffe |
To what colour is the human eye most sensitive? | World War 2 German Military Aircraft (1939-1945)
World War 2 German Military Aircraft (1939-1945)
World War 2 German Military Aircraft (1939-1945)
The Luftwaffe provided the second critical component to the successful armored blitzkrieg campaigns beginning World War 2 - it was a large part of the early German success.
There are a total of (202) World War 2 German Military Aircraft (1939-1945) in the Military Factory. Entries are listed below in alphanumeric order. Flag images indicative of country of origin. Captured enemy systems placed into service under the Luftwaffe banner are also included as are developmental and concept aircraft (including helicopters and jets) appearing during the war.
For more information on German military equipment of World War 2, consider the German tank and small arms pages.
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St Moritz in Switzerland has what famous Bobsled track? | Sports in St. Moritz, Engadin St. Moritz, Graubunden, Switzerland
Sports in St. Moritz
7 nights from 1520.- CHF
St. Moritz was famously the birthplace of winter Alpine tourism and winter sports in the 19th century, as well as the venue for two Winter Olympic Games (1928 and 1948) and numerous ski and bobsleigh world championships. During the winter months, the glamorous atmosphere in St. Moritz and the thrilling mountain on its doorstep, the Corviglia, make for a ski experience of a very special kind.
The St. Moritz bob run, the only natural ice track in the world that still hosts World Cup races, is a legend in itself – and anyone who rockets down it on a “bob guest ride” will understand vividly just why. Alongside it runs the famous Cresta Run, the birthplace of the sport of skeleton racing. With a length of 1,200 m and 10 corners, it offers riders average speeds of about 90 kph (55 mph) – travelling head-first, chin a mere 10 cm (4 in) above the ice.
| Cresta Run |
What marten, Martes zibellina, was a prized fur and erroneously a fine paintbrush? | Sports in St. Moritz, Engadin St. Moritz, Graubunden, Switzerland
Sports in St. Moritz
7 nights from 1520.- CHF
St. Moritz was famously the birthplace of winter Alpine tourism and winter sports in the 19th century, as well as the venue for two Winter Olympic Games (1928 and 1948) and numerous ski and bobsleigh world championships. During the winter months, the glamorous atmosphere in St. Moritz and the thrilling mountain on its doorstep, the Corviglia, make for a ski experience of a very special kind.
The St. Moritz bob run, the only natural ice track in the world that still hosts World Cup races, is a legend in itself – and anyone who rockets down it on a “bob guest ride” will understand vividly just why. Alongside it runs the famous Cresta Run, the birthplace of the sport of skeleton racing. With a length of 1,200 m and 10 corners, it offers riders average speeds of about 90 kph (55 mph) – travelling head-first, chin a mere 10 cm (4 in) above the ice.
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What orange black and white creature is Vanessa cardui? | Some Basic Information on the Four Vanessa Butterfly Species of North America | Red Admiral and Painted Lady Research Site
Red Admiral and Painted Lady Research Site
ISU Entomology / Red Admiral and Painted Lady Research Site / Some Basic Information on the Four Vanessa Butterfly Species of North America
Primary Links
Some Basic Information on the Four Vanessa Butterfly Species of North America
The Red Admiral, Vanessa atalanta (Linnaeus)
Description, Range, Habitat, and Seasonal Migration Patterns
The Red Admiral, Vanessa atalanta, is a common and cosmopolitan Holarctic butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. It inhabits North America from central Canada through the Mexican highlands to Guatemala (Opler, 1992). Typical habitat is rich, moist bottomland woods containing larval host plants such as stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) and false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica). V. atalanta is typically found in sunlit forest openings or margins (Opler and Krizek, 1984), often in or near stream courses; in moist fields, in city parks, and on ridge tops (Opler, 1992). The dorsal side of the wings is dark brown to black. The forewing has small white apical spots and a prominent red-orange median band, and the hindwing has a red-orange marginal band. V. atalanta's wing span varies from 58 to 76 mm (Opler, 1992); the male forewing length ranges from 2.6 to 3.3 cm (mean = 3.1 cm). Females are slightly larger than males: forewing length ranges from 2.9 to 3.5 cm (mean = 3.2 cm) (Opler and Krizek, 1984). Although V. atalanta shows little morphological variation over its geographic range, it has distinct summer and winter forms. The summer form is larger and brighter, with an interrupted forewing band, whereas the winter form is smaller and duller in color (Opler and Krizek, 1984). V. atalanta is double-brooded throughout most of its range (Opler and Krizek, 1984). It is single-brooded in the northernmost United States and Canada, and triple-brooded in the southern states. In Iowa, V. atalanta is active from mid to late April to late September or early October. V. atalanta is seasonally migratory (Opler and Krizek, 1984; Opler, 1992). It probably cannot survive colder winters in the northern part of its range (Opler, 1992), although Shapiro (1974) reports that adults hibernate successfully as far north as New York. It overwinters in the southern states, including south Texas (Opler, 1992) and Florida (Swanson, 1979; Swanson and Monge-Nájera, 2000).
Photo by Kirsten Mortensen, Rochester, New York, taken on the morning of July 9, 2004. The butterfly was sunning itself in a garden where some daisies and echinacea were in bloom.
The Painted Lady, Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus)
Description, Range, Habitat, and Sporadic Migratory Outbreaks
The Painted Lady, Vanessa cardui, is the most widely distributed butterfly in the world (Opler and Krizek, 1984; Scott, 1986). It is found throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, and Central America. It is not a permanent resident in the eastern United States, but quasi-periodically migrates there from the deserts of the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico (Opler and Krizek, 1984). These migrations are sporadic and often enormous, and often follow rainy periods in these deserts. Scott (1986) recognizes two subspecies: V. cardui cardui is found throughout North America south to Venezuela and throughout the Bahamas and Antilles; throughout Eurasia including India and Ceylon, and Africa including Madagascar. The other, V. c. kershawi, occurs in Australia and New Zealand and strays into Fiji. Hawaiian V. cardui adults are intermediate between the two subspecies, and both forms can develop from the eggs of a single female (Scott, 1986). According to Opler and Krizek (1984), V. cardui prefers open areas, including old fields, vacant lots, and gardens. I have found that in Iowa, V. cardui prefers more open areas such as prairies and fields, whereas V. atalanta prefers forest margins and parklike areas with more trees. Painted Lady larvae feed on a wide variety of host plants of the families Compositae (especially thistles), Boraginaceae, Malvaceae (especially the hollyhock Althaea), common mallow (Malva neglecta), and a number of legumes (Opler and Krizek, 1984) including Iowa soybeans (Scott, 1986) The dorsal side of the wings is orange-patterned. On the underside of the hindwing are five small submarginal eyespots. Females are generally larger than males. Male forewing length ranges from 2.5 to 3.3 cm (mean = 3.0 cm); female forewing length ranges from 3.0 to 3.4 cm (mean = 3.2 cm) (Opler and Krizek, 1984). V. cardui, like V. atalanta, has distinct summer and winter forms. The summer form is larger and brighter and has blue pupils in the submarginal spots on the dorsal hind wing (Opler and Krizek, 1984). The winter form has entirely black wing spots. The number of broods in any one place may vary from year to year because it is not a permanent resident in most of the U.S. (Opler and Krizek, 1984).
Photo by Mary Jane "M.J." Hatfield, north of Ames, Story County, Iowa, September 20, 2003. The butterfly is resting on a thistle.
The American Lady, Vanessa virginiensis (Drury)
Description, Range, Habitat, and Migratory Patterns
The American Lady, Vanessa virginiensis, inhabits North America from southern Canada through the entire United States, as well as the mountains of Central America, Colombia, and the Galapagos Islands (Opler, 1992). Typical habitat includes open areas with low vegetation, such as meadows, floodplains, vacant lots, and beach dunes (Opler and Krizek, 1984; Opler, 1992). The larvae, unlike those of the Painted Lady, feed on a comparatively limited range of foodplants. The preferred food sources are plants of the everlasting tribe of the Compositae, such as sweet everlasting (Graphalium obtusifolium), pearly everlasting (Anaphalis margaritacea), and plantain-leaved pussytoes (Antennaria plantaginifolia); they also feed occasionally on burdock (Arctium), wormwood (Artemisia), and ironweed (Vernonia) (Opler and Krizek 1984; Scott 1986). The dorsal side of the wings is orange-patterned, and a small white spot in the center of the cubital cell of the forewing is a distinguishing characteristic of this species. The American Lady can be most readily distinguished from the Painted Lady by the two large, black-ringed blue eyespots on the underside of the hindwing (Painted Ladies instead have five small submarginal eyespots). V. virginiensis' wing span varies from 53 to 67 mm (Opler, 1992); the male forewing length ranges from 2.4 to 3.0 cm (mean = 2.7 cm). Females are very slightly larger than males: forewing length ranges from 2.4 to 3.1 cm (mean = 2.8 cm) (Opler and Krizek 1984). As do V. atalanta and V. cardui, V. virginiensis has distinct summer and winter forms. The summer form is larger and more brightly colored, whereas the winter form is smaller and paler, with reduced black markings (Opler and Krizek 1984). The number of broods varies from two in the northern part of its range to three or four in the southern U.S. Adults occur in every month in Mississippi and Florida, but it is uncertain whether or not they are reproductive there during the winter (Opler and Krizek 1984). Scott (1986) describes V. virginiensis as being "somewhat migratory." A northward migration was observed in Iowa and southern Ontario in spring 2001. Whether or not adults can survive cold winters is not clearly documented (Opler 1992). Because V. virginiensis may not be able to overwinter in the northernmost states (Opler and Krizek 1984), migrants may need to recolonize much of the eastern U.S. each year (Opler 1992).
Photo by Jim Tompkins, Halifax, Nova Scotia, taken about noon on October 1, 2003, 36 hours after the eye of Hurricane Juan passed over Halifax. The butterfly rested on the ground for about 5 minutes before flying away.
The West Coast Lady, Vanessa annabella Field
Description, Range, and Habitat
The West Coast Lady, Vanessa annabella, unlike the previous three species, is limited to western North America. It most commonly occurs in a region between the West Coast and a north-south line through eastern Colorado. It typically inhabits open areas, and occurs at various levels in the mountains, from the Upper Sonoran to the Canadian zones (Scott 1986). The larvae prefer to feed on plants of the families Malvaceae (including hollyhock) and Urticaceae, including the nettle species Urtica dioica and U. urens) (Scott 1986). The dorsal side of the wings somewhat resembles that of the Painted Lady, with two distinguishing differences. The postmedian bar on the forewing of V. annabella is orange, rather than white as for V. cardui, and the tip of the forewing is more angled than that of the Painted Lady.
Photo by Ron Hemberger, Irvine, California, taken at the University of California - Irvine Arboretum on January 17, 2006, 2:20 p. m. Pacific time. The butterfly is resting on a very large pine cone. Image copyright 2006, Ron Hemberger. Link to the original photo in BugGuide.
Literature Cited
Opler, P.A. (1992). A Field Guide to Eastern Butterflies. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Opler, P.A. and G.O. Krizek (1984). Butterflies East of the Great Plains. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Scott, J.A. (1986). The Butterflies of North America. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.
Shapiro, A.M. (1974). Butterflies and skippers of New York State. Search 4: 1-60.
Swanson, H.F. (1979). Butterfly Revelations. Rollins Press, Inc., Orlando, Florida.
Swanson, H.F. and J. Monge-Nájera (2000). The effects of methodological limitations in the study of butterfly behavior and demography: a daily study of Vanessa atalanta (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) for 22 years. Revista de Biología Tropical 48 (2/3): 605-614.
Additional Information, Photos, and Distribution Maps from Butterflies and Moths of North America:
| Painted lady |
Galilean, Keplerian, Newtonian and Conde are types of what instrument? | Painted Lady - Montana Field Guide
Montana Field Guide
Species - Painted Lady - Vanessa cardui
Painted Lady - Vanessa cardui
General Description
[From Ferris and Brown 1981; Scott 1986; Opler and Wright 1999; Glassberg 2001; Pyle 2002] Forewing 2.5-3.5 cm. Uppersurface orange-brown with darker wing bases, forewing apical area black with white spots and white subapical bar on leading edge, hindwing with a submarginal row of 5 small black spots that sometimes have blue scales; undersurface of hindwing with a black, brown, and gray pattern, 4 small submarginal eyespots.
Phenology
Several flights throughout the year in Texas, southern Florida, southern California; fewer farther north (Scott 1986). Mostly March and April to October and November (Glassberg 2001). April to October in Colorado (Scott and Scott 1978); early March to late October in Oregon (Warren 2005); early April to early November in Oregon and Washington (Pyle 2002); May to October in southeastern British Columbia (Threatful 1988).
Diagnostic Characteristics
Best determined by a combination of the upper surface of forewing apical area black with white spots and white subapical bar on leading edge, uppersurface of hindwing with submarginal row of 5 small black spots that sometimes have blue scales; undersurface of hindwing with 4 small submarginal eyespots.
Species Range
Click the legend blocks above to view individual ranges.
Range Comments
Occurs on all continents except Australia and Antarctica. In North America from southeastern Alaska and subarctic Canada south throughout the continental US and Mexico (Scott 1986; Opler and Wright 1999; Glassberg 2001; Pyle 2002); to 3962 m elevation in Colorado (Scott and Scott 1978); to 3200 m in Wyoming (Nabokov 1953). In Montana, reported from across the state and in every county (Kohler 1980; Stanford and Opler 1993). Common to abundant, but rare to common in Pacific Northwest (Glassberg 2001).
Summary of Observations Submitted for Montana
Number of Observations: 15
(Click on the following maps and charts to see full sized version) Map Help and Descriptions
Relative Density
(Observations spanning multiple months or years are excluded from time charts)
Migration
Migratory; northward in spring and summer through several generations of adults, last flight southward in autumn (Scott 1986; Guppy and Shepard 2001; Pyle 2002).
Habitat
Open situations; fields, marshes, montane forest clearings, prairies, dunes, thorn scrub, deserts, suburbs, gardens, to above treeline in alpine terrain (Nabokov 1953; Ferris and Brown 1981; Scott 1986; Opler and Wright 1999; Glassberg 2001; Pyle 2002). In Glacier National Park Montana, reported from montane mesic meadows (Debinski 1993), but probably occurs in most open situations some years.
Food Habits
Larval food plants very diverse (more than 100 species), with several species of Cirsium especially favored; other species include Achillia, Althaea, Anaphalis, Arctium, Artemesia, Carduus, Centaria, Citrus, Cryptantha, Fragaria, Helianthus, Helianthella, Lupinus, Malva, Medicago, Mentha, Nicotiana, Plantago, Prunus, Rhamnus, Rudbeckia, Rumex, Salvia, Senecio, Solanum, Trifolium, Ulmus, Urtica, and Wyethia (Scott 1986, 1992, 2006). Adults feed on flower nectar (including Achillea, Allium, Alyssum, Anemone, Apocynum, Arctostaphylos, Arnica, Asclepias, Astragalus, Barbarea, Berberis, Buddleia, Calyptridium, Carduus, Ceanothus, Centaurea, hrysanthemum, Chrysothamnus, Cirsium, Cryptantha, Delphinium, Dipsacus, Dryas, Echinacea, Erigeron, Erioganum, Erysimum, Grindelia, Haplopappus, Helianthus, Helianthella, Heterotheca, Jamesia, Lesquerella, Lobelia, Lonicera, Medicago, Mertensia, Monarda, Oxytropis, Penstemon, Phacelia, Phlox, Physocarpus, Polygonum, Prunus, Pyrus, Ranunculus, Rubus, Rudbeckia, Salvia, Sedum, Senecio, Solidago, Symphoricarpos, Syringa, Taraxacum, Thalaspi, Tilia, Trifolium, Verbena, Viburnum, Viola, and Zinnia), rotting fruit, sap, dung, and mud (Pyle 2002; Scott 2014).
Reproductive Characteristics
Females lay eggs singly on the undersides of host plant leaves (Scott 1986; James and Nunnallee 2011). Eggs hatch in about 6 days (depending on temperature), develop rapidly, take about 21 days from egg-hatch to L5 instar and pupation; adults eclose (emerge from pupae) about 10 days after pupation. Larvae usually solitary, build silk nest completely surrounding larvae on host plant leave. Larvae usually wander before pupating, but some may pupate on host plant. Autumn adults migrate south or die (Guppy and Shaepard 2001; Pyle 2002; Warren 2005; James and Nunnallee 2011), although adults may hibernate in Colorado and some other southern regions (Scott 1986, 1992). Males perch and sometimes patrol, often on hilltop shrubs, awaiting or searching for passing females (Scott 1975).
References
Literature Cited AboveLegend:
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Debinski, D. 1993. Butterflies of Glacier National Park, Montana. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Natural History, the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. No. 159: 1-13.
Ferris, C.D. and F.M. Brown (eds). 1981. Butterflies of the Rocky Mountains. Univ. of Oklahoma Press. Norman. 442 pp.
Glassberg, J. 2001. Butterflies through Binoculars: A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Western North America. Oxford University Press.
Guppy, C.S. and J.H. Shepard. 2001. Butterflies of British Columbia: including western Alberta, southern Yukon, the Alaska Panhandle, Washington, northern Oregon, northern Idaho, northwestern Montana. UBC Press (Vancouver, BC) and Royal British Columbia Museum (Victoria, BC). 414 pp.
James, D.G. and D. Nunnallee. 2011. Life histories of Cascadia butterflies. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press. 447 p.
Kohler, S. 1980. Checklist of Montana Butterflies (Rhopalocera). Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society 34(1): 1-19.
Nabokov, V. 1953. Butterfly collecting in Wyoming, 1952. The Lepidopterists' News 7(2): 49-52.
Opler, P.A. and A.B. Wright. 1999. A field guide to western butterflies. Second edition. Peterson Field Guides. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts. 540 pp.
Opler, P.A., K. Lotts, and T. Naberhaus, coordinators. 2010. Butterflies and moths of North America. Big Sky Institute, Bozeman, MT. Available at: www.butterfliesandmoths.org (Accessed 15 June 2015).
Pyle, R.M. 2002. The butterflies of Cascadia: a field guide to all the species of Washington, Oregon, and surrounding territories. Seattle Audubon Society, Seattle, Washington. 420 pp.
Scott, J.A. 1975. Mate-locating behavior of western North American butterflies. Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 14:1-40.
Scott, J.A. 1986. The butterflies of North America: a natural history and field guide. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.
Scott, J.A. 1992. Hostplant records for butterflies and skippers (mostly from Colorado) 1959-1992, with new life histories and notes on oviposition, immatures, and ecology. Papilio new series #6. 185 p.
Scott, J.A. 2006. Butterfly hostplant records, 1992-2005, with a treatise on the evolution of Erynnis, and a note on new terminology for mate-locating behavior. Papilio new series #14. 74 p.
Scott, J.A. 2014. Lepidoptera of North America 13. Flower visitation by Colorado butterflies (40,615 records) with a review of the literature on pollination of Colorado plants and butterfly attraction (Lepidoptera: Hersperioidea and Papilionoidea). Contributions of the C.P. Gillette Museum of Arthopod Diversity. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 190 p.
Scott, J.A. and G.R. Scott. 1978. Ecology and distribution of the butterflies of southern central Colorado. Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 17(2): 73-128.
Stanford, R.E. and P.A. Opler. 1993. Atlas of western USA butterflies: including adjacent parts of Canada and Mexico. Unpubl. Report. Denver and Fort Collins, Colorado 275 pp.
Threatful, D.L. 1988. A list of the butterflies and skippers of Mount Revelstoke and Glacier National Parks, British Columbia, Canada (Lepidoptera). Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 27(3-4): 213-221.
Warren, A.D. 2005. Lepidoptera of North America 6: Butterflies of Oregon, their taxonomy, distribution, and biology. Contributions of the C. P. Gillette Museum of Arthropod Diversity, Colorado State University. Fort Collins, Colorado. 406 pp.
Additional ReferencesLegend:
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Allen, T.J., J.P. Brock, and J. Glassberg. 2005. Caterpillars in the field and garden: a field guide to the butterfly caterpillars of North America. Oxford University Press.
Brock, J.P. and K. Kaufman. 2003. Kaufman Field Guide to Butterflies of North America. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, NY 284 pp.
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What ancient rulers wore a double-crown symbolizing their joined upper and lower lands? | Ancient Egypt
ANCIENT EGYPT
[Excerpted from Egypt: A Country Study. Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, 1990]
Historical Setting
THE ROOTS OF EGYPTIAN civilization go back more than 6,000 years to the beginning of settled life along the banks of the Nile River. The country has an unusual geographical and cultural unity that has given the Egyptian people a strong sense of identity and a pride in their heritage as descendants of humankind's earliest civilized community.
Within the long sweep of Egyptian history, certain events or epochs have been crucial to the development of Egyptian society and culture. One of these was the unification of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt sometime in the third millennium B.C. The ancient Egyptians regarded this event as the most important in their history, comparable to the "First Time," or the creation of the universe. With the unification of the "Two Lands" by the legendary, if not mythical, King Menes, the glorious Pharaonic Age began. Power was centralized in the hands of a god-king, and, thus, Egypt became the first organized society.
The ancient Egyptians were the first people of antiquity to believe in life after death. They were the first to build in stone and to fashion the arch in stone and brick. Even before the unification of the Two Lands, the Egyptians had developed a plow and a system of writing. They were accomplished sailors and shipbuilders. They learned to chart the heavens in order to predict the Nile flood. Their physicians prescribed healing remedies and performed surgical operations. They sculpted in stone and decorated the walls of their tombs with naturalistic murals in vibrant colors. The legacy of ancient Egypt is written in stone across the face of the country from the pyramids of Upper Egypt to the rock tombs in the Valley of the Kings to the Old Kingdom temples of Luxor and Karnak to the Ptolemaic temples of Edfu and Dendera and to the Roman temple to Isis on Philae Island.
ANCIENT EGYPT
The Predynastic Period and the First and Second Dynasties, 6000-2686 B.C.
During this period, when people first began to settle along the banks of the Nile (Nahr an Nil) and to evolve from hunters and gatherers to settled, subsistence agriculturalists, Egypt developed the written language, religion, and institutions that made it the world's first organized society. Through pharaonic Egypt, Africa claims to be the cradle of one of the earliest and most spectacular civilizations of antiquity.
One of the unique features of ancient Egyptian civilization was the bond between the Nile and the Egyptian people and their institutions. The Nile caused the great productivity of the soil, for it annually brought a copious deposit of rich silt from the monsoon-swept tableland of Ethiopia. Each July, the level of the Nile began to rise, and by the end of August, the flood reached its full height. At the end of October, the flood began to recede, leaving behind a fairly uniform deposit of silt as well as lagoons and streams that became natural reservoirs for fish. By April, the Nile was at its lowest level. Vegetation started to diminish, seasonal pools dried out, and game began to move south. Then in July, the Nile would rise again, and the cycle was repeated.
Because of the fall and rise of the river, one can understand why the Egyptians were the first people to believe in life after death. The rise and fall of the flood waters meant that the "death" of the land would be followed each year by the "rebirth" of the crops. Thus, rebirth was seen as a natural sequence to death. Like the sun, which "died" when it sank on the western horizon and was "reborn" in the eastern sky on the following morning, humans would also rise and live again.
Sometime during the final Paleolithic period and the Neolithic era, a revolution occurred in food production. Meat ceased to be the chief article of diet and was replaced by plants such as wheat and barley grown extensively as crops and not gathered at random in the wild. The relatively egalitarian tribal structure of the Nile Valley broke down because of the need to manage and control the new agricultural economy and the surplus it generated. Long-distance trade within Egypt, a high degree of craft specialization, and sustained contacts with southwest Asia encouraged the development of towns and a hierarchical structure with power residing in a headman who was believed to be able to control the Nile flood. The headman's power rested on his reputation as a "rainmaker king." The towns became trading centers, political centers, and cult centers. Egyptologists disagree as to when these small, autonomous communities were unified into the separate kingdoms of Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt and as to when the two kingdoms were united under one king.
Nevertheless, the most important political event in ancient Egyptian history was the unification of the two lands: the Black Land of the Delta, so-called because of the darkness of its rich soil, and the Red Land of Upper Egypt, the sun-baked land of the desert. The rulers of Lower Egypt wore the red crown and had the bee as their symbol. The leaders of Upper Egypt wore the white crown and took the sedge as their emblem. After the unification of the two kingdoms, the pharaoh wore the double crown symbolizing the unity of the two lands.
The chief god of the Delta was Horus, and that of Upper Egypt was Seth. The unification of the two kingdoms resulted in combining the two myths concerning the gods. Horus was the son of Osiris and Isis and avenged the evil Seth's slaying of his father by killing Seth, thus showing the triumph of good over evil. Horus took over his father's throne and was regarded as the ancestor of the pharaohs. After unification, each pharaoh took a Horus name that indicated that he was the reincarnation of Horus. According to tradition, King Menes of Upper Egypt united the two kingdoms and established his capital at Memphis, then known as the "White Walls." Some scholars believe Menes was the Horus King Narmer, whereas others prefer to regard him as a purely legendary figure.
With the emergence of a strong, centralized government under a god-king, the country's nascent economic and political institutions became subject to royal authority. The central government, either directly or through major officials, became the employer of soldiers, retainers, bureaucrats, and artisans whose goods and services benefited the upper classes and the state gods. In the course of the Early Dynastic Period, artisans and civil servants working for the central government fashioned the highly sophisticated traditions of art and learning that thereafter constituted the basic pattern of pharaonic civilization.
The Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and Second Intermediate Period, 2686 to 1552 B.C.
Historians have given the name "kingdom" to those periods in Egyptian history when the central government was strong, the country was unified, and there was an orderly succession of pharaohs. At times, however, central authority broke down, competing centers of power emerged, and the country was plunged into civil war or was occupied by foreigners. These periods are known as "intermediate periods." The Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom together represent an important single phase in Egyptian political and cultural development. The Third Dynasty reached a level of competence that marked a plateau of achievement for ancient Egypt. After five centuries and following the end of the Sixth Dynasty (ca. 2181 B.C.), the system faltered, and a century and a half of civil war, the First Intermediate Period, ensued. The reestablishment of a powerful central government during the Twelfth Dynasty, however, re-instituted the patterns of the Old Kingdom. Thus, the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom may be considered together.
Divine kingship was the most striking feature of Egypt in these periods. The political and economic system of Egypt developed around the concept of a god incarnate who was believed through his magical powers to control the Nile flood for the benefit of the nation. In the form of great religious complexes centered on the pyramid tombs, the cult of the pharaoh, the godking , was given monumental expression of a grandeur unsurpassed in the ancient Near East.
Central to the Egyptian view of kingship was the concept of maat, loosely translated as justice and truth but meaning more than legal fairness and factual accuracy. It referred to the ideal state of the universe and was personified as the goddess Maat. The king was responsible for its appearance, an obligation that acted as a constraint on the arbitrary exercise of power.
The pharaoh ruled by divine decree. In the early years, his sons and other close relatives acted as his principal advisers and aides. By the Fourth Dynasty, there was a grand vizier or chief minister, who was at first a prince of royal blood and headed every government department. The country was divided into nomes or districts administered by nomarchs or governors. At first, the nomarchs were royal officials who moved from post to post and had no pretense to independence or local ties. The post of nomarch eventually became hereditary, however, and nomarchs passed their offices to their sons. Hereditary offices and the possession of property turned these officials into a landed gentry. Concurrently, kings began rewarding their courtiers with gifts of tax-exempt land. From the middle of the Fifth Dynasty can be traced the beginnings of a feudal state with an increase in the power of these provincial lords, particularly in Upper Egypt.
The Old Kingdom ended when the central administration collapsed in the late Sixth Dynasty. This collapse seems to have resulted at least in part from climatic conditions that caused a period of low Nile waters and great famine. The kings would have been discredited by the famine, because pharaonic power rested in part on the belief that the king controlled the Nile flood. In the absence of central authority, the hereditary landowners took control and assumed responsibility for maintaining order in their own areas. The manors of their estates turned into miniature courts, and Egypt splintered into a number of feudal states. This period of decentralized rule and confusion lasted from the Seventh through the Eleventh dynasties.
The kings of the Twelfth Dynasty restored central government control and a single strong kingship in the period known as the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom ended with the conquest of Egypt by the Hyksos, the so-called Shepherd Kings. The Hyksos were Semitic nomads who broke into the Delta from the northeast and ruled Egypt from Avaris in the eastern Delta.
Pyramid Building in the Old and Middle Kingdoms
With the Third Dynasty, Egypt entered into the five centuries of high culture known as the Pyramid Age. The age is associated with Chancellor Imhotep, the adviser, administrator, and architect of Pharaoh Djoser. He built the pharaoh's funerary complex, including his tomb, the Step Pyramid, at Saqqarah. Imhotep is famed as the inventor of building in dressed stone. His architectural genius lay in his use of durable, fine-quality limestone to imitate the brick, wood, and reed structures that have since disappeared.
The first true pyramid was built by Snoferu, the first king of the Fourth Dynasty. His son and successor, Kheops, built the Great Pyramid at Giza (Al Jizah); this, with its two companions on the same site, was considered one of the wonders of the ancient world. It contained well over 2 million blocks of limestone, some weighing fifteen tons apiece. The casing stones of the Great Pyramid were stripped off to build medieval Cairo (Al Qahirah).
The building and equipping of funerary monuments represented the single largest industry through the Old Kingdom and, after a break, the Middle Kingdom as well. The channeling of so much of the country's resources into building and equipping funerary monuments may seem unproductive by modern standards, but pyramid building seems to have been essential for the growth of pharaonic civilization.
As Egyptologists have pointed out, in ancient societies innovations in technology arose not so much from deliberate research as from the consequences of developing lavish court projects. Equally important, the continued consumption of so great a quantity of wealth and of the products of artisanship sustained the machinery that produced them by creating fresh demand as reign succeeded reign.
The pyramids of the pharaohs, the tombs of the elite, and the burial practices of the poorer classes are related to ancient Egyptian religious beliefs, particularly belief in the afterlife. The Egyptian belief that life would continue after death in a form similar to that experienced on earth was an important element in the development of art and architecture that was not present in other cultures. Thus, in Egypt, a dwelling place was provided for the dead in the form of a pyramid or a rock tomb. Life was magically recreated in pictures on the walls of the tombs, and a substitute in stone was provided for the perishable body of the deceased.
The New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, 1552-664 B.C.
Around the year 1600 B.C., a semi-autonomous Theban dynasty under the suzerainty of the Hyksos became determined to drive the Shepherd Kings out of the country and extend its own power. The country was liberated from the Hyksos and unified by Ahmose (ruled 1570-1546 B.C.), the son of the last ruler of the Seventeenth Dynasty. He was honored by subsequent generations as the founder of a new line, the Eighteenth Dynasty, and as the initiator of a glorious chapter in Egyptian history.
During the New Kingdom, Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territory. The government was reorganized into a military state with an administration centralized in the hands of the pharaoh and his chief minister. Through the intensive military campaigns of Pharaoh Thutmose III (1490-1436 B.C.), Palestine, Syria, and the northern Euphrates area in Mesopotamia were brought within the New Kingdom. This territorial expansion involved Egypt in a complicated system of diplomacy, alliances, and treaties. After Thutmose III established the empire, succeeding pharaohs frequently engaged in warfare to defend the state against the pressures of Libyans from the west, Nubians and Ethiopians (Kushites) from the south, Hittites from the east, and Philistines (sea people) from the Aegean-Mediterranean region of the north.
Toward the end of the Twentieth Dynasty, Egyptian power declined at home and abroad. Egypt was once more separated into its natural divisions of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. The pharaoh now ruled from his residence-city in the north, and Memphis remained the hallowed capital where the pharaoh was crowned and his jubilees celebrated. Upper Egypt was governed from Thebes.
During the Twenty-first Dynasty, the pharaohs ruled from Tanis (San al Hajar al Qibliyah), while a virtually autonomous theocracy controlled Thebes. Egyptian control in Nubia and Ethiopia vanished. The pharaohs of the Twenty-second and Twentythird dynasties were mostly Libyans. Those of the brief Twentyfourth Dynasty were Egyptians of the Nile Delta, and those of the Twenty-fifth were Nubians and Ethiopians. This dynasty's ventures into Palestine brought about an Assyrian intervention, resulting in the rejection of the Ethiopians and the reestablishment by the Assyrians of Egyptian rulers at Sais (Sa al Hajar), about eighty kilometers southeast of Alexandria (Al Iskandariyah) on the Rosetta branch of the Nile.
Art and Architecture in the New Kingdom
As historian Cyril Aldred has said, the civilization of the New Kingdom seems the most golden of all the epochs of Egyptian history, perhaps because so much of its wealth remains. The rich store of treasures from the tomb of Tutankhamen (1347-1337 B.C.) gives us a glimpse of the dazzling court art of the period and the skills of the artisans of the day.
One of the innovations of the period was the construction of rock tombs for the pharaohs and the elite. Around 1500 B.C., Pharaoh Amenophis I abandoned the pyramid in favor of a rock-hewn tomb in the crags of western Thebes (present-day Luxor). His example was followed by his successors, who for the next four centuries cut their tombs in the Valley of the Kings and built their mortuary temples on the plain below. Other wadis or river valleys were subsequently used for the tombs of queens and princes.
Another New Kingdom innovation was temple building, which began with Queen Hatshepsut, who as the heiress queen seized power in default of male claimants to the throne. She was particularly devoted to the worship of the god Amun, whose cult was centered at Thebes. She built a splendid temple dedicated to him and to her own funerary cult at Dayr al Bahri in western Thebes.
One of the greatest temples still standing is that of Pharaoh Amenophis III at Thebes. With Amenophis III, statuary on an enormous scale makes its appearance. The most notable is the pair of colossi, the so-called Colossi of Memnon, which still dominate the Theban plain before the vanished portal of his funerary temple.
Ramesses II was the most vigorous builder to wear the double crown of Egypt. Nearly half the temples remaining in Egypt date from his reign. Some of his constructions include his mortuary temple at Thebes, popularly known as the Ramesseum; the huge hypostyle hall at Karnak, the rock-hewn temple at Abu Simbel (Abu Sunbul); and his new capital city of Pi Ramesses.
The Cult of the Sun God and Akhenaten's Monotheism
During the New Kingdom, the cult of the sun god Ra became increasingly important until it evolved into the uncompromising monotheism of Pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV, 1364-1347 B.C.). According to the cult, Ra created himself from a primeval mound in the shape of a pyramid and then created all other gods. Thus, Ra was not only the sun god, he was also the universe, having created himself from himself. Ra was invoked as Aten or the Great Disc that illuminated the world of the living and the dead.
The effect of these doctrines can be seen in the sun worship of Pharaoh Akhenaten, who became an uncompromising monotheist. Aldred has speculated that monotheism was Akhenaten's own idea, the result of regarding Aten as a self-created heavenly king whose son, the pharaoh, was also unique. Akhenaten made Aten the supreme state god, symbolized as a rayed disk with each sunbeam ending in a ministering hand. Other gods were abolished, their images smashed, their names excised, their temples abandoned, and their revenues impounded. The plural word for god was suppressed. Sometime in the fifth or sixth year of his reign, Akhenaten moved his capital to a new city called Akhetaten (present-day Tall al Amarinah, also seen as Tell al Amarna). At that time, the pharaoh, previously known as Amenhotep IV, adopted the name Akhenaten. His wife, Queen Nefertiti, shared his beliefs.
Akhenaten's religious ideas did not survive his death. His ideas were abandoned in part because of the economic collapse that ensued at the end of his reign. To restore the morale of the nation, Akhenaten's successor, Tutankhamen, appeased the offended gods whose resentment would have blighted all human enterprise. Temples were cleaned and repaired, new images made, priests appointed, and endowments restored. Akhenaten's new city was abandoned to the desert sands.
The Late Period, 664-323 B.C.
The Late Period includes the last periods during which ancient Egypt functioned as an independent political entity. During these years, Egyptian culture was under pressure from major civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East. The socioeconomic system, however, had a vigor, efficiency, and flexibility that ensured the success of the nation during these years of triumph and disaster.
Throughout the Late Period, Egypt made a largely successful effort to maintain an effectively centralized state, which, except for the two periods of Persian occupation (Twenty-seventh and Thirty-first dynasties), was based on earlier indigenous models. Late Period Egypt, however, displayed certain destabilizing features, such as the emergence of regionally based power centers. These contributed to the revolts against the Persian occupation but also to the recurrent internal crises of the Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth, and Thirtieth dynasties.
The Twenty-sixth Dynasty was founded by Psammethichus I, who made Egypt a powerful and united kingdom. This dynasty, which ruled from 664 to 525 B.C., represented the last great age of pharaonic civilization. The dynasty ended when a Persian invasion force under Cambyses, the son of Cyrus the Great, dethroned the last pharaoh.
Cambyses established himself as pharaoh and appears to have made some attempts to identify his regime with the Egyptian religious hierarchy. Egypt became a Persian province serving chiefly as a source of revenue for the far-flung Persian (Achaemenid) Empire. From Cambyses to Darius II in the years 525 to 404 B.C., the Persian emperors are counted as the Twentyseventh Dynasty.
Periodic Egyptian revolts, usually aided by Greek military forces, were unsuccessful until 404 B.C., when Egypt regained an uneasy independence under the short-lived, native Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth, and Thirtieth dynasties. Independence was lost again in 343 B.C., and Persian rule was oppressively reinstated and continued until 335 B.C., in what is sometimes called the Thirty-first Dynasty or second Persian occupation of Egypt.
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What type of lens bends parallel rays inwards: convex or concave? | When did kings begin to wear crowns? - Historum - History Forums
When did kings begin to wear crowns?
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Posts: 93
When did kings begin to wear crowns?
What is the oldest recorded example of a ruler wearing some kind of headpiece to symbolise his worldly power?
My guess is Egypt with the nemes [[ame="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemes"]Nemes - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia[/ame]]
Joined: Aug 2012
Posts: 34
Here is an example from the 18th century BCE but the tradition was likely much older. The guy with the big fancy hat is always the leader right?
Sumerian carvings usually show the King wearing a distinctive headdress(looks like a cap)
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Of course it depends on what you mean with the word "crown". Ancient Egyptian Pharaohs were used to wear at least one crown and after the unification of the High and Low Egypt they begun to wear two crowns [called "pschent" when together].
From: Michigan, USA.
Posts: 446
Depends on where you live at what time period. In, europe before the Prodestant Reformation, monarchs wore simple gilded bands and diadems to essay their authority given by God via the Catholic Church as bishops would be the ones to place the circlet upon the noble's brow. This piece of headgear began in Achmaemenid Perisa, later adopted by Constantine which -like everything else he adopted- spread all over Europe.
This is the Iron Crown of Lombardy, one of the oldest pieces of royal symbology in Europe and believed to have been used by Constantine himself as a gift from his mother. Makes sense no?
As the continent matured however and grew more secular, noble accessories become more ornate in tandem with the growing authority of the King and Queen. Just take a glance at how blue-bloods arrayed themselves in Elizabethan England or the Sun King.
As for a more general reference to the world, you can find crowns and other similar manifestations of royalty on nearly every continent. The oldest example of crowns are the Pharaoh's dual-crown.
Posts: 462
Amratian/Naqada I, found at Gebelein.
EDIT: I should add that while this is the oldest unambiguous proof of a royal headdress I can think of, I am fairly certain that there are older Sumerian depictions of divine headwear.
Last edited by Sokar Rostau; August 22nd, 2012 at 11:38 AM.
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Two stone vessels found in rich graves at Qustul, in northern Nubia, dating to about 3400-3200 BCE, carved of Nubian stone, show kings sitting in boats and wearing the "White Crown". This crown was once associated only with Egyptian kings. Because these vessels came from Nubia, some archaeologists think these kings may not be Egyptian but very early Nubian rulers. Also shown in these carvings are: a palace front, bound prisoners (suggesting that these scenes commemorate a victory), and a lion in a boat (perhaps symbolizing the king).
As early as 3200BC, the kings of Southern Egypt are depicted wearing the "White Crown"
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The first King of England to wear a crown was Athelstan.
He was Alfred the Great's grandson and became King of Wessex in 924. But it was during his reign that, in 927, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms unified to form England, so he became the first King of England, and held that title until he died in 939.
Before Athelstan, Anglo-Saxons kings wore ceremonial helmets instead of crowns.
As a result of this, Athelstan was the first English (and probably British, full stop) monarch to be shown wearing a crown on coinage.
Last edited by Brunel; August 29th, 2012 at 03:29 AM.
Quote:
Originally Posted by MinoanGoddess
Two stone vessels found in rich graves at Qustul, in northern Nubia, dating to about 3400-3200 BCE, carved of Nubian stone, show kings sitting in boats and wearing the "White Crown". This crown was once associated only with Egyptian kings. Because these vessels came from Nubia, some archaeologists think these kings may not be Egyptian but very early Nubian rulers. Also shown in these carvings are: a palace front, bound prisoners (suggesting that these scenes commemorate a victory), and a lion in a boat (perhaps symbolizing the king).
As early as 3200BC, the kings of Southern Egypt are depicted wearing the "White Crown"
I don't think that that image is showing the White Crown only, the one on the left looks more like the Red Crown. It's also very interesting to note that, in the lower half of the image, the king with the Red Crown has a royal beard and is holding a flail (at least that's how it's been reconstructed), while the one with the White Crown has neither.
For reference, the Amratian/Naqada I culture that produced the figurine in my earlier post dates to c.4000 - 3500 BCE.
Quote:
Originally Posted by Sokar Rostau
I don't think that that image is showing the White Crown only, the one on the left looks more like the Red Crown. It's also very interesting to note that, in the lower half of the image, the king with the Red Crown has a royal beard and is holding a flail (at least that's how it's been reconstructed), while the one with the White Crown has neither.
For reference, the Amratian/Naqada I culture that produced the figurine in my earlier post dates to c.4000 - 3500 BCE.
This is the categorization of the Egyptian Crowns:
Based on the iconography it does look like a white crown, and not a double crown or red crown as it is tall and cononical in shape.
The White Crown - Hedjet
(The Bright One - hdt). The crown of Upper Egypt is a tall white conical crown, known from as early as the Pre-Dynastic Period and is depicted on the Narmer Palette, it is associated with the kingship of the two lands.
Worn by the king to show him as ruler of Upper Egypt.
The Red Crown - Deshret
(The Red One - dsrt). The crown of Lower Egypt is a stair like headress suplemented by a wire that ends in a spiral. This crown is also depiceted on the Narmer Palette and is worn by the king to show him as rule of Lower Egypt.
The Double Crown - Pschent.
(The Two Powerful Ones - sekhemti) This was the Double Crown of Ancient Egypt and it symbolised the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, it was worn by the king to show him as a ruler of both Upper and Lower Egypt.
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Mumps can spread, rarely, where in adult males, with permanent procreational effect? | Complications and Symptoms of Mumps in Men
Complications and Symptoms of Mumps in Men
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Complications and Symptoms of Mumps in Men
In Men, Mumps Can Cause Orchitis or Testicular Swelling
By Jerry Kennard
Updated September 05, 2016
Mumps is an acute viral infection that is most common in the winter and spring. Mumps is more common in children but riskier in older children and can, in rare cases, cause long term and life-threatening complications in men.
How Mumps Spreads
Mumps is spread through contact with infected saliva or discharges from the nose or throat of infected people, usually through sneezing and coughing.
Incubation Period for Mumps
The usual incubation period for mumps is between 16 to 18 days although this period may vary between 12 to 25 days.
When a Person With Mumps is Contagious
A person who has mumps is contagious (can pass on the virus) for the 3 days before signs and symptoms become evident and for 4 days after the onset of them. Mumps is less contagious than measles or chickenpox but as contagious as flu and rubella.
Signs and Symptoms of Mumps
Symptoms of mumps include the following:
Fever
Headache
Tenderness of one or more of the salivary glands close to the jaw. The parotid gland located in front of the ear is the most commonly affected gland.
Complications of mumps
Complications of mumps, although potentially very serious, are quite rare. In men these complications include:
Orchitis : is an inflammatory condition that causes swelling of one or both testicles. Orchitis although painful rarely leads to sterility.
Meningitis: is infection and inflammation of the membranes and fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Meningitis is a rare complication of mumps but can be life threatening.
Encephalitis: is inflammation of the brain caused by a viral infection , in this case, mumps. Encephalitis is a serious but rare complication of mumps but can be life threatening.
Pancreatitis : is a complication of mumps that causes swelling of the pancreas.
Hearing loss : is a rare complication of mumps. Mumps can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss in one or both ears.
Immunity From Mumps
Once you have had mumps you acquire immunity. This means people who have had mumps rarely get it again. If they do it is usually a much milder case of the illness.
Adult Male Vaccination for Mumps
There is a vaccine for mumps . This is usually administered in childhood. The vaccine is usually offered in combination with the vaccine for measles and mumps. High immunization rates in your local community provide good protection for adults and children. Unfortunately the rates of mumps are increasing because the MMR (measles mumps and rubella) vaccine has been linked with autism. This link is far from proven.
Not all adults will need to consider having a vaccination against mumps (MMR). This includes you if:
A blood test shows you already have immunity to mumps
If you have already have had 2 doses of the MMR vaccine
If you have already had 1 dose of MMR and a second dose of measles vaccine
You have had one dose of MMR vaccine and are not at high risk of becoming exposed to the disease
If you are a man who was born before 1957 you do not requires the vaccine.
It is advisable for adults to have the MMR vaccine if you are a health worker, a college student, in the military or are traveling abroad where you are more likely to come into contact with mumps.
The vaccine is not recommended for people who have had a life-threatening allergic reaction to gelatin or the antibiotic neomycin, if you have had cancer, a blood disorder, or another disease that affects your immune system. If this profile fits you then you must consult your doctor before making the decision to have an MMR vaccine.
MMR Vaccine Adverse Effects
The great majority of people who have the MMR vaccine or the mumps vaccine experience no side effects at all. In 1 out of 1,000,000 doses, the recipient experiences a serious allergic reaction. Ten percent experience fever that occurs within between 5 to 12 days following the vaccination. Five percent of people develop a mild rash.
Treatment for mumps
Self-care, unless you get complications, is best. There is not much the doctor can do. Take yourself to bed if you have a fever and take things easy. You can take aspirin or ibuprofen to help bring down the fever and ease any muscle discomfort. Eat what you fancy and drink plenty of fluids. Have someone nice look after you!
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The arbalest/arblast is a medieval more powerful developed version of which weapon? | Mumps Complications - Mayo Clinic
Complications of mumps are potentially serious, but rare.
Inflammation
Most mumps complications involve inflammation and swelling in some part of the body, such as:
Testicles. This condition, known as orchitis, causes one or both testicles to swell in males who've reached puberty. Orchitis is painful, but it rarely leads to sterility — the inability to father a child.
Pancreas. The signs and symptoms of this condition, known as pancreatitis, include pain in the upper abdomen, nausea and vomiting.
Ovaries and breasts. Females who've reached puberty may have inflammation in the ovaries (oophoritis) or breasts (mastitis). Fertility is rarely affected.
Brain. A viral infection, such as mumps, can lead to inflammation of the brain (encephalitis). Encephalitis can lead to neurological problems and become life-threatening.
Membranes and fluid around the brain and spinal cord. This condition, known as meningitis, can occur if the mumps virus spreads through your bloodstream to infect your central nervous system.
Other complications
Hearing loss. In rare cases, mumps can cause hearing loss, usually permanent, in one or both ears.
Miscarriage. Although it isn't proved, contracting mumps while you're pregnant, especially early on, may lead to miscarriage.
Mumps. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/mumps. Accessed July 24, 2015.
Mumps. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/topics/mumps/en/. Accessed July 24, 2015.
Longo DL, et al., eds. Mumps. In: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 19th ed. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2015. http://accessmedicine.com. Accessed July 24, 2015.
Cunningham FG, et al. Infectious diseases. In: Williams Obstetrics. 24th ed. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2014. http://www.accessmedicine.com. Accessed July 24, 2015.
Mumps vaccination. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd-vac/mumps/default.htm#notvacc. Accessed July 24, 2015.
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/topics.html. Accessed July 24, 2015.
AskMayoExpert. Mumps (adult). Rochester, Minn.: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research; 2015.
NINDS Reye's syndrome information page. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/reyes_syndrome/reyes_syndrome.htm. Accessed July 24, 2015.
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What mineral caused the founding of S Africaâs Johannesburg in 1886? | South-African-Mines
South African Mines
Mining in South Africa has been the main driving force behind the history and development of Africa's most advanced and richest economy. Large scale and profitable mining started with the discovery of a diamond on the banks of the Orange River in 1867 by Erasmus Jacobs and the subsequent discovery and exploitation of the Kimberley pipes a few years later. Gold rushes to Pilgrim's Rest and Barberton were precursors to the biggest discovery of all, the Main Reef/Main Reef Leader on Gerhardus Oosthuizen's farm Langlaagte, Portion C, in 1886, the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the subsequent rapid development of the gold field there, the biggest of them all.
The Witwatersrand is in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Gauteng Province is the roughly the southern portion of what was previously the Transvaal, formerly an independent state settled by the Boers after the Great Trek. J. H. Davis, an Englishman, was reported to have found gold "in considerable quantities" in July 1852 at Paardekraal near Krugersdorp, which was the earliest discovery on the Rand. Davis had sold £600 worth of gold (£457,000 in 2010 Pounds to the Transvaal Treasury and had shortly thereafter been ordered out of the country in accordance with the prevailing policy of secrecy. In October 1853 Pieter Jacob Marais, born in Cape Town on 31 July 1826, discovered gold on the banks of the Jukskei River, this find too was hushed up. The first mining concern (the Nil Desperandum Co-operative Gold Company) was formed at Blaauwbank in 1874.]Gold was mined at various places on the Rand up to 1886, when the discovery of the Witwatersrand Main Reef set off the historic Witwatersrand Gold Rush.
Diamond and gold production may now be well down from their peaks, though South Africa is still no. 2 in gold but South Africa remains a cornucopia of mineral riches. It is the world's largest producer of chrome, manganese, platinum, vanadium and vermiculite. It is the second largest producer of ilmenite, palladium, rutile and zirconium. It is also the world's third largest coal exporter.
Diamond and gold discoveries played an important part in the growth of the early South African Republic. A site northeast of Cape Town was discovered to have rich deposits of diamonds, and thousands rushed to the area of Kimberley in an attempt to profit from the discovery. The British later annexed the region of Griqualand West, an area which included the diamond fields. In 1868, the republic attempted to annex areas near newly discovered goldfields, drawing protests from the nearby British colonial government. These annexations later led to the First Boer War of 1880-1881.
Gold was discovered in the area known as Witwatersrand, triggering what would become the Witwatersrand Gold Rush of 1886. Like the diamond discoveries before, the gold rush caused thousands of foreign expatriates to prospect and mine the region. This heightened political tensions in the area, ultimately contributing to the Second Boer War in 1899. Ownership of the diamond and gold mines became concentrated in the hands of a few entrepreneurs, largely of European origin, known as the Randlords.
The gold mining industry continued to grow throughout much of the early 20th century, significantly contributing to the tripling of the economic value of what was then known as the Union of South Africa. In particular, revenue from gold exports provided sufficient capital to purchase much-needed machinery and petroleum products to support an expanding manufacturing base.
The discovery of the main reef of gold-bearing conglomerate on Langlaagte Farm near Johannesburg in 1886 did not set off the usual gold rush of freelance diggers. From the first moment capital was required to develop deep underground mines.
Fortuitously, that was already at hand, for the discovery of diamonds at Kimberley in 1871 had already attracted substantial capital from British and European banks to finance the emerging diamond mining houses created by Cecil Rhodes, Alfred Beit and Barney Barnato, who eventually united to form De Beers Consolidated Mines. Thus, powerful entrepreneurs were already on hand to exploit the gold.
Cecil Rhodes founded Gold Fields of South Africa (GFSA) in 1887. Rand Mines (now Randgold), Johannesburg Consolidated Investments, General Mining and Union Corporation were quickly in place, all backed by men who had started in diamonds. Only Sir Ernest Oppenheimer's Anglo American was formed rather later, in 1917, while AngloVaal was founded in 1933. These seven houses provided the foundations of the South African gold industry which was always described as the 'flywheel' of the country's expansion.
New technology was also forthcoming. Previously mercury had been the principal agent for dissolving out gold from crushed ore, but mercury was only effective enough to recover 65% of this gold. That was not sufficient return given the high costs of operating the mines. What made South African mining viable was a new technique using cyanidation called the MacArthur Forrest process patented in 1887.
By 1898 South African gold output had expanded to 118 tons (3.8 million oz), making it the world's leading producer, and after the interruption of the Boer War it soared to 280 tons (9 million oz) by 1913.
Thereafter, every few decades major new extensions to the gold reefs were discovered; the 'West Wits Line' west of Johannesburg was located by Gold Fields in the 1930s, the Orange Free State field was pioneered by Anglo American from 1946 and Evander developed by Union Corporation from the late 1950s.
Crown Reef Gold Mining Co. - South Africa
Bulfontein Diamond Mine - South Africa
Dutoits Pan Diamond Mine - South Africa
Wesselton Diamond Mines - Kimberly, South Africa
DeBeers Mine No.1 Shaft - Kimberley, South Africa
DeBeers Diamond Mine - Kimberley S. Africa
South African Diamond Mine
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In the greeenhouse effect ultraviolet light is reradiated and absorbed as what invisible energy? | Second Anglo-Boer War 1899 - 1902 | South African History Online
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Second Anglo-Boer War 1899 - 1902
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Jacobus Herculaas de la Rey
A British mule train stirring up the dust as it toils up a steep incline during Second Anglo-Boer War 1899 - 1902, South Africa 1899 - 1902.
'South African War ( a.k.a. the Anglo-Boer War) remains the most terrible and destructive modern armed conflict in South Africa’s history. It was an event that in many ways shaped the history of 20th Century South Africa. The end of the war marked the end of the long process of British conquest of South African societies, both Black and White'. - Gilliomee and Mbenga (2007).
The Causes
A number of interrelated factors led to the Second Anglo-Boer War. These include the conflicting political ideologies of imperialism and republicanism, the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand, tension between political leaders, the Jameson Raid and the Uitlander franchise.
Conflicting political ideology
After the First Anglo-Boer War the British government did not give up its ambition for unifying South Africa under Imperial British rule. The two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic or Transvaal still maintained their desire for independence. The Boer republics were a stumbling block for the British Empire.
The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand
Gold had been mined since the early 1870s but was discovered on the Witwatersrand, in the Transvaal, in 1886. Thousands of white and black South Africans were employed on the mines by 1890. South Africa became the single biggest gold producer in the world and this meant great growth for the independent Boer governments. The Transvaal now also became more prominent in international finance because the importance of gold as an international monetary system. Britain was the centre of industry and trade in the world at the time and needed a steady supply of gold to maintain this position.
Neighbouring independent states like the Orange Free State and British colonies like Natal could also gain from the riches and investment brought to the country. The Cape Colony wasn’t the leading economic state in the country anymore and a Boer republic took its place.
Even though the Transvaal gold mines were the richest in the world they were also the most difficult to mine because the reefs lay so deep under the ground. The gold had to be mined by shafts as opposed to open mines, like diamonds. Mining as an individual was not as efficient as using groups of miners with special skills. Large companies were created with local and international investment and individual miners were soon squeezed out.
Prospectors streamed to South Africa from all over the world, and especially from Europe. The Transvalers saw these foreigners, or Uitlanders, as a threat to their independence. In order to maintain its control of gold mining and the growth of the as they called them immigrant population, the Transvaal government restricted the voting rights of Uitlanders.Only foreigners who had been in the country for 14 years or more could vote. It was called the Uitlander franchise and didn’t really bother most Uitlanders, who had come to South Africa to make their fortunes, but it did cause strain between the Transvaal and British governments.
Tension between political leaders
Paul Kruger. Source: wikipedia.org
There were various political leaders with opposing views in power in different parts of South Africa during the 1890s. Paul Kruger was president of the Transvaal or South African Republic (SAR) and Cecil John Rhodes became the premier of the Cape Colony in 1890. Rhodes was from Britain and had made his fortune in South Africa by mining diamonds. He was also a supporter of the British imperial plan to unite South Africa under British rule. Kruger was a supporter of Boer independence and the two leaders were in direct conflict with each other.
Rhodes believed that if the SAR was left to grow financially it would eventually grow in size and topple Britain from its position of power in South Africa. He specifically did not want the SAR to gain access to a route to the sea, as this would seriously affect the economies of the British colonies. Rhodes and Britain were determined to stop the SAR’s expansion.
The Jameson Raid
By 1895 Britain was getting more confident about taking action in South Africa. Joseph Chamberlain was appointed Colonial Secretary. He joined forces with Rhodes to try to develop and promote the British Empire in South Africa.
In September and October 1895 the Drift Crisis between the Cape Colony and the Transvaal or SAR developed. The Cape had finished building a railway line to Johannesburg and tried to get as much of the Transvaal’s railway traffic by reducing its rates.It was aware that the Transvaal's Delagoa Bay line was al most complete.The Transvaal government increased the rates on the part of the railway that ran through the Transvaal once it had crossed the Vaal River. In answer to this goods, were taken to the Vaal River by train, and then taken further by wagon to avoid paying the higher prices in the Transvaal. Kruger reacted by blocking access to the Transvaal, closing the drifts on the Transvaal side.
The British government demanded that Kruger open the drifts and used the situation to involve itself directly in Transvaal affairs. Rhodes planned an uprising of Uitlanders in Johannesburg. The uprising was timed to coincide with an invasion of the Transvaal from Bechuanaland (present day Botswana), by Dr Leander Starr Jameson . Rhodes wanted to take over the government of the Transvaal and turn it into a British colony that would join all the other colonies in a federation. Chamberlain helped plan the Jameson Raid.
The Jameson Raid which began on on 29th December 1895, was a total failure. Jameson waited on the border, but the Uitlander leaders in Johannesburg argued among themselves about the kind of government to be put into place after the invasion. Many of the Uitlanders had no interest in violent uprising, but preferred to celebrate the New Year. Rhodes decided to stop the raid, but it was too late because Jameson and his party had already crossed into the Transvaal.
Jameson’s troops tried to cut communication lines to Pretoria, but cut the wrong lines. This meant that the Transvaal government knew the raiders were on their way before they reached Johannesburg. On 2 January 1896 Jameson had to surrender at Doornkop near Krugersdorp. The prisoners were handed over to their own government and the Uitlander leaders who had been part of the plot were put to trial in Johannesburg. Some of them were condemned to death, but the sentences were later reduced to large fines.
Rhodes was forced to resign as the premier of the Cape Colony and the political problems between Afrikaans and English-speaking people became worse than ever in the colony. The Orange Free State co-operated more closely with the Transvaal. Transvaal residents felt that they were being threatened and Uitlanders were treated with more suspicion than ever before.
Read a more detailed feature on the Jameson raid
The Uitlander Franchise
The Uitlanders were not only from Britain, but came from all over the world to make money on the goldfields in the Transvaal. Some of them were not interested in the political situation in the republic and were not concerned about the fact that they couldn’t vote. Some Uitlanders felt that they contributed to the exploitation of the riches in the republic and had the right to a say in the way the country was being run.
The Transvaal government realised that this could be a threat to the republic’s independence, but also knew that it couldn’t ignore the Uitlanders’ demands. The foreigners could apply for citizenship or naturalisation after 5 years of living in the Transvaal. A Second Volksraad was created in 1890 and new laws were made. Uitlanders who had been naturalised for two years could now vote. The Second Volksraad only had say in local matters in Johannesburg and on the mines; any bills it put forward could only become laws if the First Volksraad agreed. Only Uitlanders who had been in the country for a full 14 years or longer could vote for the first Volksraad.
Now Uitlanders had a say in political matters, but the First Volksraad still ran the country. Very few Uitlanders used their right to vote, but the Second Volksraad took its responsibilities seriously.After the Jameson Raid Chamberlain wanted to win back some of the respect he had lost because of the raid’s failure. He was more determined to make the South African union a reality and decided to use diplomatic power to do so. He invited Kruger to London for talks about the Uitlander Franchise, but the president would not discuss his country’s internal affairs. He felt that this would create the impression that the SAR could not take care of its own politics independently.
Next Chamberlain called a meeting in London to try to involve Britain directly in Transvaal affairs. His interference caused even more tension between the two countries. He also sent Sir Alfred Milner , another loyal supporter of British expansion, to South Africa as British High Commissioner.Milner hoped that Kruger would not be re-elected, but in 1898 he was. Milner was afraid that the Boer republics wanted to take over the whole country and told Chamberlain that war was the only way to prevent that from happening. In December 1898 Transvaal police shot an Uitlander called Tom Edgar. The officer responsible said that it was in self-defence, but the Uitlander community reacted as if it was a political incident. This made the franchise issue an important factor in the outbreak of the war because political tension between Boers and British subjects in the Transvaal became worse.
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The Cyclades are an eastern island group of which nation? | Visit Greece | Cyclades
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The most famous island group in the Aegean Sea comprises some of the most beautiful islands in the world! Gorgeous sandy beaches, architecture in white and blue, traditional lifestyle, folk music, warm, hospitable people and barren landscapes with isolated chapels turn a trip to the Cyclades into a lifetime experience.
The name “Cyclades” refers to the islands forming a circle (the name in English means: “circular islands”) around the sacred island of Delos. According to the Greek mythology, Poseidon, God of the sea, furious at the Cyclades nymphs turned them into islands.
Millions of Greek and foreign visitors come to the Cyclades every year to enjoy the dazzling light and the crystal blue waters, in the quest of the paradise on earth.
Let your dream come true in one of the following islands:
Andros is the northernmost island of the group with a great naval tradition and no landscape like the postcards from the Cyclades: apart from the sandy beaches, there are rocky coastlines, mountain ranges alternating with fertile plains, lush vegetation and abundantly flowing streams.
One of the most enchanting yet less known islands of the Cyclades, Tinos is the religious centre of the country thanks to the church of Panayia Meyalóhari (the Blessed Virgin Mary). Pilgrims from all over the country come here to fulfil their vows and to seek spiritual comfort.
One of the most famous destinations worldwide and a favourite holiday spot of the jet set, Mykonos , is extremely beautiful and well known for its bare hills, the amazing sandy beaches, the white country chapels and the Cycladic architecture.
Due to its proximity to Attica, Kea is an easily accessible beauty with a scenery variety: steep mountains, small fields, olive groves, vineyards, valleys, picturesque coves and off-the-beaten-track beaches. On the island with the largest oak forest in the Cyclades, bird-watching is a real delight.
Cousteau looked for the lost city of Atlantis on Santorini . Crescent-shaped Santorini (or Thíra), the precious gem of the Aegean, is actually a group of islands consisting of Thíra, Thirassiá, Asproníssi, Palea and Nea Kaméni in the southernmost part of Cyclades.
Also called “Thermiá” on account of its thermal springs, Kythnos is very close to Attica; still, it is one of the less visited islands of the Cyclades.
Greek Mythology has it that Anafi , a paradise of pristine beauty and “exotic” beaches washed by crystal clear waters, had emerged from the bottom of the Aegean sea to give shelter to the Argonauts.
Ios . The locals call their island “Nios” but its formal name comes from “ion”, the Greek name for the flower violet. It is said to have been the birthplace of Homer’s mother and the place of his own tomb.
Remaining untouched by the growth of the tourist industry, Folegandros (or Polykandros) offers complete relaxation in a typical Cycladic landscape. The Greek mythology refers to Folégandros as son to Minos and head of the first colonists on the island.
Ideal for a relaxed holiday, Serifos is a typical Cycladic island with white villages, quiet harbours, golden beaches, bare hills and beautiful landscapes. The mild tourism growth has not affected the island’s nature and traditional features.
Kimolos .This tiny and extremely beautiful island lies in the western part of the Cyclades, close to Milos island. Possessing a volcanic soil and a unique variety of minerals, it is famous for its fantastic beaches, ranging from thin sand to pebbles.
Sifnos will definitely turn a holiday into an unforgettable experience, having a rich tradition in pottery and gastronomy. Due to its gold mines, it used to be one of the richest islands in the ancient times.
Escape from everyday stress and anxiety on this small island, located between Íos and Folégandros. Sikinos is a typical Cycladic island, with terraces, low stone fences and numerous country chapels dotting a scenery bathed in the wonderful green and blue waters of the Aegean.
Delos , the birth place of Apollo and Artemis, used to be a religious centre for the whole of Greece in the ancient times, as well as the principal trading port in the Eastern Mediterranean during the roman times. Delos is uninhabited today and is listed as a UNESCO world heritage site, receiving large numbers of visitors who flock to admire remarkable monuments and impressive mosaics.
Unrivalled natural beauty, beaches of crystal clear waters, “unique” Byzantine footpaths connecting traditional villages and breathtaking landscapes make Paros , located at the heart of Cyclades, one of the most beloved holiday destinations in Greece…
Naxos : the biggest and the greenest island in Cyclades with impressively high mountains, fertile valleys, lush green gorges, stunning seascapes and traditional villages perched high on mountain tops, where the inhabitants still wear their traditional dress and live off the fruits of the land! Nàxos is also an island of beautiful old churches, monasteries and Venetian castles coexisting harmoniously with Cycladic cubic houses...
Iraklia is a tiny island with only 115 residents located at the western edge of the Small Eastern Cyclades island group. Dense vegetation, natural springs, smooth hills, crystalline waters (with shipwrecks at the sea-bottom!), scenic bays and caves are the characteristics of this unspoiled paradise in Cyclades.
Schinoussa is located at the centre of the Small Eastern Cyclades island group, south of Nàxos and north-east of Iraklia. It is a tiny island with three villages: Hora, Mesaria and Mersini.
Koufonisia is a small group of two islands, Pano Koufonìsi (Upper Koufonìsi) and Kato Koufonìsi (Lower Koufonìsi), that are separated by a narrow strait. They are located southeast of Nàxos and west of Amorgos; Pano Koufonìsi is inhabited, with a land area of 5.5 sq. km and a population of 366 residents
Donousa is the northernmost island of the Small Eastern Cyclades is located east of Nàxos and north of Amorgos. The island has a land area of 13.5 sq. km and numerous coves some of which hide magnificent sandy beaches.
The islet of Antiparos , lying southwest of Paros, is ideal for a relaxed and serene holiday and can easily be reached from Punda or Parikia by boat. The ancient name of Antìparos was Oliaros.
Amorgos : The island of “The Big Blue” – a large part of the Luc Besson film was shot there – is at the southeasternmost point of the Cyclades and it displays a very special scenery: mountains, cliffs ideal for climbing, terraces, precipices and picturesque coves with lovely waters.
Milos : The volcanic activity in ancient years has endowed this island with an exciting variety of gorgeous landscapes, consequently offering the visitor a wide range of activities. The funny shapes of the rocks and their wonderful colours at the beautiful white sandy beaches are one expression of the volcanic features of Milos.
Syros : This is the island where Greek tradition and western influence come to a harmonious marriage. Ermoúpoli (meaning “the city of Hermes”) is the island’s capital town and has been the first important trade and industrial centre of the country in the 19th century.
Read or download your Cyclades' Travel Guide
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What chemical element (Cu) is named after Cyprus? | Cyclades Islands Map / Geography of Cyclades Islands / Map of Cyclades Islands - Worldatlas.com
Cyclades Islands Map / Geography of Cyclades Islands / Map of Cyclades Islands
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Cyclades Islands
Some of these islands are arguably the most popular (and most recognized) destinations in all of Greece as their sandy beaches, whitewashed hilltop villages, perfect weather and scenic views draw tourists from around the world.
The Cyclades islands are off the southeastern coast of Greece in the Aegean Sea. The most visited islands in this group of about 40 islands include Andros, Ios, Milos, Mykonos, Paros and Santorini.
The volcanic crater island of Santorini is simply breathtaking, with tiny villages clinging to rugged cliffs that literally fall into the Aegean Sea.
All of the major islands are accessible by a ferry service from mainland ports, as well as by a wide variety of inner-island ferries. Most of the larger islands can be reached by air.
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Insurgents of what nation took part in the Easter Rising of 1916? | The forgotten role of women insurgents in the 1916 Rising
The forgotten role of women insurgents in the 1916 Rising
Mon, Mar 20, 2006, 00:00
The debate surrounding the 90th anniversary of 1916 tends to forget about one important group of participants - women. Tom Clonan examines the role of women in the rising
Contemporary accounts suggest that up to 90 women took part in the rebellion of Easter 1916 in Dublin. Sixty or so were members of Cumann na mBan (the League of Women), formed in 1914 by a group of women who attended the inaugural meeting the previous November of the Irish Volunteers.
The constitution of Cumann na mBan contained explicit references to the use of force by arms against crown forces in Ireland. Under its constitution, the primary aim of the organisation was to "advance the cause of Irish liberty" and "teach its members first aid, drill, signalling and rifle practice in order to aid the men of Ireland".
Weapons training became an integral part of Cumann na mBan's core activities. For example, in addition to the rifle training mentioned in their constitution, documents held at Military Archives in Dublin show Cumann na mBan members including a Lily O'Connor to have been "highly proficient" in the use of a wide range of weapons including Webley, Colt and Smith and Wesson revolvers.
On the day of the Rising, 40 such women - including Winifred Carney who arrived armed with both a Webley revolver and a typewriter - entered the General Post Office on O'Connell Street in Dublin with their male counterparts. By nightfall, women insurgents were established in all of the major rebel strongholds throughout the city - bar one. Éamon de Valera, located in Boland's Mill had no women under his command.
According to some sources, de Valera steadfastly refused, in defiance of the orders of Pearse and Connolly, to allow women fighters into the Boland's Mill garrison. One Cumann na mBan member who fought in the Rising, Sighle Bean Uí Donnachadha later remarked: "De Valera refused absolutely to have Cumann na mBan girls in the posts. The result, I believe, was that the garrison there did not stand up to the siege as well as in other posts."
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The women in the rebel garrisons fought alongside the men and were not confined - as is commonly believed - to nursing duties or other tasks traditionally assigned to women such as making tea and sandwiches for the fighting men.
Constance Markiewicz for example - armed with a pistol - during the opening phase of the hostilities shot a policeman in the head near St Stephen's Green. Later, Markiewicz along with other female fighters - after a day of carrying out sniper attacks on British troops in the city centre - demanded that they be allowed to bomb the Shelbourne Hotel. Their superior officer, Michael Malinn, refused on the grounds that the risks to the women were "too great".
According to contemporary accounts, Markiewicz's indignant reply was that the 1916 Proclamation, the rebels' declaration of their beliefs and intentions, stated that women were equal and that they had the same right to risk their lives as the men. Mallin relented and a number of women were shot en route to the Shelbourne.
In a related incident, volunteer Margaretta Keogh was shot dead outside the South Dublin Union.
Margaret Skinnider, a Glasgow schoolteacher who had heard about the rising through suffragette contacts travelled to Ireland during her Easter holidays to join the armed struggle on the basis that it promised equal voting rights for women - a revolutionary idea at the time.
She arrived - miraculously - by bicycle and managed to join the garrison at the Royal College of Surgeons on St Stephen's Green. Later, on being shot and captured by British troops near Harcourt Street, she was imprisoned and sentenced to death by the military authorities.
Later, while on hunger strike her sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. She was subsequently released and returned to Scotland to write a memoir of her activities entitled Doing My Bit For Ireland.
Another sizeable contingent of women, mostly members of the Irish Citizens Army, also fought during the rising.
The Irish Citizens Army expressly committed its female members to combat during the insurrection and women from this organisation played a vital role in a failed attack on Dublin Castle - from the rebel's point of view, the most potent symbol of British occupation and oppression.
Under the command of Seán Connolly, a contingent of 10 men and nine women - armed with revolvers - launched an attack on the gates of the castle.
Failing to gain entry, they fell back and occupied City Hall just beside it. Later, the rebel garrison at City Hall under the command of Kathleen Lynn - the only officer present - surrendered to the British. At first, the British refused to take the surrender from a woman and seemed at odds as to what to do with the women they encountered in the various garrisons throughout the city.
Initially, the British military authorities simply asked the women to "go home". They refused.
Many, like Kathleen Lynn, were sentenced to death. Those sentenced to death went on hunger strike and succeeded in having their sentences commuted to life imprisonment. Eventually, they were released.
Lynn - the first female medical doctor to be elected a resident doctor to the Adelaide Hospital - subsequently went on to found St Ultan's Hospital in Dublin's city centre where she initiated Ireland's first immunisation programme for children.
As the rising ground to a halt under a ferocious British onslaught, women all over the city surrendered with their male counterparts.
In the GPO, Pearse selected Elizabeth Farrell to present the surrender to the British authorities.
Rose McNamara, the officer in command of the female detachment at the Marrowbone Lane Distillery presented the surrender of herself and 20 other women to the British. According to an account of that surrender: "The women of the garrison could have evaded arrest but they marched down four deep in uniform along with the men. An attempt was made to get them to sign a statement recanting their stand but this failed.
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"Miss McNamara who led the contingent went to the British OC [ the officer commanding] and explained they were part of the rebel contingent and were surrendering with the rest."
In the years that followed, women played a high profile role in the emerging Irish Free State. Six women were elected to the first Dáil of May 1921. Forty three women were also returned to borough and district councils.
Kathleen Clarke, the first female lord mayor of Dublin was elected in this period. Women also served as judges in the Sinn Féin courts between 1919 and 1921. All of these developments for women - revolutionary when compared with the lot of women elsewhere in Europe at the time - were consistent with the renewed and newly stated aims of Cumann na mBan.
In 1921, the organisation reiterated at its annual convention that its primary aim was: "To follow the policy of the Republican Proclamation by seeing that women take up their proper position in the life of the nation."
In the same year, negotiations in London between an Irish delegation led by Arthur Griffith, the founder and head of Sinn Féin, and Michael Collins, minister for finance in the government established by the first Dáil in 1919 and head of the IRA, and the British government headed by prime minister David Lloyd George, led to the Anglo-Irish Treaty which delivered Irish independence but at a price: six counties in Ulster would, as Northern Ireland, remain part of the United Kingdom because a majority there wanted nothing to do with the Irish Free State, as the South was to be known.
The Treaty was supported strongly by Griffith and Collins, and ratified by the Dáil, but was rejected by Éamon de Valera. In the ensuing civil war, Cumann na mBan also took the anti-Treaty side.
The role of the women drew particular criticism at the time. A London newspaper, The Sunday Graphic published an article headlined "Irish Gunwoman Menace" which described them as "trigger happy harpies". Underscoring the conservative years to come, the Roman Catholic hierarchy in Ireland issued a pastoral letter in October 1922 urging all women to desist from revolutionary activities.
The government of the Free State banned Cumann na mBan in January 1923 and opened up Kilmainham Gaol as a detention prison for suspect women.
Minutes of the executive council of the Senate and Army Intelligence reports of the period - held at Military Archives - identify female dissidents at the time as a primary threat to the security of the state.
The then minister for home affairs, Kevin O'Higgins, described the female dissidents as "hysterical young women who ought to be playing five fingered exercises or helping their mothers with the brasses".
Slowly but surely, the women were deterred from continuing in their dissident activities as greater numbers were arrested and interned.
Some remained defiant, however. In 1922, Máire Comerford found herself inside the Four Courts which was being shelled by the newly formed Free State Army. She later recounted the manner in which "the building was shelled through and enveloped in flames. It was time for all of us to leave or surrender. I rode off through the smoke and the ruined buildings on my bicycle. I had stayed almost to the end and had cheated the enemy".
Comerford was subsequently arrested for her part in a plot to kidnap the then taoiseach, W T Cosgrave. She was shot and wounded while trying to escape. She resorted to hunger strike and was eventually released.
A final handful of women continued to fight. Armed with a revolver an Eithne Coyle held up the evening train at Creeslough and set fire to all of the newspapers on board.
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For a month she continued hijacking and burning trains.
In order to facilitate these activities, Cumann na mBan operated city-wide creches to release women for active duty.
In documents held at Military Archives in Dublin, a Free State army officer describes raiding a "baby club" at 21 Werburgh Street where "seditious" papers were seized.
Other papers seized by the military authorities at the time reveal a great deal about the wider military activities of female volunteers.
One letter from the intelligence department of the IRA - 1st Northern Division - to female "Operative No 23" states: "Girls can get any amount of information from most men. Get them going. Don't think there is anything ignoble about army intelligence work. There is not - decidedly not. No army can move an inch or win the slightest victory without it. Help us move miles. Help us win victories. Realise your own importance - we realize it and rely on you."
However, as the 1920s wore on, the role that women played in the political life of the nation steadily waned.
The mythology of 1916 that became central to the emerging identity of the State contained little or no reference to the activities of the women who participated in the rising.
Their contribution remains largely unrecognised in the debate today on the legacy of 1916.
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A red giant star typically evolves when its central hydrogen has converted to what gas? | 1916 Irish Rising - definition of 1916 Irish Rising by The Free Dictionary
1916 Irish Rising - definition of 1916 Irish Rising by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/1916+Irish+Rising
Also found in: Encyclopedia , Wikipedia .
Easter Rising
n
(Historical Terms) an armed insurrection in Dublin in 1916 against British rule in Ireland: the insurgents proclaimed the establishment of an independent Irish republic before surrendering, 16 of the leaders later being executed
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References in periodicals archive ?
Michael Collins - the commander-in-chief of the Irish Free State Army in the 1910s - played an Irish football match in Newsham Park in 1914 as part of the Gaelic Athletic League while Patrick Pearce, who led the 1916 Irish rising against British rule, thanked three anonymous Liverpool women, who cooked for Irish rebels inside the Dublin Post Office, in his famous address after the conflict.
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Refraction concerns a changed direction of sound, radiation, a river or a missile? | Aerospace Science and Technonlogy Dictionary M Section
Some writers use Mach as a unit of speed equivalent to a Mach number of 1.00, as a speed of Mach 3.1.
Mach angle
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The angle between a Mach line and the direction of movement of undisturbed flow. See Mach wave .
Mach cone
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. The cone-shaped shock wave theoretically emanating from an infinitesimally small particle moving at supersonic speed through a fluid medium. It is the locus of the Mach Lines .
2. The cone-shaped shock wave generated by a sharp-pointed body, as at the nose of a high-speed aircraft. See Mach wave .
Mach indicator
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbols M, NMa)
(Pronounced mock, after Ernst Mach, 1838-1916, Austrian scientist). A number expressing the ratio of the speed of a body or of a point on a body with respect to the surrounding air or other fluid , or the speed of a flow , to the speed of sound in the medium; the speed represented by this number. See Cauchy number .
If the Mach number is less than 1, the flow is called subsonic and local disturbances can propagate ahead of the flow. If the Mach number is greater than 1, the flow is called supersonic and disturbances cannot propagate ahead of the flow with the result that shock waves form.
Some authorities use mach number but engineering practice is to use a capital M in all words and combinations employing Mach.
Mach reflection
(NASA Thesaurus)
The reflection of a shock wave from a rigid wall in which the shock strength of the reflected wave and the angle of reflection both have the smaller of the two values theoretically possible.
Mach wave
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. A shock wave theoretically occurring along a common line of intersection of all the pressure disturbances emanating from an infinitesimally small particle moving at supersonic speed through a fluid medium, with such a wave considered to exert no changes in the condition of the fluid passing through it.
The concept of the Mach wave is used in defining and studying the realm of certain disturbances in a supersonic field of flow.
2. A very weak shock wave appearing, e.g., at the nose of a very sharp body, where the fluid undergoes no substantial change in direction.
Mach-Zehnder interferometers
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
This is a variation of the Michelson interferometer which is used mainly in measuring the spatial variation in the refractive index of a gas (or plasma). A Mach-Zender interferometer uses two semi-transparent mirrors and two fully reflective mirrors located at the corners of a rectangle. The incoming beam is split in two at the first semi-transparent mirror, and the two halves of the beam travel along separate paths around the edge of the rectangle, meeting at the opposite corner. Typically one beam is a control, and the other travels through the system under study. The two beams meet at the second semi-transparent mirror, after which they are mixed together and interfere.
machine error
machine language
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. A language , occurring within a computer , ordinarily not perceptible or intelligible to persons without special equipment or training.
2. A translation or transliteration of sense 1 into more conventional characters but frequently still not intelligible to persons without special training.
machine word
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
For a given computer , the number of information characters handled in each transfer. This number is usually fixed, but may be variable in some computers.
Machmeter
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
An instrument that measures and indicates speed relative to the speed of sound , i.e., that indicates the Mach number . Also called Mach indicator.
MACHOs
The technology of sound at signal amplitudes so large that linear approximations are not valid.
Magellan project (NASA)
(NASA Thesaurus)
A Venus exploratory mission to acquire radar imagery and topographic profiles of the planet surface and determine the characteristics of the Venusian gravity field. (This term is used to designate general project reviews, chronologies, and project management and planning.) Used for Venus Radar Mapper Project.
Magellan spacecraft (NASA)
(NASA Thesaurus)
A Venus probe incorporating Voyager and Galileo hardware designs equipped with a synthetic aperture radar system to acquire surface imagery, altimetric profiles, and surface radiothermal emissivities. Earth-based Doppler radio tracking of the spacecraft will be used to derive gravimetric data. (This term designates the spacecraft intrinsic and support hardware, instrumentation acquired data.) Used for Venus Radar Mapper.
Magellan ultraviolet astronomy satellite
(NASA Thesaurus)
This ESA mission will provide high resolution spectra of celestial sources down to sixteenth magnitude over the extreme ultraviolet wavelength range (between 50 and 150 nm). This mission is still in the study phase. Used for Magellan Mission (ESA).
magic tee
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A compound waveguide or coaxial tee with four arms which exhibits directional characteristics, when properly matched, so that a signal entering one arm will be split between two of the other arms but not the third. A signal entering another arm is likewise split with half the energy entering one of the arms common to the other input but not its second arm and the other half of the energy entering the arm not used by the other input.
The magic tee is used in radar as a transmitter-receiver duplexer .
magma
(Photoglossary of Volcanic Terms - USGS)
Magma is molten or partially molten rock beneath the Earth's surface. When magma erupts onto the surface, it is called lava. Magma typically consists of (1) a liquid portion (often referred to as the melt); (2) a solid portion made of minerals that crystallized directly from the melt; (3) solid rocks incorporated into the magma from along the conduit or reservoir called xenoliths or inclusions; and (4) dissolved gases.
magma
(NASA Thesaurus)
Naturally occurring mobile rock materials, generated within the Earth and capable of intrusion and extrusion, from which igneous rocks are thought to have been derived by solidification and related processes.
magnesium cells
Primary cells with the negative electrodes made of magnesium or its alloy.
magnesyn
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(A trade name, from magnetic + synchronous; often capitalized). An electromagnetic device that transmits the direction of a magnetic field from one coil to another, used to transmit measurements electrically from a point of measurement to an indicator in a remote-indicating system.
magnet
A body which produces a magnetic field around itself.
magnetars
(NASA Thesaurus)
Highly magnetized neutron stars believed to emit quasi-steady x-rays along with bursts of soft gamma rays-- emissions powered by their magnetic energy. According to the magnetar theory, these stars form in some fraction of all supernovae. When they are young (with ages less than about 10,000 years) magnetars may be observed as soft gamma repeaters (SGRs) or anomalous x-ray pulsars.
magnetic
1. Of or pertaining to a magnet.
2. Of or pertaining to a material which is capable of being magnetized.
3. Related to or measured from magnetic north.
magnetic axis
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
the location of the innermost flux "surface" in a toroidal device, the one which encloses no volume and has therefore degenerated from a flux surface into a single field line. Roughly, the circle through the middle of the dough of the donut. Additionally, in systems with magnetic islands (see entry below), each island has a local magnetic axis, distinct from the overall magnetic axisof the torus.
magnetic bay
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A small magnetic disturbance whose magnetograph resembles an indentation of a coastline.
On earth, magnetic bays occur mainly in the polar regions and have durations on the order of a few hours.
magnetic bearings
(NASA Thesaurus)
Any application of the principle in which something capable of rotation and translation is held by the use of electromagnetic force without touching it. Applications range from small instruments to very large forces.
magnetic binary core
magnetic compass
(NASA Thesaurus)
Compasses whose operation depends upon an element that senses the Earth's magnetic field, e.g., an instrument having a magnetic needle that turns freely on a pivot in a horizontal plane and that always swings to such a position that one end points to magnetic north.
magnetic compression
(NASA Thesaurus)
The force exerted by a magnetic field on an electrically conducting fluid or on a plasma.
magnetic confinement
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Use of magnetic fields to confine a plasma. (Confinement involves restricting the volume of the plasma and/or restricting particle or energy transport from the center of the plasma to the edge.)
magnetic confinement fusion
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Method of fusion which uses magnetic fields / magnetic bottles to confine a hot plasmauntil fusion occurs.
magnetic cooling
(NASA Thesaurus)
Keeping a substance cooled to about 0.2 K by using a working substance (paramagnetic salt) in a cycle of processes between a high-temperature reservoir (liquid helium) at 1.2 K and a low temperature reservoir containing the substance to be cooled.
magnetic core
(symbol D,
)
In terrestrial magnetism ; at any given location, the angle between the geographical meridian and the magnetic meridian ; that is, the angle between true north and magnetic north. Also called declination , and in navigation, variation.
Declination is either east or west according as the compass needle points to the east or west of the geographical meridian. Lines of constant declination are called isogonic lines and the one of zero declination is called the agonic line.
magnetic deviation
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The angle between the magnetic meridian and the axis of a compass card, expressed in degrees east or west to indicate the direction in which the northern end of the compass card is offset from magnetic north . Also called deviation. Compare variation .
magnetic dip
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol i)
The angle between the horizontal and the direction of a line of force of the earth's magnetic field at any point. Also called magnetic inclination, magnetic latitude, inclination, dip.
magnetic dipole moment
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol SD)
A periodic variation of the earth's magnetic field that is in phase with solar (local) time. It is the difference between the solar daily variation (or the disturbed-day solar daily variation) and the quiet-day solar daily variation. This variation is primarily an effect of enhanced electromagnetic radiation during increased solar activity.
magnetic disturbed-day solar daily variation
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol Sd)
The solar daily variation of the earth's magnetic field obtained from the 5 most disturbed days of the month.
magnetic domains
(NASA Thesaurus)
Small areas on the surface of the body of thin films of a magnetic medium, each of which maintains a descrete magnetic field orientation relative to the others around it.
magnetic double refraction
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The splitting, into two components, of a radio wave traveling in a region of free electrons . This is due to the interaction of the earth's magnetic field and the alternating field of the radio wave. Except for waves near the gyrofrequency , the components of the split wave, the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray, will travel with slightly different velocities and be reflected at different heights. See magneto-ionic theory.
magnetic drum
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A memory device used in computers ; a rotating cylinder on which information may be stored as magnetically polarized areas, usually along several parallel tracks around the periphery.
magnetic element
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. In terrestrial magnetism, any of the following measurements: the vector magnetic field, also called total field (symbol
); the scalar intensity of the total field ( symbol F); declination, also called variation ( symbol D); the intensity of the horizontal component of the earth's field ( symbol H); the intensity of the vertical component ( symbol Z), taken as positive downward; the inclination or dip ( symbol I); the angle between
and H; the intensity of the component of the horizontal field in the geographic north direction ( symbol X); and the intensity of the component of the horizontal field in the geographic east direction.
2. That part of an instrument producing or influenced by magnetism.
magnetic equator
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
That line on the surface of the earth connecting all points at which the magnetic dip is zero. Also called aclinic line. See geomagnetic equator .
magnetic equivalent amplitude indices
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A linear measure of geomagnetic disturbance activity, based on the K-indices that gives an equivalent amplitude of the magnetic disturbance for the 3-hour period denoted by a
p
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Coiled current-carrying wires used to generate magnetic fields.
magnetic field intensity
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The magnetic force exerted on an imaginary unit magnetic pole placed at any specified point of space. It is a vector quantity. Its direction is taken as the direction toward which a north magnetic pole would tend to move under the influence of the field. If the force is measured in dynes and the unit pole is a cgs unit pole, the field intensity is given in oersteds . Also called magnetic intensity, magnetic field, magnetic field strength.
Prior to 1932 the oersted was called the gauss; but the latter term is now used to measure magnetic induction (within magnetic materials), whereas oersted is reserved for magnetic force. By definition, one magnetic line of force per square centimeter (in air) represents the field intensity of 1 oersted.
magnetic field lines
(Earth's Magnetosphere Glossary - GSFC)
Lines in space, used for visually representing magnetic fields . At any point in space, the local field line points in the direction of the magnetic force which an isolated magnetic pole at that point would experience. In a plasma, magnetic field lines also guide the motion of an ion and electron , and direct the flow of some electric current .
magnetic field reconnection
(NASA Thesaurus)
A change in topology of the magnetic field configuration resulting from a localized breakdown of the requirement for 'connection' of fluid elements at one time on a common magnetic field line. Alternatively, it occurs when an electric field exists with a component parallel to a locally two-dimensional X-type magnetic neutral line which is equivalent to a breakdown in connection.
magnetic field strength
magnetic fields
(Solar Physics Glossary - NASA GSFC)
Fields of force that are generated by electric currents. The Sun's average large-scale magnetic field, like that of the Earth, exhibits a north and a south pole linked by lines of magnetic force.
magnetic fields
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. Regions of space wherin any magnetic dipole would experience a magnetic force or torque; often represented as the geometric array of the imaginary magnetic lines of force that exist in relation to magnetic poles.
magnetic flux
(NASA Thesaurus)
The magnetic force exerted on an imaginary unit magnetic pole placed at any specified point of space. It is a vector quantity. Its direction is taken as the direction toward which a north magnetic pole would tend to move under the influence of the field. If the force is measured in dynes and the unit pole is a cgs unit pole, the field intensity is given in oersteds. Used for magnetic field intensity.
magnetic giant pulsations
magnetic islands
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A magnetic topology near a "rational surface" (see entry) where the flux surface is broken up into tubes which are not connected with each other poloidally. Islands may develop in non-ideal magnetohydrodynamic fluids, where electrical resistance becomes important and magnetic field lines are no longer "frozen-in" to the fluid. Then magnetic tearing and reconnection may allow field lines to link up and form "islands" with a local magnetic axis (see entry) in a narrow region near a rational surface (see entry).
magnetic K-indices
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
An approximately logarithmic measure of geomagnetic disturbance activity based on the range of the most disturbed magnetic element during each 3-hour interval of the day. The K-indices are assigned integers from 0 to 9.
The K-indices averaged over the observatories of the earth are called planetary indices K
p
and divided into 28 grades.
magnetic latitude
(Earth's Magnetosphere Glossary - GSFC)
Geographic latitude of a location, in a system of latitudes and longitudes whose axis is not the rotation axis of the Earth but the magnetic axis, i.e. the axis of the dipole at the Earth�s center which best fits the internal magnetic field. The auroral zone, for instance, is near magnetic latitude 65 degrees.
magnetic latitude
magnetic lines of force
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Imaginary lines so drawn in a region containing a magnetic field to be everywhere tangent to the magnetic field intensity vector if in vacuum or nonmagnetic material, or parallel to the magnetic induction vector if in a magnetic medium. See electric lines of force .
As so defined, these lines of force are merely convenient artifices for delineating the geometry of a magnetic field. They are given quantitative significance in magnetic theory by associating one line of force per square centimeter normal to the force for every oersted of field intensity (in vacuum), for every gauss of magnetic induction (in magnetic media).
magnetic local time
(Earth's Magnetosphere Glossary - GSFC)
(MLT)--in the a system of latitude and longitude whose axis is the dipole axis, magnetic local time is the longitude, measured not in degrees but in hours (1 hour = 15 degrees).
magnetic lunar daily variation
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol L)
A periodic variation of the earth's magnetic field that is in phase with the transit of the moon.
This variation is essentially a tidal effect. The amplitude of this variation changes with the phase of the moon, the seasons, and the sunspot cycle.
magnetic mach number
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A dimensionless number equal to the ratio of the velocity of a fluid to the velocity of Alfvén waves in that fluid.
magnetic memory
magnetic meridian
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The horizontal line which is oriented, at any specified point on the earth's surface, along the direction of the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field at that point; not to be confused with isogonic line . Also called geomagnetic meridian. Compare isoclinic line , magnetic equator .
magnetic micropulsations
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Oscillations in magnetic records having periods of between a fraction of a minute and a few minutes, lasting for an hour or so.
magnetic mirror
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A magnetic field so arranged that it will theoretically confine a hot plasma .
magnetic moment
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. The quantity obtained by multiplying the distance between two magnetic poles by the average strength of the poles.
2. A measure of the magnetic flux set up by the gyration of an electric charge in a magnetic field . The moment is negative, indicating it is diamagnetic, and equal to the energy of rotation divided by the magnetic field.
3. (symbol m). In atomic and nuclear physics, a moment, measured in Bohr magnetons , associated with the intrinsic spin of the particle and with the orbital motion of the particle in a system. Also called magnetic dipole moment.
magnetic monopoles
(High Energy Astrophysics Dictionary- GSFC)
A hypothetical particle which constitutes sources and sinks of the magnetic field. Magnetic monopoles have never been found, but would only cause fairly minor modifications to Maxwell's equations. They also seem to be predicted by some grand-unified theories. If magnetic monopoles do exist, they do not seem to be very common in our Universe.
magnetic north
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The direction north at any point as determined by the earth's magnetic lines of force ; the reference direction for measurement of magnetic directions.
magnetic nozzles
(NASA Thesaurus)
Nozzle devices used in some nuclear and plasma propulsion systems that utilize magnetic fields to direct and accelerate plasma flows, thereby providing thrust for propulsion.
magnetic number
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A dimensionless number equal to the squareroot of the magnetic force parameter.
magnetic pole
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. Either of the two places on the surface of the earth where the magnetic dip is 90 °, that in the Northern Hemisphere (at, approximately, latitude 73° 8 N, longitude, 101° W in 1955) being designated north magnetic pole , and that in the Southern Hemisphere (at, approximately, latitude, 68° S, longitude, 144° E in 1955) being designated south magnetic pole. Also called dip pole. See geomagnetic latitude , geomagnetic pole , magnetic latitude .
2. Either of those two points of a magnet where the magnetic force is greatest.
3. In magnetic theory, a fictitious entity analogous to a unit electric charge of electrostatic theory. In nature only dipoles , not isolated magnetic poles, exist.
magnetic pressure
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Pressure which a magnetic field is capable of exerting on a plasma; equal to the magnetic energy density.
magnetic pressure
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The energy density associated with a magnetic field .
In a very real sense, there is energy stored in a magnetic field, and since energy per unit volume is equivalent to force per unit area or pressure, one may speak of the pressure exerted by a magnetic field. For plasma containment in a thermonuclear device, the magnetic pressure must be greater than the kinetic pressure of the plasma. See beta factor . A pressure of 1 atmosphere corresponds approximately to 5,000 gausses, and the pressure is proportional to the square of the field.
magnetic probes
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A conducting coil (sometimes insulated and inserted into the plasma) will have an induced voltage due to changes in the magnetic flux through the coil, and can therefore be used to measure changes in magnetic field strength. Small coils used to measure the local field strength are known as probes. Magnetic probes placed outside a toroidal plasma which are used to measure the poloidal magnetic field are also called Mirnov coils.
magnetic properties
The property of a material to attract iron, cobalt, or nickel.
magnetic pumping
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Form of plasma heating where the plasma is successively compressed and expanded by means of a fluctuating external magnetic field.
magnetic quiet-day solar daily variation
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The magnetic solar daily variation obtained from the 5 most quiet days of the month.
magnetic reconnection
(Earth's Magnetosphere Glossary - GSFC)
In a plasma, the process by which plasma particles riding along two different field lines can be made to share the same field line For instance, following reconnection, solar wind particles on an interplanetary field line, and magnetospheric ones on a field line attached to Earth, may find themselves sharing the same "open" field line, which has one end anchored on Earth and the other extending to distant space.
magnetic sails
(NASA Thesaurus)
Devices that provide low thrust spacecraft propulsion by deflecting plamsa winds with a superconducting cable-generated magnetic field.
magnetic solar daily variation
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol S)
A periodic variation of the earth's magnetic field that is in phase with solar ( local ) time.
The primary source of this variation is the ionizing effect of solar electromagnetic radiation on the atmosphere coupled with the earth's rotation. The amplitude of this variation changes with the seasons and the sunspot cycle.
magnetic storage
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
In computer terminology, any device which makes use of the magnetic properties of materials for the storage of information.
magnetic storm-time variation
Worldwide disturbances of the earth's magnetic field . See M-region .
Magnetic storms are frequently characterized by a sudden onset, in which the magnetic field undergoes marked changes in the course of an hour or less, followed by a very gradual return to normality, which may take several days. Magnetic storms are caused by solar disturbances, though the exact nature of the link between the solar and terrestrial disturbances is not understood. They are more frequent during years of high sunspot number. Sometimes a magnetic storm can be linked to a particular solar disturbance. In these cases, the time between solar flare and onset of the magnetic storm is about 1 or 2 days, suggesting that the disturbance is carried to the earth by a cloud of particles thrown out by the sun.
When these disturbances are observable only in the auroral zones, they may be termed polar magnetic storms.
magnetic stress tensor
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A second-rank tensor, proportional to the dyadic product of the magnetic field (B) with itself. The divergence of the magnetic stress tensor gives that part of the force which a magnetic field exerts on a unit volume of conducting fluid due to the curvature of the magnetic field lines.
magnetic switching
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
The use as switches of saturable inductors for producing high power pulses without electrical arcs. This is a principal technology for extending single-shot accelerators in light-ion-beam-driven inertial confinement fusion to repetitively pulsed devices for possible reactors. Three terawatt, 200 KJ magnetic switches have been developed for fusion drivers at Sandia National Laboratories. (Info from the 1985 OSTI Glossary of Fusion Energy; may be out of date.)
magnetic tape
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A ribbon of paper, metal, or plastic, coated or impregnated with magnetic material on which information may be stored in the form of magnetically polarized areas.
magnetic variation
Changes in magnetic fields in time or space.
magnetic viscosity
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A magnetic field in a conducting fluid will damp fluid motions perpendicular to the field lines, similar to ordinary viscosity, even in the absence of sizeable mechanical forces or electric fields.
magnetic wire
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Wire made of magnetic material on which information may be stored in the form of magnetically polarized areas.
magnetically insulated transmission line
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Used to transport power efficiently in vacuum lines at very high power densities. Although the cathode is a space-charge limited electron emitter, the electron flow is confined by self-generated or applied magnetic fields. MITL's are used extensively in light-ion-driven inertial confinement fusion.
magnetoelectric
Of or pertaining to electricity produced by or associated with magnetism.
Electromagnetic pertains to magnetism produced by or associated with electricity.
magnetoelectric transducer
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A transducer which measures the electromotive force generated by the movement of a conductor relative to a magnetic field .
magnetofluiddynamics
magnetohydrodynamic waves
(NASA Thesaurus)
Low frequency waves in an electrically highly conducting fluid (such as a plasma) permeated by static magnetic fields. The restoring forces of the waves are, in general, the combination of a magnetic tensile stress along the magnetic field lines and the comprehensive stress between the field lines and the fluid pressure. Used for Alfvén waves, hydromagnetic waves, and plasma sound waves.
magnetohydrodynamics
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr MHD)
The study of the interaction that exists between a magnetic field and an electrically conducting fluid . Also called magnetoplasmadynamics, magnetogasdynamics, hydromagnetics.
magnetoionic theory
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The theory of propagation of electromagnetic radiation through a medium containing ions in the presence of an external magnetic field .
It applies to the propagation of radio waves in the ionosphere, and provides theoretical relationships among such aspects of the subject as the index of refraction, radiofrequency, free-electron density, electron collision frequency, the earth's magnetic field (components relative to the direction of propagation), the nature of polarization, etc. See magnetic double refraction .
magnetoionic wave component
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Either of the two elliptically polarized wave components into which a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave , incident of the ionosphere , is separated because of the earth's magnetic field .
magnetomechanics (physics)
(NASA Thesaurus)
Study of the effects which the magnetization of a material and its strain have on each other.
magnetometer
magnetosheath
(Earth's Magnetosphere Glossary - GSFC)
The region between the magnetopause and the bow shock , containing solar wind which has been slowed down by passage through the bow shock. As the magnetosheath plasma streams away from the bow shock, it gradually regains its former velocity.
magnetosphere
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The region of the earth's atmosphere where ionized gas plays an important part in the dynamics of the atmosphere and where the geomagnetic field, therefore, plays an important role. The magnetosphere begins, by convention, at the maximum of the F layer at about 350 kilometers and extends to 10 or 15 earth radii to the boundary between the atmosphere and the interplanetary plasma .
magnetospheres
Region surrounding a celestial body where its magnetic field controls the motions of charged particles.
magnetostriction
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. The phenomenon wherein ferromagnetic materials experience an elastic strain when subjected to an external magnetic field .
2. The converse of sense 1 in which mechanical stresses cause a change in the magnetic induction of a ferromagnetic material.
magnetostrictive delay line
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In electronic computers, a device in which a wave is induced by the characteristic, possessed by nickel and certain other materials, of shortening in length when placed in a magnetic field. The wave travels at the speed of sound through the material. See delay line .
magnetotails
(High Energy Astrophysics Dictionary- GSFC)
The portion of a planetary magnetosphere which is pushed in the direction of the solar wind; The long stretched-out nightside of the magnetosphere, the region in which substorms begin.
magnetron
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
An electron tube characterized by the interaction of electrons with the electric field of a circuit element in crossed steady electric and magnetic fields to produce alternating-current power output.
magnetron sputtering
(NASA Thesaurus)
A deposition method in which a microwave tube is utilized to confine a plasma magnetically to produce high deposition rates and a low working-gas partial pressure.
magnets
Bodies which produce magnetic fields around themselves.
magnification
(NASA Thesaurus)
A ratio of the size of an image to its corresponding object. This is usually determined by linear measurement. Used for magnifiers.
magnitude
(High Energy Astrophysics Dictionary- GSFC)
The degree of brightness of a celestial body designated on a numerical scale, on which the brightest star has magnitude -1.4 and the faintest visible star has magnitude 6, with the scale rule such that a decrease of one unit represents an increase in apparent brightness by a factor of 2.512; also called apparent magnitude.
magnitude
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol m)
1. The relative luminance of a celestial body. The smaller (algebraically) the number indicating magnitude, the more luminous the body. Also called stellar magnitude. See absolute magnitude .
The ratio of relative luminosity of two celestial bodies differing in magnitude by 1.0 is 2.512, the fifth root of 100.
Decrease of light by a factor of 100 increases the stellar magnitude by 5.00; hence, the brightness objects have negative magnitudes (Sun: -26.8; mean full moon: -12.5; Venus at brightest: -4.3; Jupiter at opposition: -2.3; Sirius: -1.6; Vega: 0.2; Polaris: 2.1). The faintest stars visible to the naked eye on a clear dark night are of about the sixth magnitude (though on a perfectly black background the limit for a single luminous point approaches the eighth magnitude). The faintest stars visible with a telescope of aperture a (in inches) is one approximately of magnitude
9 + 5 log10 a
. The magnitude of the faintest stars which can be photographed with the 200-inch telescope is about +22.7.
The expression first magnitude is often used somewhat loosely to refer to all bodies of magnitude 1.5 or brighter, including negative magnitudes.
2. Amount; size; greatness. See order of magnitude .
MagSat 1 satellite
(NASA Thesaurus)
A scientific satellite launched by NASA for surveying the Earth's magnetic field. It was launched in October 1979 and reentered in June 1980.
MagSat B satellite
(NASA Thesaurus)
The second in a series of satellites for measuring the Earth's magnetic field. Similar magnetic measurements are proposed as part of the Geopotential Research Mission.
MagSat satellites
An area on the Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram containing "middle aged" stars like the Sun.
main stage
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. In a multistage rocket, the stage that develops the greatest amount of thrust , with or without booster engines .
2. In a single-stage rocket vehicle powered by one or more engines, the period when full thrust (at or above 90 percent) is attained.
3. A sustainer engine , considered as a stage after booster engines have fallen away, as in the main stage of the Atlas.
maintainability
(NASA Thesaurus)
A measure of the ease and rapidity with which a system or equipment can be retained in operational status through preventive maintenance or restored to operational status following a failure. It is characteristic of equipment design and installation, personnel availability in the required skill levels, adequacy of maintenance procedures and test equipment, and the physical environment under which maintenance is performed.
major axis
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
Improper functioning of a component , causing improper operation of a system .
mammatus clouds
(Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters - NOAA)
Rounded, smooth, sack-like protrusions hanging from the underside of a cloud (usually a thunderstorm cloud). anvil ). Mammatus clouds often accompany severe thunderstorms, but do not produce severe weather; they may accompany non-severe storms as well.
man powered aircraft
Aircraft powered by human energy.
man tended free flyers
(NASA Thesaurus)
Intermittently manned spacecraft or platforms designed primarily to carry out experiments in reduced gravity and life science research. They also serve as annexes or components of space stations. Used for MTTF (space station).
man-machine integration
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The matching of the characteristics and capabilities of man and machine in order to obtain optimum conditions and maximum efficiency of the combined system . See man-machine system .
man-machine system
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A system in which the functions of the man and the machine are interrelated and necessary for the operation of the system.
manatees
(NASA Thesaurus)
Large plant eating aquatic mammals living in shallow tropical waters near the coasts of North and South America.
maneuverable reentry bodies
(NASA Thesaurus)
(1) Reentry vehicles capable of performing preplanned flight maneuvers during the reentry phase. (2) Ballistic missil reentry vehicles whose ballistic trajectory can be adjusted by internal or external mechanisms, enabling them to evade antiballistic defenses and.or strike their target with a high degree of accuracy.
manned
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Of a vehicle occupied by one or more persons who normally have control over the movements of the vehicle, as in a manned aircraft or spacecraft, or who perform some useful function while in the vehicle.
manned maneuvering units
(NASA Thesaurus)
A propulsive backpack device for extravehicular activity. It uses a low thrust, dry, cold nitrogen propellant.
manned Mars missions
(NASA Thesaurus)
Any of several options for manned missions to Mars in which spacecraft are built for a particular mission. A mission is estimated by around 2020 and may last from one year to three years depending on speed and design.
manometers
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
Instruments used for measuring the pressure of gases and vapors both above and below atmospheric pressure . See vacuum gage .
manometric equivalent
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The length in millimeters of a vertical column of a given liquid at standard room temperature equivalent to 1 millimeter of mercury at 0° C.
manures
(NASA Thesaurus)
Materials that fertilize land. Refuse of stables and barnyards consisting of mammal and bird excreta with or without litter.
many-to-few matrix
map-matching guidance
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. The guidance of a rocket or aerodynamic vehicle by means of a radarscope film previously obtained by a reconnaissance flight over the terrain of the route, and used to direct the vehicle by aligning itself with radar echoes received during flight from the terrain below.
2. Guidance by stellar map matching .
Mapsat
(NASA Thesaurus)
A proposed stereoscopic system for mapping the Earth from space to replace Landsat D as defined by the US Geological Survey.
Marangoni convection
(NASA Thesaurus)
Convective flow induced by surface tension gradients. This is important in both ground and space processing where a free surface is present.
March equinox
mare (pl. maria)
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Latin for sea. The large, dark, flat areas on the lunar surface, thought by early astronomers to be bodies of water. The term is also applied to less well-defined areas on Mars.
Marecs maritime satellites
(NASA Thesaurus)
The European Space Agency's system of two satellites provides maritime communications links between ships and coast Earth stations. Originally known as Marots, the system operates with one satellite over the Atlantic Ocean and one over the Pacific Ocean. It was leased to the International Maritime Satellite Organization for five years. Also known as the maritime European communications satellite.
marine biology
One of a series of Soviet unmanned spacecraft designed for Mars exploration.
Mars Climate Orbiter
(NASA Thesaurus)
One of two spacecraft comprising the Mars Surveyor 98 program; launched December 1998. After obtaining a polar, nearly circular orbit around Mars, the Orbiter will serve as a radio relay during the Lander surface mission, then begin monitoring the atmosphere, surface, and polar caps for a complete Martian year. The Orbiter carries two science instruments: the Pressure Modulated Infrared Radiometer and the Mars Color Imager.
Mars craters
Craters from meteoritic impact on the surface of Mars.
Mars Global Surveyor
(NASA Thesaurus)
Spacecraft and related mission designed to orbit Mars over a two year period and collect data on the surface morphology, topography, composition, gravity, atmospheric dynamics, and magnetic field. Launched November 1996.
Mars Observer
(NASA Thesaurus)
Spacecraft and related mission to study the geoscience and climate of Mars. Launched September 1992. Contact with the spacecraft was lost in August 1993, three days before the scheduled Mars orbit insertion.
Mars Polar Lander
(NASA Thesaurus)
One of two spacecraft comprising the Mars Surveyor 98 program; launched January 1999. After a soft landing near the Martian south pole, the Lander will search for near-surface ice and possible surface records of cyclic climate change, and characterize physical processes key to the seasonal cycles of water, carbon dioxide and dust on Mars. Prior to landing, the Deep Space 2 microprobes will be released as part of a technology-validation mission related to multiple-lander spacecraft.
Mars Surveyor 98 Program
(NASA Thesaurus)
Mars exploration program consisting of two mission spacecraft-- the Mars Climate Orbiter and the Mars Polar Lander. Two surface penetrating microprobes (part of the associated Deep Space 2 mission) for detecting water ice are also piggybacking on the Lander.
Mars volcanoes
Volcanoes on the planet Mars.
marshlands
(NASA Thesaurus)
Transitional land-water areas, covered at least part of the time by estuarine or coastal waters and characterized by aquatic and grasslike vegetation. Used for bogs, coastal marshlands, marshes, and swamps.
martensitic transformation
A phase transformation occurring in some metals and resulting in formation of martensite.
martingales
(NASA Thesaurus)
In game theory, a procedure for recouping one's losses in previous wagers by doubling or otherwise increasing the amount bet.
Marx generator
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A pulsed-power device invented by Erwin Marx. Capacitors are charged in parallel and then quickly discharged in series to produce high voltage, high current (and thus high power) pulses. Used in light-ion-driven and some laser-driven inertial confinement fusion systems.
mascons
Large scale, high density lunar mass concentrations below ringed mare.
maser
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
An amplifier utilizing the principle of microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Emission of energy stored in a molecular or atomic system by a microwave power supply is stimulated by the input signal .
mass
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol m)
A quantity characteristic of a body, which relates the attraction of this body toward another body. Since the mass of a body is not fixed in magnitude, all masses are referred to the standard kilogram, which is a lump of platinum.
Mass of a body always has the same value; weight changes with change in the acceleration of gravity.
mass drivers
(NASA Thesaurus)
Electromagnetic devices for the linear acceleration of projectiles or payloads. Applications include orbital insertion and transfer, propulsion systems, and hypervelocity accelerators.
mass flow rate per unit area
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
mass number
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The whole number nearest the value of the atomic mass of an element as expressed in atomic mass units .
The mass number is assumed to represent the total number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus of the element and is therefore equal to the atomic number plus the number of the neutrons. The mass number of an atom is usually written as a superscript to the element symbol, as in O18, an isotope of oxygen with mass number 18.
mass ratio
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
The ratio of the mass of the propellant charge of a rocket to the total mass of the rocket when charged with the propellant.
mass spectrometers
(NASA Thesaurus)
Instruments that are capable of separating ionized molecules of different mass to charge ratio and measuring the respective ion currents. Used for ion spectrometers and retarding ion mass spectrometers.
mass to light ratios
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A quantity mv /mr expressing the relativistic variation of mass with velocity.
where mv is moving mass, mr is rest mass, v is velocity, and c is the velocity of light.
This ratio becomes important only at speeds approaching the speed of light.
massifs
(NASA Thesaurus)
Massive topographic and structural features, especially in orogenic belts, commonly formed of rocks more rigid than those of their surroundings. These rocks may be protruding bodies of basement rocks, consolidated during earlier orogenies, or younger plutonic bodies.
massive compact halo objects
(NASA Thesaurus)
Objects, such as brown dwarfs, black holes, and massive planets, hypothesized to account for the dark matter in the halo of the Milky Way. The signature of these objects is the occasional amplification of the light from extragalactic stars by the gravitational lens effect.
master station
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In a hyperbolic navigation system, such as loran , that transmitting station which controls the transmissions of another station or of other stations. See hyperbolic navigation, slave station .
mate
materials
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In general, the substances of which rockets and space vehicles are composed; specifically, the metals, alloys, ceramics, and plastics used in structural, protective, and electronic functions.
materials recovery
The treatment of a material to reclaim one or more of its components.
mathematics
(NASA Thesaurus)
The study of the logical relationships among abstract entities. These relationships are expressed in numbers, symbols, and signs and may also be applied to concrete instances such as measures and properties of shapes. The main subdivisions include algebra, geometry, and analysis.
mating
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. The act of fitting together two major components of a system as mating of a launch vehicle and a spacecraft. Also called marriage.
matrix
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. Any rectangular array of elements composed of rows and columns; specifically, such an array consisting of numbers or mathematical symbols which can be manipulated according to certain rules.
2. In electronic computers , any logical network whose configuration is a rectangular array of intersections of its input-output leads, with elements connected at some of these intersections. The network usually functions as an encoder or decoder . Loosely, any encoder, decoder, or translator .
matrix management
(NASA Thesaurus)
An organized approach to administration of a program by defining and structuring all elements to form a single system with components united by interaction.
matrix materials
Procedure used in estimating high resolution power spectra from short data lengths.
maximum evaporation rate
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The maximum rate at which molecules could emerge from a surface, deduced from measurements of saturated vapor pressure at the same temperature. Also called Knudsen rate of evaporation or Langmuir rate of evaporation.
maximum sound pressure
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
For any given cycle of a periodic wave , the maximum absolute value of the instantaneous sound pressure , without regard to sign, occurring during that cycle. The unit is the microbar.
In the case of a sinusoidal sound wave, the maximum sound pressure is also called the pressure amplitude.
maximum usable frequency
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr MUF)
For a given distance from a transmitter , the highest frequency at which sky waves can be received.
Maxwell equation
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
The key equations governing electrical and magnetic phenomena. These are a set of four vector partial differential equations relating electric and magnetic fields to each other and to electric charges andcurrents.
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Distribution function of particle velocities (or energies) corresponding to a system in thermal equilibrium with a temperature value of T.
Maxwellian distribution
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The velocity distribution, as computed in the kinetic theory of gases, of the molecules of a gas in thermal equilibrium.
This distribution is often assumed to hold for neutrons in thermal equilibrium with the moderator (thermal neutrons).
maypole antennas
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol l,
, L)
1. Of any particle , the average distance that a particle travels between successive collisions with the other particles of an ensemble.
In vacuum technology, the ensemble of particles of interest comprises only the molecules in the gas phase.
2. Specifically, the average distance traveled by the molecules of a perfect gas between consecutive collisions with one another. It may be determined roughly from either of the formulas
or
where l is the mean free path; u (lower case Mu) is the dynamic viscosity; v is the kinematic viscosity; p (lower case Rho) is the density; c is the molecular speed (a function of the gas temperature); n is the number of molecules per unit volume; and d is the molecule diameter.
Given the mean free path l0 at a level where the pressure is p0 , the temperature is T0 (°K), and the acceleration of gravity is g0, then its value at any other level is
l = l0 p0 Tg / pT0 g0
where p, T, and g are the pressure, temperature, and acceleration of gravity, respectively, at the new level. See mixing length .
3. For any process the reciprocal of the cross section per unit volume for that process.
mean motion
mean noon
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The instant the mean sun is over the upper branch of the reference meridian; twelve o'clock mean time .
mean position
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Of a star, the position on the celestial sphere computed from past observations plus known proper motion but not corrected for short term variations. See Besselian star numbers .
mean sea level
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The average height of the surface of the sea for all stages of the tide over a 19-year period, usually determined from hourly height readings.
Mean sea level is the datum from which heights are measured. In this sense sometimes shortened to sea level. See geoid .
mean sidereal time
Sidereal time adjusted for nutation to eliminate slight irregularities in the rate.
mean solar day
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The duration of one rotation of the earth on its axis, with respect to the mean sun.
The length of the mean solar days is 24 hours of mean solar time or 24 hours 3 minutes 56.555 seconds of mean sidereal time. A mean solar day beginning at midnight is called a civil day; and one beginning at noon, 12 hours later, is called an astronomical day. See calendar day .
mean solar second
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Prior to 1960 the fundamental unit of time, equal to 1/86,400 of the mean solar day . Now replaced by the ephemeris second .
mean solar time
mean square
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Referring to the arithmetic mean of the squares of the values under consideration, as mean-square amplitude, mean-square error.
mean square values
(NASA Thesaurus)
In statistics, values representing the average of the sum of the squares of the deviations from the mean value.
mean sun
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A fictitious sun conceived to move eastward along the celestial equator at a rate that provides a uniform measure of time equal to the average apparent time ; the reference for reckoning mean time , zone time , etc. See dynamical mean sun .
mean time
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Time based upon the rotation of the earth relative to the mean sun .
Mean time may be designated as local or Greenwich as the local or Greenwich meridian is the reference. Greenwich mean time is also called universal time. Zone, standard, daylight saving or summer, and war time are also variations of mean time, specified meridians being used as the reference. Mean time reckoned from the upper branch of the meridian is called astronomical time. Mean time was called civil time in U.S. terminology from 1925 through 1952. See equation of time , mean sidereal time .
mean-square error
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The quantity whose square is equal to the sum of the squares of the individual errors divided by the number of those errors.
meanders
(NASA Thesaurus)
Freely developing sinuous curves, bends, loops, turns, or windings in the courses of streams. They are produced by mature streams swinging from side to side as they flow across flood plains or shift course laterally toward the convex side of an original curve.
measurand
A physical quantity, force, property or condition which is to be measured. Also called stimulus.
measurement
(NASA Thesaurus)
The technical action required to assign values (numbers) to represent certain properties or attributes, using rules based on scientific laws. Used for determination, measuring, and quantization.
mechanical engineering
(NASA Thesaurus)
Branch of engineering dealing with the design, development and operation of machines including mechanical devices and prime movers, vehicles, machine tools, and manufacturing machinery.
mechanical equivalent of heat
mechanical system
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In the study of vibration , an aggregate of matter comprising a defined configuration of mass, mechanical stiffness, and mechanical resistance.
mechanoreceptor
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A nerve ending that reacts to mechanical stimuli, as touch,, tension, and acceleration.
median
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The middle term of a series, or the interpolated value of the two middle terms if the number of terms is even. Compare mean .
median lethal dose
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The amount of radiation required to kill, within a specified period, 50 percent of the individuals of a group of animals or organisms.
medium frequency
One million parsecs. See parsec .
mel
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A unit of acoustic pitch. By definition, a simple tone of frequency 1000 cycles per second, 40 decibels above a listener's threshold, produces a pitch of 1000 mels. The pitch of any sound that is judged by the listener to be n times that of a 1-mel tone is n mels.
melt spinning
(NASA Thesaurus)
A material process by which polymers such as nylon and polyesters and glass are melted to permit extrusion into fibers through spinnerets.
meltdown
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
In a fission reactor, if there is insufficient coolant or the fission chain reaction proceeds too rapidly, heat can build up in the reactor fuel, causing it to melt. In extreme cases the whole fission core can melt down to (or even through) the reactor floor. Fusion reactors are not vulnerable to this.
melting points
(NASA Thesaurus)
liquidus and solidus coincide at an invariant point. In a phase diagram, the temperature at which the
melts (crystal growth)
A shell structure, often pressurized , that does not take wall bending or compression loads.
memory
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The component of a computer , control system, guidance system, instrumented satellite, or the like, designed to provide ready access to data or instructions previously recorded so as to make them bear upon an immediate problem, such as the guidance of a physical object, or the analysis and reduction of data.
memory (computers)
(NASA Thesaurus)
The component of a computer, control system, guidance system, instrumented satellite, or the like, designed to provide ready access to data or instructions previously recorded so as to make them bear upon an immediate problem, such as the guidance of a physical object, or the analysis and reduction of data.
memory capacity
Mercator projection
(NASA Thesaurus)
An equatorial, cylindrical, conformal map projection derived by mathematical analysis (not geometrically) in which the equator is represented by a straight line true to scale. The meridians are represented by parallel straight lines perpendicular to the equator and equally spaced according to their distance apart at the equator. The parallels are represented by straight lines perpendicular to the meridians and parallel with (and the same length as) the equator. The parallels are spaced so as to achieve conformality, their spacing increasing rapidly with their distance from the equator so that at all places the degrees of latitude and longitude have the same ratio to each other as to the sphere itself. This results in greater distortion of distances, areas, and shapes in the polar regions (above 80 deg. latitude). The scale is increasingly poleward as the secant of the latitude. Because any line of constant direction (azimuth) on the sphere is truly represented on the projection by a straight line, the Mercator projection is of great value in navigation. It is used for hydrographic charts, and also to show geographic variations of some physical property (such as magnetic declination) or to plot trajectories of Earth satellites in oblique orbits. It is named after Gerhardus Mercator (1512-1594), a Flemish mathematician and geographer, whose world map of 1569 used this projection.
Mercury
The surface of the planet Mercury.
meridian
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A north-south reference line, particularly a great circle through the geographical poles of the earth. The term usually refers to the upper branch , that half, from pole to pole, which passes through a given place, the other half being called the lower branch. See coordinate , table.
A terrestrial meridian is a meridian of the earth. Sometimes designated true meridian to distinguish it from magnetic meridian, compass meridian, or grid meridian, the north-south lines relative to magnetic, compass, or grid direction, respectively. An astronomical meridian is a line connecting points having the same astronomical longitude. A geodetic meridian is a line connecting points of equal geodetic longitude. Geodetic and sometimes astronomical meridians are also called geographic meridians. Geodetic meridians are shown on charts. The prime meridian passes through longitude 0°. A fictitious meridian is one of a series of great circles or lines used in place of a meridian for certain purposes. A transverse or inverse meridian is a great circle perpendicular to a transverse equator. An oblique meridian is a great circle perpendicular to an oblique equator. Any meridian used as a reference for reckoning time is called a time meridian. The meridian through any particular place or observer, serving as the reference for local time, is called local meridian, in contrast with the Greenwich meridian, the reference for Greenwich time. A celestial sphere, through the celestial poles and the zenith.
meridian angle
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Angular distance east or west of the local celestial meridian ; the arc of the celestial equator , or the angle at the celestial pole, between the upper branch of the local celestial meridian and the hour circle of a celestial body , measured eastward or westward from the local celestial meridian through 180°, and labeled E or W to indicate the direction of measurement. See hour angle .
meridian transit
meridional flow
(Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters - NOAA)
Large-scale atmospheric flow in which the north-south component (i.e., longitudinal, or along a meridian) is pronounced. The accompanying zonal (east-west) component often is weaker than normal. Compare with zonal flow .
mesas
(NASA Thesaurus)
Isolated, nearly level landmasses standing distinctly above the surrounding country, bounded by abrupt or steeply sloping erosion scarps on all sides, and capped by layers of resistant, nearly horizontal rock (often lava). Less strictly, very broad, flat topped, usually isolated hills or mountains of moderate height bounded on at least one side by a steep cliff or slope and representing an erosion remnant. Mesas are similar to, but have more summit area than buttes and are common topographical features in arid and semiarid regions of the United States. Mesas are often considered broad terraces or comparatively flat plateaus along river valleys. They are marked by an abrupt slope or escarpment on one side.
mesh
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A set of branches forming a closed path in a network , provided that if any one branch is omitted from the set, the remaining branches of the set do not form a closed path.
The term loop is sometimes used in the sense of mesh.
meson
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In the classification of a subatomic particles by mass, the second lightest of such particles. Its mass is intermediate between that of the lepton and the nucleon (see hyperon ).
Mesons are highly unstable, very short-lived particles; they carry positive, negative, or no charge, and, in a vacuum, move with velocities approaching the speed of light. All of these particles have extremely short lifetimes and the heavier more unstable mesons tend to decay into lighter ones.
mesopause
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
The base of the inversion at the top of the mesosphere , usually found at 80 to 85 kilometers. See atmospheric shell .
mesopeak
Meteorological phenomena extending approximately one to a hundred kilometers (mesoscale cloud patterns, for example).
mesosphere
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. The atmospheric shell , in which temperature generally decreases with heights, extending from the stratopause at about 50 to 55 kilometers to the mesopause at about 80 to 85 kilometers.
2. The atmospheric shell between the top of the ionosphere (the top of this region has never been clearly defined) and the bottom of the exosphere . (This definition has not gained general acceptance.)
Mesozoic Era
(NASA Thesaurus)
An era of geologic time, from the end of the Paleozoic Era to the beginning of the Cenozoic Era, or from about 225 to about 65 million years ago.
message
1. An ordered selection from an agreed set of symbols, intended to communicate information .
2. The original modulating wave in a communication system.
The term in sense 1 is used in communication theory; the term in sense 2 is often used in engineering practice.
message processing
(NASA Thesaurus)
In communication operations, the acceptance, preparation for transmission, receipt and/or delivery of a series of words or symbols intended for conveying information.
MESUR
(Space Flight Glossary - JPL)
The Mars Environmental Survey project at JPL, the engineering prototype of which is called MESUR Pathfinder.
metabolic reserves
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The energy source stored in chemical form, such as carbohydrates, that can be efficiently mobilized and utilized by the body, particularly for muscular activity and work beyond the normal level of activity of an individual.
metabolism
(NASA Thesaurus)
The sum of all physical and chemical processes by which living organized substance is produced and maintained and by which energy is made available for the use of the organism.
metabolites
Class of semiconductors utilizing silicon nitride and silicon oxide dielectrics.
metallic fuels
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Of or pertaining to nuclear fuels which are a mixture, a pressed powder, or an alloy of a fissionable material, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239, and a metal such as aluminum, zirconium, or stainless steel.
metallic glasses
(NASA Thesaurus)
Amorphous alloys (glassy metals) produced by extremely rapid quenching of molten transition-metal alloys (e.g., iron, nickel, and/or cobalt). These metallic glasses exhibit unique mechanical, magnetic, and electrical properties, superconductive behavior, and anticorrosion resistance, depending on the alloys, their formation and quenching techniques.
metallicity
The abundance index of a metal or metals for a celestial body.
metamorphic rocks
(NASA Thesaurus)
Rocks derived from pre-existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical and/or structural changes, essentially in the solid state. These changes are in response to marked changes in temperature, pressure, shearing stress, and chemical environment, generally at the depth of the Earth's crust. Metamorphic rocks constitute one of the three main classes into which rocks are divided, the others being igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks.
metamorphism (geology)
(NASA Thesaurus)
The mineralogical and structural adjustment of solid rocks to physical and chemical conditions which have been imposed at depth below the surface zones of weathering and cementation, which differ from the conditions under which the rocks in question originated.
metastable atom
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
An atom with an electron excited to an energy level where simple radiation is forbidden and thus the atom is momentarily stable. See forbidden line .
The presence of these metastable atoms in a discharge is the cause of several anomalous effects since in essence they are storing energy which can be released to other particles upon collision. The Penning effect is a result of the presence of metastable atoms.
metastable compound
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
An excited stationary energy state, as of an atom, whose lifetime is unusually long.
meteor
(IMO Meteor Glossary)
The bright streak of light that appears in the sky as a result of friction between a meteoroid and the air molecules in our atmosphere. Entering the atmosphere at speeds between 10 and 70 kilometers per second, the friction-generated heat is hot enough to melt the surface layer of the object and ionize the air. The term originated with the Greeks circa 350 B.C. In its original Greek form, the word was meteora/meteoros and meant something raised up high into the air. Most of the meteors that are observed are produced by a meteoroid that is no larger than a grain of sand. The altitude at which the visible streak of light first appears is approximately 110 kilometers, +/- 20 kilometers.
meteor
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In particular, the light phenomenon which results from the entry into the earth's atmosphere of a solid particle from space; more generally, any physical object or phenomenon associated with such an event. See meteoroid .
meteor path
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The projection of the trajectory of a meteor in the celestial sphere as seen by the observer.
meteor shower
meteorological rocket
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A rocket designed primarily for routine upper air observation (as opposed to research) in the lower 250,000 feet of the atmosphere, especially that portion inaccessible to balloons, i.e., above 100,000 feet. Also called rocketsonde.
meteorology
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
The study dealing with the phenomena of the atmosphere . This includes not only the physics, chemistry, and dynamics of the atmosphere, but is extended to include many of the direct effects of the atmosphere upon the earth's surface, the oceans, and life in general.
A distinction can be drawn between meteorology and climatology, the latter being primarily concerned with average, not actual, weather conditions. Meteorology may be subdivided, according to the methods of approach and the applications to human activities, into a large number of specialized sciences. The following are of interest to space science: aerology , aeronomy , dynamic meteorology , physical meteorology , radio meteorology.
metering jet
A natural satellite of Jupiter orbiting at a mean distance of 127,960 kilometers.
Metonic calendar
(From Stargazers to Starships Glossary - GSFC)
Named for the Athenian astronomer Meton, it is based on the moon, counting each cycle of the phases of the Moon as one month. Days are kept approximately in step with the seasons by including 7 leap years of 13 months in each cycle of 19 years. Used by the Chinese and the Jews.
Metonic cycle
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A period of 19 years, after which the various phases of the moon fall on approximately the same days of the year as in the previous cycle.
The Metonic cycle is the basis for the golden numbers used to determine the data of Easter. Four such cycles form a Callippic cycle.
metric photography
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The recording of events by means of photography (either singly or sequentially), together with appropriate coordinates , to form the basis for accurate measurements.
metric system
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The international decimal system of weights and measures based on the meter and the kilogram .
The use of the metric system in the United States was legalized by Congress in 1866 but was not made obligatory.
metric wave
1. (abbr µ). A prefix meaning divided by 106.
2. A prefix meaning very small, as in micrometeorite.
microballoons
(NASA Thesaurus)
Very small glass spheres (50 to 100 micrometers in diameter) used as targets in the laser fusion programs.
microbar
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr µb)
The unit of pressure in the CGS system and equal to 1 dyne per square centimeter; the unit of sound pressure .
In British literature the term barye has been used.
The term bar properly denotes a pressure of 106 dynes per square centimeter. Unfortunately, the bar was once used in acoustics to mean 1 dyne per square centimeter, but this is no longer correct.
microbursts (meteorology)
(NASA Thesaurus)
A strong, localized downdraft that strikes the ground creating an outflow of severe winds near the ground that diverge radically from the impact point.
microchannel plates
(NASA Thesaurus)
An array of microchannels formed into plates and contained in a photomultiplier tube. Used for multichannel plates.
microcomputers
(NASA Thesaurus)
Complete digital computers utilizing a microprocessor consisting of one or more integrated circuit chips as the central arithmetic and logic unit, and added chips to provide timing, program memory, random access memory interfaces for input and output signals and other functions. Some microcomputers consist of a single integrated-circuit chip.
microdensitometers
(NASA Thesaurus)
Image analysis devices for resolving gray-level differences within or between features and for integrating the optical density across scanned images of irregularly shaped objects.
microenvironment
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The environment created and maintained within a very small space, such as a pressurized capsule or space suit, and sufficient to support life in a reasonably normal manner.
microgravity
(NASA Thesaurus)
A condition in which the acceleration acting on a body is less than normal gravity, between 0 and 1 g. Used for low gravity, reduced gravity, and subgravity.
microinstability
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Instabilities due to particle / kinetic- theoretical effects, typically occuring on small scales, as opposed to those derivable from fluid models valid on larger scales. As with other instabilities, these are driven by various types of available free energy.
microlock
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A satellite telemetry system which uses phase-lock techniques in the ground receiving equipment to achieve extreme sensitivity.
micromachining
The study of the constraints, the grain size, and their interrelationship in materials.
micrometeorite
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A very small meteorite or meteoritic particle with a diameter in general less than a millimeter.
micrometeorite penetration
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Penetration of the thin outer shell (skin) of space vehicles by small particles traveling in space at high velocities.
micrometer
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
One of a class of instruments for making precise linear measurements in which the displacements measured correspond to the travel of a screw of accurately known pitch .
micrometers
(Global Land Information System Glossary - USGS)
A unit of length equal to one-millionth of a meter. It also is referred to as a micron.
micron
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr µ)
1. A unit of length equal to one-millionth of a meter or one-thousandth of a millimeter.
The micron is a convenient length unit for measuring wavelengths of infrared radiation, diameters of atmospheric particles, etc.
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr µ of Hg or µ Hg)
A unit of pressure equal to a pressure of 1/1000th of 1 millimeter of mercury pressure at ° C and the standard acceleration of gravity; a millitorr (10-3 torr approximately). See torr.
microphone
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
An electroacoustic transducer which receives an acoustic signal and delivers a corresponding electric signal.
microquasar
(Imagine the Universe Dictionary - NASA GSFC)
Microquasars are stellar mass black holes, that display characteristics of the supermassive black holes found at the centers of some galaxies. For instance, they have radio jets -- something not every black hole has.
microsatellites
(NASA Thesaurus)
Satellites with a total mass between 10 and 100 kg often incorporating miniaturized electronic and mechanical systems.
microscopes
microseisms
(NASA Thesaurus)
Seismic pulses of short duration and low amplitude, often ocurring previous to failure of a material or structures.
microstrip antennas
(NASA Thesaurus)
Antennas which consist of thin metallic conductors bonded to thin grounded dielectric substrates. The metallic conductors generally have some regular shape, for example, rectangular, circular, or elliptical. Feeding is often by means of a coaxial probe or a microstrip transmission line.
microtorr
A unit of pressure equal to 10-6 torr. See torr .
microwave
(Global Land Information System Glossary - USGS)
The subset of the Electromagnetic Spectrum encompassing wavelengths between .03 and 30 centimeters, corresponding to frequencies of 1-100 gigahertz.
microwave
The absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range.
microwave interferometers
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A microwave interferometer uses radio waves in the microwave frequency (or wavelength) range as the electromagnetic signal. Microwave interferometers are used to measure the line-averaged density of a plasma along the path through which the microwave beam is passed, through phase shifts in the propagated beam.
microwave landing systems
(NASA Thesaurus)
A precision instrument approach landing system operating in the microwave spectrum which provides lateral and vertical guidance to aircraft having compatible avionics equipment.
microwave refractometer
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A device for measuring the refractive index of the atmosphere at microwave frequencies - usually in the 3-centimeter region.
microwave region
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Commonly, that region of the radio spectrum between approximately 1000 megacycles and 300,000 megacycles. See frequency band .
Corresponding wavelengths are 30 centimeters to 1 millimeter. The limits of the microwave region are not clearly defined but in general it is considered to be the region in which radar operates.
microwave scanning beam landing system
(NASA Thesaurus)
Primary position sensor of Space Shuttle orbiter's navigation system during the autoland phase of the flight. Used for MSBLS.
microwave turbulence
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Irregular and fluctuating gradients of microwave refractive index in the atmosphere. See optical turbulence .
Microwave turbulence may be due either to blobby distribution of water vapor, or to thermal turbulence.
microyield strength
(NASA Thesaurus)
Stress at which a microstructure (single crystal, for example) exhibits a specified deviation in its stress-strain relationship.
mid-ocean ridges
(NASA Thesaurus)
Continuous, seismic, median mountain ranges extending through the North and South Atlantic Oceans, the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean. They are broad fractured swells with a central rift valley and usually rugged topography. They are 1-3 km in elevation, about 1500 km in width, and over 84,000 km in length. According to the hypothesis of sea floor spreading, the mid-ocean ridges are the source of crustal material.
midaltitude
(NASA Thesaurus)
The average of many measurements of altitudes as with satellite instruments for the compiling of planetary maps.
Midas
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A two-object trajectory measuring system whereby two complete Cotar antenna systems and two sets of receivers at each station, with the multiplexing done after phase comparison, are utilized in tracking more than one object at a time.
midcourse guidance
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Guidance of a rocket from the end of the launching phase to some arbitrary point or at some arbitrary time when terminal guidance begins. Also called incourse guidance. See guidance .
middle atmosphere
Mie scattering
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
Any scattering produced by spherical particles without special regard to comparative size of radiation wavelength and particle diameter. See Mie theory .
Mie theory
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A complete mathematical-physical theory of the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by spherical particles, developed by G. Mie in 1908. In contrast to Rayleigh scattering , the Mie theory embraces all possible ratios of diameter to wavelength.
The Mie theory is very important in meteorological optics, where diameter-to-wavelength ratios of the order of unity and larger are characteristic of many problems regarding haze and cloud scattering. Scattering of radar energy by raindrops constitutes another significant application of the Mie theory.
MiG aircraft
(NASA Thesaurus)
Any of a series of Soviet fighter aircraft, fighter-bombers, interceptors, and air supremacy aircraft, designed by Mikoyan.
migma devices
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Non-thermal, non-pulsed devices in which fusion occurs among the ions of a self-colliding particle beam.
mil
1. One-thousandth of an inch.
2. A unit of angular measurement, 1/6400 of a circle.
Milankovich theory
(From Stargazers to Starships Glossary - GSFC)
Theory by which ice ages were caused by slow changes of the motion of the Earth in space, including the coupling between the 26 000 year cycle of the precession of the equinoxes and the annual variation of the Earth-Sun distance.
mile
A unit of distance. See statute mile , nautical mile .
military grid
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A proposed new unit of pressure equal to 10-3 torr. See torr .
MIM diodes
(NASA Thesaurus)
Junction diodes each consisting of an insulating layer sandwiched between two metallic surface layers and exhibiting a negative differential resistance in its V-1 characteristics conceivably because of stimulated inelastic tunneling of electrons. Used for metal-insulator-metal diodes.
Mimas
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A satellite of Saturn orbiting at a mean distance of 186,000 kilometers.
MIMD (computers)
(NASA Thesaurus)
A type of parallel processor that is essentially two or more individual computers with facilities for interaction and work sharing. Used for multiple instruction multiple data stream.
minerals
(NASA Thesaurus)
Naturally occurring inorganic elements or compounds having an orderly internal structure and characteristic chemical compositions, crystal forms, and physical properties.
mini
A contraction of miniature used in combination, as in minicomponent, miniradio, minitransistor.
miniature
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Used attributively in reference to equipment, such as gimbals, gyroscopes, computers, etc., made small to fit into confined spaces, as within an earth satellite or rocket vehicle.
miniaturization
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The least total refraction experienced by radiation passing through a prismatic refractive medium.
It is important to note that the refractive deviation is minimal, in general, only with respect to adjacent light paths, for there may exist a number of path directions through a single object, each one of which yields a local minimum deviation. When radiation has undergone minimum deviation, the angular difference in path directions before and after total refraction is termed the angle of minimum deviation.
minimum entropy method
Application of entropy in statistical mechanics.
minimum ionizing speed
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The speed with which a free electron must move through a given gas to be able to ionize gas atoms or molecules by collision. In air at standard conditions, this speed is about 107 centimeters per second. See electron avalanche .
minitrack
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A satellite tracking system consisting of a field of separate antennas and associated receiving equipment interconnected so as to form interferometers which track a transmitting beacon in the payload itself.
minitrack system
(NASA Thesaurus)
A satellite tracking system consisting of a field of separate antennas and associated receiving equipment interconnected so as to form interferometers which track a transmitting beacon in the payload itself. Used for minitrack optical tracking system and MOTS (tracking system).
minor axis
1. The sixtieth part of an hour.
2. The sixtieth part of a degree of arc.
Mir space station
(NASA Thesaurus)
The Soviet space station launched February 20, 1986; its name means peace or world in Russian. It is a manned, modular, permanent, and multi-mission station.
Mira variables
(NASA Thesaurus)
Long-period (80 to over 600 days) variable stars of red giant or red supergiant type, exemplified by the star Mira Ceti. Used for long period variables.
mirage
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. (Optics) definition submitted by Andy Young, June 30, 1997
An apparently reflected image of an object, caused by abnormal atmospheric refraction . The most commonly seen is the inferior mirage over heated surfaces, which often looks like a pool of water because it reflects the sky. Superior mirages, which appear above the direct image of the object, are due to strong thermal inversions above eye level. Other mirage-like images can be produced by thermal inversions below eye level, and by hot air adjacent to a wall heated by the Sun (lateral mirage).
2. (Radar) A refraction phenomenon in the atmosphere wherein an image of some object is made to appear displaced from its true position. See radio duct , note.
Simple mirages may be any one of three types, the inferior mirage, the superior mirage, or the lateral mirage, depending, respectively, on whether the spurious image appears below, above, or to one side of the true position of the object. Of the three, the inferior mirage is the most common, being usually discernible over any heated street in daytime during summer. The abnormal refraction responsible for mirages is invariably associated with abnormal temperature distributions that yield abnormal spatial variations in the refractive index.
Mirage aircraft
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A satellite of Uranus orbiting at a mean distance of 124,000 kilometers.
Miranda satellite
(NASA Thesaurus)
This United Kingdom satellite was launched in 1974 into a sun synchronous, low Earth orbit. Prime objective of the mission was to experiment with satellite attitude control. It ceased to operate the same year it was launched.
mirnov osscillations
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Fluctuations in the poloidal magnetic field (of a toroidal magnetic confinement system) which rotate in the electron diamagnetic drift direction at a speed comparable to the electron diagmagnetic drift velocity and with frequencies due to 5-20 kHz. Mirnov oscillations arise from tearing modes. Poloidal magnetic probes used to measure the poloidal field in order to diagnose Mirnov oscillations (and other MHD phenomena) are often called Mirnov coils or Mirnov loops.
mirror altitude
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The altitude above the earth at which electrically charged corpuscular radiation impinging upon the earth is reflected by the geomagnetic field .
mirror device
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
Generally, linear fusion machines which confine the plasma using the mirror effect. Basically there is a weak field in the center, and strong fields at the ends. Particles are then reflected at the ends by the strong fields, and are confined in the center of the device.
mirror effect
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
A charged particle travelling into an increasing magnetic field will (if the field becomes strong enough) reverse direction and be reflected back. This is a direct result of the adiabatic invariance of the magnetic moment. Plasmas can be confined by devices which utilize this effect. The effect also occurs in some toroidal plasmas, since the toroidal magnetic field is stronger on the inboard side than on the outboard side; in this case it gives rise to so-called "neoclassical" effects. The strength of the mirror is determined by the mirror ratio.
mirror fusion
(NASA Thesaurus)
An open-ended configuration which traps low beta plasmas. It is realized by associating two identical magnetic mirrors having the same axis.
mirror ratio
(Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy Glossary)
The ratio between the strongest value of the magnetic field on the mirror's axis, and the value at some other point on the axis. In a mirror confinement device, the "other point" is taken to be the location of weakest field strength between two confining mirrors. The mirror ratio is a key factor in determining confinement properties of the system.
mirror ratio
mischmetal
(NASA Thesaurus)
An alloy consisting of a natural mixture of rare-earth metals; used in electrode materials and hydrogen-storage alloys, as a general alloy addition, and in the production of some aluminum alloys and steels.
mismatch (electrical)
(NASA Thesaurus)
Condition in which the impedance of a source does not match or equal the impedance of the connected load or transmission line.
missile
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Any object thrown, dropped, fired, launched, or otherwise projected with the purpose of striking a target. Short for ballistic missile, guided missile.
Missile should not be used loosely as a synonym for rocket or spacecraft.
missile ranging
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr Miran)
A trajectory measuring system that measures loop ranges from a transmitter to a beacon to remote slave stations and back to the transmitter through comparison of time differences of pulses .
The transmitter interrogates at 600 megacycles and the beacon replies at 580 megacycles.
missiles
(NASA Thesaurus)
Any objects thrown, dropped, fired, launched, or otherwise projected with the purpose of striking a target.
missilry
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The art or science of designing, developing, building, launching, directing, and sometimes guiding a rocket missile ; any phase or aspect of this art or science.
This term is sometimes spelled missilery, but is then pronounced as a three-syllable word.
missing mass (astrophysics)
(NASA Thesaurus)
A problem related to a cluster of galaxies in which the mass derived from the dynamical stability of its member galaxies, the dynamical mass, is substantially larger than the mass estimated by the mass-to-luminosity ratio of the visible parts of the galaxies, the visible mass.
Mission to Planet Earth
(NASA Thesaurus)
A NASA initated program that uses both space and ground based measurement systems to provide the scientific basis for understanding global change.
mist
(NASA Thesaurus)
Liquid, usually water in the form of particles suspended in the atmosphere at or near the surface of the Earth; small water droplets floating or falling, approaching the form of rain, and sometimes distinguished from fog as being more transparent or as having particles perceptibly moving downward.
mistake
An error , usually large, resulting from a human failing or an equipment malfunction.
mixed icing
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Mixed aircraft icing is composed of both glaze and rime ice . Typically the ice will be clear near the stagnation line of the wing with the remainder rime. It represents about 15% of icing reports.
mixed oxides
mixed-base notation
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A system of positional notation used in computers in which two or more bases are arranged according to a plan. See biquinary notation .
mixed-flow compressor
A rotary compressor through which the acceleration of fluid is partly radial and partly axial.
mixing height
(NASA Thesaurus)
The heights of the layer through which the atmosphere is well mixed. The height will vary with diurnal, seasonal, and regional variations. Used for mixing depth.
mixing layers (fluids)
Fluid layers in which multicomponent mixing occurs.
mixing length
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A mean length of travel, characteristic of a particular motion in a fluid over which an eddy maintains its identity; analogous to the mean free path of a molecule.
Physically, the idea implies that mixing occurs by discontinuous steps, that fluctuations which arise as eddies with different characteristics wander about, and that the mixing is done almost entirely by the small eddies.
mixing ratio
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In a system of moist air, the dimensionless ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air. For many purposes, the mixing ratio may be approximated by the specific humidity . In terms of the pressure p and vapor pressure e, the mixing ratio w is
w = (0.6222 e) / (p - e)
mixture ratio
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
An operational test of a complete rocket system without actually firing a rocket.
mockup
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A full-sized replica or dummy of something, such as a spacecraft, often made of some substitute material such as wood, and sometimes incorporating actual functioning pieces of equipment, such as engines.
mode
(Global Land Information System Glossary - USGS)
That value that occurs most frequently within the data sample being taken. In a histogram, it is the data value at which the peak of the distribution curve occurs.
mode
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A functioning position or arrangement that allows for the performance of a given task.
Said of a spacecraft , which may move, for example, from a cruise mode to an encounter mode; or said of controls that permit the selection of a mode, such as a reentry mode.
mode of vibration
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In a system undergoing vibration , a characteristic pattern assumed by the system in which the motion of every particle is simple harmonic with the same frequency .
Two or more modes of vibration may exist concurrently in a multiple-degree-of-freedom system.
mode shape
model atmosphere
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
2. = standard atmosphere , sense 1.
model reference adaptive control
(NASA Thesaurus)
This deals with three parameters: an ideal adaptive control system whose response is agreed to be optimum; computer simulation in which both the model system and the actual system are subjected to the same stimulus; and parameters of the actual system which are adjusted to minimize the difference in the outputs of the model and the actual system. Used for MRAC (systems).
moderator
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A material that has a high cross section for slowing down fast neutrons with a minimum of absorption, e.g., heavy water, beryllium, used in reactor cores .
Moderators are used to improve the neutron utilization by slowing the neutrons to low energies, thereby increasing the probability of fission capture in the nuclear fuel.
MODFETS
(NASA Thesaurus)
Heterojunction field effect transistor device structures in which only the larger (Al, Ga)As bandgap is doped with donors while the GaAS layer is left undoped. This results in high electron mobilities due to spatially separated electrons and donors. Used for modulation doped FETs.
modified index of refraction
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
An atmospheric index of refraction mathematically modified so that when its gradient is applied to energy propagation over a hypothetical flat earth it is substantially equivalent to propagation over the true curved earth with the actual index of refraction. Also called refractive modulus, modified refractive index. Compare potential index of refraction .
The modified index of refraction is usually expressed in M-units; mathematically
where n is the index of refraction at a point in the atmospheric; h is the height above mean sea level of that point; a is the radius of the earth; and N is the index of refraction in N-units. In ray tracing problems, the vertical gradient dM/dh can be used directly to obtain a ray path curvature that is relative to the curvature of the earth, i.e.,
where k is a value by which the earth's radius is multiplied to get the radius of curvature of the ray path; ka is called the effective earth radius.
modified refractive index
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. The variation in the value of some parameter characterizing a periodic oscillation .
2. Specifically, variation of some characteristic of a radio wave , called the carrier wave, in accordance with instantaneous values of another wave, called the modulating wave.
Variation of amplitude is amplitude modulation, variation of frequency is frequency modulation, and variation of phase is phase modulation. The formation of very short bursts of a carrier wave, separated by relatively long periods during which no carrier wave is transmitted, is pulse modulation.
modulation doping
(NASA Thesaurus)
The process of doping only the larger bandgap of a heterojunction device with donors, while the other layer is left undoped. Since the electrons and donors are spatially separated, ionized impurity scattering is avoided and extremely high electron mobilities are obtained.
modulation index
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A device to effect the process of modulation .
module
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. A self-contained unit of a launch vehicle or spacecraft which serves as a building block for the overall structure. The module is usually designated by its primary function as command module, lunar landing module, etc.
2. A one-package assembly of functionally associated electronic parts, usually a plug-in unit, so arranged as to function as a system or subsystem; a black box .
3. The size of some one part of a rocket or other structure, as the semidiameter of a rocket's base, taken as a unit of measure for the proportional design and construction of component parts.
modules
(NASA Thesaurus)
1, Self contained units of a launch vehicle or spacecraft that serve as building blocks for the overall structure. 2, A one package assembly of functionally associated electronic parts, usually a plug-in unit, so arranged as to function as a system or subsystem.
modulus (plural moduli)
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. A real, positive quantity which measures the magnitude of some number, as the modulus of a complex number is the square root of the sum of squares of its components.
2. A coefficient representing some elastic property of body, such as the modulus of elasticity or the modulus of resilience.
modulus of elasticity
(NASA Thesaurus)
The ratio of stress (nominal) to corresponding strain below the proportional limit of a material. It is expressed in force per unit area. Used for compliance (elasticity), elastic modulus, and Young modulus.
modulus of elasticity
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr mol)
The amount of substance containing the same number of atoms as 12 grams of pure carbon12 (C12).
The gram-mole or gram-molecule is the mass in grams numerically equal to the molecular weight.
molecular beam epitaxy
Ultrahigh vacuum technique for growing very thin epitaxial layers of semiconductor crystals.
molecular clouds
(NASA Thesaurus)
Thickest and densest interstellar clouds consisting mainly of molecular hydrogen but also a high concentration of dust grains.
molecular drag gage
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A vacuum gage in which tangential momentum is transported (viscous transport) by gas molecules from a rapidly rotating member (usually in the form of a disk or cylinder) to a nearby movable member restrained by a restoring torque which can be correlated with gas pressure. Also called molecular gage, rotating disk gage, rotating cylinder gage.
molecular effusion
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The passage of gas through a single opening in a plane wall of negligible thickness where the largest dimension of the hole is smaller than the mean free path .
molecular flow
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
The flow of gas through a duct under conditions such that the mean free path is greater than the largest dimension of a transverse section of the duct.
molecular flux
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The net number of gas molecules crossing a specified surface in unit time, those having a velocity component in the same direction as the normal to the surface at the point of crossing being counted as positive and those having a velocity component in the opposite direction being counted as negative.
molecular gage
(High Energy Astrophysics Dictionary- GSFC)
Gas that is composed of atoms that are bound to each other as molecules.
molecular scale temperature
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol TM )
An atmospheric parameter defined by TM = (M0 / M)T where M0 is the mean molecular weight at sea level, M is the mean molecular weight at altitude, and T is air temperature at altitude.
Up to an altitude of about 90 kilometers, the molecular composition of air is constant; thus M0 / M = 1 and T M = T. Above 90 kilometers, M0 / M is greater than unity, and T M is greater than T.
molecular shields
(NASA Thesaurus)
Furlable devices used in space vacuum research to permit deployment and retrieval of instruments and the performance of experiments without contamination.
molecular weight
An aggregate of two or more atoms of a substance that exists as a unit.
Moll thermopile
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A thermopile used in some types of radiation instruments. Alternate junctions of series-connected thermocouples are imbedded in a shielded nonconducting plate having a large heat capacity. The remaining junctions, which are blackened, are exposed directly to the radiation. The voltage developed by the thermopile is proportional to the intensity of radiation. See solarimeter .
molten salts
(NASA Thesaurus)
High temperature inorganic salt or mixtures of salts used for thermal energy storage, heat exchangers, high power electric batteries, heat treatment of alloys, etc.
moment
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(symbol M)
A tendency to cause rotation about a point or axis, as of a control surface about its hinge or of an airplane about its center of gravity; the measure of this tendency, equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the point of axis of rotation and the line of action of the force.
moment of inertia
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
Quantity of motion.
Linear momentum is the quantity obtained by multiplying the mass of a body by its linear speed. Angular momentum is the quantity obtained by multiplying the moment of inertia of a body by its angular speed.
The momentum of a system of particles is given by the sum of the momentums of the individual particles which make up the system or by the product of the total mass of the system and the velocity of the center of gravity of the system.
The momentum of a continuous medium is given by the integral of the velocity over the mass of the medium or by the product of the total mass of the medium and the velocity of the center of gravity of the medium.
momentum thrust
Pertaining to a single wavelength , or, more commonly, to a narrow band of wavelengths.
monocoque
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A type of construction, as of a rocket body, in which all or most of the stresses are carried by the skin .
A monocoque may incorporate formers but not longitudinal members such as stringers.
monomers
(NASA Thesaurus)
Low molecular weight substances consisting of molecules capable of reacting with like or unlike molecules to form a polymer.
monopropellant
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A rocket propellant consisting of a single substance, especially a liquid, capable of producing a heated jet without the addition of a second substance.
Used attributively in phrases, such as monopropellant rocket engine or motor, monopropellant rocket fuel, monopropellant system, etc.
monostatic reflectivity
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
The characteristic of a reflector which reflects energy only along the line of the incident ray ( incidence ), e.g., a corner reflector. See bistatic reflectivity .
monotectic alloys
(NASA Thesaurus)
Metallic composite materials having a dispersed phase of solidification products distributed within a matrix. The dispersed components can be selected to provide characteristics such as superconductivity or lubricity.
month
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
1. The period of the revolution of the moon around the earth.
The month is designated as sidereal, tropical, anomalistic, dracontic, or synodical, according to whether the revolution is relative to the stars, the vernal equinox, the perigee, the ascending node, or the sun.
2. The calendar month, which is a rough approximation to the synodical month .
month of the phases
morphology
(Galileo Project Glossary - JPL)
The scientific study of form, and of the structures and development that influence form. In geology, the external structure, form, and arrangement of rocks in relation to the development of landforms.
MOSO
Multimission Operations Systems Office at JPL.
motion
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
The act, process, or instance of change of position. Also called movement, especially when used in connection with problems involving the motion of one craft relative to another.
Absolute motion is motion relative to a fixed frame of reference. Actual motion is motion of a craft relative to the earth. Apparent or relative motion is change of position as observed from a reference point which may itself be in motion. Diurnal motion is the apparent daily motion of a celestial body. Direct motion is the apparent motion of a planet eastward among the stars; retrograde motion, the apparent motion westward among the stars. Motion of a celestial body through space is called space motion, which is composed of two components: proper motion, that component perpendicular to the line of sight; and radial motion, that component in the direction of the line of sight.
motion sickness
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
The syndrome of pallor, sweating, nausea, and vomiting which is induced by unusual accelerations .
motion simulation
(NASA Thesaurus)
Replication of exact motion or replication of part of a motion to provide the sensation of the motion.
motor
A device which limits the display of radar information primarily to moving targets.
moving target indicators
(NASA Thesaurus)
Radar devices that employ a technique that enhances the detection and display of moving radar targets by supressing fixed targets. Doppler processing is one method of implementation. Used for MTI indicators.
MSAT
(NASA Thesaurus)
A joint Canada/United States mobile satellite system which is being developed with a voice and data communication link between mobile units and the switched telephone network or between mobile units and other mobile units via satellite. Each country will have a satellite capable of mutual backup. Launch date is planned for 1994.
MSM (semiconductors)
(NASA Thesaurus)
Semiconductor devices consisting of a semiconductor layer sandwiched between two layers of metal. Used for metal-semiconductor-metal semiconductors.
MSS--Multispectral Scanner
(Global Land Information System Glossary - USGS)
The MSS is a nonphotographic imaging system which utilizes an oscillating mirror and fiber optic sensor array. The mirror sweeps from side to side, transmitting incoming energy to a detector array which sequentially outputs brightness values (signal strengths) for successive pixels, one swath at a time. The forward motion of the sensor platform carries the instrument to a position along its path where an adjacent swath can be imaged. The MSS simultaneously senses radiation using an array of six detectors in each of four spectral bands from 0.5 to 1.1 micrometers.
MTBF
(NASA Thesaurus)
The mean of the distribution of time (or cycles, miles, events) between successive failure. MTBF is often estimated by dividing the total operating time for like items by the total number of failures encountered. Used for mean time bwtween failures.
MTI (abbr)
multi (combining form)
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
More than one. Used in contexts where a category of two or more is distinguished from a category of one, as in a multipropellant fuel system is more complicated than a monopropellant system.
multi-anode microchannel arrays
(NASA Thesaurus)
A family of photoelectric, photon counting array detectors being developed for use in instruments on both ground based and spaceborne telescopes.
multibeam antennas
(NASA Thesaurus)
Antennas that have the ability to form more than one beam from a single radiating aperture.
multicoupler
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A device for connecting several receivers to one antenna and properly matching the impedances of the receivers and the antenna.
multidisciplinary research
Research by combining several (academic) disciplines or methods.
multigrid methods
(NASA Thesaurus)
A numerical technique which attempts to accelerate the convergence of an iterative process by computing corrections to the solution on coarser meshes and propagating these changes to the fine mesh through interpolation.
multimission modular spacecraft
(NASA Thesaurus)
Future spacecraft to be operated in conjunction with the Space Shuttle orbiter vehicle and serviced by its module exchange mechanism. Used for MMS.
multipath
multipath transmission
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
The process, or condition, in which radiation travels between source and receiver via more than one path. Since there can be only one direct path, some process of reflection , refraction , or scattering must be involved. See fading , Fresnel zone . Also called multipath.
multiphoton absorption
(NASA Thesaurus)
Ionization and dissociation of a molecule under the action of powerful laser radiation. Laser-flux dependent light intensities emitted by different excited states of the molecule indicate the various absorption processes.
multiple access
(NASA Thesaurus)
The allocation of communication system resources (output) among multiple users by means of power, bandwidth, and power assignment singly or in combination.
multiple airborne target trajectory system
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr Matts)
A long-baseline angle-measuring system consisting of two crossed-baseline angle-measuring-equipment (AME) stations. Each AME station simultaneously tracks three airborne targets by means of frequency sharing.
multiple interferometer determination of trajectories
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr Midot)
A trajectory measurement system with multiple-object-tracking capability utilizing two or more short-baseline stations and a data output consisting of a series of amplitude nulls that represent direction cosines at given times in the flight.
multiple object phase tracking and ranging
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
(abbr Moptar)
A short-baseline continuous-wave phase comparison, trajectory measuring system , similar to the Cotar which consists of a crossed-baseline angle-measuring-equipment (AME) system and a distance-measuring-equipment (DME) system, wherein time sequencing of the ground station and transponders is used to track multiple targets.
multiple scattering
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
In contrast to primary scattering, and scattering in which radiation is scattered more than once before reaching the eye, antenna, or other sensing element.
multiple target tracking
The process of following movements of several targets simultaneously.
multiple-degree-of-freedom system
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A mechanical system for which two or more coordinates are required to define completely the position of the system at any instant.
multiple-stage compressor
A phototube with one or more dynodes between its photocathode and the output electrode .
multipliers
(NASA Thesaurus)
Devices which have two or more inputs and whose output is a representation of the product of the quantities represented by the input signals.
multipropellant
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A rocket propellant consisting of two or more substances fed separately to the combustion chamber . See bipropellant .
multisensor fusion
(NASA Thesaurus)
A combination of data or images from more than one sensor source (or from multispectral sensors) for display as a single image.
multispectral
(Global Land Information System Glossary - USGS)
The use of one or more sensors to obtain imagery from different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum .
multispectral linear arrays
(NASA Thesaurus)
Large number of interconnected solid state detectors in a pushbroom mode wherein the forward motion of the vehicle (spacecraft) sweeps the assembly of detectors which are oriented perpendicular to the ground track. Used for MLA.
Multispectral Resource Sampler
(NASA Thesaurus)
An experimental remote sensing instrument for satellites to measure both intensity and polarization at several wavelengths. The first one was launched in the late 1980s.
multistage compressor
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
An axial flow compressor having two or more, usually more than two, stages of rotor and stator blades; a radial-flow compressor having two or more impeller wheels . Also called a multiple-stage compressor.
multistage rocket
(NASA SP-7, 1965)
A vehicle having two or more rocket units, each unit firing after the one in back of it has exhausted its propellant . Normally, each unit, or stage, is jettisoned after completing its firing. Also called a multiple-stage rocket or, infrequently, a step rocket.
multistage rocket vehicles
(NASA Thesaurus)
Vehicles having two or more rocket units, each unit firing after the one in back of it has exhausted its propellant. Normally, each unit, or stage, is jettisoned after completing its firing.
multistatic radar
(NASA Thesaurus)
System in which successive lobes of the antenna are sequentially engaged to provide a tracking capability without physical movement of the antenna. Used for bistatic radar.
multivibrator
(NASA Thesaurus / NASA SP-7, 1965)
A two-stage regenerative circuit with two possible states and an abrupt transition characteristic. See bistable multivibrator .
Multivibrators are used in digital computer for computation in binary notation .
muon
| Radiation |
The 2005 US film ‘Fever Pitch’, starring Drew Barrymore, is about which sport? | Principles of Guided Missiles and Nuclear Weapons
7A1. General
For maximum effectiveness, the first missile fired at a target should strike that target. Cost, size, and the necessity for surprise prohibit the firing of ranging shots (as was done with gun fire).
To strike the target on the first shot, the trajectory of the missile must be accurately controlled. This control is necessary because forces, natural or otherwise, can cause the missile to deviate from its predetermined course. Even though it functions perfectly, a missile without accurate guidance may miss a selected fixed target by several miles. Moving targets can take evasive action; without guidance, the missile would be unable to compensate for this action. Therefore, an accurate, fast-acting guidance system is of prime importance.
7A2. Definitions
The various systems of missile guidance were discussed briefly in chapter 6. This chapter deals with COMMAND GUIDANCE. The name means that intelligence (commands) is transmitted from an outside source while the missile is in flight. Current missiles controlled by command guidance include Regulus, Bullpup, and Nike.
A command guidance system incorporates two links between the missile and the control point.
One, an INFORMATION LINK, enables the control point to determine the position of the missile; the other, the COMMAND LINK, makes it possible for the control point to correct any deviations from the desired path.
7A3. Purpose and applications
The purpose of any guidance system is to secure direct hits on a selected target. Perfect performance is difficult to obtain because of natural disturbances and, in wartime, enemy countermeasures. However, because command guidance makes it possible to change the flight path of the missile by signals from the control
point, most of these difficulties can be overcome. It is reasonable to assume that command guidance can be used whenever it is possible to accurately determine the position of the missile during its flight. (But command guidance is not limited to missiles alone. It may be used for remote control of target drone planes or even ships.)
7A4. Basic principles
When command guidance is used, a ground, shipboard, or airborne station determines the position of the missile by radar tracking equipment or other means. It determines the error, if any, between the actual position of the missile and the desired position. It then sends out control impulses (commands) to bring the missile to the desired course.
If the flight path is long, and a large part of the path is over friendly territory or waters, several stations might track the missile as it comes into their range. These stations would then send commands to the missile to correct any deviations from the desired course.
7A5. Information links
The use of command guidance requires an accurate knowledge of the missile position, since all guidance comes from outside the missile. This knowledge is obtained through information links. The accuracy and dependability of the information link determines to a great extent the over-all accuracy of the complete system.
The information link enables the control point to determine the amount of error existing between the actual position of the missile and the desired position. Once this is known, correction signals can be sent to the missile.
Information links may use optical or electronic observation methods.
OPTICAL OBSERVATION. The optical, or visual, command guidance system has limited value, since the missile must always be visible from the command station. Such a system might use the unaided eye, telescopes, or optical rangefinders. But these devices are not
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effective at long range; and smoke, fog, clouds, or darkness make them useless.
ELECTRONIC OBSERVATION. Much effort has been expended to develop an accurate and dependable electronic information link. A number of electronic systems have been designed and tested. The limitations of each system have been determined, and continuing efforts are being made to improve the most promising systems. Some electronic information links will be listed here, and more complete information on individual systems will be given later in this chapter.
7A6. Command links
The equipment used to send commands to a missile may be compared to a radiotelephone circuit between a piloted plane and a ground station. Instead of voice communications, the
instructions are sent as a single pulse or a series of spaced pulses. The pulses may be modulated or unmodulated, depending on the complexity of the system in use.
TRANSMITTERS. Early target drone command transmitters were simple one-tube units that sent out a pulse when keyed by the operator. This system made it possible to control the rudder. But to control engine speed and altitude, additional transmitters tuned to other frequencies were required. As a result, the system became so large and complex that it was unsuitable. Consequently, work was started on a simpler, more reliable transmitter that would reduce the number of radio frequency (RF) channels needed for command guidance. The result of this work is the modern command guidance transmitter, which is similar to any medium power PM (phase modulated) transmitter. A block diagram is shown in figure 7A1.
Figure 7A1.-Block diagram of a phase modulated command transmitter.
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The transmitter uses a crystal-controlled oscillator for frequency stability and accuracy. Accurate frequency control is of prime importance since the command receiver in the missile is tuned to the command frequency before the missile is fired, and the receiver tuning cannot be changed while the missile is in flight. Therefore, the transmitter frequency must remain stable or the command link will be lost.
The output of the crystal oscillator is built up by RF amplifier stages. Some of these stages operate as frequency multipliers, but the output stage operates as a straight-through RF power amplifier.
TRANSMITTER MODULATION. The use of PM results in considerable saving of space, power, and cost, since modulation takes place at a low level and requires less audio power than does high level AM.
Modulation is in the form of tones that are generated by tone generators. Each generator may be keyed separately or in combination with others. The tone generator outputs are fed to an audio mixer circuit and, as a result of the mixing, a composite tone appears at the output of the mixer stage.
The composite tone is fed to an audio pre-emphasis network. This network builds up (emphasizes) the higher audio frequency components of the composite signal. This action is desirable because atmospheric noise usually consists of high frequency components. Pre-emphasis is used only on the high frequency tones, and thus causes the signal-to-noise ratio to remain more constant throughout the audio range.
As shown in figure 7A1, the composite tone from the pre-emphasis network is fed to the phase modulator stage, which is connected between the crystal oscillator and the first frequency multiplier stage.
In order to understand how phase modulation (PM) takes place it is necessary to remember that the frequency of an alternating current is determined by the rate at which its phase changes. If the phase of the current in a circuit is changed, there is an instantaneous frequency change during the time that the phase is being shifted. The amount of frequency change, or deviation, depends on how rapidly the phase shift is accomplished. It also depends on the amount of phase shift. In a properly operating PM system, the amount of phase shift is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal. The rapidity of the phase shift is directly proportional to the frequency of the modulating signal. Consequently, the frequency deviation in PM is proportional to both the amplitude and frequency of the modulating signal. Thus the crystal oscillator output signal is varied in both amplitude and phase by the modulating signal.
The RF section of the transmitter operates continuously, but is modulated only when one or more of the tone generators are operated by the keyer section.
RECEIVER. In the beginning, receivers used for remote control were simple one-tube super-regenerative sets. A relay was connected in the plate circuit of the tube; when a signal was applied to the input of the tube, its plate current changed and operated the relay. The closing of the relay contacts activated another circuit which moved the control surfaces.
The disadvantage of this system is that separate receivers are required for each control function. In addition, the superregenerative receiver, in its most sensitive condition, is a low-powered transmitter that could interfere with other receivers in the missile.
But receiver development kept pace with transmitter development, and simple one-tube sets were replaced by superheterodyne receivers. As shown in figure 7A2, these sets are identical to standard frequency modulation (FM) receivers (PM can be picked up by an FM set) up through the discriminator stage. In an FM set, the discriminator stage takes the place of the second detector in an AM superheterodyne.
USE OF TONE CHANNELS. The discriminator output is fed to AF channel selectors and there is one receiver channel selector for each tone the transmitter may send.
The sections of an AF channel selector are shown in figure 7A3. A sharply tuned band-pass filter (one that passes certain frequencies better than others) is at the input of an amplifier stage.
The grid bias of this stage is adjusted so that plate current is cut off when no signal is being fed to the stage. When a signal is applied to the input of the stage, the effective grid bias is reduced to the point where plate current flows. The change in plate current operates the relay; its contacts close, and activate the missile control surfaces.
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Figure 7A2.-Block diagram of FM command receiver.
Not shown on the receiver block diagram, figure 7A2, is the de-emphasis network, which has opposite characteristics to the pre-emphasis network used in the transmitter. Thus, after passing through the de-emphasis network, the signal has the same characteristics it had before pre-emphasis.
7A7. Types of command guidance
As mentioned previously, command guidance may be exercised by one or more ground stations, shipboard stations, or aircraft. The guidance point influences the type of command guidance used. Since all command systems are subject to enemy jamming of the control circuit, the closer the missile can be launched to the target the better. A shorter time required for the missile to travel from the launcher to the target means less time for the enemy to jam the controls.
Electronic command guidance systems are divided into four principal groups.
TELEVISION GUIDANCE SYSTEM. Television command guidance is well suited for some missions where the control point is in a mother aircraft. The control aircraft can stay out of range of hostile antiaircraft defenses and yet launch the missile reasonably close to the target. Because the target is picked up by the missile camera before the missile is launched from the aircraft, the missile controller in the plane sees the target through the missile camera from the time the target is first picked up until the missile strikes. Because of the close range at the time of firing, the system is quite accurate; and because of the short time between launching and striking, there is less chance of enemy jamming. But this is essentially an optical system, and is not
Figure 7A3.-Block diagram of AF channel selector.
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suitable for use when the target is obscured by overcast, smoke, fog, or darkness.
RADIO AND RADAR COMMAND GUIDANCE. These two systems are much alike. Each is based on a transmitter at the control point, and a receiver in the missile. The transmitter sends out a carrier wave, which is modulated in accordance with the command signals. The receiver interprets the modulation so that the missile can execute the transmitted commands. The two systems differ in two ways. First, radar operates at a higher frequency. Second, the radio transmitter usually sends out a continuous carrier wave, whereas the radar transmitter sends out its signals in the form of short pulses, with resting intervals between. Since both of these systems are treated in
more detail later in this chapter, they will not be described further here.
HYPERBOLIC GUIDANCE SYSTEM. A hyperbolic guidance system can be used for both long and short range missile guidance. This system will be described more fully at the end of this chapter. It consists of master and slave stations that send out low-frequency pulses at constant intervals. The slave station is triggered by the master station, and sends out its pulses a few microseconds after the master pulse is transmitted. These pulses are picked up by receivers in the missile and fed to an automatic computer in the missile. The computer then establishes the missile position by an imaginary line of position set up by the master and slave stations.
7B1. Basic principles
A radio command system contains a means of accurately determining the missile position in relation to the control station, the target, and the desired trajectory. A computer is usually used to determine the error between the actual missile position and the desired position. A command transmitter is located at the control point, and a receiver is contained in the missile. The receiver activates the missile control circuits when it receives command signals from the transmitter. This equipment makes it possible to follow the missile' s flight and correct for errors which would cause a miss.
7B2. Applications
Radio command guidance may be used to control missiles aimed at ground targets from surface sites or from aircraft. The controlled missile may be of the surface-to-surface type, surface-to-air type, air-to-surface type, or air-to-air type.
7B3. Limitations
The limitations of a radio command system are imposed by transmission conditions, distance, and enemy countermeasures. Early systems, which used AM tone modulation, had additional limitations. As an example, an
interfering signal containing the control-tone frequency would cause the missile control surfaces to act. Often harmonics or sideband frequencies of voice-modulated carriers would upset the whole control system. Obviously, something had to be done if complete control was to be obtained .
The use of PM (phase modulation) eliminated a large part of the voice interference, but manmade interference with PM characteristics could still affect the control system. This disadvantage was overcome by using coded combinations of tone channels. With this system, no control operation can take place unless the proper tones appear at the missile receiver in the correct order and spacing. The adoption of this control method practically eliminates the chance that an interfering signal will duplicate the control combination.
7B4. Launching station components
MISSILE COURSE COMPUTER. Ordinary forms of course determination require a large number of calculations, and considerable time. Since calculations are time consuming, and since speed is an absolute necessity, electronic course computers have been developed.
The computer, located at or near the launching site, performs two functions. First, it determines the course that should be followed by the missile during its flight to the target. It then compares this desired course
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with the actual course of the missile, as determined by the tracking radar. Any deviation between the two is instantly detected, and an error signal is sent to the command transmitter keying unit. The keying unit modulates the transmitter with the desired tone and spacing sequence. When these signals are picked up by the missile receiver, the proper control surfaces are activated to bring the missile back on course.
MISSILE TRACKING RADAR. When command guidance is used, the position of the missile in relation to the control point, desired course, and the target area must be known at all times.
Since radar can provide information as to range, elevation, and direction, it is well suited for short- and medium-range missile tracking. In general, missile-tracking radars use the same principles as search, fighter-director, and fire control radars.
Radar ranging is accomplished by time measurement. The range is found by measuring the elapsed time between the transmission of a pulse and the arrival of the echo reflected from the missile. Radar waves travel at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second). The distance to the target is found by multiplying the elapsed time by the speed of the radar wave and then dividing the result by two. The division by two is necessary because the elapsed time includes time out and time back, so that the actual time to the target is one-half the elapsed time.
The time sequence for the radar set is started in the timing generator. The trigger action of the timing generator controls the modulator section, which in turn produces the high-voltage output pulse.
The same trigger pulse is also sent to the range unit, and starts its time-measuring device. After a short, fixed delay, the range unit forms a range gate. The gate is developed by a voltage which is present during a relatively short part of the main time cycle. This voltage is applied to the gain control circuit of the receiver. When the range-gate voltage is present, the receiver gain is high; during the rest of the time cycle, the gain is very low. Thus, when the range gate is "open," signals picked up by the antenna will pass through the receiver; when the gate is "closed," they will not.
A definite time is required for the transmitted signal to reach the missile, and for the reflected signal to return. The total time depends, of course, on the range of the missile. The timing circuits can be adjusted to open the range gate shortly before the reflected signal is due to reach the radar antenna, and to close it shortly afterward. Thus the range gate permits only the echo signals reflected from the missile to pass through the receiver; echoes from other objects will be rejected. The reflected signals, through servo systems, control the position of the radar antenna, so that it will track the missile automatically.
A single antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving. This requires some means for switching the antenna from the transmitter to the receiver, and then back to the transmitter again. The device usually used for this purpose is called a duplexer. The duplexer makes it possible to operate the transmitter and receiver simultaneously, but keeps the powerful transmitter signals from entering the receiver directly.
For missile tracking, a lobing or conical scanning system is used, because accurate angle data cannot be obtained from a single beam on the antenna axis. This type of scanning is described in chapter 8.
Video signals produced by the reflected signal from the missile may be used to modulate the display on a cathode ray tube. The method of modulating the display will depend on the type of indicator used in the radar set. Either the deflection or the intensity of the beam trace may be modulated.
(The student interested in information on basic radar principles is referred to Supplementary Readings in Fundamental Naval Electronics, parts I and II, NavPers 10808 and 10809.)
MISSILE PLOTTING SYSTEM. The use of radar for missile tracking makes it possible to obtain information on the missile's elevation, bearing, and horizontal range. This information may be plotted so that personnel controlling the missile will have a complete picture of the operation.
An example of a basic plotting system is shown in figure 7B1. The tracking radar is shown at the left of the drawing, and the plotting board at the right. The boom on the
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Figure 7B1.-A basic plotting system.
plotting board revolves around a center pivot, and is positioned by the missile bearing data. The tracing pen trolley (mounted on the revolving boom) is positioned by the horizontal range data. The pivot of the boom represents the tracking radar location, and the pen position represents the instantaneous location of the missile.
The radar can provide only slant range, bearing, and elevation angle. The horizontal range data used to position the tracing pen trolley can be obtained from the product of the slant range and the cosine of the elevation angle. The elevation of the missile is the product of the slant range and the sine of the elevation angle (or of the horizontal range and the tangent of the elevation angle). Successive positions of the missile can be marked on the plotting chart at regular intervals, to provide an indication of the missile's course.
COMMAND TRANSMITTER. The transmitter used to send commands to the missile is usually a tone-modulated FM unit. This type of transmitter was discussed earlier in this chapter.
7B5. Missile components
The command guidance equipment components that are built into the missile will be determined by the guidance system being used. The most complex guidance system has a television camera, television transmitter, radio command receiver, and the tone filter equipment built into the missile.
A relatively simple guidance system, so far as total equipment in the missile is concerned,
is based on a radar transmitter that sends guidance commands to the missile on the tracking radar beam. With this system, only a receiver for the radar pulses is needed in the missile. The output of the receiver controls activating circuits that function when pulses of the correct amplitude and sequence are received.
The most widely used command guidance system uses a radar tracking unit and a radio command link. The missile contains an FM receiver and AF channel selectors.
7B6. Operation of a typical system
A typical command guidance system might be used to control a surface-to-surface missile fired by a ship against a fixed installation ashore. The missile, during the early part of its flight, would be tracked by radar aboard the firing vessel. Because the geographical location of the target and the firing vessel are both known, the required missile course can be accurately calculated. Information from the missile-tracking radar may be fed to a computer, or it may be plotted on a visual display, or both. When the tracking data indicates that the missile has turned from its calculated course, commands can be transmitted to turn it back.
If the target is at fairly short range, the firing vessel may control the missile throughout its entire flight. At longer ranges, the tracking and command functions may be transferred to an aircraft, or they may be transferred successively to one or more ships located nearer to the target.
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7C1. General
There is great similarity between radio and radar command guidance systems. However, there are some differences which must be considered when a guidance system is being designed.
Most radar command guidance systems depend on "sampling" control, since it is not possible to control all of the missile functions at once. Each must take its turn in the control sequence. Consequently, after a given function has received a command, there will be a time delay before the next command is received. The length of this delay will depend on the number of functions to be controlled.
When radar is used for control, the fidelity or accuracy of control is limited by the allowable variations in pulse rate or amplitude. (Excessive variations will affect the tracking accuracy.) The accuracy of control is also limited by the ability of the missile equipment to measure these variations accurately.
There are several ways in which commands can be sent by radar. For example, the pulse repetition rate (PRR) of the radar may be frequency modulated in order to turn the missile in the desired direction. If the PRR is unmodulated, no control signal is sent to the missile. If the PRR is modulated so that it increases, the missile will turn in a certain direction; if the PRR decreases, the missile will turn in the opposite direction. Since the PRR can be varied by the modulation frequency, it is possible to make the amount of turn proportional to the deviation from the normal PRR, and thus obtain accurate control.
This system requires some form of multiplexing or switching control, so that operations take place in a definite sequence. As an example, there may be five possible operations and each may be controlled by a 1/100-second signal of the proper pulse rate. A complete set of control signals could then be sent every 1/20 second.
The control pulses may be coded in sequence so that each pulse controls a particular operation. As soon as a full set of operations is covered, the sequence starts over again. The pulses may be modulated either in amplitude or by their position on a time scale.
Other methods by which the control signal may be sent to the missile via the radar tracking beam are:
1. Dual pulses are sent, and the spacing between pulses is varied according to the desired control signal. Or single pulses are transmitted, and when a particular control signal is desired, double, triple, or quadruple pulses are sent.
2. Alternate pulses may be displaced ahead of or behind their normal position and the desired control signal is determined by the amount and direction of the displacement. This is known as the displaced-pulse method of control.
3. By varying the width of the radar pulse, each control signal may be determined by the pulse width.
4. The radar pulse may be amplitude modulated so that the frequency of the modulated pulse envelope will determine the control signal.
5. The pulse rate may be varied indiscrete steps, with each frequency representing a different operation, such as climb or dive, right or left, explode, or dump. The degree of any operation, such as the amount or rate of climb, may be determined by the number of repetitions of the signal or the length of time a particular signal is maintained.
The use of the tracking radar beam as a control medium results in economy of equipment, because the radio control transmitter is no longer needed.
As in any other communications equipment, the bandwidth of the modulated signal determines the amount of information that can be transmitted in a given time. A radar signal with a pulse repetition rate of two thousand cycles per second would limit the number of functions that could be controlled, as well as the rate at which the control signals could be changed. But for some missile systems this bandwith is adequate, because only a few missile functions are under control by command guidance. And, if the rate of signal change is not too great, there will be enough bandwidth to allow modulation of the radar beam with several signals simultaneously.
If there are missiles in the vicinity of the beam other than the one being tracked, there
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must be some coding or frequency discrimation method used, so that each missile will respond only to its own control signals. Therefore, if there is any likelihood that the spacing between radar beams is not sufficient, each missile launched from a particular control station must have either special coding equipment or at least a special receiver adjustment to ensure response to the correct signal.
Although the useful types of modulation are limited when radar is used for missile control, the susceptibility of the system to jamming is greatly reduced by the use of the narrow beam. In this respect the radar system is slightly superior to radio control, especially when the radar pulses are sent in a coded sequence. But radio is superior for sending commands to the missile, since by using tone modulation it is possible to activate several circuits at the same time.
7D1. Loran principle
Standard Loran was developed primarily for long range navigation over water. The system requires at least two transmitting stations-one a MASTER, the other a SLAVE. The stations are separated by a distance of several miles, and the geographic location of each station is accurately known.
The master station transmits a signal which is radiated in a circular pattern. When the signal reaches the slave station, or stations, it triggers the slave which then sends out a pulse that is also radiated in a circular pattern. The signals of all stations travel outward from their respective antennas as shown in figure 7D1. At any point, such as P in figure 7D1, the signals will have different times of arrival because of the distances traveled and the differences in transmitting time.
Figure 7D1.-Basic Loran system.
The difference in the range from master to P and slave to P, figure 7D1, can be determined mined by measuring the difference in time of arrival of the two signals. A set of points for which this difference is constant can be connected together to form one line of a surface called a HYPERBOLOID OF REVOLUTION. Points for different values of constant range difference can be determined and connected together. The curves that result form a family of hyperbolas as shown in figure 7D2.
Any plane passing through the line A-B, in figure 7D1, intersects these hyperboloids in such a manner that, in this plane, there passes only one branch of a hyperbola that is characterized by a constant range difference. Thus, if the range difference is known, a hyperbolic line of position on that plane is defined.
If a second line of position from another pair of Loran stations is known, a fix in the plane is determined by the intersection of the two hyperbolas.
Charts are available that show the hyperbolic lines of position associated with pairs of Loran stations in various areas. By using these charts, a navigator, knowing the range difference by radio measurement, can select his lines of position to get a fix.
Some work has been done toward the use of hyperbolic lines of position for missile command guidance. Therefore the basic parts of such a system will be briefly described.
MASTER TRANSMITTER. The master transmitter is a conventional CW transmitter radiating about 100 kw of power on one of several frequencies between 1700 and 2000 kc. The output is a series of pulses of accurately timed length. The ground wave range over sea water is about 700 nautical miles in the
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daytime. The daytime range over land is seldom more than 250 miles even for high-flying aircraft. At night, the ground wave range over sea water is reduced to about 500 miles by the increase in atmospheric noise; but sky waves, which are almost completely absorbed by day, become effective and increase the reliable night range to about 1400 miles. The variable transmission times of the sky waves reduce the accuracy of the system. But the timing errors become smaller as the distance increases. This partially compensates for the increasing geometric errors, so that navigation by skywaves compares well with celestial navigation.
SLAVE TRANSMITTER. The slave transmitter is a duplicate of the master transmitter except that the slave station includes a receiver to pick up the transmission of the master station. A relay in the output of the receiver keys the slave transmitter, so that it sends out pulses of the same length as those sent by the master station. But there is a difference in the start and stop time of the pulses, due to the time it takes a signal to reach the slave station from the master station.
AUTOMATIC RECEIVER. The delay between the sending of the master pulse and the slave pulse ensures that the master station pulse will always be picked up first at any receiver located in the area serviced by the system. The pulse time differences can be measured by displaying the pulses on a cathode ray oscilloscope that is provided with a precisely timed sweep. A missile using this system would have to measure the time difference automatically; this requires a relatively complex receiver. Because the system has no human operator, it is not possible to read pulse time difference on a cathode ray tube. Instead, the receiver uses a phase-shifting mechanism to match the phase of the slave station signal with that of the master station signal. The amount of phase shift required to produce a phase match gives an accurate indication of the difference in range of the two stations.
SERVO LOOPS. Servo loops are used to drive the phase-matching mechanisms. Signals received from the master and the slave stations are sent to a mixer; when the two are exactly in phase, the mixer output will be at a maximum. The mixer output is used to drive the phase-shifting servos in the direction required to produce a maximum output. One
servo is used to produce a phase match between the pulse envelopes of the two stations. This provides a rough measurement of pulse time difference. A second servo matches the phase of the two RF carrier signals, to provide an extremely accurate measurement. Additional servos perform the same function for the second slave-master pair.
COMPUTER AND AUTOMATIC PILOT. The two time-difference measurements, as indicated by the magnitude of the phase shifts produced by the servo mechanisms, is fed to a computer. The computer uses this information to calculate the position of the missile. Since the position of the target is known, the computer can then calculate the course which the missile must take to reach this target. The computer sends this information to the automatic pilot, which holds the missile on the required course.
When a hyperbolic system is used, a change in course is not apparent until the new course has been held for some time. In other words, the system gives an indication of position, not of direction. This is valuable since it makes missile navigation independent of air currents, and course and speed derived from hyperbolic systems are ground course and ground speed.
7D2. FM Loran system
A frequency-modulation (FM) Loran system is similar in function to the one just described, but it uses a unique approach to eliminate uncertainty. In a three-station FM system the outputs of three transmitters, master and two slaves, are frequency modulated by a sine wave. These three transmitters, with different low-frequency carriers, are frequency modulated by the same AF signal so as to obtain identical modulation in frequency and phase for the three transmitters. The time for one cycle of the modulation frequency must be long enough to allow the RF signal to get to the maximum range of the system.
A pair of transmitted signals are compared by measuring the relative delay required to produce a phase match in their modulating signals. Phase matching is indicated by an output of maximum amplitude from the mixer. As in the system previously described, the
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output of the phase-shifting servos is fed to a computer, which controls the operation of an automatic pilot. The FM system appears to ensure greater accuracy and reliability,
because of its higher signal-to-noise ratio. But in its present state of development, the equipment required is too bulky for convenient use in guided missiles.
7E1. General
The range of any hyperbolic navigation system depends on the frequency of the radiation that is used as a carrier. Ultra-high frequencies can be used for short range guidance systems with good accuracy. However, they are not good at the longer ranges.
By using microwave frequencies, a small, highly directional antenna can be mounted on the missile without interfering with its aerodynamic characteristics. The directional characteristics of the antenna are narrow in the vertical plane and fairly wide in the horizontal plane. These directional characteristics decrease the possibility of enemy countermeasures by jamming.
It is necessary to discriminate against sky wave interference in synchronizing the ground stations. To ensure accuracy, the synchronizing pulse must be transmitted via a direct, constant path. There should be no variable factors such as SKIP EFFECT which would alter the transmission of synchronizing signals.
It is difficult to establish a condition in which these variable factors do not change the transmission characteristics of an ultrahigh frequency (UHF) system. This is especially true where the baseline between stations is longer than the line-of-sight distance. All UHF installations require a means of relaying the synchronizing signal without introducing variations or unpredictable delays.
7E2. Three-station system
The transmitting stations use precision timing signal generators to modulate RF transmitters. These transmitters use the same kind of tubes and circuitry as a radar transmitter operating in the same frequency range. They must have high power output to give a high signal-to-noise ratio near the limit of their effective range. For UHF, this is normally assumed to be line-of-sight.
Because of line-of-sight limitations, the separation between ground stations is usually limited to less than 100 miles. When one master and two slave stations are used under these conditions, the short baseline results in a very short useful range. The lines of position in such a system would cross at an obtuse angle, which would make an accurate fix difficult at points distant from the baseline. Therefore, three-station systems have been modified to overcome some of the limitations.
7E3. Four-station system
A four-station UHF system has the advantages of both line-of-sight transmissions and long baseline systems. Two pairs of stations are used; each pair consists of one master and one slave operating on the same frequency, and they are properly synchronized.
The pairs of stations are separated by enough distance so that lines of position on the hyperbolic grid are more nearly at a right angle to one another in the intended target area. If a second similar system is superimposed on the two-station grid at nearly aright angle, the missile position can be accurately determined.
To set up this system, one pair of guidance base stations is used to give the bearing guidance hyperbola. One time-difference line of this pair is chosen so that it will cross the target area of the missile. It then serves as the desired track for the missile. The guidance system in the missile determines when the received signal pulses have the proper TIME SEPARATION to show ON COURSE. If the received signals do not have the desired time difference, the guidance equipment can determine whether the missile is right or left of the desired course. The error signal from the guidance section is sent to the control section which makes the corrections to bring the missile on course.
The second pair of guidance base stations is used to determine the range. A particular time-difference line of this system is calculated
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to pass through the correct point for starting the terminal phase of the flight. The intersection of this RANGE LINE and the COURSE LINE gives a fix at the pre-dump point. To do this, the missile guidance equipment develops a voltage (from the base guidance signal) that is proportional to the distance from the preselected target location. This varying output voltage approaches zero at a rate which is proportional to the velocity of the missile.
This output voltage is converted to another voltage which is proportional to the rate of change of the output voltage. This proportional
voltage is then a measure of the missile ground speed. It is necessary to compensate for expansion of the hyperbolas as the distance from the transmitter increases. The determination of ground speed is necessary so that the missile does not overshoot or undershoot the target due to a change in air speed from the expected value.
It should be kept in mind that command guidance systems are in a state of constant development, and that future systems may differ considerably from those described here.
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8A1. General
The previous chapter discussed various methods by which commands can be sent from a control point to a missile, to control the missile flight from launching point to target. Beam-rider guidance system is in some respects similar to command guidance. In both systems, target information is collected and analyzed by suitable devices at the launching site or other control point-rather than by devices within the missile. In both systems, the missile makes use of guidance signals transmitted from the control point.
But beam riding is not considered a form of command guidance. The principal difference is this: in a command system, guidance signals are specific commands, such as "steer right," or "steer left." But the transmitter of a beam-rider guidance system transmits only information, not commands. By projecting a narrow beam of radar energy, the transmitter at the control station indicates the direction of the target (or, in some systems, the direction of a calculated point of intercept). The guidance system within the missile must interpret the information contained in the radar beam, and then formulate its own steering commands. These commands operate to keep the missile as nearly as possible in the center
of the beam. The missile can thus be said to "ride" the beam to its target.
The beam-rider system is highly effective for use with short-range and medium-range surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles. For missiles of longer range, a beam-riding system may be used during the midcourse phase of flight, while the missile is still within effective range of the beam-transmitting radar. As it approaches the limit of beam-riding range, the missile may switch over to some other form of guidance.
8A2. Application to U.S. Navy missiles
The development of missile guidance systems with minimum susceptibility to enemy countermeasures, and with maximum probability of hitting the target, is the primary objective of the U. S. Navy missile program. The program is continuous and has a high priority rating. Two missiles, Terrior and Talos, developed under this program have been operational for some time. Both of these are surface-to-air missiles using beam-rider guidance. This chapter will give information of a general nature on guidance systems that might be used with missiles of this type. It should be kept in mind that security requirements prevent a detailed description of the guidance system of any specific missile.
8B1. General
The radar energy that forms the guidance beam is transmitted by an antenna at the control point. Radiated energy tends to spread out equally in all directions. But by mounting a suitable reflector behind the antenna, a large part of the radiated energy can be formed into a relatively narrow beam. A narrow beam can point out the target direction with sufficient accuracy for the missile to score a hit, and concentration of the radiated energy into a beam extends the effective range of the system.
Figure 8B1 compares the radiation from a radio antenna with that from a lamp. Both light waves and radio waves are electromagnetic radiation; the two are believed to be identical, except in frequency of vibration. From both sources, energy spreads out in the form of spherical waves. Unless they meet some obstruction, these waves will travel outward indefinitely at the speed of light. Because of its much higher frequency, light has a much shorter wavelength than radio waves. This is suggested in figure 8B1, but it cannot be shown accurately to scale. The wavelength of radar transmission may be measured in
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Figure 8B1.-Comparison of radiation from a lamp and a radio antenna.
centimeters; the wavelength of light ranges from about three to seven ten-thousandths of a millimeter.
You are, of course, familiar with the use of polished reflectors to form beams of light. An automobile headlight is an example of this, although it produces a fairly wide beam. A spotlight produces a more narrow beam. The upper part of figure 8B2 represents the reflection of light by an "ideal" reflector. The emerging rays are parallel; the beam is no wider than the reflector itself, and it does not diverge. But an ideal reflector is hard to
Figure 8B2.-Use of reflectors to form beams of radiant energy.
achieve in practice. It must be a paraboloid of revolution-that is, the surface generated by a parabola rotated on its axis. It must be highly polished; its surface irregularities must be small compared with the wavelength of light. And the light source must be a single point, located at the focus of the paraboloid.
The lower part of figure 8B2 represents the reflection of radar waves. Again, the surface
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of the reflector is a paraboloid. But it need not be highly polished, because of the longer wavelength of radar. The source of radiation is the end of a waveguide. Unfortunately, this is not a point source; it must have a finite area.
It should be noted that a light RAY is simply a convention used in diagrams of optical instruments. Such rays do not exist in nature. They are imaginary lines that indicate the direction in which the wavefronts are moving. Although RADAR RAYS are not a familiar convention, they are used in figure 8B2 to show the direction in which the radar waves are moving.
Of course the lamp shown in figure 8B2 is radiating light in all directions. The light from the front surface, which does not strike the reflector, will be scattered widely. In some spotlights, the front surface of the lamp is shielded, so that the only rays that leave the spotlight are those that have been reflected. Such a spotlight produces a sharply defined beam, with little or no scattered light. The same effect is achieved in radar by directing the opening of the waveguide backward, toward the reflector.
But no radar can produce an ideal beam of parallel "rays." For one thing, the end of the waveguide is large, compared to the ideal point source. For another, a reflector of practical size is not sufficiently large compared with the wavelength of the radiated energy. A radar beam therefore diverges and forms a lobe, like the one in figure 8B3. The student should clearly understand that such a lobe is merely a convenient way of representing the beam on paper; it is in no sense a "picture" of the beam. Some of the radiated energy will be scattered outside the lobe. And the radiation does not end abruptly at a certain distance from the transmitter, as the diagram implies. The lobe, if it can be pictured in three dimensions, can be thought of as a surface, all parts of which receive an equal amount of energy. This can be considered the minimum energy that is useful for our purpose (missile guidance or target tracking). And the lobe in figure 8B3 is not drawn to scale. The diameter of the reflector is in the order of two feet; the length of the lobe may be from 20 to 50 miles. Its useful width may be four or five degrees. At any given distance from the transmitter, the signal is strongest along the axis of the lobe.
Figure 8B3.-How r-f energy is concentrated in a lobe.
8B2. Conical scanning
In a beam-rider guidance system, radar must accomplish two things; it must track the target, and it must guide the missile. It would be difficult to do either of these things with a simple lobe like the one in figure 8B3. For example, assume that a target is somewhere on the lobe axis, and that the receiver is detecting signals reflected from the target. If these reflected signals decrease in strength, it will be apparent that the target has flown off the axis, and that the beam must be moved to continue tracking. The beam might be moved by an operator who is tracking the target with an optical sight; but such tracking would be slow and inaccurate, and would be limited by conditions of visibility. An automatic tracking system requires that the beam SCAN, or search, the target area.
Again, assume that a missile is riding the axis of a simple beam. The strength of the signals it receives will gradually decrease as its distance from the transmitter increases. If the signal strength decreases suddenly, the missile will know that it is no longer on the axis of the lobe. But it will NOT know which way to turn to get back on the axis. A simple beam does not contain enough information for missile guidance.
By a suitable movement of either the wave-guide or the antenna it is possible to generate a conical scan pattern, as shown in figure 8B4. The axis of the radar lobe is made to sweep out a cone in space; the apex of this cone is, of course, at the transmitter. At any given distance from the transmitter, the path of the lobe axis is a circle. Within the useful range of the beam, the inner edge of the lobe at all times overlaps the axis of scan.
Now assume that we use a conically scanned beam for target tracking. If the target is on the scan axis, the strength of the reflected signals will remain constant (or change gradually as the range changes). But if the target is slightly off the axis, the amplitude of the
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Figure 8B4.-Conical scanning pattern.
reflected signals will change rapidly and periodically. For example, if the target is ABOVE the scan axis, the reflected signals will be of
maximum strength as the lobe sweeps through the highest part of its cone; they will quickly decrease to a minimum as the lobe sweeps through the lowest part. Information on the instantaneous position of the beam relative to the scan axis, and on the strength of the reflected signals, can be fed to a computer. If the target moves off the scan axis, the computer will instantly determine the direction and amount of antenna movement required to continue tracking. The computer output can be used to control servo mechanisms that move the antenna, so that the target will be tracked accurately and automatically.
When a conically scanned radar beam is used for missile guidance, the desired path of the missile is not along the axis of the beam, but along the axis of scan. Later in this chapter, we will show how the missile is able to guide itself along this axis.
C. Principles of Beam-Rider Guidance
8C1. General
Two types of beam-rider system are possible. In the simplest type, a single radar is used for both target tracking and missile guidance. In the other, one radar is used for tracking, while another generates the guidance beam. We will discuss the one-radar system, then point out briefly how the two-radar system differs.
8C2. One-radar system
In a one-radar system, the guidance beam is always pointed directly at the target, since the same beam is used for tracking. Two or more missiles can be in flight at the same time (toward the same target). The traffic handling capacity of the system is limited only by mutual interference between missiles in the beam. Once a missile has entered the beam path, no further operations are necessary at the launching site, except to maintain target tracking.
One factor must always be considered when an offensive weapon is used. That is, the enemy will always try to find countermeasures that will enable him to offset, or completely nullify, the effectiveness of the weapon. Some attempted countermeasures are fairly easy to overcome; others may be highly effective.
Since radar is used as a guidance control, the system is subject to any form of countermeasure that will interfere with the radar beam. The interference may take the form of small sheets of metal foil, called "window," dropped by the target to give false information to the tracking radar. The radar might, under some conditions, be led to track the foil sheets rather than the target.
Another form of countermeasure might be an enemy radar set working on the same frequency as the guidance radar. This type of interference is called "jamming." The nature of the beam-rider guidance system gives good anti-jamming characteristics because the beam is narrow and directional. The missile carries its receiving antennas on its after end-often on its rear airfoils. These antennas are also directional; they are most sensitive to signals originating behind the missile, and relatively insensitive to signals originating in front. To effectively jam the guidance beam, the jamming transmitter must get behind the missile. Thus a jamming transmitter would be of little value as a defensive measure for a target aircraft, because once the target gets behind a given missile, it has already successfully evaded that missile.
It is also possible to transmit the guidance beam as a series of pulses having a definite,
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coded sequence and amplitude. The missile can be set to accept guidance signals only if they follow the proper coded sequence, and to reject all other signals. By using a variety of code sequences, and by changing them often, it is possible to make successful jamming very unlikely.
Beam-rider guidance is used by both air-to-air and surface-to-air missiles. In neither application is the missile actually in the guidance beam at the instant of launching, and the problem of getting it there must be solved. For air-launched missiles, this is relatively easy; the missiles are carried beneath the wings of the aircraft, fairly close to the guidance radar. And they are fired directly forward; in most situations this is toward the target, and thus parallel to the guidance beam.
But when a surface-to-air missile is launched from the deck of a ship, the "capture" problem is more complex. The missile may be trained at almost any angle (except into the ship's structure). Because the blast of hot gases from the missile booster is deflected along the deck at the time of launching, a large area around the launcher must be kept clear. The guidance radar must therefore be located at some distance from the launcher. The missile cannot be launched directly toward the target, on a course parallel with the guidance beam. Instead, it must be launched in such a direction that it will CROSS the guidance beam a few seconds after launching. It will then turn toward the target, after it has been captured by the beam.
But because the guidance beam is narrow, merely aiming the missile to cross it is not enough to ensure capture. To make capture more certain, a broad CAPTURE BEAM (fig. 8C1) is superimposed on the narrow guidance beam. Because the energy in the capture beam is spread out over a large area, its effective range is short.
During the launching phase of missile flight, the control surfaces are locked and the guidance system is inoperative. The booster propels the missile in a direction calculated to place it within the capture beam. When the booster drops away, the control surfaces are unlocked and the guidance system takes over. The missile receiver is tuned to respond to the capture beam, and to seek its axis. In so doing, it turns itself toward the target and aligns itself in the guidance beam, which has
Figure 8C1.-Capture beam and guidance beam.
the same scan axis as the capture beam. After a preset interval, a timing device within the missile changes the receiver tuning. The missile will then reject signals from the capture beam, and respond only to those in the guidance beam, which has a different carrier frequency.
The single-radar beam-rider system, because it uses only one radar instead of two, has the advantage of simplicity. But the use of a single radar results in a serious problem. Remember that the guidance beam is also the tracking beam, and must therefore be pointed at the target throughout the missile flight. Except in one special case-when the target is flying directly toward the transmitter-the radar must be trained in order to follow the target. For a nearby, high-speed, crossing target, the angular rate of train will be high. The missile course, therefore, cannot be a straight line. The missile must constantly move sideways in order to stay in the beam. While the missile is relatively close to the transmitter, its lateral rate is small. But, as the missile approaches the target, the same angular rate of train will require increasing lateral acceleration of the missile.
Figure 8C2 illustrates this problem by showing three successive positions of the target and the missile. In this example, the beam
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Figure 8C2.-Lateral movement of missile.
is trained to the left at an almost uniform rate. The missile, in order to stay in the beam, must accelerate to the left at a rapidly increasing rate. In the extreme case shown in the figure, the missile as it nears the target, must follow a path almost at a right angle to the beam. Even with its control surfaces in their extreme positions, the missile would probably be unable to turn at the required rate. Thus a one-radar beam rider might be useful against approaching targets, but ineffective against high-speed crossing targets.
8C3. Two-radar system
The two-radar beam-riding system uses one radar to track the target and a second radar to guide the missile. A computer is used between the two, and the guidance radar is controlled by the computer. The computing system uses information from the tracking radar to determine the trajectory necessary to ensure a collision between the missile and the target. Because the same radar beam is no longer used for both tracking and guidance, the missile need not follow a line-of-sight path, as was the case with a one-radar system.
The same countermeasures which would affect a one-radar system could be used against the two-radar system. But it would be more difficult to destroy control effectiveness, because of the two radar beams and the computer action. The computer stores guidance information as it determines the trajectory the missile is to follow. Therefore even if the tracking beam were interrupted by countermeasures for a short time, the computer would still be able to maintain the guidance beam, and hold the missile on a probable collision course with the target.
The two-radar beam-guidance system is more complex insofar as ground equipment is concerned, because of the addition of a computer and a second radar. The equipment in the missile is the same for either system.
From the information that has been given, it may be seen that the computer is an important part of a two-radar guidance system. The computer takes information-speed, range, and course-from the tracking radar. From this information, it computes the course that must be followed by the missile. Since the computer receives information constantly, it can and does alter the missile course as necessary to offset evasive action or changes in course by the target. The output of the computer controls the direction of the guidance radar antenna. Required course changes are instantly transmitted to the missile by pointing the guidance beam toward the new point of intercept.
As we mentioned earlier, lateral acceleration presents a serious problem when a one-radar guidance system is used, because the missile course is changed by the angular movement of the tracking beam. This problem is not present in a two-radar guidance system because the missile course is directed toward a collision point, rather than toward the constantly changing position of the target. Because course information is continuously fed to the missile guidance radar, the missile trajectory is straight or only slightly curved from the launching point to the target.
There are several important components, other than the missile and radar, in a complete
guided missile system. As explained earlier in this text, a major part of the equipment is at the launching site. We will describe individual components that might be found in a
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complete system. Keep in mind that the number and type of components will vary with individual systems, and that a mobile setup will differ from a fixed, permanent launching site.
8D2. Launching station components
The target is usually picked up at long range by a search radar. When the target is identified, the tracking radar takes over the job of following it, and determines its direction, speed, and range. This information is converted rapidly into useable form by the computer.
Because the computer is given the course, speed, bearing, elevation, and instantaneous range of the target, it can calculate the position of the target at any future time, assuming that it does not change course or speed. The computer is also given the average speed of the missile. With this information, it is able to determine the direction in which the missile must be launched to intercept the target. It is unlikely that a missile will be fired as soon as the tracking radar acquires the target. The target range is constantly changing, and the target may change course or speed as well. The computer must therefore produce a continuous solution to a continuously changing problem. At any given instant, the computer output provides the correct solution to the problem as it exists at that instant.
In a two-radar system, the computer continues to calculate the missile course after the missile has been launched, and until the target has been destroyed. Through servo mechanisms, it turns the control radar in the proper direction. In a one-radar system, the computer output is used to train and elevate the missile launchers in such a direction that
the missile will enter the capture beam at the optimum angle. (If this angle is too large, the missile must make a sharp turn to get into the control beam. If it is too small, there is some danger that the missile will evade the capture beam and go out of control.)
8D3. Missile components
The receiving antenna in the missile is a very important part of its electronic installation. Through it must come all guidance signals from the control radar. There are several difficulties in determining the optimum location of an antenna on a missile. First, the antenna must not interfere with the aerodynamic stability of the missile. Second, it must be located at a point where it will not be damaged by the rapid acceleration as the missile is launched, and where wind will not tear it loose. Finally, the antenna must be located where it can effectively pick up the signals of the guidance beam. The antenna location that has been found most satisfactory is on the missile tail surfaces.
The missile antenna is highly directional, and most sensitive to signals received from behind the missile. The roll-control system of the missile keeps it stabilized so that the antenna polarization remains constant.
The guidance signals picked up by the missile antenna are fed to a receiver. After the signals are amplified and demodulated by the receiver, they are fed to a computer. If the missile is off the scan axis of the guidance beam, the computer will determine both the direction and the magnitude of the error. It will then give the control system the commands required to bring the missile back onto the scan axis.
8E1. General
Earlier sections of this chapter have shown that a number of components are required to complete a beam guidance system. Each component must function properly if the missile is to destroy the target. But no system can be expected to operate beyond its natural limitations.
One of the factors limiting the effective range of radar is the curvature of the earth. The effective range of a radar beam can be expressed in terms of transmitting and receiving antenna heights above the earth's surface. The formula is
RE = sqrt(2Ht) + sqrt(V2Hr)
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where Ht and Hr are the heights of the transmitter and receiver antennas in feet, and RE is the effective range in miles.
It can be seen that raising the height of either antenna will increase the effective range. Thus it appears that a missile, because of the altitude at which it travels, can be controlled at extremely long range. But this is not true. The transmitter power necessary to deliver a satisfactory control signal increases rapidly with distance. Therefore, for long range missiles, a single beam-rider guidance system would be unsatisfactory. But these limitations can be overcome by using beam-rider guidance during the first part of the missile flight, then switching to a different guidance system before the missile flies beyond control of the radar beam.
8E2. Tracking radar
We have mentioned that the tracking radar furnishes information as to the position of the target. All target position references are made with respect to the scan axis of the tracking lobe.
The amount of energy in the beam falls off rapidly at points away from the center of the lobe. Figure 8E1 shows the relative amounts of energy transmitted at various angles to one side of the lobe axis. Because of the variation in transmitted energy, there will be a corresponding variation in the strength of signals reflected by targets at various angular distances from the center of the lobe.
Figure 8E1.-Radiated energy variation.
As we mentioned earlier, the tracking system is automatic. After the tracking radar has acquired the target, tracking is maintained without the help of a human operator. But the action of the tracking system is monitored by an observer, who may take over and track the target manually if the automatic system fails.
At the monitor station, indications of target position relative to the scan axis of the tracking beam are presented on two cathode-ray tubes (CRT's). Figure 8E2 shows how the vertical position of the target, relative to the scan axis, is presented on a CRT. In the upper part of the figure, the target is on the scan axis. Remember that the tracking lobe is scanning a conical pattern in space. The lobe is shown in the highest and the lowest positions of its scan pattern. For each of these two positions, the CRT produces a pip, the height of which is proportional to the strength of the reflected signal. Since the two pips are of equal height, they indicate that the reflected signals are of equal strength when the lobe is in its highest and lowest positions. This can occur only when the target is vertically centered with respect to the two lobes--that is, in a transverse plane through the axis of scan.
The lower diagram shows the effect of a target above the scan axis of the beam. When the lobe is in its highest position, the target is directly on the lobe axis, and the height of the CRT pip is a maximum. When the lobe is in its lowest position the target is far off the lobe axis; its reflected signal will be much weaker, and the pip on the CRT correspondingly small. This indicates that the target is above the scan axis.
A second CRT indicates the relative strength of the reflected signals when the lobe is at its extreme left and extreme right positions. In an emergency, the operator can track the target manually by moving the radar so as to keep the pairs of pips of equal height on both CRT's.
8E3. Control radar
A block diagram showing the sections of a beam-rider guidance system is shown in figure 8E3. The guidance beam pattern is formed by the antenna of the guidance radar. Transmitter sections are shown in the dashed squares of figure 8E3. The sections in solid lines are in the missile.
As explained earlier, a conical scan is one in which the lobe axis of the radar beam is moved so as to generate a cone. The vertex of this cone is at the antenna. It is possible to produce a conical scan by any of several methods.
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Figure 8E2.-How CRT indicates target position in relation to the scan axis.
ROTATING DIPOLE. A dipole antenna consists of two wires or rods mounted end-to-end. R-f energy is fed into the center of the antenna, with the two poles receiving signals of opposite phase. The overall length of the antenna is half a wavelength.
The proper length for a dipole IN FREE SPACE can be determined from the formula:
Length (feet) = 492 / Frequency(mcs)
However, free space conditions do not exist in actual antenna installations, and the most
efficient length for a half-wave antenna is usually about 95 percent of that given by the formula.
The formula shows that a dipole antenna for 450 mcs would be about 13 inches long. Therefore, the physical size of a highly directional array (antenna and reflector) for that frequency would be small enough for easy mounting and rotation.
When we speak of rotating a dipole, we do not mean that the antenna is turned or rotated about its center. If this were done, the antenna polarization would change as the antenna turned. Polarization would be vertical when
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Figure 8E3.-Block diagram of beam-rider system.
the antenna was perpendicular to the ground, and horizontal when the antenna was parallel to the ground. Should this condition exist, control of the missile would be erratic because the anti-roll controls on the missile are designed to maintain constant polarization of the missile antenna.
Figure 8E4.-How a dipole is rotated.
Figure 8E4 shows how the dipole may be rotated without changing its polarization. In this diagram, you're looking into the concave face of a paraboloid reflector. The antenna is mounted in a plane that passes through the focal point at a right angle to the reflector axis. As the antenna rotates it stays in this plane, and continues to point in the same direction; its center describes a circle around the focal point.
ROTATING REFLECTOR. When the antenna rotates, as described above, the relative motion between antenna and reflector produces a conically scanned beam. It is apparent that the same relative motion can be produced by using a stationary antenna and rotating the reflector about a point off its axis.
NUTATING WAVEGUIDE. A waveguide is a metal pipe, usually rectangular in cross- section, which is used to conduct the r-f energy from the transmitter to the antenna. The open end of the waveguide faces the concave side of the reflector, and the r-f energy it emits is bounced from the reflector surface.
A conical scan can be generated by nutation of the waveguide. In this process, the axis of the waveguide itself is moved through a small conical pattern. Figure 8E5 is an attempt to represent this three-dimensional movement in a two-dimensional diagram. Nutation is difficult to describe in words, but easy to
Figure 8E5.-Nutation of the waveguide.
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demonstrate. Hold a pencil in two hands; while holding the eraser end as still as possible, swing the point through a circle. This motion of the pencil is nutation. (The pencil point corresponds to the open, or transmitting, end of the waveguide.) In an actual installation, this movement of the waveguide is fast, and of small amplitude. To an observer, the wave-guide appears merely to be vibrating slightly.
8E4. Missile response
A beam-riding missile must guide itself to the target by following the scan axis of its guidance beam. The only guidance information available to the missile is that contained in the beam. From this information, the missile guidance system must determine three things: (1) whether or not the missile is on the beam axis; (2) if not, how far it is off the axis, and (3) which way to go to get back on the axis. The first and third requirements are fairly obvious. The necessity for measuring the AMOUNT of error is less apparent.
During the early stages of guided missile development, one of the more serious problems was "overshooting." When a missile moved off course, and received a signal intended to correct the error, it would turn back toward the course, but overshoot and go too far in the opposite direction. This effect was caused by the lag in the response of the control system to guidance signals, and in the response of the missile itself to movement of its control surfaces. For practical purposes, this problem has been solved by the use of error signals proportional in magnitude to the errors they are intended to correct. Thus if a missile is far from the beam axis it will generate a large error signal, and its control surfaces will be turned through a relatively large angle. But, as the missile moves back toward the beam axis, its error signal steadily decreases, and the angle of its control surfaces is decreased accordingly. At the instant the missile reaches the beam axis, its control surfaces will (in theory at least) have reached their neutral position, and overshooting will be prevented.
Now let us see how the missile determines whether or not it is on the scan axis. Figure 8E6 represents a missile below the scan axis of the guidance beam. The path of the lobe axis is a circle. And the amplitude of the
Figure 8E6.-Missile below the beam axis.
radar signal is at a maximum along the axis of the lobe. As the lobe axis sweeps near the missile, the signal will be strong; as it sweeps away from the missile, the signal will decrease. To the missile, it will appear that the signal strength is regularly changing in amplitude, at the same frequency as that of the scan cycle.
The missile receiver is provided with a detector, which eliminates the r-f carrier frequency and produces a sine wave signal of the scan frequency. When this a-m signal is present, the missile knows that it is OFF the scan axis of the beam. When the a-m signal is absent, the missile knows that it is ON the axis. To see this clearly, look at figure 8E6 and imagine the missile on the scan axis. It is now at the same distance from the lobe axis throughout the scan cycle, and the amplitude of the r-f signal it receives remains constant.
From the AMPLITUDE of the a-m signal, the missile can determine how far it is from the scan axis. When the missile is on the axis, the amplitude of the a-m signal is zero, indicating zero error. If it is only a short distance from the scan axis, its distance from the lobe axis changes only slightly during the scan cycle. The a-m signal will thus be small, indicating a small error. Now, looking at figure 8E6, imagine the missile at some point on the circular path of the lobe axis. The variation in its distance from the lobe axis during the scan cycle is now at a maximum. The a-m signal will also be at a maximum,
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producing the maximum error signal and maximum movement of the control surfaces.
(It is apparent that if the missile moves to a point OUTSIDE the circular path of the lobe axis, the error signal will decrease. But this does not happen in practice, unless the missile is defective. The guidance and control systems are too sensitive to allow so large an error to develop.)
How the missile determines the DIRECTION of its error can best be explained in two steps. Figure 8E7 shows an imaginary scanning system in which the lobe of radar energy, instead of sweeping out a cone, has only two positions-up or down. The two lobes are transmitted alternately. The figure shows the missile below the scan axis, near the axis of the lower lobe. The missile will receive signals from both lobes, but those from the lower lobe will be of greater amplitude. If we can provide the missile with some means for distinguishing between the two lobes, so that it can tell WHICH ONE has the stronger signal, it can determine the direction of its error. For example, if the missile in figure 8E7 can determine that it is the LOWER lobe that has the stronger signal, it will know that it must move up to get back on the scan axis.
Figure 8E7.-Two-lobe scanning system.
There are two fairly simple ways in which we can identify the two lobes so that the missile can distinguish between them. (We cannot, of course, make them of different amplitude, since a missile on the scan axis would then detect a false error signal.) Beam-rider radar transmission consists of an extremely
high-frequency carrier wave, which is transmitted in short bursts, or pulses, separated by periods of no transmission. The pulse repetition rate is ordinarily in the order of from one to a few thousand per second. We can identify the two lobes shown in figure 8E7 by making them differ either in carrier frequency or in pulse repetition frequency. In either case the missile could easily be provided with a means for distinguishing between them, and could then determine the direction of its error.
Thus the imaginary two-lobe scanning system could be used for guiding a beam rider in a vertical plane. If we add two additional lobes, each of which the missile can distinguish from the other two, it would also be possible to guide the missile to right or left. It should now be apparent that we can guide the missile in any direction by using a conical scan.
Look back at figure 8E6. Assume that we vary the signal frequency (either the carrier or the pulse rate) sinusoidally at the scan frequency. Assume that when the lobe is at its highest point, the signal frequency is at a maximum. As it moves around to the right side of its circular path, the signal frequency decreases to its average value. At the lowest position of the lobe, the signal frequency is at a minimum. It increases to average value as the lobe approaches the left side of its path, and to a maximum as it returns to its highest position. Thus the signal of the guidance beam is frequency modulated at the scan frequency. Note that the f-m signal is always present at the missile, regardless of whether it is on or off the scan axis.
The missile receiver is provided with an f-m section, the output of which is a sine wave that indicates the instantaneous position of the lobe in its scan cycle. The sine wave will have a maximum positive value when the signal frequency is maximum; it will pass through zero as the signal passes through its average frequency; it will reach its maximum negative value when the signal frequency is at a minimum.
The missile can determine the direction of its error by comparing the phase of the f-m signal with that of the a-m signal. Refer to figure 8E6 again; here the missile is directly below the scan axis. The signal will be strongest, and the a-m signal will reach its maximum positive value, as the lobe passes through its
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lowest point. At that time the signal frequency will be minimum, and the f-m signal will be at its maximum negative value. Thus the two signals are 180° out of phase. If the missile were above the scan axis, the a-m signal would be strongest at the instant when the f-m signal reached its highest frequency. Both signals would be at their maximum positive value, and therefore exactly in phase. There is a definite phase relationship for every off-axis position of the missile. If the missile is directly to the right of the axis, the f-m signal leads the a-m signal by 90°; if it is directly to the left, the f-m signal lags 90° behind the a-m, etc.
Phase comparison is a fairly easy job for an electronic computer. The computer has been programmed to measure the phase relationship, to determine the direction in which the missile must move to return to the scan
axis, and to send the necessary orders to the control system. The control system, in turn, moves the control surfaces to change the missile course in the required direction.
To summarize: The guidance beam is conically scanned, and frequency modulated at the scan rate. If the missile detects an a-m signal, it will know that it is off the scan axis; if it detects no a-m signal, it will know that it is on the axis. The amplitude of the a-m signal indicates the size of the error. A large error will produce a large movement of the missile control surfaces. As the missile approaches the beam axis the error decreases, and the position of the control surfaces gradually returns to neutral, to prevent overshooting. The phase relation between the a-m and f-m signals indicates the direction of the error.
8F1. General
Every mechanical or electrical system has limitations that cannot be exceeded. When working with complex mechanisms, such as guided missiles, it is as important to know limitations as it is to know the capabilities. Unless the limitations are known, a costly missile might be wasted.
One important limitation is the maximum range at which reliable control can be maintained. We have mentioned line-of-sight limitation. Bear in mind that this statement does not mean that the missile must remain within range of vision. It does mean that control may be lost if the path between the missile and the guidance radar extends over the horizon or is blocked by hills or mountains.
Another limitation, previously mentioned, is transmitter power. In theory, at least, any amount of power can be generated. Radar systems through pulse techniques, make it
possible to get large peak power output while keeping the average power output within reasonable limits. Practical guidance systems have power limitations due to cost, size, and weight. Obviously, bulky equipment cannot be easily transported or installed aboard ships or aircraft. Therefore, a compromise must be reached to ensure useful results with equipment of reasonable size.
It should also be kept in mind that the radar beam increases in width and decreases in power as the range is extended, resulting in a decrease in both tracking and guidance accuracy at long ranges.
We have previously explained that countermeasures may decrease the effectiveness of an offensive weapon. The susceptibility of a guided missile to countermeasures is a limitation to its use. The effectiveness of countermeasure action can be greatly reduced by using coded-pulse modulation of the radar guidance beam.
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9A1. General
In previous chapters, we have discussed guidance systems that are designed to place and hold a missile on a collision path with its target. As we have previously explained, missile guidance can be divided into three phases: launching, intermediate or midcourse guidance, and terminal guidance. The proper functioning of the guidance system during the terminal phase, when the missile is rapidly approaching its target, is of extreme importance. A great deal of work has been done to develop extremely accurate equipment for use in terminal-phase guidance.
This chapter will discuss some of the homing systems that have been found to be effective for terminal guidance, as well as some systems that, in their present state of development, have serious limitations.
The expression HOMING GUIDANCE is used to describe a missile system that can "see" the target by some means, and then by sending commands to its own control surfaces, guide itself to the target. (Use of the word "see" in this context does not necessarily mean that an optical system is used. It simply means that the target is detected by one or more of the sensing systems that will be described later in this chapter).
9A2. Basic principles
Some homing guidance systems are based on use of the characteristics of the target itself as a means of attracting the missile. In other words the target becomes a lure, in much the same manner as a strong light attracts bugs at night. Just as certain lights attract more bugs than others, certain target characteristics provide more effective homing information than others. And some target characteristics are such that missiles depending on them for homing guidance are very susceptable to countermeasures.
Other homing systems illuminate the target by radar or other electromagnetic means, and use the signals reflected by the target for homing guidance.
The various homing guidance systems have been divided into PASSIVE, SEMIACTIVE, and
ACTIVE classes. The name of the class indicates the type of homing guidance in use.
If the target emits the homing stimulus, the system used to detect the target and guide the missile to it is known as a PASSIVE HOMING guidance system. One such system uses radio broadcast waves from the target area as signals to home on.
If the target is illuminated by some source other than itself or equipment in the missile, the system is known as a SEMIACTIVE HOMING system. For example, the target might be illuminated by equipment at the missile launching station.
If the target is illuminated by equipment in the missile, the system is called an ACTIVE HOMING guidance system. An example is a system that uses a radar set in the missile to illuminate the target, and then uses the radar reflections from the target for missile guidance.
9A3. Types of missile response
When the control surfaces of the missile are activated by one of the guidance systems, the missile is showing response to the guidance system. A number of guidance systems have been developed to respond to a variety of signal sources. These sources are:
SOUND. If we go through the frequency spectrum from low to high, we can list systems in order of frequency and start in the audio (low) range. Sound has been used for guidance of naval torpedoes, which home on noise from the target ship's propellers. But a guidance system based on sound is limited in range. The missile or torpedo must use a carefully shielded sound pickup, so that it will not be affected by its own motor noise. And while the speed of a torpedo is low compared to the speed of sound, most guided missiles are supersonic. Because of these limitations, no current missile uses a guidance system based on sound.
RADIO. Most homing guidance systems use electromagnetic radiations. Radio waves are used in one passive homing system. Homing is accomplished by an automatic radio direction finder in the missile. The equipment is tuned to a station in the target area, and the
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missile homes on that station. This homing system is not restricted by weather or visibility. But it is unlikely that a radio transmitter would be operating under war conditions. In addition, radio jamming can do a most effective job of confusing a missile that uses radio for homing guidance. Our own Conelrad system, for example, is a technique for combating radio guidance systems. Under Conelrad conditions, every broadcasting station in the United States will switch to one of two assigned frequencies. Thus, a missile using radio homing guidance would receive signals from several directions at the same time.
While it is possible to do a thorough job of confusing a radio homing guidance system, there is one possibility that cannot be overlooked. The enemy must use electromagnetic systems for communications and search, and these systems can be used as a source of guidance signals. Also, it is possible for subversive agents to plant small, hidden radio transmitters in target areas.
RADAR. Although radar can be used for all classes of homing guidance, it is best suited for the semiactive and active classes. At present, radar is the most effective source of information for homing guidance systems. It is not restricted by weather or visibility, but under some conditions it may be subject to jamming by enemy countermeasure equipment.
HEAT. One form of passive homing system uses heat as a source of target information. Another name applied to this system is INFRARED homing guidance. Heat generated by aircraft engines or rockets is difficult to shield. In addition, a heated path is left in the air for a short time after the target has passed, and an ultra-sensitive heat sensor can follow the heated path to the object. One present limitation is the sensitivity of sensor units. As sensor units of higher sensitivity become available, infrared homing guidance will become increasingly effective. Such systems will make it difficult to jam the homing circuits, or to decoy the missile away from the target.
LIGHT. A passive homing system could be designed to home on light given off by the target. But, like any optical system, this one would be limited by conditions of weather and visibility. And it would be highly susceptible to enemy countermeasures.
9A4. Use in composite systems
In command and beam-rider guidance, the missile is controlled from the launching site, or from some other point at a considerable distance from the target. But neither of these systems is very effective against moving targets, except at relatively short ranges. The reason is obvious. The closer the missile gets to the target, the farther it is from its control point. At long range, a very small angular error in target tracking, missile tracking, or beam riding could cause the missile to miss its target by a wide margin.
Sidewinder is a Navy missile that uses homing as its only source of guidance. It has been used very effectively at relatively short range. But homing systems are based on information radiated from, or reflected by, the target itself. For targets at intermediate ranges, such signals are extremely weak, and could be used only by missiles with powerful and heavy guidance equipment. At long range, such signals are entirely unavailable.
An answer to this problem lies in the use of a composite guidance system. In this system, the missile is guided during its intermediate phase by information transmitted from the launching site, or other friendly control point. During the terminal phase, it is guided by information from the target. For intermediate-range missiles, either command or beam-rider guidance is suitable during the midcourse phase. A long-range missile would depend either on preset or navigational guidance to bring it to the target vicinity. Missiles of both classes can switch over to homing guidance, based on infrared or radar radiations, as they enter the terminal phase. At intermediate range, the switchover is usually accomplished by radio command. At long range, it is controlled by a navigational device, or by some form of built-in programing system.
The U. S. Navy missile program makes use of composite guidance systems in several of its operational missiles. Talos is a beam rider during its midcourse phase, and switches to radar homing for terminal guidance. Other missiles, such as Sidewinder, Sparrow, Petrel, and Tartar, use homing guidance systems in one form or another for terminal guidance.
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9B1. General
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, passive homing systems can be used when the target itself radiates information. Therefore, all of the response systems, with the possible exception of radar, might be used. The exception to radar would not apply if a signal from the target could be picked up by a radar set in the missile. This system would be unreliable; the only source of target information would be under enemy control, and could be switched off at will. But missiles using such a system would have one distinct advantage: they would deny the enemy the use of his own radar.
9B2. Basic principles
The passive homing systems most widely used at present are based on infrared radiation from the target. The sensing mechanism is so designed that it can determine the direction from which the infrared radiation is received; the guidance system can then steer the missile in that direction. There are several ways in which the sensing device can be made to determine the direction of an infrared source. For example, two sensors could be mounted with a baffle between them, so that the one on the right can receive radiation from straight ahead, or from any point to the right of the missile axis. The other sensor will receive radiation coming from the straight ahead or from the other side of the axis. When both sensors receive the same amount of radiation, the target is directly ahead. If the radiation is stronger on one side, the target is obviously on that side. A second pair of ,sensors could be used for up-and-down steering.
Another infrared passive homing system makes use of a sensing device mounted in gimbals, and driven by servo mechanisms. The system is so designed that the sensing device will constantly track the target. Thus, the axis of the sensing device, in relation to the axis of the missile, provides the required information for steering.
9B3. Target characteristics
In passive homing, the target itself must provide all the necessary information for missile guidance. For this reason the characteristics of an individual target will determine which types of homing system can be used against it, and under what conditions they can be used.
If the target is fixed in location, and has some characteristic by which the missile can readily distinguish it from the surrounding area, the homing guidance problem is simplified. Figure 9B1 represents an air-to-surface or surface-to-surface missile, using a light-sensing guidance system to home on an industrial building. While such a missile might be useful in a surprise attack, industrial plants would certainly be blacked out during a war. A light-homing missile would then have no way to distinguish the target from its background. But infrared passive homing could be used in this application. And it would probably be more effective than light-homing, since the heat generated by an industrial plant can not be readily controlled.
Figure 9B2 represents a passive infrared homing missile attacking an aircraft. The Navy's Sidewinder uses this type of guidance. The tailpipe of a jet aircraft is a strong source of infrared radiation, which cannot be
Figure 9B1.-Missile using light-homing guidance.
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Figure 9B2.-Missile using heat-homing guidance.
concealed. In a tail-chase attack, the Sidewinder is highly effective. Against an approaching jet aircraft, Sidewinder and similar missiles are of little use.
A sound-homing system might also be used against a jet aircraft target, even though both target and missile are traveling faster than sound. Such a system might be used in a tail chase, provided the target does not maneuver radically. But you have probably observed that when a jet passes over at moderate altitude, the sound appears to come from a point at some distance behind the aircraft. A sound-homing missile would steer itself toward the source of sound, rather than toward the target itself. For an approaching or crossing target, the required trajectory would be too sharply curved for the missile to follow.
9B4. Missile components
When passive homing guidance is used, the missile must contain all of the equipment needed to pick up, process, and use the information given off by the target. The kind and amount of equipment required is determined to a large extent by the guidance system used, and by the characteristics of the target.
Consideration must also be given to: the maximum range, information required, accuracy, operating conditions, type of target, and speed of the target. The components of the guidance system in the missile can be sectionalized for separate discussion. We will explain the purpose of each section. Figure 9B3 shows a block diagram of a passive homing guidance system.
ANTENNA OR OTHER SENSOR. Since information given off by the target is to be used for guidance, some means must be provided to pick up the information. For electromagnetic systems, a conventional radio or radar antenna (streamlined into the missile) would be used.
A heat-sensing detector, rather than an antenna, is used with infrared homing guidance systems. One of the basic heat detectors is called a THERMOCOUPLE. When two dissimilar metals, such as iron and copper, are joined and heat applied to the junction of the two metals, a measurable voltage will be generated between them. Figure 9B4 shows a basic thermocouple.
The voltage difference between the two metals is quite small, but the sensitivity can be increased to a point where the thermocouple becomes useful as a detector of heat. The
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Figure 9B3.-Block diagram of passive homing guidance system.
increase in sensitivity is obtained by connecting, or stacking, a number of thermocouples in series, so that they form what is known as a THERMOPILE. The complete thermopile action is similar to that obtained when a number of flashlight cells are connected in series. That is, the output of each individual thermocouple is added to the output of the others. Thus ten thermocouples, with individual output voltages of .001 volts, would have a total output of .010 volts when connected in series.
The sensitivity of a thermopile heat detector can be further increased by mounting the thermopile at the focal point of a parabolic reflector. When this method is used, heat rays given off by the target are focused on the thermopile by the reflector.
Another type of heat detector is called a BOLOMETER. This device depends on the change of electrical resistance of a material when heated. In a simple type of bolometer, two thin strips of platinum are used to form two arms of a Wheatstone bridge. To increase the thermal sensitivity of the strips, each is blackened on one side. The heat to be measured is applied to one of the strips, and is absorbed by its blackened surface. As the strip absorbs heat, its resistance changes and unbalances the bridge. This unbalance causes
a change in the current produced by an external voltage applied to the input terminals of the bridge.
Figure 9B5 shows a modern bolometer; it consists of four nickel strips supported by phosphor bronze springs. These springs are supported by mounting bars, which have electrical connection leads attached to them. A silvered parabolic reflector (mirror) is used to focus infrared rays on the bolometer. The bridge unbalance current, produced as a result of resistance changes, is used to set in motion the other sections of the guidance system.
Figure 9B4.-A basic thermocouple.
Figure 9B5.-Modern bolometer.
Still another form of infrared detector is shown in figure 9B6. It is called a GOLAY DETECTOR. This detector is a miniature heat engine. The Golay heat cell operates on the principle that a pressure-volume change occurs in a gas when its temperature is changed. At the forward end of the cell is a metal chamber which encloses the gas. The front of the chamber is covered by a membrane, which acts as a receiving element. The back of the chamber is closed by a flexible mirror membrane. When radiant heat strikes the receiver, it raises the temperature of the gas in the chamber. The resulting increase in pressure distends the mirror membrane. Light from a small exciter lamp (fig. 9B6) is focused by a lens, and then passed through a grid of parallel lines. The light is then reflected by the mirror membrane, back onto the grid.
When the mirror membrane is not distended, it reflects the image of the open spaces in the grid back onto the opaque lines of the
Figure 9B6.-A Golay detector.
grid. Thus no light can pass back through the grid. But when the mirror membrane is distended, the image of the open spaces in the grid passes back through those same open spaces. Thus the amount of light passing back through the grid provides an indication of how much the mirror membrane is distended, and, indirectly, of how much heat is reaching the detector.
A part of the light that passes back through the grid is reflected downward by a diagonal mirror (shown at the lower right in fig. 9B6). This light is then picked up by a photoelectric cell. The output of the photo cell thus provides an indication of radiant heat entering the detector. The device is quite sensitive, since a small amount of mirror distortion produces a considerable change in photo cell illumination. The Golay detector has the most rapid response of any infrared detector, but it can operate only when radiant heat is received intermittently. For some guidance systems this factor makes the Golay detector useless; in others it causes no difficulty.
In the light-homing guidance systems, the pickup device or sensor is a photoelectric cell. The operation of this device is based on the fact that certain metallic substances emit electrons when they are exposed to light. Modern photoelectric cells are quite sensitive to light variations; but, because light is easily interrupted, the system is subject to interference. One type of photoelectric cell is shown in figure 9B7.
Figure 9B7.-A photoelectric cell.
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The objection to photoelectric cells has been partially removed by the recent development of cells with a sensitivity in the infrared region. However, the extension of the range of operation changes the sensor from a pure photoelectric device to a thermoelectric device. It is then similar in operation to a heat sensor.
ANTENNA OR SENSOR DRIVE. Previous chapters have described antenna scanning
methods. The reflectors mentioned for heat or light homing sensors act in the same way as a radar reflector. Therefore, greater control accuracy can be obtained by scanning a target with the reflector and sensor units.
Should the sensor temporarily lose sight of the target, a spiral or sawtooth scan, as shown in figure 9B8, could be used to find the target again. Notice that both types of scan cover a large area.
Figure 9B8.-Spiral and sawtooth scanning.
The scanning action is controlled by the antenna or sensor drive unit, which is shown in the block diagram of figure 9B3.
After the antenna or sensor has picked up the information, other equipment in the missile must convert the information into error signals, if the missile is off course. Before this can be done, however, there must be something to compare with the sensor signal.
REFERENCE UNIT. The comparison voltage is taken from the reference unit. This voltage may be o b t a in e d from an outside source, or it may be taken from recorded information that was put into the missile before launching. Actual operation of the missile guidance controls takes place only when an error signal is present. Note that the reference unit is connected to both the pitch and yaw comparators in the block diagram of figure 9B3.
SIGNAL CONVERTER. The output of the sensor unit is an extremely small voltage. This voltage is fed to a signal converter, which
builds up the strength of the signal and interprets the information contained in it. The output of the signal converter is fed to the pitch and yaw comparators along with the signal from the reference unit.
COMPARATORS. The comparators are electronic calculators that rapidly compare reference and signal voltages and determine the difference (error), if any, between the two signals. It is possible for an error signal to be developed in the pitch comparator while no error signal is developed in the yaw comparator. Should this happen, the missile would be higher or lower than the desired trajectory. The output voltage from the pitch comparator is then fed to the missile automatic pilot.
AUTOPILOT. The automatic pilot, or autopilot, operates missile flight controls in much the same way as a human pilot operates airplane controls. The components making up the autopilot assembly have been described elsewhere in this text. In order to shift the flight controls, the autopilot must get "orders" from
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some circuit. The orders are in the form of error signal voltages from the comparators. The error signal voltages
operate motors or hydraulic valves which, in turn, operate the flight control surfaces.
9C1. Basic principles
In a semiactive homing system, the target is illuminated by some means outside the target or the missile. Normally, radar is used for this type of homing guidance, by sending a radar beam to the target. The beam is reflected from the target, and picked up by equipment in the missile. The radar transmitter might be located at a ground site, or it might be a mobile unit aboard a ship or aircraft.
9C2. Launching station components
In a semiactive homing guidance system, the launching station components are similar to those required for a beam-rider guidance system (chapter 8). The target is tracked by radar. The tracking radar itself may be used as the source of target illumination for missile guidance, or a separate radar may be used for this purpose.
9C3. Missile components
The missile, throughout its flight, is between the target and the radar that illuminates the target. It will receive radiation from the launching station, as well as reflections from the target. The missile must therefore have some means for distinguishing between the two signals, so that it can home on the target rather than on the launching station. This can be done in several ways. For example, a highly directional antenna may be mounted in the nose of the missile, as noted below. Or the doppler principle may be used to distinguish between the transmitter signal and the target echoes. Since the missile is receding from the transmitter, and approaching the target, the echo signals will be of a higher frequency.
For the purposes of this text, we can think of the missile guidance components as divided into several distinct sections. These are shown in block diagram form in figure 9C1.
ANTENNA. Radar is generally used for semiactive homing guidance. The antenna in
Figure 9C1.-Block diagram of semiactive homing system.
the missile must therefore be capable of detecting radiation at radar frequencies. It is mounted in the nose of the missile, since information is being obtained from the target area and the missile is approaching the target nose first. When a beam-riding system is used for the intermediate phase of guidance, a separate beam-rider antenna is mounted near the tail of the missile.
ANTENNA DRIVE. In some systems, the homing guidance antenna may use a form of conical (or nutating) scan in order to take full advantage of the guidance signal. Conical scanning has the advantage that the antenna can receive signals from points off the missile axis. This decreases the chance that the missile, while homing, may lose its target and go out of control.
RECEIVER. A radar-type receiver must be used in the missile when radar is used for semiactive homing. The signals picked up by the antenna as it scans the target area are fed into the receiver. The receiver operates in a conventional manner as described in chapter 7. The signals at the output of the receiver are not suitable for use in activating the missile flight controls without further processing.
SIGNAL CONVERTER. The receiver output is fed to the signal converter, which changes the signal to a form that can be used
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for comparison with signals from another section of the missile electronic equipment.
REFERENCE UNIT. The reference unit furnishes the comparison signal. This information might be placed in the missile just prior to launching. It could be stored in a variety of forms, such as magnetic wires, magnetic tapes, punched paper tapes or punched cards. Before a guidance system can function, an error signal must be produced. The error in flight path, if any, can be determined by comparing the reference signal and the signal from the converter section. Comparison of the two signals takes place in other sections of the missile electronic equipment.
COMPARATORS. The missile flight controls may be used to correct the lateral or vertical trajectory of the missile. Since it is possible for the missile to be on the right course vertically but off course laterally, two comparators are used. The output from the reference unit and the output from the signal converter are fed to both the pitch and yaw comparators.
Should there be no difference in the two signals at either comparator, the controls would remain in neutral position. However, should there be a difference in the two signals at either comparator, error signals will be generated. The error signals are not suitable for use in controlling the missile flight surfaces and must be sent to other sections of the guidance system before they can be used.
AUTOPILOT. The missile flight control surface operation is controlled by autopilots. These devices are a combination of gyroscopes
and electrical units which have been described elsewhere in this manual. The autopilot controls operation of the hydraulic system which, in turn, operates the flight control surfaces. There are two autopilots-one for the pitch control surfaces and one for the yaw control surfaces.
9C4. Comparison with passive homing
The passive guidance system obtains all guidance information from the target, without assistance from any other outside source. The semiactive homing system needs some source outside the target or missile in order to obtain course information.
The advantage of the passive system is that it needs no source of information other than the target. The equipment carried by the missile is less than that required for most other systems. The disadvantage of the passive guidance system is its dependence on the target. It is highly unlikely that an enemy would leave target areas lighted, or permit electromagnetic forms of broadcasting from the target areas.
In the semiactive system, control information comes from a source outside the missile or target area. A semiactive homing system depends for guidance on equipment outside the target area or the missile. This requires extra equipment, both in the missile and at the launching or control point. Semiactive homing systems, like most guidance systems, are subject to jamming and other forms of interference.
9D1. Basic principles
The active guidance system uses equipment in the missile to illuminate the target, and to guide the missile to the target. Usually, a radar set is used for target illumination. The signals return to the missile as radar echoes, which are processed for use as guidance signals.
9D2. Missile components
The missile components in an active homing guidance system include all those used in a
semiactive homing guidance system, plus a radar transmitter and duplexer. The principal components are shown in the block diagram of figure 9D1.
ANTENNA. The antenna is the same as described for the semiactive system, and is mounted in the nose of the missile.
ANTENNA DRIVE. When the target area is conically scanned, the antenna driving unit provides the power needed for this purpose.
TRANSMITTER. The transmitter carried in the missile is similar to a conventional radar transmitter. It may use either FM or pulsed modulation. Since homing guidance does
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Figure 9D1.-Block diagram of active homing guidance system.
not require long range equipment, the transmitter power can be considerably less than that used for command guidance or tracking. The method of modulating the transmitter can be changed frequently to lessen the effectiveness of enemy countermeasures.
DUPLEXER. The duplexer is a form of electronic switch. In operation, it serves to connect the antenna to the transmitter during the sending of a pulse. At the same time, it presents a high impedance (electrical opposition) at the receiver input. This keeps the powerful transmitter pulse from damaging the receiver.
As soon as the pulse is transmitted, the duplexer then offers a low impedance path from the antenna to the receiver. The action of the duplexer provides an automatic switching means, so that the same antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving.
REFERENCE UNIT. The reference unit in the active homing guidance system serves the same purpose as those in the passive and semiactive homing guidance systems.
SIGNAL CONVERTER. The output of the receiver is fed to the signal converter, so that the reflected signal will be suitable for comparison with the output of the reference unit. The purpose and operation of the signal converter is the same as for the semiactive homing guidance system.
COMPARATORS. The comparators serve the same purpose as those in the semiactive system.
AUTOPILOT. The missile flight controls are operated by the hydraulic system, which is activated by the autopilot in the same way as described for the semiactive system.
9D3. Comparison with semiactive homing system
The active homing guidance system may be used in any application where the target can be distinguished from the surrounding area by the radiation it reflects. Of course, the more prominent the target, the greater the accuracy of homing guidance.
An advantage of the active homing guidance system is its independence from any outside source of target illumination. At the same time, this is a disadvantage because of the added equipment needed in the missile. Also, the system is subject to countermeasures. But this problem is less serious than it might be, because the homing guidance equipment is active for only a relatively brief part of the missile's flight time.
9E1. Zero-bearing course
A homing missile uses one of two methods in approaching a target. When the missile flies directly toward the target at all times, the trajectory is known as a ZERO BEARING or PURSUIT approach.
All of the homing guidance systems we have described have had the sensor unit (thermopile, light cell, microphone, or antenna) mounted in the nose of the missile. The sensor
is fixed to the missile frame so that it maintains a constant relationship to the missile axis. The equipment in the missile is then able to process the information picked up by the sensor, so that the missile can be continually pointed toward the target. A possible flight path for a ground-to-air missile is shown in figure 9E1. Notice how the flight path must curve as the missile approaches the target. The sharp curvature in the path sets up strong lateral accelerations during the terminal
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Figure 9E1.-Zero bearing flight path.
phase of flight. These transverse accelerations present a strong objection to the use of a zero-bearing approach against high-speed air targets.
Another objection to the zero-bearing approach system is that the missile speed must be considerably greater than the target speed. As shown in figure 9E1, the sharpest curvature occurs near the end of the flight. At this point, the missile is "coasting" because the booster and rocket motor thrusts last for only a short part of the flight.
More power is required to make sharp radius, high speed turns at a time when the missile is losing speed and has least turning capability. Often the amount of turn required is beyond the aerodynamic capability of the missile at that time, and the missile therefore cannot hit the target.
9E2. Lead angle or collision course
The second method of approach to the target is called LEAD ANGLE course. It is also known as a CONSTANT BEARING or COLLISION course. The trajectory of a ground-to-air missile using this method of approach is shown in figure 9E2.
Notice that the missile path from the launcher to the collision point is a straight line. The missile has been made to lead the target in the same manner as a hunter leads a bird in flight. In order to lead the target and obtain a hit, a computer must be used. The computer continually predicts the point of missile impact with the target. If the target takes no evasive action, the point of impact remains the same from launching time until the missile strikes. Should the target take evasive
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Figure 9E2.-Lead angle method of approach.
action, the computer automatically determines a new collision point. It then sends signals to the autopilot in the missile, to correct the course so that it bears on the new collision point.
As shown in figure 9E2, the collision point and the successive positions of missile and target form a series of similar triangles. If
the missile path is the longer leg of the triangle, as it is in the figure, the missile speed must be greater than the target speed-but not as great proportionally as with a zero-bearing approach.
The transverse acceleration required of a missile using the lead-angle approach is comparatively small.
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10A1. Introduction
In earlier chapters we described guidance systems in which the missile trajectory depends on information received from one or more control points, or from the target itself. But, under certain conditions, these systems are impractical. This is especially true for long-range missiles. In this chapter, we will discuss several guidance systems, in which the missile is independent of control points and target signals.
Perhaps the simplest of these is the PRESET GUIDANCE system. The name is completely descriptive. In this system, all the information needed to make the missile follow a desired course, and terminate its flight at a desired point, is set into the missile before it is launched. This information includes the desired heading, altitude, time or length of the flight, and programmed turns (if any).
Preset guidance may be used when the target is beyond the range of control points, or when it is necessary to avoid countermeasures that might be effective if the missile were guided by outside signals.
In setting up a flight plan for preset guidance, missile speed is used to determine the required time of flight. Assume, for example, that a missile is to be fired at a target 500 miles north of the launching site. The direction and distance of the target from the launch site have been accurately determined. Assume that the speed of the missile can be controlled, or at least can be predicted with enough accuracy to program the flight.
If we assume an average missile speed of 2000 miles per hour, the missile would require 15 minutes to travel from the launch site to the target. The built-in control system would take the missile to cruising altitude, keep it headed north for 15 minutes, and then move its flight surfaces to make it dive straight down on the target.
Preset guidance has several limitations. Such things as headwinds and crosswinds will obviously affect the speed and course of the missile. To compensate for the effects of wind, the missile would need some means for
measuring its ground speed, and for changing its air speed as required. But, when solid fuels are used, changing the air speed of the missile is difficult.
Crosswinds may exist at one altitude but not at another. Thus the altitude at which a missile operates may have a pronounced effect on its course. If the effect of wind on missile heading cannot be controlled by choice of altitude, then it must be controlled by programmed steering of the missile. One of the greatest limitations of a preset guidance system is that the flight program cannot be changed after the missile is launched. Therefore precise information on winds along the missile flight path will be needed for accurate programming.
10A2. Information set in the missile
The initial course or heading of the missile may be preset by training the launcher. This operation is similar to that of training a gun. However, once the missile is started on the correct heading, its own equipment takes over. References may be used to determine deviations from the preset course, and to keep the missile headed in the right direction. For example, the flight might be programmed to use the earth's magnetic field to keep the missile headed toward magnetic north, or in some other specified direction.
The missile altitude may be corrected by changing the pitch of the missile. A barometer - type sensing element is connected to a servo mechanism that operates the flight control surfaces. When the barometric pressure changes because of a change in altitude, the servo acts to bring the pressure back to the preset value by correcting the missile's altitude. Although this method of altitude control is not extremely accurate, the control pressure can be preset to fairly close tolerances before the missile is launched.
One of the most precise components of a preset guidance system is its timing section. Accurate timing elements are available to fit almost any requirement. The distance covered by a missile during its flight is determined by its ground speed and the length of time it is in
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the air. Therefore, if the speed of the missile is known, the controls may be preset to dive the missile at the end of a definite time interval after launching. The timing element can be anything from a simple watch movement to an electronic circuit controlled by a tuning fork or a crystal oscillator. The time interval may be set at any time before launching, but of course it cannot be changed during flight.
It is possible to program changes in course, and timing circuits may be used to set up the program. For example, the missile could follow a due north course for 15 minutes, then turn 30 degrees east, and follow the new course for 10 minutes before starting its terminal dive on the target. In another case, to provide deception, the missile might be programmed to fly due north for 10 minutes, then 30 degrees east for 5 minutes before turning 30 degrees west to get back on the original heading.
10A3. Heading reference
The missile control systems must have a reference from which to measure the up-down or right-left deviation of the missile. Since the desired heading is a compass direction, the sensing unit may be a form of compass.
In an earlier chapter we described the flux valve and its uses in control systems. If magnetic headings are to be followed, the flux valve may be used as the sensing element. By using a time reference in combination with a magnetic reference, the missile controls may be preset to follow a single heading for required time. Or changes in heading can be programmed to occur at preset times.
The electrically driven gyro is another type of heading control. The gyro's spin axis is tangent to the earth's surface. At the time of launching, with the gyro wheel spinning rapidly, the axis is pointed in the desired direction before the gyro is uncaged. During the missile flight the gyro axis continues to point in the original direction, and the missile can therefore use it as a steering reference.
10A4. Altimeters
In previous chapters we have shown that an altimeter can be used to control missile altitude within small limits. Altitude control is an important part of preset guidance, since it
is possible to get favorable wind direction or avoid unfavorable winds by choosing the proper altitude.
The reference for preset altitude control is normally a potentiometer in one arm of a bridge circuit. A potentiometer in an adjacent arm of the bridge is operated by a pressure-sensitive bellows system. The bridge can be preset for balance at the desired altitude. When the missile reaches the preset altitude, its flight control surfaces will bring it into level flight. Any subsequent change in pressure will unbalance the bridge, and the amount and direction of unbalance will determine the correction to be applied. This system will be described in more detail later in this chapter.
10A5. Length of flight
In low-speed missiles an AIR LOG, as well as a timing device can be used to measure the distance covered during missile flight. The air log operates on the principle of an air screw, or impeller, which makes a specific number of revolutions while moving through the air for a given distance at a given speed. The number of revolutions per unit of distance depends on both the pitch of the blades and the density of the air.
Generally, an air log is attached to the outer surface of the nose of the missile, and consists of a small four-bladed impeller mounted on a shaft that drives a reduction gear with a ratio of 30 to 1; that is, for every 30 revolutions of the air screw, the driven gear makes 1 revolution.
The driven gear is made of insulating material, and carries a pair of contacts mounted at diametrically opposite points. These contacts close a magnetic relay circuit twice in each revolution of the gear, or once for each 15 revolutions of the air screw.
The magnetic relay is connected to a device called a Veeder counter. The counter mechanism is similar to that of the total mileage indicator (odometer) of an automobile. The Veeder counter is shown in cross-section in figure 10A1.
To use the air log for length-of-flight regulation, the calibrated drums are turned to a setting that represents the desired distance of travel for the missile. Each time the contacts of the magnetic circuit close, they trip the counter mechanism, thus indicating that a
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Figure 10A1.-Veeder counter cross-section.
certain specific distance has been traveled. Each time the mechanism is tripped, it moves the drums back one digit from the preset figure. When the count reaches zero, the predetermined destination ha s been reached. This may be either the point where the warhead is to be detonated, or the point at which the missile is to start its terminal dive on the target.
In the preceding discussion, we have shown how a digital counter is used to measure flight distance. Now let us see how air speed may be measured and controlled.
Figure 10A2 is a diagram of an air speed reference and transducer unit. The resistors R1 and R2 are identical potentiometers. Together they form the four arms of a resistance bridge.
The moving arm of R1 is mechanically driven by a bellows, which is connected to a tube leading to the nose of the missile. As the missile moves through the air, ram air pressure is built up in the bellows. The amount of pressure is determined by the air speed.
In operation, R2 is preset to a value that represents the desired air speed. When the moving arm on R1 is in the same position as that of R2, the bridge is balanced and there is no output. Because the arm of R1 is connected to the bellows, the bridge will be balanced whenever the ram air pressure equals the preset value. For perfect operation, the movement of R1 must be proportional to the change in air speed. This is difficult to achieve in practice. But because the missile speed needs to be constant only within certain limits, the
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Figure 10A2.-Air speed transducer.
required accuracy can be obtained with presently available components.
When the bridge becomes unbalanced because of a change in ram air pressure, current will flow through the primary winding of the output transformer. The magnitude of the voltage induced in the transformer secondary is determined by the amount of bridge unbalance, which in turn is determined by the ram air pressure. The output voltage is used to operate the throttle controls. This system serves as both an air speed detector and a fixed reference; speeds either above or below the preset value will produce an output signal, and cause the throttle to correct the error.
10A6. Use in composite systems
A composite guidance system is made up of two or more individual guidance systems. These systems may work together during all phases of the missile's flight, or they may be programmed to operate successively. It is sometimes necessary to combine systems because of the wide differences in requirements that must be met to ensure that the missile reaches the target. Let us review these requirements, to see how preset guidance may be used in a composite system.
During the launching period, high acceleration puts a great strain on normal guidance components and prevents their use. The acceleration forces may close relays, precess gyros, and saturate accelerometers far beyond the sensitivity needed for normal guidance. For this reason, most midcourse guidance systems must be modified extensively to withstand the launch acceleration. The modification may involve the use of comparatively
insensitive components, or a temporary alteration of the regular components.
The precautions against high acceleration damage to components include careful balancing and positioning of elements that are not used during the launch cycle. In addition, movable parts of regular guidance systems are locked in position, or the circuits in which they operate are neutralized to withstand the launch acceleration.
Missiles are designed to have sufficient flight stability during the initial period of high acceleration, before the regular guidance system takes over. The regular guidance system may be unlocked by an internal timer, or it may be activated when the booster section, if any, drops off.
A preset guidance system might be used for the midcourse part of a flight. When used in a composite system, the preset system would turn the missile control over to a separate terminal guidance system when the missile approaches the target. In an application of this type, the preset guidance system might be set up to take over control again in the event the terminal guidance system did not operate. Then, when the missile reached the approximate location of its target, the preset guidance system would either detonate it or cause it to dive, depending on the setting.
10A7. Ballistic missiles
A ballistic missile is a guided missile which, during a major part of its flight, is neither guided nor propelled. During this part of the flight it follows a free ballistic trajectory, like a bullet or a thrown rock. A number of factors operate to determine the
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trajectory of a bullet, a rock, or a ballistic missile. These factors include the point of origin, the initial direction and velocity, air pressure, wind, and other factors mentioned in chapter 2 of this text. If all of these factors are accurately known, it is possible to calculate the point at which the ballistic object will strike the earth. And, if the desired point of impact is a target at a known location it is possible, for any given launching point, to calculate an initial course and velocity that will result in a hit.
A gun projectile is, of course, a ballistic object. The location of gun and target, and the initial velocity of the projectile, are known quantities. Factors such as wind and air pressure can be estimated. It is then possible to calculate the initial direction required for a hit, and, by pointing and training the gun, to fire the projectile in that direction.
The ballistic missile presents a more complex problem. Its range may be measured in thousands of miles, rather than thousands of yards, and its initial velocity is lower than that of a gun projectile. Thus the forces that would tend to influence its trajectory have a much longer time to act. But, at long ranges, ballistic missiles have several outstanding advantages. First, they leave the earth's atmosphere completely; a large part of their flight is in empty space, where they cannot be affected by wind or air pressure. Second, they dive on the target at a steep angle, at many times the speed of sound; this makes interception nearly impossible. Finally, a ballistic missile is invulnerable to electronic countermeasures during the major portion of its flight. Any guided missile is subject to jamming or deception by electronic countermeasures, although coded guidance systems may make this difficult to do. But a ballistic missile, because it is unguided during the terminal phase of its flight, is no more susceptible to electronic countermeasures than is a gun projectile or a rock.
The IRBM and ICBM are, as their names tell you, ballistic missiles. These include ATLAS, THOR, and POLARIS. Other missiles, such as SNARK, have comparable ranges, but are not ballistic missiles because they do not leave the atmosphere, and are propelled and guided throughout their flight.
The foregoing discussion of preset guidance applies principally to aerodynamic missiles,
in which the control surfaces are capable of correcting the trajectory throughout the flight. But preset guidance has features that make it useful in the initial control of ballistic missiles. One possible ballistic system combines features of both preset and command guidance. The problem has already been stated: from known factors, it is possible to calculate an initial velocity and direction that will produce a ballistic trajectory ending at the target. The target location is known; because of the great range, target location is determined from maps, rather than by observation. The location of the launching point is also known. (In the development of the Polaris missile system, a major part of the total effort was devoted to development of a Ship's Inertial Navigation System, by which the Polaris launching vessel can determine its own position with the required accuracy.)
But other factors, such as air pressure and wind at various altitudes, cannot be determined with comparable accuracy. And, because of the extreme range, a small error in the initial direction or velocity will result in a large error at the target. The ballistic missile system deals with this problem by controlling the missile's direction and velocity not at the instant of launching, but at a later time-after the missile has risen above most of the atmosphere, but while it is still within range of radio command.
Ballistic missiles will probably be launched vertically, and will climb straight up in order to get out of the atmosphere as quickly as possible. At a preset altitude, the guidance system will turn the missile onto the required heading, with the required angle of climb. The missile is tracked continuously from the launching point, so that its position will be known as long as it is within radar range. Its instantaneous velocity c an be determined either by establishing a range rate, or more accurately, by Doppler ranging. In the Doppler ranging system, a radio or radar signal is transmitted from the launching point. This signal is received and re-transmitted by the missile. By comparing the frequency of the original signal with that of the signal returned by the missile, it is possible to determine the missile speed with great accuracy.
There are a number of combinations of missile course, position, and speed that would result in a ballistic trajectory ending at the target.
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But because the missile is constantly changing position at high velocity, no human computation can keep up with the problem. The known factors (position of the target and launching site, and preset heading of the missile) and the measured factors (velocity of the missile, and its position relative to the launching site) are fed into an electronic computer, which produces a continuous solution for the instantaneous values of the problem. When the computer determines that the missile's course, position, and velocity will result in the proper ballistic trajectory, the missile propulsion
system is instantly and automatically shut down. The last stage of the missile then follows a ballistic trajectory, without further propulsion or guidance.
This system can be used effectively with missiles propelled by liquid fuel rockets, since the propulsion system can be shut down simply by stopping the fuel supply. If, like Polaris, the missile is propelled by a solid fuel rocket, the system cannot be used without modification. The Polaris guidance system will be described in a classified supplement to this volume.
10B1. Inertial guidance
Inertial guidance is so accurate that the submarine Nautilus on its first cruise under the polar ice cap, was able to use an inertial navigation system that was originally developed for use in long-range guided missiles.
With an inertial guidance system, a missile is able to navigate, from launching point to target, by means of a highly-refined form of dead reckoning. Dead reckoning is simply a process of estimating your position from information on: (a) previously known position; (b) course; (c) speed; and (d) time traveled. For example, assume that a ship's navigator determines his ship's position by astronomical observations with a sextant. The ship's position, and the time, are marked on the chart. Assume that the ship then travels for three hours on course 024, at a rate of 20 knots. From the known position on the chart, the navigator can draw a line 24° east of north, representing the ship's course. By measuring off on this line a distance representing 60 nautical miles (20 knots times 3 hours), the navigator can estimate the ship's new position by dead reckoning. If the ship changes course, the navigator will mark on the chart the point at which the change occurred, and draw a line from that point representing the new course.
A missile with inertial guidance navigates in a similar way, but with certain differences. It determines the distance it has traveled by multiplying speed by time. But it can not measure its speed directly if it is traveling at supersonic velocity outside the earth's atmosphere. However, it can use an accelerometer
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undergo a second integration to convert them into signals representing position. For a constant-dive-angle approach, the distance channel does not need position-error information. It therefore has only one integrator. The velocity signal is sent to the pitch servo system. If the velocity signal has the correct value, there will be no output from the computer to the pitch servo. If there is an error signal, it is fed to the pitch servo, which then corrects the dive angle.
VERTICAL-DIVE SYSTEM. The vertical-dive system is a variation of the constant-dive-angle system. The principle difference between the two is the location of the release point with respect to the target position. The constant-dive-angle system has the dive starting at a considerable lateral distance from the target. The system then sets up a constant-dive-angle which is maintained all the way to the target. The vertical-dive system release point is almost directly over the target, so that the missile can dive straight down.
The nose-over maneuver is accomplished by precessing the vertical gyro of the missile autopilot about its pitch axis. While there are a number of factors that determine the amount and rate of precession of the vertical gyro, the dive angle path to be followed is the primary factor in determining the number of degrees of vertical precession. The angle of incidence of the wings is another factor. This angle of incidence introduces a dive trajectory problem as shown in figure 10B9. Looking at the top drawing, we see that if the missile longitudinal axis were absolutely vertical, there would be some lift from the wings, which would pull the missile out of its vertical dive. In order to compensate for the lift of the wings, the controls are set for a slight over-control, so that the lift from the wings will keep the missile in a vertical dive.
When the pushover arc is completed, the missile is at the dive point. The autopilot is then cut off from the yaw and pitch servos, and has no further effect on the missile flight control surfaces.
ZERO-LIFT INERTIAL SYSTEM. The block diagram in figure 10B10 shows the zero-lift inertial system and the relation between it and the missile autopilot. This equipment has two functions. The first is to establish the flight path, which is programmed on tape. The programmed pulses drive a constant-speed
Figure 10B9.-Missile dive attitude.
motor, whose rotor drives the moving arm of a potentiometer. The second function is to keep the missile on the programmed path through the action of the accelerometer.
To accomplish the first function, the moving contact of the potentiometer must be moved from the ground end of the resistance
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Figure 10B10.-Zero-lift inertial system.
strip to the other end at a constant rate of speed. Then, if the voltage between the moving arm and ground is plotted against time on a graph, the result will be a straight line. When this straight-line voltage is fed into a motor, the resultant displacement of the motor's rotor is an integration of the input voltage. Because the integral of a constant-slope line is a parabolic curve, the missile path from the release point to the target will be as shown in figure 10B11.
With a parabolic path as a reference for the pitch axis, the missile will try to follow that path. However, because of the wing angle and the engine thrust, the missile will actually fly a different path unless some compensation for these factors is made.
Compensation is provided by an accelerometer that is mounted so as to be sensitive to
accelerations along the vertical axis of the missile. Therefore, if the wings exert a lifting force, the accelerometer senses the lift and originates a signal that corrects the vertical gyro precession. If the wings are exerting some lift due to a programmed signal, the signal from the accelerometer adds to the programmed signal in the mixer stage and causes the gyro to precess at a faster rate. If the missile noses over too far, there will be negative lift and the accelerometer sends a signal that subtracts from the programmed signal in the mixer, and slows up the precession rate of the gyro. Thus the missile flies the course shown in figure 10B11.
The actions just described provide the basis for the name of the system. The name zero-lift is used because the signal from
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Figure 10B11.-Flight path of zero-lift inertial system.
the accelerometer compensates for any lift in the vertical axis of the missile.
10B3. Celestial-inertial system
Celestial navigation has been used for many years. The navigator uses a sextant to measure the angular elevation of two or more known stars or planets. From these measurements, a ship's position can be plotted.
The celestial-inertial navigation system uses a simplified approach to the problem; it uses an inertial system that is supervised by a series of fixes. One of these systems is known as STELLAR SUPERVISED INERTIAL AUTONAVIGATOR (SSIA); another is called AUTOMATIC CELESTIAL NAVIGATION (ACN).
In the stellar supervised autonavigator, periodic sights are taken on known planets or stars to check on gyro drift. As explained in another chapter, random gyro drift varies in both direction and magnitude. Because the slow-loop correction cannot predict the random drift of a gyro, we have an error that tends to increase with time. A probable error
of one-half mile might be introduced during a flight of 45 minutes or so. Naturally, the error will increase with time.
One method that can be used to overcome random drift error involves the use of celestial sights. This is accomplished in much the same manner as a human navigator might check his position by sighting on the horizon and a known star. But the missile does not carry a human navigator; it must use a mechanical substitute. This device is an automatic sextant, so mounted that it can be moved in both elevation and azimuth. A combination mounting is shown in figure 10B12. The sextant is moved on two axes by motors. These motors are connected to the sextant-positioning system as shown in figure 10B13.
Operation of the system is programmed on a tape, which is pulled through a tape reader at a constant speed. The signal from the tape contains elevation and azimuth commands. These are fed to the proper control circuits. The tape is recorded before launching, and contains all the necessary position and rate data for the complete flight. To get accurate position checks, the sextant azimuth and
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Figure 10B12.-Automatic sextant.
elevation information must be read from the tape at the proper time. This is important because a star is at a particular angle with respect to a certain spot on earth only at a particular instant of time.
The sextant is aimed at a given star by information taken from the tape, and then follows the star from programmed information on the tape, The sextant position is varied by
servo motors operating from the tape information. The automatic sextant output is fed into an error-detecting system, which is shown in block form in figure 10B14.
A scanner is used to detect errors in centering the star in the field of the sextant. The scanning system includes a light chopper or interrupter, and a phototube. If the star is not centered, an error signal is generated. This signal is then processed to give an indication of the sextant error.
As shown in figure 10B14, the stellar error-detection circuit has several output voltages that are proportional to the missile error in pitch, roll, and yaw. The light from the star, after passing through the scanner, falls on the light-sensitive cathode of the photocell. The cell output voltage is proportional to the light intensity. The output is fed to a selective amplifier that separates the signal from the noise. The amplifier output is then fed through a detector section to a resolver, which breaks down the signal into azimuth and elevation error signals.
The direction resolver has two outputs. One goes directly to the yaw comparator; the other goes to a second resolver section. The
Figure 10B13.-Sextant-positioning system.
Figure 10B14.-Stellar error-detection circuit.
second resolver is controlled from the tape signals. The same signal that sets the sextant position sets the resolver for elevation error output. Unless the elevation signal is resolved in this manner, there is no way to determine the axis, pitch, or roll, in which the error exists.
If the sextant were raised and pointed directly forward along the missile heading, any elevation error signal from the sextant would be assumed to be an error about the pitch axis. If the sextant were pointed out the side, in a laterial direction, any elevation error would be a function of missile roll. Therefore a resolver is necessary to determine whether the error signal is caused by pitch, roll, or by a combination of the two.
An ideal way to use a star-sighting system is first to check a star whose line of position is parallel to the missile course, and to then check another whose line of position is at right angles to the missile course. The information from the first star would then be applied to the computer direction channel, and that from the second would go to the distance channel. These signals would then correct the gyros to a new position, and compensate for
any gyro drift that might have occurred. The gyro outputs are fed to the autonavigator, which corrects the course. The pitch and yaw errors are corrected in the same manner.
10B4. Automatic celestial navigation
The most difficult problem to overcome in the system just described is gyro bearing friction. The problem may be solved by using a continuously supervised system. The automatic celestial navigation (ACN) system is continuously referenced by stellar fixes. This does not mean that there is no longer a necessity for inertial supervision; the inertial principle is still used by the autopilot between guidance commands.
The platform equipment for ACN requires one or more automatic sextants in addition to those already mentioned. Two sextants operate simultaneously to obtain a series of fixes, rather than a line of position. With fixes on two stars at the same time, there is less chance of error. It is possible that a standby sextant might be added to the equipment, so that it can zero in on the next star in the
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navigation sequence without interfering with the fixes that are being made.
One disadvantage of the multiple sextant system is the need for a window big enough to view a large area of the celestial sphere. Such a window would need optical characteristics that would add greatly to its cost. In addition, the larger window area is more subject to damage by natural forces at high speeds.
LIGHT DISPERSION BY SHOCK WAVES. As light passes through any light-conductive material, a certain amount of refraction or bending, takes place. The higher the density of the material, the greater is the degree of bending. Rays of light are refracted when they pass obliquely through the shock waves that are generated by any missile traveling (in air) at or above the speed of sound. This effect may be severe enough to limit the use of celestial navigation to missiles operating at less than sonic speeds, or those operating out of the atmosphere. Figure 10B15 shows the effect of shock waves on optical systems.
NOISE FILTERS. In a practical application, noise exists in the output of the velocity-measuring component. The noise is in the form of short bursts, or peaks, of energy. It may be effectively removed by choosing component values to give the proper time constant (delay) in the circuit. But a filter of this type is not suitable for use in removing noise of a continuous nature. If some steady error, due to noise, is present in the signal that indicates
velocity, the entire computer output will be in error. The elimination of errors caused by noise requires a circuit that will block noise error signals but pass other signals. A circuit with the desired characteristics is a high-pass filter that uniformly passes a-c of the higher frequencies, but blocks any signal of a lower frequency.
High-pass filters using inductive and capacitive components are easy to construct; but precision components are necessary to get sharp frequency characteristics, and this fact increases the cost considerably. To avoid costly components, a d-c amplifier with integrator feedback is used as a high-pass filter.
The integrator section is designed to respond slowly to an input signal. It may take as long as 10 minutes for the integrator signal to build up enough to cancel a steady amplifier input signal. Therefore, all voltages that vary at a faster rate will go through the circuit before the feedback becomes effective.
10B5. Terrestrial reference navigation
The search for accurate, foolproof missile guidance systems has turned up many possibilities. Some of those that seem the most fantastic are based on sound reasoning. The examples that follow fall into this category.
Several picture and mapmatching guidance systems have been suggested and tried. The purpose of an electronic unit of this type is to
Figure 10B15.-Effect of high speeds on optical systems.
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compare a photo or map carried in the missile with an image of the terrain the missile is flying over at that time.
The basic idea can be shown by using the common photograph as an example. If a photographic negative is placed over a positive (print) from that negative, the entire area will be black. If the positive were in the form of a transparency, the entire area would be opaque and no light would get through. If either the negative or the positive is moved slightly with respect to the other, light would show through where the two prints were out of register (not matched). If one transparency, say the negative, were in the form of a strip that was pulled through a frame or window by a servo motor, it would be possible to devise a control system that would automatically match the images. However, instead of a transparency for the positive image, the projected image of the terrain from a lens or radarscope would be used.
Daylight systems are ruled out because they would be seriously affected by clouds, fog, and smoke. The use of photographs of the actual course or target area would not be suitable for the reasons outlined above, and because such a system would be susceptible to countermeasures. On the other hand, a radar map-matching system has greater effective range, and is not limited by conditions of visibility.
RADAR MAPMATCHING. Figure 10B16 shows a block diagram of a guidance system that uses radar mapmatching. The sections of the diagram in which we are most interested are those labeled radar, PPI, lens, scanning motor, map, holder, and phototube.
In operation, the comparison is made by projecting the radar image from the PPI tube, through a negative radar map transparency of the same region, onto a photomultiplier tube. When the image from the PPI tube exactly coincides with the map image, minimum light gets through to the photomultiplier tube. The lens through which the PPI image passes is rotated in much the same manner as a radar antenna is scanned. The mirror rotation causes the PPI image to be moved in a small circular pattern over the film. When the output of the photomultiplier tube amplifier is properly commutated by the commutator section, left-right and fore-aft information is obtained.
The pulses from the commutator are applied to d-c discriminators and integrators. Then, as shown in figure 10B16, the information is fed to two loops, lateral and longitudinal. The left-right information is fed to a servo amplifier which drives the film carriage laterally to keep the images matched. The position of the carriage is picked off as an error signal voltage for the missile control system. As the missile turns on its yaw axis, to correct the heading, the film carriage is moved and the error cancels out.
Fore-aft information is fed to the longitudinal servo loop that pulls the film through the holder at the correct speed to maintain a match between the film image and the PPI tube image. This means that the film speed must be proportional to the groundspeed of the missile. It is possible to key the film to indicate the location of a change of course or to start the terminal dive action.
Errors can result from a difference in altitude between reconnaissance (radar mapping) and tracking (actual missile flight) runs because of slant range distortion and altitude-return delay.
It is necessary to have angular matching to within one degree before accurate left-right and fore-aft information can be obtained. Angular matching can be obtained by means of a magnetic auxiliary such as a compass. Matching is maintained by the azimuth loop of the system.
Two types of film holders can be used. The frame type is the larger, and more complicated mechanically. It switches separate frames into the scanning area and is easier to lock on with the system. However, a better method seems to be the one shown in figure 10B17, in which the film is scanned through a mask with a semicircular opening.
If the film strip used in this system is pulled through the viewer at a speed corresponding to the missile ground speed, its length will be about 1/20 of that required for a frame-type map.
The reference maps may be obtained by actual radar mapmaking flights over the terrain that is to be traversed by the missile. These flights may be made at high altitudes in almost any kind of weather. Another method involves the use of synthetic maps.
The synthetic maps are prepared by using maps of the area, aerial photos, and other
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Figure 10B17.-Film holder operation for a strip map.
information. A relief map is built up from this information and then photographed. Maps prepared in this manner are only slightly inferior to actual maps.
Radar mapmatching is limited by the capacity of the film magazine, and it cannot be used over water, or over land that lacks distinguishing features. The system is also subject to electronic countermeasures, but it has some immunity because of the highly directive antenna system.
Therefore, this system is best suited for use as a part of a composite system that uses non-radiating midcourse guidance. The map-matching system would be used for a minimum time prior to the arrival of the missile at the target. This method affords the greatest element of surprise, and represents the best method of evading countermeasures.
MAGNETIC REFERENCES. The use of the earth's magnetic field as a reference for missile guidance systems has been discussed in another chapter. The sensor units used in this system are refinements of the simple magnetic compass, and are called the flux gate compass and the gyrosyn compass.
Studies made during the International Geophysical Year, and the information obtained by submarine cruising under the ice at the North Pole, have given new insight into the nature of
the earth's magnetic field. These studies will continue. And, as more information is gained, magnetic reference systems will become more practicable.
The present accuracy of magnetic systems is within about 7 miles, but is limited to the course line only. This means that a missile using this system would need to be launched near, or flown to, the vicinity of a line of magnetic intensity that crossed the target area. Magnetic storms would prevent the use of the system until the earth's magnetic field returned to normal.
Keep in mind that, as more knowledge is obtained about the behavior of the magnetic field, it may become possible to predict magnetic conditions in much the same manner as weather is predicted today. There is, according to present knowledge, one major difference in the two types of predictions. Weather predictions may prove inaccurate for a given area because of purely local conditions. On the other hand, the earth's entire magnetic field is disturbed under magnetic storm conditions, and there are no strictly local effects. Should extremely accurate magnetic conditions forecasts become feasible, it is possible that the disturbed conditions might be used to advantage in missile guidance.
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GUIDED MISSILE SHIPS AND SYSTEMS
A. Introduction
11A1. General
This chapter will describe the current guided missile ships and systems of the Navy. For reasons of national security, the material that can be published about the operational and technical characteristics of missiles, missile systems, and missile ships is necessarily limited. However, this chapter will orient the student to the missions, functions, and general nature of the Navy's missile program. The confidential supplement to this volume will describe in more detail those characteristics of missile ships and systems which have been omitted here because of security.
11A2. Mission of missile ships
Before proceeding with the missions of missile ships, it is necessary that the reader be familiar with certain definitions.
The MISSION of a ship is a BROAD STATEMENT of its designed purpose in the Navy. In a more restricted sense, the term MISSION can be applied to the component parts of a ship. Thus the term is also used in reference to missile systems.
Tasks of the mission specifically define what the ship is expected to do at a given time. There are two broad categories into
which missions are sometimes divided-STRATEGIC and TACTICAL. These words are linked to STRATEGY and TACTICS. A full discussion of the meaning and significance of these terms could extend the length of this chapter. However, quick insight can be grasped by remembering that tactics is the art of battle, and that strategy is the art of war. Therefore, a tactical mission is one that has a direct influence on the course of battle in progress. A strategic mission' is far-reaching-it is one that has no direct or immediate influence. The job of providing close fire support to permit the advance of friendly troops would be tactical in nature. The destruction of ball bearing factories deep in enemy country, thereby affecting the enemy's war-making potential, would be strategic.
To explain further, tactical targets, as opposed to strategic ones, are fleeting in nature; they can be successfully attacked only by weapons that can reach them in minimum time and with a high degree of accuracy. One should not consider, however, that these definitions are hard-set. For example, consider the destruction of an enemy airfield. In one phase of a battle this may only have strategic significance. But the destruction of the same airfield in support of a landing operation would have tactical significance.
B. Types of Missile Ships
11B1. General
Because of the rapid changes brought about by many recent scientific breakthroughs, the design of missile ships or missile systems is not yet firm. Prototypes tend to become
obsolescent before they can be put to use. But there are certain patterns that can be considered fundamental. At the time of writing this text, most missile ships are conversions from older ships. Conversion rather than construction is an economical approach
1 STRATEGIC MISSION: a mission directed against one or more of a selected series of enemy targets with the purpose of progressive destruction and disintegration of the enemy's war-making capability and his will to make war. Targets include key manufacturing systems, sources of raw material, critical material, stockpiles, power systems, transportation systems, communication facilities, and other such target systems. As opposed to tactical operations, strategic operations are designed to have a long-range, rather than immediate, effect on the enemy and his military forces. (Dictionary of U. S. Military Terms for Joint Usage.--OpNavInst 3020.1B)
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to a guided missile Navy. In many ways it is a necessary approach, since as yet missiles cannot perform all the tasks that might be expected of them. There are still some jobs that a gun can do better than a missile. In addition to the conversions there are, in building and planning, ships designed from the keel up as missile ships.
11B2. Guided missile cruisers
In general, the mission of missile cruisers is to provide medium- or long-range AA defense, to bombard enemy shore installations, and to conduct combat operations against enemy surface craft.
Some of the tasks assigned to missile cruisers are: to provide effective AA defense of task forces, by means of missiles, at ranges greater than those obtainable with conventional guns; to provide close-in defense against enemy air attacks with AA guns; to provide defense against enemy surface attack; to control aircraft; and to bombard. Those cruisers equipped with assault missiles, such as Regulus, would be assigned additional tasks for the launching and control of these surface-to-surface missiles.
It is interesting to note that in addition to the above tasks, cruisers are being designed to include an ASW capability. This will enable them to provide defense against enemy subsurface attack, and thus permit a field of action much greater than that of older cruisers. Figure 11B1 indicates a possible task force formation of the future. Note that the cruisers have no need for direct ASW support, and that the force is spread out over many miles of ocean.
There are several classes of guided missile cruisers. First, there are the CAG (Terrier) conversions. Figure 11B2 is a picture of the USS Canberra (CAG-2). This class of ships is the result of conversion of World War II heavy cruisers. From outward appearances, the conversion consists of removing the after 8"/55 triple turret with all its accompanying equipment, and substituting two twin Terrier launchers and two Terrier guidance systems. However, the details of the conversion are more comprehensive than they might first appear. The reader will realize this upon completion of section "C" of this chapter, which describes the extent of the CAG (Terrier) weapons system.
Figure 11B1.-A possible disposition of a missile-equipped carrier task force.
Figure 11B3 shows a second class of missile cruisers-the CLG (Terrier) class. These ships are conversions of World War II light cruisers. The armament of the CLG (Terrier) consists of the following:
1-twin Terrier launcher
Figure 11B2.-USS Canberra (CAG-2).
Figure 11B3.-The CLG (Terrier).
assault missile. Tactically, the assault missile's main target would be enemy land-based facilities; but the missile can also be directed against enemy surface craft. Figure 11B4 shows the USS Helena (CA-75) making preparations to fire a Regulus missile from her fantail launching position.
To complete the picture, there is the guided missile cruiser which has been designed from the keel up as a "double-ended" guided missile ship. Figure 11B5 is an artist's interpretation of the USS Long Beach (CGN-9), which will be armed with both long- and medium-range SAM' s and the latest ASW armament (ASROC).
11B3. DD-type missile ships
Present planning provides for two families of destroyer types having a missile capability. The first of these is the guided missile destroyer (DDG). The DDG is similar to the conventional destroyer in displacement and other general characteristics. The second DD family is the guided missile frigate (DLG). The DLG is the big sister of the DDG, with longer endurance and better sea-keeping abilities.
The mission of the DDG is to screen task forces and convoys against enemy air, surface, and submarine threats. Figure 11B6 is
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Figure 11B4.-Regulus I in readiness on USS Helena (CA-75).
Figure 11B5.-USS Long Beach (CGN-9).
a picture of the USS Gyatt missile conversion, a prototype for the DDG classes to follow.
The primary mission of the DLG is to screen fast task forces. Figure 11B7 is an artist's interpretation of the DLG-16 class, an advanced design of an all-missile DD type. Some of the principal data about the DLG-16 class is as follows:
Missile battery:
Figure 11B6.-USS Gyatt (DDG-712).
Figure 11B7.-The DLG-16 class.
11B5. Other missile ships The Navy intends eventually to replace most of its conventional gunnery systems with missile systems. Time and money appear to be
the only quantities limiting the speed of this development. In the future, aircraft carriers, amphibious craft, and service craft will take their place in the missile Navy.
C. Surface Ship Missile Systems (CAG-Terrier)
11C1. General
This section will outline the fundamentals of a surface-to-air missile system as it might be found on a surface ship. Specifically, this section will take up the Terrier SAM system as found on the CAG's USS Boston and USS Canberra. The missile systems on these ships may be considered typical of a surface ship SAM system.
11C2. Organization of missile ships
The organization of missile ships is comparable to that of other ships with similar missions. Most of the equipment and personnel associated with the missiles are under the cognizance of the gunnery officer.
Figure 11C1 is the Gunnery Department organizational chart for the USS Boston (CAG- 1).
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Figure 11C1.-Organization chart, Gunnery Department, USS Boston (CAG-1).
Men of the Guided Missileman rating are in the 7th and 8th divisions. These men are responsible for the operation and maintenance of the missile itself. Weapons control equipment of the missile system is under the cognizance of the fire control officer.
The missile system also gets an assist from Operations Department personnel, as Radar-men perform certain plotting and liaison functions in the weapons control system.
11C3.(CAG Terrier SAM) missile system
For the purpose of this text, we can consider the Terrier missile system of the guided missile cruisers Boston and Canberra as consisting of four major subsystems. These are:
the missile,
Figure 11C4.-Weapons control system (CAG-Terrier).
11C4. The AA problem
Figure 11C4 is a simplified block diagram that will help the reader to understand the functioning of the CAG (Terrier) weapons system as it concerns the AA problem.
DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. A target is detected by the ship's air search radar, by an AEW system, or perhaps by another ship acting as a picket (item 1, fig. 11C4). This target information is presented to CIC and the weapons control station in a conventional manner. The target is interrogated, plotted, and assigned a designation if not found to be a friendly aircraft.
TRACKING, EVALUATION, AND DIRECTOR ASSIGNMENT. This is the phase of the AA problem in which the sophistication of the CAG (Terrier) weapons control system becomes apparent. In addition to the conventional search and fire control radar normally found on Navy ships, the CAG has a designation radar installed as part of the weapons control system. The designation radar is a hemispherical
scan radar, and it provides a continuous 360° HORIZON TO A GIVEN ELEVATION radar scan. Thus, the designation radar will supply range, bearing, and elevation of all targets within its range (item 2, fig. 11C4). All targets within the scope of the hemispherical scan radar are made available as inputs to the automatic tracking (TWS: track-while-scan system) feature of the weapons control system. Automatic tracking is necessary because of the requirement for speed, and because the number of targets may exceed the number of directors available, or the capability of human tracking. The CAG (Terrier) weapons control system is able to retain all target information in a ready-to-use form, for transmission to directors as rapidly as they are able to take successive targets.
Too, because of the limited time available, provision is made within the weapons control system for as much automatic evaluation (as opposed to human operation) and director assigning features as is possible. Thus an
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aircraft attacking so as to be the most serious threat will automatically be given priority in director assignment.
WEAPONS CONTROL SYSTEM PHASES. Within the weapons control system are three successive phases of actions and equipments, as follows:
PHASE I-This is a combined phase I for gun and missile use, whereby targets are selected by the phase I equipment operators for automatic tracking. These phase I operators, aided by what is presented on their radar scopes and by the information received from CIC, then institute the automatic features of the TWS system. To summarize, phase I equipment provides for display, detection, initial selection, and tracking of targets (item 3, fig. 11C4).
PHASE 11-This and succeeding phases will be discussed only insofar as they concern the missile problem. Parallel capabilities for target acquisition are provided for the gunnery problem (item 5, fig. 11C4). Phase II equipment for missilery provides for evaluation and assignment to a particular missile director, or for rejection as a missile target (item 4, fig. 11C4). If the target is rejected for missilery at this point (or at any other time), designation to a gunnery director must be considered. (The phase II equipment for gunnery will function automatically to assign to a gun director for acquisition any target that meets the priority requirements.) Duplication of effort is prevented by the fact that targets are normally engaged with missiles long before their priority dictates serious consideration by the gunnery assignment equipment.
To sum up what is done in phase II of the missile problem, the phase II equipment operators select and assign priorities to missile targets; they then assign the targets, in order of "threat", to the missile directors for acquisition.
PHASE III-The function of the phase III equipment is to receive and display all the comprehensive information necessary to select launchers and successfully fire the appropriate missiles against the selected targets (item 6, fig. 11C4). Information such as unclear areas, launcher availability, maximum and minimum missile capabilities, present and advance target
position, etc. are available to the phase III equipment operators.
FIRE CONTROL. A director, having acquired the target designated by the weapons direction equipment, will, together with its computer, complete a solution. The solution is in the form of missile launcher orders and missile guidance orders (item 7, fig. 11C4).
The AA problem is completed when the target is destroyed, or when a director is released because of change in target priorities.
11C5. Missile logistics
Missile logistics is the problem of keeping the operating forces supplied with a stockpile of missiles and spare parts. Initially, missile components are shipped in sections from the manufacturers to storage depots located throughout the continental United States and at its advanced bases. Each of the sections that make up the missile is packaged in a reusable metal container. The containers are sealed, and contain desicant in order to provide an environment least likely to cause unreliability in the component. When necessary to supply the operating forces with a missile, it is the depot's responsibility to test, assemble, and transfer a complete missile in the form required by the recipient, A missile, being extremely complex and of large unit size and value, requires more care in transport and handling than a conventional round of ammunition does. For this reason, all handling equipment and shipping containers are designed to realize maximum missile reliability.
Once aboard the CAG, the missiles are again fully tested to ensure reliability. Missiles must either pass the rigid tests or be repaired. When any missile component fails in test, it is replaced with a spare and the rejected part is shipped back to a depot for complete overhaul. The CAG is equipped to make minor repairs and component substitutions, but not to make extensive overhauls. All the steps in missile manufacture, storage, handling, and testing are for maximum missile reliability.
Missile ships are equipped to receive replacement missiles both while in port and while under way. Transfer at sea is usually conducted by use of the burtoning method.2
2The burtoning method of transfer is one of the types of rig used to transfer material between ships while under way at sea. Burtoning requires each ship to maintain tension (with a winch) on the load being transferred between them.
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11D1. General
The Regulus missile can be considered a typical vehicle when speaking of submarine missile systems. Regulus, as you will recall, is a surface-to-surface tactical missile capable of carrying a high-yield war head. Polaris is another member of the Navy's submarine-launched surface-to-surface missile family. Though Polaris is a ballistic missile, certain functions of the Polaris missile system are similar to those of Regulus systems.
11D2. SSG (Regulus) missile system
The SSG (Regulus) missile system is somewhat less complex than the Terrier system described in section 11C. There are four major subsystems that must be considered to make up the guided missile submarine SSM system. These are: the missile; missile guidance equipment; the submarine; and missile stowage and launching systems.
Figure 11D1 is an inboard profile view of one of the latest SSG's, the nuclear-propelled SSGN-594 class.
The Regulus missile is a turbojet-powered pilotless aircraft. Guidance for this type of missile can be provided by any of several means, such as radio command, radar control, inertial guidance, and programmed flight, or by a combination of these methods. The type of guidance used depends on such things as desired accuracy, cost, simplicity, reliability,
and probable countermeasures. Guidance selection, although it has a direct bearing on the design and operation of the missile system, is beyond the scope of this chapter. This chapter will deal primarily with the fundamentals of the submarine missile system that are common to all guidance techniques.
The third subsystem, the submarine itself, provides a launching platform, basic services, fuel, and other logistic support functions. Also included on the submarine are a navigational system, and missile fire control equipment.
The launching of missiles towards targets miles away can be compared to a very long range gunfire problem. The submarine will usually have no direct observation of the target, or of a known geographical reference. But the position of the guiding craft must be fixed with extreme accuracy. Location, heading, ground speed, and other reference data, all have an effect on the CEP3 of the missile.
The SINS system (ships inertial navigation system) is presently the most sophisticated of the navigational systems now installed on missile submarines. The heart of SINS is an inertial guidance package based on the principles of inertial guidance explained in preceding chapters. Included within SINS are numerous gyros and accelerometers whose function it is to generate the submarine's position and speed, and to establish true north and a vertical reference. SINS, then, acts like a dead reckoning computer/analyzer whose
Figure 11D1.-SSGN-594 class.
3CEP--an abbreviation for "circular probable error" or "circular error in probability." This terminology denotes the accuracy of a weapon. Though having a deeper mathematical significance, it is defined as a circle within which a single weapon has a 50% chance of landing, or expressed differently, one CEP is a radius of a circular area within which 50% of all weapons used will hit.
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function it is to provide continuous and extremely accurate navigational and reference data. It also has the ability to weigh, analyze, and make corrections to its dead reckoning solution based on optical and electronic navigational inputs.
In addition to the navigational system, a fire control system is included on the submarine. The function of the fire control system is to transfer reference information to the missile, and to control and monitor the missile during preflight checks.
The last subsystem to be considered is for MISSILE STOWAGE AND LAUNCHING. Regulus missiles are stowed in watertight hangars
such as the one shown in figure 11D2. Pictured is the USS Tunney (SSG-282), one of the first U. S. Navy submarines altered for a missile capability.
Referring back to figure 11D1, you can see that in the most modern missile submarines, the missile hangars are faired into the submarine's structure. Thus the submarine is more streamlined, to permit higher submerged speeds.
When launching a Regulus missile, the procedure is for the submarine to surface, ram the missile to its launching position, make the final preparations for flight (final preflight checks and wing unfold), and fire. Once
Figure 11D2.-Missile stowage on USS Tunney (SSG-282).
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the missile is airborne, the submarine may again submerge and conduct any necessary guidance functions while submerged. Well-trained SSG crews can limit the time on the surface to minutes.
11D3. The surface-to-surface problem
TARGET CONSIDERATIONS. Because of the high unit value of submarine-launched SSM missiles, certain factors must be considered, such as the importance of the target to the enemy, and target nature, vulnerability, size, and location. With strategic targets, these factors are evaluated well in advance of the mission. Tactical targets require faster military decisions. Both planning estimates, however, are usually accomplished on a much higher planning level than the launching ship.
FLIGHT PLANNING. In addition to the target considerations, additional planning must be given to the flight plan of the missile. Regulus missiles, because they are turbojet-powered, fly most efficiently at high altitudes.
Thus, whereas the missile would be most likely to remain undetected at very low altitudes, the range to the target may prohibit such employment. Intelligence and the immediate tactical situation also play an important part in missile planning.
ASSISTED GUIDANCE. This system permits the submarine to launch its missile at a relatively long distance from the target. One or more additional submarines, provided with the necessary guidance equipment, are deployed closer to the target or near known landmarks. Thus a second submarine may furnish accurate guidance during the final phase of the missile's flight, while remaining submerged and thus less likely to be detected. Figure 11D3 depicts a hypothetical case in which an electronically guided surface-to-surface missile is launched by a submarine at a location remote from the target; terminal guidance is provided by two other submarines, one controlling in azimuth and the other in range for maximum accuracy.
Figure 11D3.-SSM flight.
E. Aircraft Missile Systems
11E1. General
There are two broad classifications of aircraft missile systems: air-to-air and air-to-ground. The Sidewinder and Sparrow families are examples of AAM systems. Bullpup and Corvus are Navy ASM systems. Figures 11E1, 11E2, and 11E3 are pictures of the Sparrow, Sidewinder, and Bullpup missiles on appropriately configured aircraft.
This section will take up the Sparrow family as a typical aircraft missile system. The student will recall that there are three major missiles in the Sparrow family. Sparrow II will not become operational in the U. S. Navy. Sparrow III, while in many respects greatly different from Sparrow I, has the same general characteristics such as length, weight, and configuration.
11E2. The aircraft (Sparrow) missile system
There are four major subsystems that can be considered to make up the Sparrow missile system: These are:
| i don't know |
In Europe, which colour denotes the easiest ski slope for skiers? | Ski slope colour codes
Written by snowman
What do the slope colors and symbols mean? This can be confusing for beginners, or even for experienced skiers who are heading to a different ski region. Europe is much different from the US in these codes. Let’s start with the US markings:
North American slope markings
Green (circle): Beginner slope. This is for people who have never skied before, or are just starting out. Probably not exciting for intermediate or expert skiers, because these may not even be steep enough to make many turns.
Blue (square): Intermediate slope. More varied terrain, and a bit steeper. Could also be good for experts who want to do some nice, carving turns without picking up tons of speed.
Black (diamond): Expert slope. This could be a mogul run, or a steep piste. It’s recommended that beginners avoid these entirely, and intermediates only try them once their skills are improving and their confidence is rising.
Double black diamond: Experts only. If you have any fear at all on a standard Black Diamond, stay away from the double blacks. They may be very steep, have huge moguls, or have a narrow couloir (a steep and narrow corridor where you have to go straight down, and turning might crash you into rocks or trees).
Orange (rectangle): Terrain park. May also have a trail rating showing how difficult it is. Only go in here if you want to do some jumps and tricks. Probably not for beginners ;-).
European slope markings
Green: Learner slope, hardly any grade at all, may be very wide. Not used in all countries.
Blue: Beginner slope. This is usually equivalent to the US “Green Circle” so don’t be confused at an Austrian resort with no “green” slopes. Here, blue is beginner!
Red: Intermediate slope. Yep, there’s an extra color in Europe, and red slopes are open for intermediate skiers and boarders to improve their skills.
Black: Expert slope. These may range from a normal expert slope like in North America to a super-tough one. But in most places (like the ultra-steep Harikiri at Mayrhofen), there will be an extra sign explaining if the slope is exceptionally hard.
Orange: This means extremely difficult, and may be found only in certain countries like Austria and Switzerland.
Yellow: Generally a “skiroute,” which may be an uncontrolled or ungroomed off-piste area. Often these trails are marked but wind a long way down the mountain with flat spots which may be a pain for snowboarders. May be marked with orange squares in Austria.
| Green |
What was the first name of Irish author Bram Stoker? | Ski slopes: Classification
Ski slopes
(0) marks: 0
Ski slopes have a step gradation. Each track is classified depending on the complexity. Each difficulty level of the ski slope is marked by corresponding color. Most modern ski resorts use four color track classification system: green, blue, red and black.
Ski tracks are also divided on the quality of services. The first category includes serviced tracks, which are regularly compacted and leveled with special equipment. In the West such slopes are called groomed. The second category is patrolled tracks. These are tracks, which are regularly patrolled by security teams of the resort.
As for the track levels, here are presented general characteristics of each color:
Green slopes
It is the easiest difficulty track level, which is suitable for beginners and children. Most ski resorts in France , Poland and Spain build green slopes in the immediate vicinity of the residential area of the village. Often getting to such tracks does not require using the lift. Green tracks are the most sloping of all four levels. The angle of inclination for such routes generally does not exceed 25%.
Blue tracks
These tracks were prepared for those, who are already familiar with skiing, but not well enough to try the downhill. Blue tracks are the most popular in the world. They account for over half of all equipped ski slopes in the world. At most world resorts blue tracks are serviced by snow rackers. The maximum angle is the same as on the green slopes - 25%.
Red tracks
Red routes are designed for advanced skiers. Red tracks are popular among experienced skiers. These tracks differ from blue by steep hills, difficult tracks and long distances. The maximum angle of the red tracks is 40%, which in some cases does not allow using snow rackers. Almost on all red tracks work patrols.
Black tracks
Black tracks is the elite of alpine skiing. They are the most difficult tracks, which do not have a clear gradation. The black level of tracks means not only complexity. Some resorts mark with black color tracks with increased avalanche risks.
Orange and yellow trails
This is an additional classification for high complexity slopes, which are often off-piste. Yellow and orange tracks can be found at some ski resorts in Austria , Switzerland (Zermatt, Verbier), and Sweden.
It should be noted that the above mentioned parameters are only for recommendation. There is no common track classification system.
From one country to another the level of track complexity may vary depending on the reputation of the region. So, at the popular among professionals French ski resort of Val d'Isere blue track level will be similar to the red level in the Austrian Ellmau, which slopes are known as one of the best for beginners in Europe.
In addition, a number of countries use additional slope markers. Skiing in the U.S. and Canada: in these countries there is a separate category of double-black slopes, which are characterized as super-extreme. Moreover, at the ski resorts of New Zealand there are triple-black tracks, which local skiers call "suicide". Triple-black tracks can also be found at ski resorts in Norway and Sweden.
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Templeton Peck is a character in which US television series? | Templeton Peck - 必应
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Templeton Peck
Lieutenant Templeton Arthur Peck, played by Dirk Benedict, is a fictional character and one of the four protagonists of the 1980s action-adventure television series The A-Team A recognized war hero, he is often referred to as (The) Faceman (or simply Face). Although creators Stephen J. Cannell and Frank Lupo had Benedict in mind for the role, studio executives initially insisted that the role be handled differently; Tim Dunigan played the role in the pilot episode, but after it was completed, he was thought by the same executives to look too young t ... (展开) to be a believable Vietnam veteran, and he was, at 6'5" (198 cm) much taller than the rest of the cast, particularly the show's 5'10" (178 cm) muscleman Mr. T. He was replaced by Benedict for the rest of the show's run. Bradley Cooper portrayed the character in the 2010 film, while Benedict appeared in a post-credits cameo.
Lieutenant Templeton Arthur Peck, played by Dirk Benedict, is a fictional character and one of the four protagonists of the 1980s action-adventure television series ...
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templeton_Peck
Templeton Peck (also known as Faceman, or simply Face or Peck) was a member of the A- Team, a U.S. Army Special Detachment unit in the Vietnam War.
a-team.wikia.com/wiki/Templeton_"Faceman"_…
TEMPLETON PEK recently toured with The Offspring & Bad Religion on a sold out Punk Rock Summer Nationals Tour 2016. "....an album with melodies that have hit ...
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| The A-Team |
Who plays Winston Wolf in the Direct Line Insurance television advertisements? | Templeton 'Faceman' Peck (Character)
Templeton 'Faceman' Peck (Character)
from "The A-Team" (1983)
The content of this page was created by users. It has not been screened or verified by IMDb staff.
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Overview
Templeton "Faceman" Peck, 1st Lieutenant, Special Forces... See more »
Alternate Names:
Face / Lt. Templeton 'Faceman' Peck
Filmography
Drug Dealer Wilson Corless : He's gotta get us to that plane.
Mack Dalton : He'll get us to that plane, won't he, doctor?
Templeton "Faceman" Peck : I'm his doctor, I don't control his mind.
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Which British politician was dubbed ‘Big Beast’ by the press, and was also known for his fondness for Hush Puppies’? | Macclesfield Pub Quiz League: 8th December The Questions
Macclesfield Pub Quiz League
Set by the Harrington Academicals
vetted by the Dolphin
Art and Entertainment – All Creatures Great and Small
Dumb Britain
History – A Hard Act To Follow
Sport
Vetted by: The Dolphin
Arts and Entertainment – All Creatures Great and Small
All of the answers contain the name of an animal – we just need to know that animal.
1
What is the alternative title of Wimoweh, a hit for the Karl Denver Trio in 1961 and Tight Fit in 1982. The song has been recorded (too) many times before and since
The Lion sleeps tonight
2
This piece of music by Ralph Vaughn Williams was inspired by a poem by George Meredith
The Lark Ascending
This Janáček opera, based on a folk tale, was first performed in 1924
Cunning little vixen
This rather nasty Ian Banks novel was his first to be published, in 1984
The Wasp factory
An appalling song by Tom Jones, taken from the 1965 film of the same name
What’s new pussycat
This 1969 Hollywood film about dance marathons starred Jane Fonda
They shoot horses, don’t they
This Henry Williamson novel was made into a film in 1979
Tarka the Otter
8
This Mark Haddon novel was adapted for stage and is currently playing at the National Theatre
The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
This Puccini opera was set in Japan
Madame Butterfly
This scatological track by the Macc Lads referred to a journey up the A537
No sheep ‘til Buxton
Dumb Britain
These questions have all been answered in UK quiz shows, and reported in Private Eye. Give either the correct answer to the question or the actual answer given by the contestant, shown in brackets.
1
At the battle of Trafalgar, what was Nelson‘s flagship?
Victory
Which company, founded in 1841 operated the first ever package tours?
Thomas Cook
What is the only Commonwealth country whose official language is Portuguese?
Mozambique
What was the reigning royal house at the start of the 20th century?
Saxe Coburg Gotha
Artist Ben Nicholson married which sculptress in 1938?
Barbara Hepworth
6
What was the surname of the French revolutionary with Christian names Jean Paul who was assassinated in his bath?
Marat
Who composed Aida and La Traviata?
Verdi
Which ballroom dance represents the letter F in the Nato phonetic alphabet?
Foxtrot
What is the name of the herb that means wise or clever?
Sage
S2
Which American folk hero rode from Boston to Lexington in April 1775 to warn of British troop movements?
Paul Revere
Soda, lime and which other ingredient make glass?
Silica (accept sand)
Common, water and pygmy are which kinds of British mammal?
Shrew
3
Which subatomic particle has a name first used by James Joyce in the novel Finnegans Wake?
Quark
4
The existence of which particle, also known as the God Particle, was recently confirmed in a Large Hadron Collider experiment?
Higgs boson
For which kind of activity is a bathyscaphe used?
Underwater exploration
In cell biology, for what does the R in RNA stand?
Ribo( nucleic Acid)
7
What is the molecule, used in AirWick as a deodorant, that is at the heart of
plant photosynthesis?
What is the branch of mathematics that deals with angles and lengths of a triangle?
Trigonometry
How many walking legs has a lobster?
10
What is the tallest grass?
Bamboo
History : A Hard Act To Follow.
Who directly preceded the following in office?
Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, 1812
(Name required, not just “The 1st Earl” !)
Spencer Percival
1
Sam Burgess has recently returned to Rugby League with which club?(subject to resolving a salary cap issue)
South Sydney Rabbitohs
2
Four British boxers held versions of the World Heavyweight Title in the 90’s. Lennox Lewis and Frank Bruno were two, name either of the others.
Herbie Hide and Henry Akinwande
3
In which sport has Brit Jonathan Marray been a champion?
Tennis. He won the Wimbledon Men’s Doubles in 2012 together with the Dane Frederik Nielsen
4
13 years after originally closing due to financial problems, which Manchester sports team have recently been resurrected?
Manchester Storm (Ice hockey)
5
Two members of the England test squad have fathers who also played test cricket for England. Stuart Broad is one, who is the other?
Jonny Bairstow
In a sporting context how is August 4th 2012 usually referred to?
Super Saturday (Olympic gold medals for Jessica Ennis, Greg Rutherford and Mo Farah)
7
Who are the only team to have won the Premier league not currently playing in the top flight?
Blackburn Rovers
8
Who is the current day sportsman who has represented his country at both rugby codes, as well has holding the country’s heavyweight boxing title?
Sonny Bill Willams (New Zealand)
S1
Who was the Canadian snooker star of the 1980’s noted for his copious drinking even during his matches?
Bill Werbeniuk
S2
Seven teams have been ever present in the Premier league. Liverpool, Everton, Manchester United, Arsenal Tottenham and Chelsea are six of these teams. Who are the seventh?
Aston Villa
There are 8 states whose names begin with M. Which state has the abbreviation MO?
Missouri
There are 8 states whose names begin with N. Which state has the abbreviation NE?
Nebraska
This state beginning with W , has Charleston as its capital.
West Virginia. NB this is a different Charleston to South Carolina - state capital Columbia
This state beginning with M has Helena as its capital.
Montana
Which state has the nickname " The Empire State"?
New York
Which state has the nickname " The Bluegrass State"?
Kentucky
The flag of which state features a union Jack in its top corner?
Hawaii
In which state beginning with N is Macclesfield USA?
North Carolina
What is the largest state by area?
Alaska
Which state has the smallest population?
Wyoming
1
Which town on the Thames is the home of two restaurants, each holding three Michelin stars in the 2015 guide
Bray – Fat Duck and Waterside. The Fat Duck isn't in 2016 because the restaurant closed for refurbishment
2
Which town in Cumbria is the home of Simon Rogan’s 2 Michelin starred restaurant, l’enclume, and is also famous for a very sweet desert
Cartmel
Bual, Sercial and Mamlsey are types of what wine
Madeira
In a Greek restaurant, what are Dolmades
Stuffed vine leaves – as they are outside Greek restaurants
What is the main flavouring ingredient in an omelette Arnold Bennet
Smoked Haddock
Which brewery sells Windgather, Silk of Amnesia and the seasonal brew “Looks Like Rain Dear”
Storm
Which TV chef has been criticised recently for doing Avocado on toast in the programme
Nigella Lawson – on Simply Nigella
8
Which TV chef’s Manchester restaurant appeared in the top 100 restaurants in the UK in Hardens guide this month, despite being installed in a casino to draw in punters
James Martin
(the £25 pre theatre menu is remarkable value)
Which Cheshire brewery shares a name with a parliamentary constituency and a stately home
Tatton
What is the characteristic flavouring in the Greek chicken soup, Avgolemono
Lemon
Famous New Zealanders
In the aftermath of the All-Blacks becoming World Rugby champions, we ask “are there any famous Kiwis apart from Dan Carter and Richie McCaw?”
Here are ten. Can you name them?
1
Born 1937. A racing driver and racing car manufacturer, whose company also became a supercar builder
Bruce McClaren
Born 1964. An opera singer of Maori descent
Kiri Te Kanawa
Born 1961. Director of the Hobbit films
Peter Jackson
Born 1871 Described as “the Father of Nuclear Physics”.
Ernest Rutherford
Born in 1987 Operatic and crossover singer. Starred at Gawsworth Hall on several occasions
Hayley Westenra
Born 1919. Beekeeper and mountaineer. Peaked in 1953
Sir Edmund Hillary
Born 1964 Movie actor. Starred in Gladiator
Russell Crowe
Born 1975 All Black Superstar. Destroyed England single handedly in 1995. Sadly died in November
Jonah Lomu
S1
Born 1892 Chief Air Marshall. Responsible for the defence of London during the Battle of Britain.
Sir Keith Park
Born 1951. Cricketing all-rounder.. Best fast bowler of his day.
Sir Richard Hadlee
S3
who has served as caddy for several top professional golfers, most recently with Adam Scott. He is best known for having served as Tiger Woods' caddy from 1999 to 2011.
Steve Williams
Set by The Cock Inn
Vetted by The Dolphin
1. After Wayne Rooney and Bobby Charlton, who has scored the most goals for England?
GARY LINEKER
2. Which cricketer has the highest Test Match batting average for England?
HERBERT SUTCLIFFE
3. Who was the last UK Prime minister not a member of either the Labour or Conservative Party?
LLOYD-GEORGE
4. Who was Foreign Secretary at the outbreak of World War 2?
LORD HALIFAX
5. “My salad days, when I was green in judgment” is a quotation from which play by Shakespeare?
ANTHONY AND CLEOPATRA
6. “I have drunken deep of joy, and I will taste no other wine tonight” is a quote
by which poet.
PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY
7. Frank Mitchell, known as “The Mad Axeman” escaped from which prison in 1966, helped by the Krays
DARTMOOR
8. The Isle of Wight has two prisons; Parkhurst is one, what is the other?
ALBANY
9. Which is the smallest National Park in Britian?
NORFOLK BROADS
10. Who rode the winner of the Melbourne Cup?
MICHELLE PAYNE 9.
11. Which England Cricketer, awarded the MBE in 2006 was dropped from the test squad for the upcoming tour of South Africa?
IAN BELL
12. Which is the largest National Park in Britain?
THE CAIRNGORMS
13. By what name is Graham William Walker better known?
GRAHAM NORTON
14. Who co-hosts Pointless with Alexander Armstrong?
RICHARD OSMAN
15. Won won a record 92.72% of his Wimbledon matches between 1973 and 1981?
BJORN BORG
16. Mace comes from a tree in the genus Myristica? What other spice comes from the tree
NUTMEG
17. Where is Grantley Adams airport?
BARBADOS
18. How many terminals are there at Heathrow airport?
FIVE
19. Who was born Erik Weisz in 1874
HARRY HOUDINI
20. Who played Obi-Wan Kenobi in Star Wars Episode I The Phantom Menace?
EWAN McGREGOR
21 Which Carry On film has the word “again” in the title?
CARRY ON AGAIN DOCTOR
22. Who was Edward’s VI’s mother?
JANE SEYMOUR
23. Who was Queen Victoria’s father?
PRINCE EDWARD – DUKE OF KENT AND STRATHHEARN
24. How many US Presidents have died in office?
EIGHT
25. Which US President had the shortest term in office?
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON (31 DAYS)
26. Lake Windermere is an example of which glacial feature?
RIBBON LAKE
27. What is a “Barkhan”?
SAND DUNE
28. Plains, Grevys and Mountain are species of which animal?
ZEBRA
29. Who is most widely credited with inventing the barometer?
EVENGELISTA TORRICELLI
30. What is the state capital of Rhode Island?
PROVIDENCE
31. What do all British soldiers call their Bergens
THEIR RUCKSACKS
32. Actor Nicholas Cage is a nephew of which film director?
FRANCIS FORD COPPOLA
33. Who was shot, along with his wife Elena, by a military firing squad on 25th
December 1989 for the genocide and sabotage of the Rumanian people?
NICOLAE CEAUSECU
34. In the computing term TCP, what does the “T” stand for?
TRANSMISSION
35. Vera, Chuck and Dave were made famous by which Beatle song?
WHEN I’M SIXTY-FOUR
36. Which sport is associated with the Fleetwood Mac song “The Chain”?
FORMULA I MOTOR RACING
37. How many players are there in a Lacrosse team?
TEN
38. Which song features on the B side of the Beatles “Love Me Do”?
P.S. I LOVE YOU
38. For what was “Torch” the codename in World War II?
THE ALLIED INVASION OF NORTH AFRICA
39. Who is the Secretary of State for Defence?
MICHAEL FALLON
40. Which firm ran the Redcar Steel Plant which closed in October 2015?
SSI
41. Roger Daltrey is the lead singer in which group?
THE WHO
42. Who wrote the children’s book “Heidi”?
JOHANNA SPYRI
43. The dunnock is another name for which common bird?
HEDGE SPARROW
44. The Sejm is the parliament of which country?
POLAND
45. Which medal is the animal equivalent of the Victoria Cross?
THE DICKIN MEDAL
46. Which English city is known as the “Faithful City?”
WORCESTER
47. How many points is the letter Z worth in the Polish edition of Scrabble?
ONE
48. Which British politician was dubbed “A Big Beast” by the press and was also known for his fondness for Hush Puppies?
KENNETH CLARKE
49. Which Roman god was the father of Romulus and Remus?
MARS
50. What is a Newtonian a type of?
TELESCOPE
51. In mediaeval times what was an Arbalest?
CROSSBOW (DO NOT ACCEPT BOW AND ARROW)
52. To which colour is the human eye most sensitive?
GREEN
53. What is the star sign of people born on April 10th?
ARIES
54. Which British car was launched by British Leyland in October 1980?
AUSTIN (MINI) METRO
55. What is the state capital of Florida?
TALLAHASEE
56. Berengaria was the wife of which English king
RICHARD I
57. In which building did King Edward II die?
BERKELEY CASTLE
58. Which English cathedral is known as “The Ship of the Fens?”
ELY
59. Who was the Greek goddess of the rainbow?
IRIS
60. Which four letter word is the ninth letter of the Green alphabet?
IOTA
61. What type of fruit is a bergamot?
ORANGE
62. How many feet are there in a British mile?
5,280
63. Which World War II pilot flew again after losing his legs?
DOUGLAS BADER
64. Which country was the first to introduce an old age pension scheme?
GERMANY
65. Two postage stamps first went on sale in 1840. One was the Penny Black, what was the other?
THE TWOPENNY BLUE
66. Who succeeded Moses as the leader of the Israelites?
JOSHUA
68. According to Sir Francis Bacon, what is the daughter of time?
TRUTH
69. During which decade was the guillotine last used?
1970’s
70. What is the county town of Fife
CUPAR
71. What type of bridge is the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco?
SUSPENSION
72. What was the first name of the Duke of Wellington, known as “The Iron Duke?
ARTHUR
73. Tobermory is the largest settlement on which Scottish island?
MULL
74. Which soviet spy was in change of MI6’s anti-soviet section after
The Second World War?
75. What is the name of Pip’s beloved in Great Expectations?
ESTELLA
76. Which ocean is the smallest?
ARCTIC
77. The word “animal” comes from a Latin term meaning what?
SOUL
78. What role did Will Somer play in the court of Henry VIII?
JESTER
79. Which record producer is often credited as being the “fifth” Beatle?
GEORGE MARTIN
80. The epiglottis is in which part of the body?
THE THROAT
81. What is The Wheatstone Bridge used to measure?
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
82. What did Samuel Pepys bury in his garden to safe it from the Great Fire of London.
PARMESAN CHEESE (ACCEPT CHEESE)
83. Stingray Harbour was the original name given by Captain Cook in
1770 to where?
84. Which 13th century explorer wrote a book of his travels called Il Milione?
MARCO POLO
85. What is the name of the hairs which line the respiratory tract?
CILIA
86. Where can you view Botticelli’s painting The Birth of Venus?
THE UFFIZI GALLERY IN FLORENCE
87. The quokka is a species of which animal?
KANGAROO (accept macropod from smart alecs)
88. The drink bourbon is named after a county in which US State?
KENTUCKY
89. Who was the President of France between 1981 and 1995?
FRANCOIS MITTERAND
90. St. Petersburg is a city in which US state?
FLORIDA
91. In which Premier League Football Ground is the Holte End?
VILLA PARK
92. Blakeney Point is in which English county?
NORFOLK
93. The song Brightly Dawns Our Wedding Day is from which Gilbert and Sullivan operetta?
THE MIKADO
94. When a Merry Maiden Marries is a song from which Gilbert and
Sullivan operetta?
95. In the Bible which book follows Acts?
ROMANS
96. How many psalms are there in the Bible?
150
SUPPLEMENTARIES
1. What does the S stand for in the name of US President Harry S. Truman?
NOTHING – IT IS JUST AN INITIAL
2, The wine marsala comes from which region of Italy?
SICILY
3. In a play by Shakespeare who was the King of Tyre?
PERICLES
4. In what type of building did the Saint Valentine’s Day Massacre take place?
A GARAGE
| Kenneth Clarke |
What is the name of the paranoid android in the novel ‘The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy’ by Douglas Adams? | Macclesfield Pub Quiz League: 8th December The Questions
Macclesfield Pub Quiz League
Set by the Harrington Academicals
vetted by the Dolphin
Art and Entertainment – All Creatures Great and Small
Dumb Britain
History – A Hard Act To Follow
Sport
Vetted by: The Dolphin
Arts and Entertainment – All Creatures Great and Small
All of the answers contain the name of an animal – we just need to know that animal.
1
What is the alternative title of Wimoweh, a hit for the Karl Denver Trio in 1961 and Tight Fit in 1982. The song has been recorded (too) many times before and since
The Lion sleeps tonight
2
This piece of music by Ralph Vaughn Williams was inspired by a poem by George Meredith
The Lark Ascending
This Janáček opera, based on a folk tale, was first performed in 1924
Cunning little vixen
This rather nasty Ian Banks novel was his first to be published, in 1984
The Wasp factory
An appalling song by Tom Jones, taken from the 1965 film of the same name
What’s new pussycat
This 1969 Hollywood film about dance marathons starred Jane Fonda
They shoot horses, don’t they
This Henry Williamson novel was made into a film in 1979
Tarka the Otter
8
This Mark Haddon novel was adapted for stage and is currently playing at the National Theatre
The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time
This Puccini opera was set in Japan
Madame Butterfly
This scatological track by the Macc Lads referred to a journey up the A537
No sheep ‘til Buxton
Dumb Britain
These questions have all been answered in UK quiz shows, and reported in Private Eye. Give either the correct answer to the question or the actual answer given by the contestant, shown in brackets.
1
At the battle of Trafalgar, what was Nelson‘s flagship?
Victory
Which company, founded in 1841 operated the first ever package tours?
Thomas Cook
What is the only Commonwealth country whose official language is Portuguese?
Mozambique
What was the reigning royal house at the start of the 20th century?
Saxe Coburg Gotha
Artist Ben Nicholson married which sculptress in 1938?
Barbara Hepworth
6
What was the surname of the French revolutionary with Christian names Jean Paul who was assassinated in his bath?
Marat
Who composed Aida and La Traviata?
Verdi
Which ballroom dance represents the letter F in the Nato phonetic alphabet?
Foxtrot
What is the name of the herb that means wise or clever?
Sage
S2
Which American folk hero rode from Boston to Lexington in April 1775 to warn of British troop movements?
Paul Revere
Soda, lime and which other ingredient make glass?
Silica (accept sand)
Common, water and pygmy are which kinds of British mammal?
Shrew
3
Which subatomic particle has a name first used by James Joyce in the novel Finnegans Wake?
Quark
4
The existence of which particle, also known as the God Particle, was recently confirmed in a Large Hadron Collider experiment?
Higgs boson
For which kind of activity is a bathyscaphe used?
Underwater exploration
In cell biology, for what does the R in RNA stand?
Ribo( nucleic Acid)
7
What is the molecule, used in AirWick as a deodorant, that is at the heart of
plant photosynthesis?
What is the branch of mathematics that deals with angles and lengths of a triangle?
Trigonometry
How many walking legs has a lobster?
10
What is the tallest grass?
Bamboo
History : A Hard Act To Follow.
Who directly preceded the following in office?
Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, 1812
(Name required, not just “The 1st Earl” !)
Spencer Percival
1
Sam Burgess has recently returned to Rugby League with which club?(subject to resolving a salary cap issue)
South Sydney Rabbitohs
2
Four British boxers held versions of the World Heavyweight Title in the 90’s. Lennox Lewis and Frank Bruno were two, name either of the others.
Herbie Hide and Henry Akinwande
3
In which sport has Brit Jonathan Marray been a champion?
Tennis. He won the Wimbledon Men’s Doubles in 2012 together with the Dane Frederik Nielsen
4
13 years after originally closing due to financial problems, which Manchester sports team have recently been resurrected?
Manchester Storm (Ice hockey)
5
Two members of the England test squad have fathers who also played test cricket for England. Stuart Broad is one, who is the other?
Jonny Bairstow
In a sporting context how is August 4th 2012 usually referred to?
Super Saturday (Olympic gold medals for Jessica Ennis, Greg Rutherford and Mo Farah)
7
Who are the only team to have won the Premier league not currently playing in the top flight?
Blackburn Rovers
8
Who is the current day sportsman who has represented his country at both rugby codes, as well has holding the country’s heavyweight boxing title?
Sonny Bill Willams (New Zealand)
S1
Who was the Canadian snooker star of the 1980’s noted for his copious drinking even during his matches?
Bill Werbeniuk
S2
Seven teams have been ever present in the Premier league. Liverpool, Everton, Manchester United, Arsenal Tottenham and Chelsea are six of these teams. Who are the seventh?
Aston Villa
There are 8 states whose names begin with M. Which state has the abbreviation MO?
Missouri
There are 8 states whose names begin with N. Which state has the abbreviation NE?
Nebraska
This state beginning with W , has Charleston as its capital.
West Virginia. NB this is a different Charleston to South Carolina - state capital Columbia
This state beginning with M has Helena as its capital.
Montana
Which state has the nickname " The Empire State"?
New York
Which state has the nickname " The Bluegrass State"?
Kentucky
The flag of which state features a union Jack in its top corner?
Hawaii
In which state beginning with N is Macclesfield USA?
North Carolina
What is the largest state by area?
Alaska
Which state has the smallest population?
Wyoming
1
Which town on the Thames is the home of two restaurants, each holding three Michelin stars in the 2015 guide
Bray – Fat Duck and Waterside. The Fat Duck isn't in 2016 because the restaurant closed for refurbishment
2
Which town in Cumbria is the home of Simon Rogan’s 2 Michelin starred restaurant, l’enclume, and is also famous for a very sweet desert
Cartmel
Bual, Sercial and Mamlsey are types of what wine
Madeira
In a Greek restaurant, what are Dolmades
Stuffed vine leaves – as they are outside Greek restaurants
What is the main flavouring ingredient in an omelette Arnold Bennet
Smoked Haddock
Which brewery sells Windgather, Silk of Amnesia and the seasonal brew “Looks Like Rain Dear”
Storm
Which TV chef has been criticised recently for doing Avocado on toast in the programme
Nigella Lawson – on Simply Nigella
8
Which TV chef’s Manchester restaurant appeared in the top 100 restaurants in the UK in Hardens guide this month, despite being installed in a casino to draw in punters
James Martin
(the £25 pre theatre menu is remarkable value)
Which Cheshire brewery shares a name with a parliamentary constituency and a stately home
Tatton
What is the characteristic flavouring in the Greek chicken soup, Avgolemono
Lemon
Famous New Zealanders
In the aftermath of the All-Blacks becoming World Rugby champions, we ask “are there any famous Kiwis apart from Dan Carter and Richie McCaw?”
Here are ten. Can you name them?
1
Born 1937. A racing driver and racing car manufacturer, whose company also became a supercar builder
Bruce McClaren
Born 1964. An opera singer of Maori descent
Kiri Te Kanawa
Born 1961. Director of the Hobbit films
Peter Jackson
Born 1871 Described as “the Father of Nuclear Physics”.
Ernest Rutherford
Born in 1987 Operatic and crossover singer. Starred at Gawsworth Hall on several occasions
Hayley Westenra
Born 1919. Beekeeper and mountaineer. Peaked in 1953
Sir Edmund Hillary
Born 1964 Movie actor. Starred in Gladiator
Russell Crowe
Born 1975 All Black Superstar. Destroyed England single handedly in 1995. Sadly died in November
Jonah Lomu
S1
Born 1892 Chief Air Marshall. Responsible for the defence of London during the Battle of Britain.
Sir Keith Park
Born 1951. Cricketing all-rounder.. Best fast bowler of his day.
Sir Richard Hadlee
S3
who has served as caddy for several top professional golfers, most recently with Adam Scott. He is best known for having served as Tiger Woods' caddy from 1999 to 2011.
Steve Williams
Set by The Cock Inn
Vetted by The Dolphin
1. After Wayne Rooney and Bobby Charlton, who has scored the most goals for England?
GARY LINEKER
2. Which cricketer has the highest Test Match batting average for England?
HERBERT SUTCLIFFE
3. Who was the last UK Prime minister not a member of either the Labour or Conservative Party?
LLOYD-GEORGE
4. Who was Foreign Secretary at the outbreak of World War 2?
LORD HALIFAX
5. “My salad days, when I was green in judgment” is a quotation from which play by Shakespeare?
ANTHONY AND CLEOPATRA
6. “I have drunken deep of joy, and I will taste no other wine tonight” is a quote
by which poet.
PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY
7. Frank Mitchell, known as “The Mad Axeman” escaped from which prison in 1966, helped by the Krays
DARTMOOR
8. The Isle of Wight has two prisons; Parkhurst is one, what is the other?
ALBANY
9. Which is the smallest National Park in Britian?
NORFOLK BROADS
10. Who rode the winner of the Melbourne Cup?
MICHELLE PAYNE 9.
11. Which England Cricketer, awarded the MBE in 2006 was dropped from the test squad for the upcoming tour of South Africa?
IAN BELL
12. Which is the largest National Park in Britain?
THE CAIRNGORMS
13. By what name is Graham William Walker better known?
GRAHAM NORTON
14. Who co-hosts Pointless with Alexander Armstrong?
RICHARD OSMAN
15. Won won a record 92.72% of his Wimbledon matches between 1973 and 1981?
BJORN BORG
16. Mace comes from a tree in the genus Myristica? What other spice comes from the tree
NUTMEG
17. Where is Grantley Adams airport?
BARBADOS
18. How many terminals are there at Heathrow airport?
FIVE
19. Who was born Erik Weisz in 1874
HARRY HOUDINI
20. Who played Obi-Wan Kenobi in Star Wars Episode I The Phantom Menace?
EWAN McGREGOR
21 Which Carry On film has the word “again” in the title?
CARRY ON AGAIN DOCTOR
22. Who was Edward’s VI’s mother?
JANE SEYMOUR
23. Who was Queen Victoria’s father?
PRINCE EDWARD – DUKE OF KENT AND STRATHHEARN
24. How many US Presidents have died in office?
EIGHT
25. Which US President had the shortest term in office?
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON (31 DAYS)
26. Lake Windermere is an example of which glacial feature?
RIBBON LAKE
27. What is a “Barkhan”?
SAND DUNE
28. Plains, Grevys and Mountain are species of which animal?
ZEBRA
29. Who is most widely credited with inventing the barometer?
EVENGELISTA TORRICELLI
30. What is the state capital of Rhode Island?
PROVIDENCE
31. What do all British soldiers call their Bergens
THEIR RUCKSACKS
32. Actor Nicholas Cage is a nephew of which film director?
FRANCIS FORD COPPOLA
33. Who was shot, along with his wife Elena, by a military firing squad on 25th
December 1989 for the genocide and sabotage of the Rumanian people?
NICOLAE CEAUSECU
34. In the computing term TCP, what does the “T” stand for?
TRANSMISSION
35. Vera, Chuck and Dave were made famous by which Beatle song?
WHEN I’M SIXTY-FOUR
36. Which sport is associated with the Fleetwood Mac song “The Chain”?
FORMULA I MOTOR RACING
37. How many players are there in a Lacrosse team?
TEN
38. Which song features on the B side of the Beatles “Love Me Do”?
P.S. I LOVE YOU
38. For what was “Torch” the codename in World War II?
THE ALLIED INVASION OF NORTH AFRICA
39. Who is the Secretary of State for Defence?
MICHAEL FALLON
40. Which firm ran the Redcar Steel Plant which closed in October 2015?
SSI
41. Roger Daltrey is the lead singer in which group?
THE WHO
42. Who wrote the children’s book “Heidi”?
JOHANNA SPYRI
43. The dunnock is another name for which common bird?
HEDGE SPARROW
44. The Sejm is the parliament of which country?
POLAND
45. Which medal is the animal equivalent of the Victoria Cross?
THE DICKIN MEDAL
46. Which English city is known as the “Faithful City?”
WORCESTER
47. How many points is the letter Z worth in the Polish edition of Scrabble?
ONE
48. Which British politician was dubbed “A Big Beast” by the press and was also known for his fondness for Hush Puppies?
KENNETH CLARKE
49. Which Roman god was the father of Romulus and Remus?
MARS
50. What is a Newtonian a type of?
TELESCOPE
51. In mediaeval times what was an Arbalest?
CROSSBOW (DO NOT ACCEPT BOW AND ARROW)
52. To which colour is the human eye most sensitive?
GREEN
53. What is the star sign of people born on April 10th?
ARIES
54. Which British car was launched by British Leyland in October 1980?
AUSTIN (MINI) METRO
55. What is the state capital of Florida?
TALLAHASEE
56. Berengaria was the wife of which English king
RICHARD I
57. In which building did King Edward II die?
BERKELEY CASTLE
58. Which English cathedral is known as “The Ship of the Fens?”
ELY
59. Who was the Greek goddess of the rainbow?
IRIS
60. Which four letter word is the ninth letter of the Green alphabet?
IOTA
61. What type of fruit is a bergamot?
ORANGE
62. How many feet are there in a British mile?
5,280
63. Which World War II pilot flew again after losing his legs?
DOUGLAS BADER
64. Which country was the first to introduce an old age pension scheme?
GERMANY
65. Two postage stamps first went on sale in 1840. One was the Penny Black, what was the other?
THE TWOPENNY BLUE
66. Who succeeded Moses as the leader of the Israelites?
JOSHUA
68. According to Sir Francis Bacon, what is the daughter of time?
TRUTH
69. During which decade was the guillotine last used?
1970’s
70. What is the county town of Fife
CUPAR
71. What type of bridge is the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco?
SUSPENSION
72. What was the first name of the Duke of Wellington, known as “The Iron Duke?
ARTHUR
73. Tobermory is the largest settlement on which Scottish island?
MULL
74. Which soviet spy was in change of MI6’s anti-soviet section after
The Second World War?
75. What is the name of Pip’s beloved in Great Expectations?
ESTELLA
76. Which ocean is the smallest?
ARCTIC
77. The word “animal” comes from a Latin term meaning what?
SOUL
78. What role did Will Somer play in the court of Henry VIII?
JESTER
79. Which record producer is often credited as being the “fifth” Beatle?
GEORGE MARTIN
80. The epiglottis is in which part of the body?
THE THROAT
81. What is The Wheatstone Bridge used to measure?
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
82. What did Samuel Pepys bury in his garden to safe it from the Great Fire of London.
PARMESAN CHEESE (ACCEPT CHEESE)
83. Stingray Harbour was the original name given by Captain Cook in
1770 to where?
84. Which 13th century explorer wrote a book of his travels called Il Milione?
MARCO POLO
85. What is the name of the hairs which line the respiratory tract?
CILIA
86. Where can you view Botticelli’s painting The Birth of Venus?
THE UFFIZI GALLERY IN FLORENCE
87. The quokka is a species of which animal?
KANGAROO (accept macropod from smart alecs)
88. The drink bourbon is named after a county in which US State?
KENTUCKY
89. Who was the President of France between 1981 and 1995?
FRANCOIS MITTERAND
90. St. Petersburg is a city in which US state?
FLORIDA
91. In which Premier League Football Ground is the Holte End?
VILLA PARK
92. Blakeney Point is in which English county?
NORFOLK
93. The song Brightly Dawns Our Wedding Day is from which Gilbert and Sullivan operetta?
THE MIKADO
94. When a Merry Maiden Marries is a song from which Gilbert and
Sullivan operetta?
95. In the Bible which book follows Acts?
ROMANS
96. How many psalms are there in the Bible?
150
SUPPLEMENTARIES
1. What does the S stand for in the name of US President Harry S. Truman?
NOTHING – IT IS JUST AN INITIAL
2, The wine marsala comes from which region of Italy?
SICILY
3. In a play by Shakespeare who was the King of Tyre?
PERICLES
4. In what type of building did the Saint Valentine’s Day Massacre take place?
A GARAGE
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Who designed the wedding dress worn by Kate Middleton, the Duchess of Cambridge? | Modern Royal Wedding Dresses: Kate Middleton, Princess Madeleine Among Our Favourites (PHOTOS)
Modern Royal Wedding Dresses: Kate Middleton, Princess Madeleine Among Our Favourites (PHOTOS)
The Huffington Post Canada
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Princess Madeleine of Sweden's extravagant Valentino Haut Couture wedding gown has sparked royal wedding dress fever, the likes which haven't been seen since the Duchess of Cambridge married Prince William in an elegant Alexander McQueen gown in 2011 .
Madeleine, who married banker Christopher O'Neill over the weekend, wore a wedding gown which featured a full skirt with a four-metre long train worthy of a European queen, a six-metre long veil embroidered with Chantilly lace flowers and a tiara which was adorned with orange blossoms.
Of course, the 30-year-old blond's wedding dress reminds us of another royal's wedding duds: Kate Middleton's McQueen gown.
Story continues below slideshow:
Designed by Sarah Burton for Alexander McQueen, Kate's wedding dress was kept hush-hush right until the morning of her nupitals. The gown featured an ivory silk tulle veil, a boned bodice, padded hips and a nine-foot long pleated skirt made of hand-cut English lace and French Chantilly lace.
Madeleine's wedding gown featured a full skirt with a four-metre long train, a six-metre long veil embroidered with Chantilly lace flowers and a tiara which was adorned with orange blossoms.
On her wedding to Daniel Westling on June 19, 2010, Victoria wore a cream duchess silk satin dress by Swedish designer Par Engsheden. Featuring a rounded, almost off the shoulder collar, cap sleeves and a full skirt, the dress was a perfect combination of modesty and elegance.
At her 2002 wedding to Ari Behn, Princess Martha wore a fun off-white gown that featured a high collar, pointy shoulders and an overcoat.
The then-princess wore an extravagant lace gown which featured a high collar, a flared skirt and a 16 foot train at her 2002 wedding to Dutch Crown Prince Willem-Alexander.
At her 2011 wedding to Prince Albert, the former competitive swimmer wore a slim-cut Armani gown that had 40,000 Swarovski crystals, 20,000 mother of pearl teardrops and 30,000 gold stones. The dress, composed of 50 meters of off white silk duchess and 80 meters of silk organza took 2,500 hours to make.
The princess wore a draped skirt which gave the illusion that she was walking on a cloud on her wedding day to Norwegian Crown Prince Haakon in 2001.
Camilla wore a knee-length white frock during the civil service but opted to wear a gold and blue coat over a blue chiffon dress at her and Prince Charles' blessing service in 2005. We can't take our eyes off her feathered hat!
The princess wore a traditional white gown, which was made from heirloom Bruges lace from the Dutch royal family, at her wedding to Albert Brenninkmeijer in 2012.
The Canadian married Peter Phillips, son of Princess Anne, in 2008 wearing a strapless gown with a lace bodice and a delicate shoulder cover.
The granddaughter of Queen Elizabeth II married rugby player Mike Tindall in 2011 wearing a shiny white gown with a flared skirt and tulle shoulder straps.
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| Sarah Burton |
‘A ‘what’ in the Sun’ is a 1959 play by Lorraine Hansbury? | Royal Wedding: Kate Middleton's wedding dress tribute to Grace Kelly | Daily Mail Online
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The now Duchess of Cambridge's wedding gown has been hailed a perfect tribute to Alexander McQueen. But the design, by the late designer's protegee and successor Sarah Burton, also pays homage to another princess bride.
The intricate lace appliqué bodice and sleeves of Catherine's dress mirror those on the wedding gown of Grace Kelly, who became Princess Grace of Monaco when she married Ranier III, Prince of Monaco, in 1956.
But the similarities don't end there: both gowns share a high-waisted, full-skirted silhouette with a long, dramatic train, and were worn with the sheerest of veils and diamond tiaras.
Homage: The new Duchess of Cambridge's bridal gown mirrored the one worn by Grace Kelly for her 1956 wedding to Ranier III of Monaco. Like Catherine, she was a commoner who married into royalty
Classic style: HRH Duchess of Cambridge emerges from Westminster Abbey, with her new husband Prince William. Her Alexander McQueen couture dress took its style lead from the Fifties
Indeed Kate's vintage headwear was from an era that preceded Princess Grace's marriage - the 1936 diamond 'Halo' tiara by Cartier was her 'something borrowed', on loan from the Queen.
The comparison reveals how very classic Kate's style is, and how timeless Princess Grace's bridal look was.
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Of course it was hardly a copycat look, and Britain's new Princess made the look very much her own. Her hair was worn part-loose in a demi-chignon, a style chosen in order that William recognise her as she walked down the aisle.
Traditional: Like Princess Grace of Monaco, Catherine's dress had a full skirt and long train, which was carried into the Abbey by her sister and maid-of-honour Pippa Middleton
Commission of the century: Alexander McQueen's head designer Sarah Burton makes sure every detail of the dress looks perfect before the bride walks down the aisle
Marriage of skills: Mrs Burton said the gown brought together the best of British craftsmanship
By all accounts, Catherine has been heavily involved in the dress design. And while she regularly divides opinion with her restrained wardrobe choices, her wedding gown is a resounding success, remaining true to her demure sense of style.
The workmanship saw individual flowers cut from lace and hand-engineered onto ivory silk tulle to create a unique and organic design - which incorporates the rose, thistle, daffodil and shamrock.
The matching shoes were also hand-made by the team at Alexander McQueen and are made of ivory duchesse satin with lace embroidery.
Dress designer Mrs Burton said: 'I am delighted that the dress represents the best of British craftsmanship.
'Alexander McQueen's designs are all about bringing contrasts together to create startling and beautiful clothes and I hope that by marrying traditional fabrics and lacework, with a modern structure and design we have created a beautiful dress for Catherine on her wedding day.
'Catherine looked absolutely stunning today, and the team at Alexander McQueen are very proud of what we have created.'
Chanel designer Karl Lagerfeld commented on the gown's Fifties influence, likening it to the wedding gown of William's grandmother, Queen Elizabeth, and Hollywood royalty Marilyn Monroe.
He said:' Alexander McQueen's dresses are always very elegant.
'It's very pretty, and relatively classic, but that goes with the decor, with a little touch of the 1950s that recalls Marilyn Monroe or Queen Elizabeth's dress.
'The lace is pretty, especially the embroidered veil and the tiara not too high, without too heavy a bun. It's ravishing and the length of the train is perfect.'
Mirror mirror: Princess Grace may have married Ranier III over 50 years ago, but the similarities between the two brides and their military-attired Royal grooms are remarkable
Woman of the people: Like Catherine, Hollywood star Grace Kelly was a commoner who married into royalty
THE FASHION PACK VERDICT
Karl Lagerfeld, Chanel: 'She is very elegant. The dress is classic... It almost reminds me of Elizabeth's wedding, the royal weddings in the Fifties. The proportion of the train is good. The lace is very pretty. I like the veil a lot.'
Bruce Oldfield: 'Catherine needed the volume of the skirt, both to emphasise her tiny waist and to give the dress a sense of importance.'
Hubert de Givenchy: 'The veil is a little flat, but because she has such a lovely face, she can afford to wear it this way. She is very pretty.'
Christian Lacroix: 'I like the dress very much, simpler than expected: a combination just in between 1956 Grace Kelly and 1947 Queen Elizabeth dress. I love the modest veil with the Queen Mother's Thirties scroll tiara and balanced volume of the whole gown. She's radiant; she never was so beautiful.'
Elie Saab: 'It was a very elegant dress, subtly refined and discreet, in keeping with her style. I would have liked it even more with a little extra volume and a longer train.'
'It's all elegant and chic — you don't need to be born a royal princess to be like that.'
Celebrity bridal stylist Camilla Ridley Day hailed the dress the 'perfect choice for a princess.'
She said: 'She wears the dress, the dress doesn't wear her. It is totally fitting with her style and perfect for a princess.
'It is romantic and elegant, with long sleeves very suited to the Abbey.'
Daily Mail fashion expert Liz Jones added: 'What a triumph... The trademark McQueen padding at the hip made her waist look even smaller, while the corset meant her posture was that of a queen: upright, and formal.
'Kate didn't didn't falter once, which tells me her wedding slippers, also by McQueen, were no more than a couple of inches high, not the "hoof" McQueen was so fond of.'
Despite rumours and rife speculation, Catherine insisted on keeping details of the dress under wraps until today to surprise her husband-to-be - who was one of the last in the world to see the stunning creation.
Suitably impressed, William - now know as the Duke of Cambridge - whispered 'you look beautiful' as she joined him at the altar.
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Who plays Edward Cullen in the ‘Twilight’ film series? | Robert Pattinson - IMDb
IMDb
18 January 2017 8:17 PM, UTC
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Actor | Soundtrack | Producer
Robert Douglas Thomas Pattinson was born May 13, 1986 in London, England, to Clare (Charlton), who worked at a modeling agency, and Richard Pattinson, a vintage car importer. He enjoys music and plays both the guitar and piano. When Robert was fifteen, he started acting in amateur plays with the Barnes Theatre Company. Afterward, he took screen ... See full bio »
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34 wins & 31 nominations. See more awards »
Known For
Soundtrack (2 credits)
2008/I Twilight (performer: "Never Think", "Let Me Sign" - as Rob Pattinson) / (producer: "Never Think") / (writer: "Never Think", "Let Me Sign" - as Rob Pattinson)
2008 How to Be (performer: "Choking on Dust", "I'm Doing Fine")
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2010 Remember Me (executive producer)
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2011 Seeing in the Dark (Short) (special thanks)
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2015 Red Nose Day (TV Special)
Himself
2014 Hollywood Film Awards (TV Special)
Himself
2009-2014 Made in Hollywood (TV Series)
Himself
2014 IMDb: What to Watch (TV Series documentary)
Himself
2014 Good Morning America (TV Series)
Himself - Guest
2010-2014 The Insider (TV Series)
Himself
2008-2014 Entertainment Tonight (TV Series)
Himself
2009-2014 Jimmy Kimmel Live! (TV Series)
Himself - Guest
2014 Rencontres de cinéma (TV Series)
Himself
2008-2014 Le grand journal de Canal+ (TV Series documentary)
Himself
2009-2012 Fantastic (TV Series documentary)
Himself
2012 El hormiguero (TV Series)
Himself - Guest
2012 The Project (TV Series)
Himself
2012 Citizens of Cosmopolis (Video documentary)
Himself
2010-2012 The Daily Show (TV Series)
Himself - Guest
2012 The Hour (TV Series)
Himself - Guest
2010-2012 Janela Indiscreta (TV Series)
Himself
2009-2012 Cinema 3 (TV Series)
Himself
2012 Le petit journal (TV Series)
Himself
2012 ENTV Minute (TV Series)
Himself
2012 The Digital Picture (TV Series)
Himself
2012 Corazón de... (TV Series)
Himself
2011 Sala 33 (TV Series)
Himself
2011 The X Factor (TV Series)
Himself - Red Carpet Attendee
- Live Show 7 (2011) ... Himself - Red Carpet Attendee
2011 Gomorron (TV Series)
2009-2011 Live! with Kelly (TV Series)
Himself - Guest
2011 Teen Choice 2011 (TV Special)
Himself
2011 The 7PM Project (TV Series)
Himself
2009-2011 Días de cine (TV Series)
Himself
2005-2011 HBO First Look (TV Series documentary)
Himself
2010 National Movie Awards (TV Special)
Himself
2010 The View (TV Series)
Himself - Guest
2009 Inside the Cinema (TV Movie)
Himself
2008 Total Request Live (TV Series)
Himself
2006 This Morning (TV Series)
Himself - Guest
2006 Meet the Champions (Video documentary short)
Himself
2006 Preparing for the Yule Ball (Video documentary short)
Himself
2006 Reflections on the Fourth Film (Video documentary short)
Himself
2006 The Maze: The Third Task (Video documentary short)
Himself
2005 'Harry Potter': Behind the Magic (TV Movie documentary)
Himself
2003 Cartaz Cultural (TV Series)
Himself (2010)
2013 America's Book of Secrets (TV Series documentary)
Himself
2012 Fantastic (TV Series documentary)
Himself
2012 ENTV Minute (TV Series)
Himself
2010 20 to 1 (TV Series documentary)
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R.T. Pattinson | R. Pattinson | Robert Thomas Pattinson | Rob Pattinson
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[on his sex scenes in Cosmopolis (2012)] None of them were supposed to be sex scenes and he ( David Cronenberg ) changed them all afterwards. I always find sex scenes are the most random thing to see in a movie. Two actors pretending to have sex. Why? It's so stupid. See more »
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He has two older sisters, Lizzie and Victoria. See more »
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| Robert Pattinson |
Used in church advent services, a Christingle is made using which fruit? | The Twilight Saga - The Twilight Saga Main Characters
The Twilight Saga
Team Bella
Kristen Stewart as Isabella Marie "Bella" Swan Cullen
Isabella Marie "Bella" Swan (later Bella Cullen) is the fictional protagonist of the Twilight series, written by Stephanie Meyer. The Twilight series, consisting of the novels Twilight, New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn, is primarily narrated from Bella's point of view. In the f ilm series, Bella is portrayed by actress Kristen Stewart.
In Twilight, Bella moves to her father's home in Forks, Washington, meets the mysterious Cullen family, and falls in love with Edward Cllen. However, she soon discovers that the family is a coven of vampires. Bella expresses a desire to become a vampire herself, against Edward's wishes. In the second novel, New Moon, Edward and the other Cullens leave Forks in an effort to keep Bella safe from the vampire world. Jacob Black, a member of the Quileute tribe who is also a shape shifter taking a wolf form, comforts the distraught and severely depressed Bella. She comes to care deeply for Jacob, though less than she loves Edward. At the end of Eclipse, Bella becomes engaged to Edward, and they marry in Breaking Dawn. Edward then transforms Bella into a vampire after she nearly dies giving birth to their daughter, Renesmee Cullen.
Team Edward
Robert Pattinson as Edward Anthony Masen Cullen. Team Edward?
Edward Cullen (Edward Anthony Masen) is a fictional character in Stephanie Meyer's Twilight series. He is featured in the books Twilight, New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn, and their corresponding film adaptations, and the as yet unfinished novel Midnight Sun - a re-telling of the events of Twilight from Edward's perspective. Edward is a telepathic Vampire who, over the course of the series, falls in love with, marries, and has a child with Bella Swan, a human teenager who later chooses to become a vampire as well. In the Twilight film series, Edward is played by actor Robert Pattinson.
Team Jacob
Taylor Lautner as Jacob "Jake Black. Team Jacob?
Jacob "Jake" Black is a fictional character in the Twilight series by Stephanie Meyer. He is described as a Native American of the Quileute tribe in La Push, near Forks, Washington. In the second book of the series, he discovers that he can shapeshift into a wolf. For the majority of the series, Jacob competes with Edward Cullen for Bella Swan's love. In the films Twilight, New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn, Jacob is played by Taylor Lautner.
Team Renesmee
Mackenzie Foy as Renesmee Carlie Cullen
Renesmee (pronounced Ruh-nez-may) Carlie Cullen is the resident vampire/human hybrid member of the Olympic coven. She is the daughter of Edward and Bella Swan, and the imprintee of Jacob Black. Renesmee's biological paternal grandparents are Edward Sr. and Elizabeth Masen, while on the maternal side, they are Charlie Swan and Renee Dwyer. She is also the adoptive granddaughter of Carlisle and Esme Cullen and the adoptive niece of Jasper and Rosalie Hale, and Alice and Emmett Cullen.
Breaking Dawn Part 2 Official Trailer
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US author and poet Dorothy Parker coined the phrase ‘Men seldom make passes at girls who wear ‘what’? | Celebrate Valentine's Day, Dorothy Parker Style
Celebrate Valentine's Day, Dorothy Parker Style
By Michele Gouveia
"By the time you swear you're his,
Shivering and sighing.
And he vows his passion is,
Infinite, undying.
Lady make note of this —
One of you is lying."
So wrote Dorothy Parker, one of the greatest American wits of the 20th century. A critic, poet, and writer of short stories and screenplays, Mrs. Parker, as she was known, was a member of the legendary Algonquin Round Table, a group of writers and artists who would gather daily for lunch and gossip at the Algonquin Hotel in New York during the 1920s.
10 Reasons Why it Sucks to Have Your Birthday on...
The woman who once said, "The first thing I do in the morning is brush my teeth and sharpen my tongue," became famous for her keen observations and acerbic one-liners. She coined the phrase "Men seldom make passes at girls who wear glasses" and noted that "If you wear a short enough skirt, the party will come to you."Once when Mrs. Parker was living at the Algonquin the hotel's manager, Frank Case, called and asked her if she had a gentleman in her room. She responded, "Just a minute. I'll ask him."
Much of Mrs. Parker's work deals with the perils of falling in love, which she wrote candidly about including her own numerous heartbreaks ("It serves me right for putting all my eggs in one bastard."). With Valentine's Day fast approaching, it's hard not to think what caustic comments she might have had about a holiday devoted to love and whose symbol is a chubby angel with a bow and arrow. So this February 14th, instead of opening another boring box of chocolates, why not celebrate the day in the spirit of Mrs. Parker by mixing up a cocktail (or two).
Under the Table: A Dorothy Parker Cocktail Guide by Kevin C. Fitzpatrick makes it easy with recipes for cocktails that Mrs. Parker and her friends would have enjoyed along with some modern day concoctions. You could try a vintage Cablegram, a Horse's Neck (don't worry; the main ingredient is bourbon), the recently created Acerbic Dorothy Parker (made, of course, with Dorothy Parker American Gin), or go all out with a Love Cocktail. Comprised of sloe gin, egg white, lemon juice, and raspberry syrup, the book's author promises that when mixed properly the result is a cocktail the color of blood. How holiday appropriate.
Just be sure to keep in mind what Mrs. Parker reportedly said, "I like to have a martini, two at the most. After three I'm under the table, after four I'm under my host."
Love Cocktail
1 1/2 ounces sloe gin
1 egg white
| Glasses |
What is the title of the second novel featuring Sherlock Holmes, by Arthur Conan Doyle? | Dorothy Parker | Literary Kicks
Dorothy Parker
Women
The inimitable Dorothy Parker is often known more for her sharp wit and cynicism than for her actual work. As with many literary figures, Parker's life was filled with drama and personal darkness, which often came through in her writing.
Parker was born Dorothy Rothschild August 22, 1893 in West End, New Jersey (now known as Long Branch) to a Jewish father and Scottish mother, J. Henry and Eliza A. (Marston) Rothschild. Dorothy had three considerably older siblings and felt lonely as a child. While the Rothschilds were a relatively affluent family, Parker recalled an unhappy childhood in later interviews. This unhappiness, along with the early deaths of her mother (who died when Parker was not yet 5), stepmother, brother (who went down with the Titanic) and father, would construct the framework for her dark cynicism and tendency toward morbid thoughts.
Although her father was Jewish, Dorothy attended Catholic school until age 13, at which time she was enrolled in an exclusive private school where she discovered a love of language and literature as well as political issues and current events. She also began to write and recite poetry during this time, and was instructed on proper enunciation. In 1908 the founder of the school died, and Dorothy's formal education ended at age 14. A short time later Dorothy's father died, and she went to live in a boarding house in New York at 103rd and Broadway, working her way through the summer playing the piano at a dance school. It was during this time that she had her first poem ("Any Porch") published in Vanity Fair. She then secured a job writing captions for Vogue, where her wit began to peek through in captions such as "Brevity is the Soul of Lingerie, as the Petticoat said to the Chemise". Sensing that Dorothy required more meaty subject matter to match her incisive wit, the editors transferred her back to Vanity Fair. There she wrote a variety of features and was hired as a drama reviewer, replacing P.G. Wodehouse. Parker gained her initial recognition with her columns for the magazine as she continued writing her short stories and poems.
Dorothy Rothschild married Edwin Pond Parker in 1917. Eddie Parker was a Wall Street broker from a distinguished family and a recent enlistee into the US Army. Eventually her husband was called to duty overseas and she continued her life and career in New York. In 1919 she met up with two recent hires of Vanity Fair, Robert Benchley and Robert Sherwood. She connected with the two editors instantly and had lunch with both almost daily. Parker found a mentor and friend in Benchley, who guided her by introducing her to the style of journalistic writing. These lunches with Benchley and Sherwood at the Algonquin Hotel became the basis for the now famous Algonquin Round Table.
Parker continued to write for Vanity Fair and became an integral member of the Round Table, trading barbs and intellectual criticisms with her contemporaries in the New York drama and journalism circles. The group engaged in spirited battles of wit and during a game of "I Can Give You a Sentence," Parker reportedly quipped. "You can lead a horticulture, but you can't make her think." As she honed her writing skills (and her humor) in her work as drama reviewer for Vanity Fair, her reviews became more acerbic and in 1920 she was fired from this position for such outspoken criticism. Parker went on to become the drama critic for Ainslee's magazine and began submitting freelance work to Life. By this time Parker had quite a widespread reputation and experienced a span of high productivity, writing essays and sketches for publications such as Saturday Evening Post and Ladies Home Journal. She continued to be a part of the New York social scene and found herself finding acquaintances and business connections with the likes of Lillian Gish and Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald. (Note: Parker would later select the works for Viking's Portable F. Scott Fitzgerald .) At the same time, Parker began to drink heavily and her marriage to Eddie Parker (who was also an alcoholic) deteriorated. She became depressed and found it difficult to write material that pleased her. In 1922 Dorothy Parker had an affair with the emerging playwright Charles MacArthur, who it turned out was having multiple affairs with other women. Parker found herself pregnant with MacArthur's child and subsequently had an abortion. Shortly after, she first attempted suicide by slitting her wrists. This pattern of depression, affairs, suicide attempts and recovery would continue throughout Parker's life, though she still maintained high popularity and a steady workload.
In 1926 Dorothy published a collection of her poems, Enough Rope which was well received by the public and critics alike. This collection included Resume, One Perfect Rose and the still-famous News Item in which Parker quipped, "Men seldom make passes/At girls who wear glasses". In the next few years, she signed on to review books for The New Yorker, a position she attained through friends from the now disbanded Round Table. She signed her columns "Constant Reader" and demonstrated yet again her sweet delivery of biting sarcasm and incisive wit. In a review of A.A. Milne's The House at Pooh Corner Parker remarked "that marks the first place in The House at Pooh Corner at which Tonstant Weader Fwowed up."
It was also during this time period, as "Constant Reader", that many major events in Dorothy Parker's life and career took place. In 1927 Parker became more vocal in her socio-political opinions and she joined in the protest against the execution of Sacco and Vanzetti. (Parker was ultimately arrested and released). She eventually divorced Eddie Parker in 1928 and in 1929 Dorothy Parker won her first major literary award. Parker's short story "Big Blonde", which told the all too real tale of an aging party girl, won the O. Henry Memorial Prize for best short story.
Over the next decade Parker was busy writing for the stage and screen. She worked with MGM and Paramount as well as for film legends Cecil B. DeMille and Irving Thalberg. Parker wrote and collaborated on many screenplays, dialogues and even popular lyrics of that time. She maintained her journalistic connections by doing freelance work for past employers and other magazines such as Harper's Bazaar and Cosmopolitan. In 1933 she met Alan Campbell, a young Broadway actor who shared Dorothy's sense of humor and interests. Campbell, eleven years her junior, shared her Jewish/Scottish heritage and was an avid fan of Parker's writing. Despite rumors that Campbell was bisexual, the two were married the following year. The couple headed to Hollywood where they teamed up to write dialogue and storylines for various film scripts. The most popular was undoubtedly A Star Is Born and their screenplay was nominated for an Academy Award. While Parker contributed to countless stage and film productions, her only film appearance is in Alfred Hitchcock's Saboteur, where she is featured in a short scene with Hitchcock.
Parker's political causes gradually became more a focus of her life. She declared she was a Communist and helped to found not only the Screen Actors Guild but also the Anti-Nazi League. The Spanish Civil war was one of her most passionate interests, she wrote and spoke out in support of the Spanish Loyalists.
In 1944, Viking published The Portable Dorothy Parker, which received mixed reviews. The book was a relative commercial success, but perhaps due to the world climate, Parker's work was more harshly judged by critics as being shallow and dull. In the years that followed, Parker struggled with depression and alcoholism. In 1947 Campbell and Parker divorced, but would later remarry. By 1949, Parker had been blacklisted for her political associations and eventually pleaded the First Amendment in hearings when she was asked if she were a Communist.
The events in both her personal and professional life began to take their toll on Parker, as she slipped further into depression. She found writing increasingly difficult and was rarely pleased with the projects she did complete. Work was scarce, but by the mid-fifties, things took a slight turn upwards as A Star Is Born was remade, starring Judy Garland. Overall, however, it seemed as if Dorothy Parker's days of being a famous and admired wit were over. She had published several collections of poetry and short stories, in addition to her work in magazines and in Hollywood, but none seemed to match the excitement and interest that Parker attracted in her first years in New York.
In later years, Parker returned to writing book reviews for Esquire, echoing her earlier work at Vanity Fair. She reviewed 208 books over the course of six years. Parker's reviews for Esquire were just as acerbic and clever as her previous columns as "Constant Reader" even if more curmudgeonly so. (It is interesting to note that in her review of Kerouac's The Subterraneans, Parker gives her opinion of the Beat Generation : "I think as perhaps you have discerned, that if Mr. Kerouac and his followers did not think of themselves as so glorious, as intellectual as all hell and very Christlike, I should not be in such a bad humor.")
After many years of moving back and forth from Hollywood to New York, Dorothy returned to the city of her youth a final time in 1963, and moved into the Hotel Volney. This same year she found Alan Campbell dead of an apparent overdose. She completed a few last projects, publishing her last work in November 1964. Bitter with age and mostly blind, she is often reported to have agreed with the assessment that she had outlived her usefulness. Most of her contemporaries and friends had died years earlier, and it is ironic that a woman so drawn to pessimism, who had attempted suicide at least four times, lived into her seventies.
Dorothy Parker died of a heart attack on June 7, 1967 in her room at the Hotel Volney. She willed her remaining estate to Martin Luther King Jr. and her cremated remains were eventually buried at the NAACP headquarters in Baltimore.
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Comedian Larry David starred in the US television show ‘Curb Your ‘what’? | Curb Your Enthusiasm Season 9: Larry David Comedy Returning to HBO | Variety
Courtesy of HBO
June 14, 2016 | 09:55AM PT
Larry David’s “ Curb Your Enthusiasm ” will return for Season 9 on HBO, the premium cabler announced Tuesday.
“We’re thrilled that Larry has decided to do a new season of ‘Curb’ and can’t wait to see what he has planned,” said Casey Bloys, president, HBO programming.
Asked why he decided to come back, David said, “In the immortal words of Julius Caesar, ‘I left, I did nothing, I returned.’”
The hit comedy stars “Seinfeld” co-creator David as an over-the-top version of himself in an unsparing but tongue-in-cheek depiction of his life. With 80 episodes to date, the show is HBO’s longest-running scripted comedy or drama series. David also starred in and co-wrote the 2013 HBO Films presentation “Clear History.”
No details on a Season 9 premiere date or additional casting have been announced at this time. The show hasn’t aired new episodes since 2011, but back in 2012, HBO chairman and CEO Richard Plepler told reporters at the annual Television Critics Assn. press tour that David “essentially has carte blanche with us … And when he wants to come back and do ‘Curb,’ we’d be thrilled.”
| Enthusiasm |
According to Dart Board Regulations, how high should the centre of the bullseye be from the floor in feet and inches? | HBO: Curb Your Enthusiasm: Cast & Crew: Jeff Garlin
Curb Your Enthusiasm
as Jeff Greene
Bio
Comedian Jeff Garlin has a style of comedy that has much in common with the comedians of the '60s and early-'70s (among them, Shelley Berman, Mort Sahl, Woody Allen, and Richard Pryor). Garlin tells stories, exploring his personal foibles and exposing his innermost secrets for all to hear.
On television, Garlin co-stars and executive produces the critically-acclaimed HBO series "Curb Your Enthusiasm." The show stars the creator of "Seinfeld", Larry David, and recently won the 2001 AFI Comedy Series of the Year Award. Jeff spent three seasons on NBC's "Mad About You" in the role of "Marvin." Jeff has had his own HBO half-hour special. As a director he has directed both Jon Stewart ("Unleavened") and Denis Leary ("Lock-n-Load") in their HBO specials. Jeff has also directed "Curb Your Enthusiasm."
Jeff appears in the Steven Soderbergh film "Full Frontal" which stars Julia Roberts and David Duchovny, and "Daddy Day Care" with Eddie Murphy. Jeff has a variety of TV and film appearances to his credit as an actor and a stand-up, including "Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me", "Bounce", "Everybody Loves Raymond", "The Late Show with David Letterman", "The Daily Show with Jon Stewart", and "Late Night with Conan O'Brien."
Born and raised in Chicago and then South Florida, Garlin studied filmmaking and began performing stand-up comedy while at the University of Miami. He has toured the country as a stand-up, is an alumnus of Chicago's Second City Theatre, and has written and starred in three critically acclaimed solo shows ("I want Someone to Eat Cheese With", "Uncomplicated", and "Concentrated").
Jeff's hobbies include eating puddin' and taking naps.
Interview with Jeff Garlin
Larry's agent and porn buddy talks about directing, Jack Benny and sponge cake.
If you needed representation and could only choose from one of the three most famous agents from HBO shows-Arliss Michaels of "Arliss," Ari Gold of "Entourage," or Jeff Greene of "Curb Your Enthusiasm"-who would you pick? Arliss might show you more money, Ari wouldn't let you miss any opportunities, but Jeff would certainly be the one you'd want to hang out with most. (It helps if you're already rich and don't look for much work anyway!) Loyal as a dog, but not sycophantic; mercilessly henpecked but a loving father; and best of all-when Jeff Greene takes a client to lunch it actually involves eating! He'll lie to your wife for you, he'll mend relations with the friends and family you insult, and he'll insist (loudly!) that HBO pays for the porn you watched in your hotel room. Jeff Garlin brings to the role much of his own lust for life, years of standup and improv experience (including stints at Chicago's Second City), and a passion for the same classic sit-coms that Larry David admires. Garlin recently finished directing his first feature ("I Want Someone to Eat Cheese With") and talks with us here about phones, Jack Benny and sponge cake.
HBO
A lot of plot twists on Curb Your Enthusiasm involve Larry's discomfort with phones and answering machines.
Jeff
Yes, a lot of mishaps. Larry doesn't like the phone that much. Although I've had pleasant conversations with him.
HBO
Your character is an agent so he has to be a phone person--but Jeff Greene would never be one of those agents who wears a headset, would he?
Jeff
No, I think the odds of me wearing a head set are never.
HBO
Do you think you'd be a good agent in real life?
Jeff
If I really believed in somebody, yes. I wouldn't have the scruples of Jeff Green, though--he has no integrity whatsoever. So, actually--no, I wouldn't be a good agent!
HBO
How did you become a comic?
I loved The Mary Tyler Moore Show...Saturday nights on CBS -- All in the Family, Bob Newhart.
Jeff
I grew up in Chicago, and when I was twelve years old we moved to Plantation, Florida, which is a suburb of Ft. Lauderdale. I started doing standup comedy at twenty. I returned in my early twenties to Chicago to go to Second City and do standup. I was there until the late Eighties, when I moved to Los Angeles and New York to pursue my standup career. Then I moved back to Chicago to do more Second City work--it was there I met my wife. We moved to Los Angeles and we've been there ever since--eleven years.
HBO
I understand your favorite comic is Richard Pryor?
Jeff
Richard Pryor is definitely my favorite standup comic. And there's Albert Brooks, Woody Allen, others I love-- but my favorite comedian of all time is Jack Benny.
HBO
Who made you laugh when you were a child?
Jeff
When I was really young... Jack Benny and Jack Gleason of course. Jimmy Durante. Abbott and Costello. Martin and Lewis--all the classics. I love "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World!"
HBO
How about Francis the talking horse?
Jeff
And I was into Francis the talking mule! No, that wasn't my thing. (laughs) I loved The Mary Tyler Moore Show; you know, Saturday nights on CBS--All in the Family, Bob Newhart. My favorite TV show of all time--which I discovered later on, through videotape--is "Car 54, Where Are You?" And I discovered "Sgt. Bilko." One of the great things about being on Curb Your Enthusiasm is I think Larry David is akin to Nat Hiken, who is the man who created and wrote "Car 54" and "Bilko."
HBO
What do you watch on TV now?
Jeff
My favorite shows are The Sopranos and Deadwood. I'm enjoying Rome. I watch sports--football and baseball. But often I don't see them until they come out on DVD, because I'm working so hard and I'd rather spend time with my wife and kids. I have two sons, a five and a nine-year-old.
HBO
You probably have an early cut-off time.
Jeff
I go to bed around 9:30 or 10pm.
HBO
Sometimes there are references to HBO on Curb. Like in the pilot...
Jeff
Right! "HBO pays for the porn!" I came up with that one. I loved surprising Larry with that. And the guy who played the HBO publicist in that scene was Michael Patrick King--who created Sex and the City.
HBO
You've directed a movie called "I Want Someone to Eat Cheese With."
Jeff
It's based on my one man show.
HBO
There's only one character?
Jeff
No, it features Sarah Silverman, Bonnie Hunt, David Pasquesi, Mina Kolb (who plays my mother on Curb), Paul Mazursky, Amy Sedaris, Richard Kind, Dan Castellaneta, Tim Kazurinsky, Wallace Langham...
HBO
That's quite a cast. What's it about?
Jeff
It's about a guy who has trouble with food, women and his job--he's an actor at Second City, actually.
HBO
So can I assume the protagonist likes cheese?
Jeff
No, he doesn't like cheese! He likes rice pudding.
HBO
Do you like rice pudding in real life?
Jeff
Yeah, I love rice pudding. It's my favorite pudding. Number two is chocolate. And then all the other flavors are tied.
If I really believed in somebody, yes, I wouldn't have the scruples of Jeff Green, though -- he has no integrity whatsoever. So, actually -- no, I wouldn't be a good agent!
HBO
Do you like sponge cakes?
Jeff
No, I don't like sponge cake at all!
HBO
You had to eat a lot of it "The Nanny," an episode from the third season.
Jeff
That shows what a good actor I am. Larry enjoyed seeing me shove more of that down my throat than you can possibly believe.
HBO
Larry gets a sandwich named after him this season. If one was named after you what would you want in it?
Jeff
You know what's really funny? I like the Larry David sandwich. I love whitefish. I'm a freak for whitefish! I probably wouldn't have the capers.
HBO
Susie Essman plays your wife, and she's really good at showering you and Larry with insults. Has there ever been a scene where she unleashed on you with such force that you were actually startled or afraid?
Jeff
No, it's all pretend. (laughs) I've never been startled.
HBO
What else are you working on?
Jeff
I'm getting my movie out there--screening it for distributors. That's my first priority. I'm creating a television show for another network--HBO and I have agreed that it's not right for them. It's more of a network TV show. I'm writing a book about my time on Curb Your Enthusiasm. However it will be fictional. I'm making up a whole story. Our show is fictional but you think it's sort of real so I'm doing the book in the same style.
HBO
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In the novel ‘Martin Chuzzlewit’ by Charles Dickens, what is the name of the inn run by Mrs Lupin? | Martin Chuzzlewit - WOW.com
Martin Chuzzlewit
Cover, first serial edition seventh instalment, July 1843
Author
The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit
Illustrator
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Published
Serialized : January 1843 – July 1844; as a book 1844
Publisher
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Media type
Print ( Serial , Hardback, and Paperback)
Pages
LC Class
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The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit (commonly known as Martin Chuzzlewit) is a novel by Charles Dickens , considered the last of his picaresque novels. It was originally serialised in 1843 and 1844. Dickens thought it to be his best work, [1] but it was one of his least popular novels. [2] Like nearly all of Dickens' novels, Martin Chuzzlewit was released to the public in monthly instalments. Early sales of the monthly parts were disappointing, compared to previous works, so Dickens changed the plot to send the title character to America. [1] This allowed the author to portray the United States (which he had visited in 1842) satirically as a near wilderness with pockets of civilisation filled with deceptive and self-promoting hucksters.
The main theme of the novel, according to a preface by Dickens, is selfishness, portrayed in a satirical fashion using all the members of the Chuzzlewit family. The novel is also notable for two of Dickens' great villains , Seth Pecksniff and Jonas Chuzzlewit. It is dedicated to Angela Georgina Burdett-Coutts , a friend of Dickens.
Contents
8 External links
Plot summary
Martin Chuzzlewit has been raised by his grandfather and namesake. Years before, Martin senior took the precaution of raising an orphaned girl, Mary Graham. She is to be his nursemaid, with the understanding that she will be well cared for only as long as Martin senior lives. She thus has strong motivation to promote his well-being, in contrast to his relatives, who only want to inherit his money. However, his grandson Martin falls in love with Mary and wishes to marry her, ruining Martin senior's plans. When Martin refuses to give up the engagement, his grandfather disinherits him.
Martin becomes an apprentice to Seth Pecksniff, a greedy architect. Instead of teaching his students, he lives off their tuition fees and has them do draughting work that he passes off as his own. He has two spoiled daughters, nicknamed Cherry and Merry, having been christened as Charity and Mercy. Unbeknown to Martin, Pecksniff has actually taken him on to establish closer ties with the wealthy grandfather, thinking that this will gain Pecksniff a prominent place in the will.
Old Martin and Mary
A Game of Love
Young Martin befriends Tom Pinch, a kind-hearted soul whose late grandmother had given Pecksniff all she had, believing Pecksniff would make an architect and gentleman of him. Pinch is incapable of believing any of the bad things others tell him of Pecksniff, and always defends him vociferously. Pinch works for exploitatively low wages, while believing he is the unworthy recipient of Pecksniff's charity.
When Martin senior hears of his grandson's new life, he demands that Pecksniff kick young Martin out. Then, Martin senior moves in and falls under Pecksniff's control. During this time, Pinch falls in love with Mary, but does not declare it, knowing of her attachment to young Martin.
One of Martin senior's greedy relatives is his brother, Anthony Chuzzlewit, who is in business with his son, Jonas. Despite considerable wealth, they live miserly, cruel lives, with Jonas constantly berating his father, eager for the old man to die so he can inherit. Anthony dies abruptly and under suspicious circumstances, leaving his wealth to Jonas. Jonas then woos Cherry, whilst arguing constantly with Merry. He then abruptly declares to Pecksniff that he wants to marry Merry, and jilts Cherry - not without demanding an additional 1,000 pounds on top of the 4,000 that Pecksniff had promised him as Cherry's dowry, with the argument that Cherry has better chances for matchmaking.
Jonas, meanwhile, becomes entangled with the unscrupulous Montague Tigg and joins in his pyramid scheme -like insurance scam. At the beginning of the book he is a petty thief and hanger-on of a Chuzzlewit relative, Chevy Slyme. Tigg cheats young Martin out of a valuable pocket watch and uses the funds to transform himself into a seemingly fine man called "Tigg Montague". This façade convinces investors that he must be an important businessman from whom they may greatly profit. Jonas eventually ends up murdering Tigg, who has acquired some kind of information on him.
At this time, Tom Pinch finally sees his employer's true character. Pinch goes to London to seek employment, and rescues his governess sister Ruth, whom he discovers has been mistreated by the family employing her. Pinch quickly receives an ideal job from a mysterious employer, with the help of an equally mysterious Mr Fips.
Tom Pinch at the Organ.
John Westlock and Ruth Pinch
Young Martin, meanwhile, has encountered Mark Tapley. Mark is always cheerful, which he decides does not reflect well on him because he is always in happy circumstances and it shows no strength of character to be happy when one has good fortune. He decides he must test his cheerfulness by seeing if he can maintain it in the worst circumstances possible. To this end, he accompanies young Martin when he goes to the United States to seek his fortune. The men attempt to start new lives in a swampy, disease-filled settlement named "Eden", but both nearly die of malaria . Mark finally finds himself in a situation in which it can be considered a virtue to remain in good spirits. The grim experience, and Mark's care nursing Martin back to health, change Martin's selfish and proud character, and the men return to England, where Martin returns penitently to his grandfather. But his grandfather is now under Pecksniff's control and rejects him.
At this point, Martin is reunited with Tom Pinch, who now discovers that his mysterious benefactor is old Martin Chuzzlewit. The older Martin had only been pretending to be in thrall to Pecksniff. Together, the group confront Pecksniff with their knowledge of his true character. They also discover that Jonas murdered Tigg to prevent him from revealing that he had planned to murder Anthony.
Senior Martin now reveals that he was angry at his grandson for becoming engaged to Mary because he had planned to arrange that particular match himself, and felt his glory had been thwarted by them deciding on the plan themselves. He realises the folly of that opinion, and Martin and his grandfather are reconciled. Martin and Mary are married, as are Ruth Pinch and John Westlock, another former student of Pecksniff's. Tom Pinch remains in unrequited love with Mary for the rest of his life, never marrying, and always being a warm companion to Mary and Martin and to Ruth and John.
Characters
The extended Chuzzlewit family
The main characters of the story are the members of the extended Chuzzlewit family.
The first to be introduced is Seth Pecksniff, a widower with two daughters, who is a self-styled teacher of architecture. He believes that he is a highly moral individual who loves his fellow man, but mistreats his students and passes off their designs as his own for profit. He seems to be a cousin of Old Martin Chuzzlewit. Pecksniff's rise and fall follows the novel's plot arc.
Mr Pecksniff with members of the Chuzzlewit family.
Martin Chuzzlewit the Younger With Mark Tapley
Next we meet his two daughters, Charity and Mercy Pecksniff. They are also affectionately known as Cherry and Merry, or as the two Miss Pecksniffs. Charity is portrayed throughout the book as having none of that virtue after which she is named, while Mercy, the younger sister, is at first silly and girlish in a manner that's probably inconsistent with her numerical age. Later events in the story drastically change her personality.
Old Martin Chuzzlewit, the wealthy patriarch of the Chuzzlewit family, lives in constant suspicion of the financial designs of his extended family. At the beginning of the novel he has aligned himself with Mary, an orphan, to have a caretaker who is not eyeing his estate. Later in the story he makes an apparent alliance with Pecksniff, who, he believes, is at least consistent in character. His true character is revealed by the end of the story.
Young Martin Chuzzlewit is the grandson of Old Martin Chuzzlewit. He is the closest relative of Old Martin and has inherited much of the stubbornness and selfishness of the old man. Young Martin is the protagonist of the story. His engagement to Mary is the cause of estrangement between himself and his grandfather. By the end of the story he becomes a reformed character, realising and repenting of the selfishness of his previous actions.
Anthony Chuzzlewit is the brother of Old Martin. He and his son, Jonas, run a business together called Chuzzlewit and Son. They are both self-serving, hardened individuals who view the accumulation of money as the most important thing in life.
Jonas Chuzzlewit is the mean-spirited, sinisterly jovial son of Anthony Chuzzlewit. He views his father with contempt and wishes for his death so that he can have the business and the money for himself. It is suggested that he may have actually hastened the old man's death. He is a suitor of the two Miss Pecksniffs, wins one, then is driven to commit murder by his unscrupulous business associations.
Mr and Mrs Spottletoe are the nephew-in-law and niece of Old Martin Chuzzlewit, Mrs Spottletoe being the daughter of Old Martin's brother. She was also once the favourite of Old Martin though they have since fallen out.
George Chuzzlewit is the bachelor cousin of Old Martin.
Other characters
Thomas (Tom) Pinch is a former student of Pecksniff's who has become his personal assistant. He is kind, simple, and honest in everything he does, serving as a foil to Pecksniff. He carries in his heart an undying loyalty and admiration for Pecksniff. Eventually, he discovers Pecksniff's true nature through his treatment of Mary, whom Pinch has come to love. Because Tom Pinch plays such a large role in the story, he is sometimes considered the novel's true protagonist.
Ruth Pinch is Tom Pinch's sister. She is sweet and good, like her brother. At first she works as a governess to a wealthy family with several nasty brats. Later in the novel she and Tom set up housekeeping together. She falls in love with, and marries, Tom's friend John Westlock.
Mark Tapley, the good-humoured employee of the Blue Dragon Inn and suitor of Mrs Lupin (the Dragon's owner), leaves that establishment to find work that's more of a credit to his character: that is, work sufficiently miserable that his cheerfulness will be more of a credit to him. He eventually joins Young Martin Chuzzlewit on his trip to America, where he finds at last a situation that requires the full extent of his innate cheerfulness of disposition. Martin buys a piece of land in a settlement called "Eden"—which, if not actually underwater, is at least in the midst of a malarial swamp. Mark nurses him through his illness, and they eventually return to England.
Montague Tigg with Jonas (Mr Nadgett Breathes, as Usual, an Atmosphere of Mystery).
Montague Tigg / Tigg Montague is a down-on-his-luck rogue at the beginning of the story, and a hanger-on to distant Chuzzlewit kin Chevy Slyme. Later, he starts a thriving, sleazy insurance business with no money at all and lures Jonas into the business. (The Anglo-Bengalee Disinterested Loan and Life Assurance Company is in essence a classic Ponzi scheme —founded before Charles Ponzi was born—which paid off early policyholders' claims with premiums from more recent policyholders.)
John Westlock begins as a disgruntled student falling out with Pecksniff. After Tom Pinch's flight to London, John serves as a mentor and companion to both Tom and his sister; he falls in love with and eventually marries Ruth Pinch.
Mr Nadgett is a soft-spoken, mysterious individual who is Tom Pinch's landlord and serves as Montague's private investigator.
Sarah Gamp (also known as Sairey or Mrs Gamp). Sarah Gamp is an alcoholic who works as a midwife , monthly nurse , and layer-out of the dead. Even in a house of mourning, Mrs Gamp manages to enjoy all the hospitality a house can afford, with little regard for the person to whom she is there to minister; and she is often much the worse for drink. In her nursing activities, she constantly refers to a Mrs Harris, who is in fact "a phantom of Mrs Gamp's brain ... created for the express purpose of holding visionary dialogues with her on all manner of subjects, and invariably winding up with a compliment to the excellence of her nature." She habitually carries with her a battered black umbrella: so popular with the Victorian public was the character that Gamp became a slang word for an umbrella in general. The character was based upon a real nurse described to Dickens by his friend, Angela Burdett-Coutts . [3] [4]
Mary Graham is the caretaker of old Martin Chuzzlewit, who has told her she will receive nothing from him in his will. The older Martin expects that this will give Mary a strong interest in keeping him alive and well. Mary and old Martin Chuzzlewit's grandson fall in love, thus giving her an interest in the elder Chuzzlewit's death. The two lovers are separated by the events of the book, but are eventually reunited.
Mr Chuffey is an old man who works for Anthony Chuzzlewit and later Jonas Chuzzlewit.
Jefferson Brick is a war correspondent in The New York Rowdy Journal.
Mr Bailey is physically of small build and employed by the fraudster Montague Tigg and has been willing to sacrifice his Jewish beard to be a friend to a local barber, Paul(Poll) Sweedlepipe, let alone buys birds from him. There is such a frolic wonderfulness in his character and mien that even the unscrupulous rascal Montague deeply lamented for him when he was reported to suffer a fatal head injury after he was knocked out of the cabriolet, saying that he would rather lose a large sum of money than lose him. To the barber's relief and joy, he recovers from the injury in the end.
Publication
Martin Chuzzlewit was published in 19 monthly instalments, each comprising 32 pages of text and two illustrations by Hablot K. "Phiz" Browne and costing one shilling.[ citation needed ] The last part was double-length.
I – January 1843 (chapters 1–3)
II – February 1843 (chapters 4–5)
III – March 1843 (chapters 6–8)
IV – April 1843 (chapters 9–10)
V – May 1843 (chapters 11–12)
VI – June 1843 (chapters 13–15)
VII – July 1843 (chapters 16–17)
VIII – August 1843 (chapters 18–20)
IX – September 1843 (chapters 21–23)
X – October 1843 (chapters 24–26)
XI – November 1843 (chapters 27–29)
XII – December 1843 (chapters 30–32)
XIII – January 1844 (chapters 33–35)
XIV – February 1844 (chapters 36–38)
XV – March 1844 (chapters 39–41)
XVI – April 1844 (chapters 42–44)
XVII – May 1844 (chapters 45–47)
XVIII – June 1844 (chapters 48–50)
XIX-XX – July 1844 (chapters 51–54)
The early monthly numbers were not as successful as Dickens' previous work and only sold about twenty thousand copies each (compared to forty to fifty thousand for the monthly numbers of the Pickwick Papers and Nicholas Nickleby and sixty to seventy thousand for the weekly issues of Barnaby Rudge and The Old Curiosity Shop ) causing a break between Dickens and his publishers Chapman and Hall when they invoked a penalty clause in his contract requiring him to pay back money they had lent him to cover their costs. Also, Dickens' scathing satire of American modes and manners in the novel won him no friends on the other side of the Atlantic, where the instalments containing the offending chapters were greeted with a 'frenzy of wrath'. As a consequence, Dickens received much abusive mail and many newspaper clippings from the U.S. [5]
Anti-Americanism
The novel was seen by some to contain attacks on America, although Dickens himself saw it as satire, similar in spirit to his "attacks" on the people and institutions of England in novels such as Oliver Twist . Fraud is shown as a common feature in America, although the insurance scheme practised in England in this novel is equally fraudulent. Americans are satirically portrayed; they proclaim their equality at every opportunity but, when they have travelled to England, they claim to have been received only by aristocrats .
The Republic is described as "so maimed and lame, so full of sores and ulcers, foul to the eye and almost hopeless to the sense, that her best friends turn from the loathsome creature with disgust". Dickens also attacks the institution of slavery in the United States in the following words: "Thus the stars wink upon the bloody stripes; and Liberty pulls down her cap upon her eyes, and owns oppression in its vilest aspect for her sister." [6]
According to an account in the Boston Bee, the negative portrayal of America in Martin Chuzzlewit caused one Englishman to be so disgusted that he chose to drown himself so that he would not have to enter New York . [7]
George L. Rives wrote "It is perhaps not too much to say that the publication of Martin Chuzzlewit did more than almost any other one thing to drive the United States and England in the direction of war" (over the Oregon boundary dispute which was eventually resolved without war). [8]
In popular culture
In 1844 the novel was adapted into a stage play at the Queen's Theatre and featured Thomas Manders as Sarah Gamp. [9]
The novel was adapted into a television mini series of the same name in 1994. [1] Examples of references in other television productions include one in the 1956 film Our Miss Brooks (concluding the television and radio series of the same name). Miss Brooks is tutoring teenaged Gary Nolan and gives him the choice of reading and writing a book report on Martin Chuzzlewit, or simply writing an article for the school paper. In The Simpsons episode " Brother, Can You Spare Two Dimes? ", Lisa Simpson lists it as one of the books that she would receive from the Greater Books of the Western Civilization. In the Doctor Who episode " The Unquiet Dead ", The Doctor expresses his admiration for Dickens' works but criticises Martin Chuzzlewit, saying, "Mind you, for God's sake, the American bit in Martin Chuzzlewit, what's that about? Was that just padding? Or what? I mean, it's rubbish, that bit."
In cinema, the CGI movie Barbie in a Christmas Carol features a snotty cat named Chuzzlewit who is the pet of Barbie's character Eden Starling. John Travolta's character quotes from the novel in A Love Song for Bobby Long .
The novel features prominently in Jasper Fforde 's novel The Eyre Affair .
References
Dickens is said to have proclaimed Martin Chuzzlewit his best work. When early public sales of its first monthly instalments proved disappointing, Dickens changed the plot to send Martin to America, drawing on his visit there in 1842.
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What type of animal is a macaque? | Martin Chuzzlewit - WOW.com
Martin Chuzzlewit
Cover, first serial edition seventh instalment, July 1843
Author
The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit
Illustrator
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Published
Serialized : January 1843 – July 1844; as a book 1844
Publisher
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Media type
Print ( Serial , Hardback, and Paperback)
Pages
LC Class
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The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit (commonly known as Martin Chuzzlewit) is a novel by Charles Dickens , considered the last of his picaresque novels. It was originally serialised in 1843 and 1844. Dickens thought it to be his best work, [1] but it was one of his least popular novels. [2] Like nearly all of Dickens' novels, Martin Chuzzlewit was released to the public in monthly instalments. Early sales of the monthly parts were disappointing, compared to previous works, so Dickens changed the plot to send the title character to America. [1] This allowed the author to portray the United States (which he had visited in 1842) satirically as a near wilderness with pockets of civilisation filled with deceptive and self-promoting hucksters.
The main theme of the novel, according to a preface by Dickens, is selfishness, portrayed in a satirical fashion using all the members of the Chuzzlewit family. The novel is also notable for two of Dickens' great villains , Seth Pecksniff and Jonas Chuzzlewit. It is dedicated to Angela Georgina Burdett-Coutts , a friend of Dickens.
Contents
8 External links
Plot summary
Martin Chuzzlewit has been raised by his grandfather and namesake. Years before, Martin senior took the precaution of raising an orphaned girl, Mary Graham. She is to be his nursemaid, with the understanding that she will be well cared for only as long as Martin senior lives. She thus has strong motivation to promote his well-being, in contrast to his relatives, who only want to inherit his money. However, his grandson Martin falls in love with Mary and wishes to marry her, ruining Martin senior's plans. When Martin refuses to give up the engagement, his grandfather disinherits him.
Martin becomes an apprentice to Seth Pecksniff, a greedy architect. Instead of teaching his students, he lives off their tuition fees and has them do draughting work that he passes off as his own. He has two spoiled daughters, nicknamed Cherry and Merry, having been christened as Charity and Mercy. Unbeknown to Martin, Pecksniff has actually taken him on to establish closer ties with the wealthy grandfather, thinking that this will gain Pecksniff a prominent place in the will.
Old Martin and Mary
A Game of Love
Young Martin befriends Tom Pinch, a kind-hearted soul whose late grandmother had given Pecksniff all she had, believing Pecksniff would make an architect and gentleman of him. Pinch is incapable of believing any of the bad things others tell him of Pecksniff, and always defends him vociferously. Pinch works for exploitatively low wages, while believing he is the unworthy recipient of Pecksniff's charity.
When Martin senior hears of his grandson's new life, he demands that Pecksniff kick young Martin out. Then, Martin senior moves in and falls under Pecksniff's control. During this time, Pinch falls in love with Mary, but does not declare it, knowing of her attachment to young Martin.
One of Martin senior's greedy relatives is his brother, Anthony Chuzzlewit, who is in business with his son, Jonas. Despite considerable wealth, they live miserly, cruel lives, with Jonas constantly berating his father, eager for the old man to die so he can inherit. Anthony dies abruptly and under suspicious circumstances, leaving his wealth to Jonas. Jonas then woos Cherry, whilst arguing constantly with Merry. He then abruptly declares to Pecksniff that he wants to marry Merry, and jilts Cherry - not without demanding an additional 1,000 pounds on top of the 4,000 that Pecksniff had promised him as Cherry's dowry, with the argument that Cherry has better chances for matchmaking.
Jonas, meanwhile, becomes entangled with the unscrupulous Montague Tigg and joins in his pyramid scheme -like insurance scam. At the beginning of the book he is a petty thief and hanger-on of a Chuzzlewit relative, Chevy Slyme. Tigg cheats young Martin out of a valuable pocket watch and uses the funds to transform himself into a seemingly fine man called "Tigg Montague". This façade convinces investors that he must be an important businessman from whom they may greatly profit. Jonas eventually ends up murdering Tigg, who has acquired some kind of information on him.
At this time, Tom Pinch finally sees his employer's true character. Pinch goes to London to seek employment, and rescues his governess sister Ruth, whom he discovers has been mistreated by the family employing her. Pinch quickly receives an ideal job from a mysterious employer, with the help of an equally mysterious Mr Fips.
Tom Pinch at the Organ.
John Westlock and Ruth Pinch
Young Martin, meanwhile, has encountered Mark Tapley. Mark is always cheerful, which he decides does not reflect well on him because he is always in happy circumstances and it shows no strength of character to be happy when one has good fortune. He decides he must test his cheerfulness by seeing if he can maintain it in the worst circumstances possible. To this end, he accompanies young Martin when he goes to the United States to seek his fortune. The men attempt to start new lives in a swampy, disease-filled settlement named "Eden", but both nearly die of malaria . Mark finally finds himself in a situation in which it can be considered a virtue to remain in good spirits. The grim experience, and Mark's care nursing Martin back to health, change Martin's selfish and proud character, and the men return to England, where Martin returns penitently to his grandfather. But his grandfather is now under Pecksniff's control and rejects him.
At this point, Martin is reunited with Tom Pinch, who now discovers that his mysterious benefactor is old Martin Chuzzlewit. The older Martin had only been pretending to be in thrall to Pecksniff. Together, the group confront Pecksniff with their knowledge of his true character. They also discover that Jonas murdered Tigg to prevent him from revealing that he had planned to murder Anthony.
Senior Martin now reveals that he was angry at his grandson for becoming engaged to Mary because he had planned to arrange that particular match himself, and felt his glory had been thwarted by them deciding on the plan themselves. He realises the folly of that opinion, and Martin and his grandfather are reconciled. Martin and Mary are married, as are Ruth Pinch and John Westlock, another former student of Pecksniff's. Tom Pinch remains in unrequited love with Mary for the rest of his life, never marrying, and always being a warm companion to Mary and Martin and to Ruth and John.
Characters
The extended Chuzzlewit family
The main characters of the story are the members of the extended Chuzzlewit family.
The first to be introduced is Seth Pecksniff, a widower with two daughters, who is a self-styled teacher of architecture. He believes that he is a highly moral individual who loves his fellow man, but mistreats his students and passes off their designs as his own for profit. He seems to be a cousin of Old Martin Chuzzlewit. Pecksniff's rise and fall follows the novel's plot arc.
Mr Pecksniff with members of the Chuzzlewit family.
Martin Chuzzlewit the Younger With Mark Tapley
Next we meet his two daughters, Charity and Mercy Pecksniff. They are also affectionately known as Cherry and Merry, or as the two Miss Pecksniffs. Charity is portrayed throughout the book as having none of that virtue after which she is named, while Mercy, the younger sister, is at first silly and girlish in a manner that's probably inconsistent with her numerical age. Later events in the story drastically change her personality.
Old Martin Chuzzlewit, the wealthy patriarch of the Chuzzlewit family, lives in constant suspicion of the financial designs of his extended family. At the beginning of the novel he has aligned himself with Mary, an orphan, to have a caretaker who is not eyeing his estate. Later in the story he makes an apparent alliance with Pecksniff, who, he believes, is at least consistent in character. His true character is revealed by the end of the story.
Young Martin Chuzzlewit is the grandson of Old Martin Chuzzlewit. He is the closest relative of Old Martin and has inherited much of the stubbornness and selfishness of the old man. Young Martin is the protagonist of the story. His engagement to Mary is the cause of estrangement between himself and his grandfather. By the end of the story he becomes a reformed character, realising and repenting of the selfishness of his previous actions.
Anthony Chuzzlewit is the brother of Old Martin. He and his son, Jonas, run a business together called Chuzzlewit and Son. They are both self-serving, hardened individuals who view the accumulation of money as the most important thing in life.
Jonas Chuzzlewit is the mean-spirited, sinisterly jovial son of Anthony Chuzzlewit. He views his father with contempt and wishes for his death so that he can have the business and the money for himself. It is suggested that he may have actually hastened the old man's death. He is a suitor of the two Miss Pecksniffs, wins one, then is driven to commit murder by his unscrupulous business associations.
Mr and Mrs Spottletoe are the nephew-in-law and niece of Old Martin Chuzzlewit, Mrs Spottletoe being the daughter of Old Martin's brother. She was also once the favourite of Old Martin though they have since fallen out.
George Chuzzlewit is the bachelor cousin of Old Martin.
Other characters
Thomas (Tom) Pinch is a former student of Pecksniff's who has become his personal assistant. He is kind, simple, and honest in everything he does, serving as a foil to Pecksniff. He carries in his heart an undying loyalty and admiration for Pecksniff. Eventually, he discovers Pecksniff's true nature through his treatment of Mary, whom Pinch has come to love. Because Tom Pinch plays such a large role in the story, he is sometimes considered the novel's true protagonist.
Ruth Pinch is Tom Pinch's sister. She is sweet and good, like her brother. At first she works as a governess to a wealthy family with several nasty brats. Later in the novel she and Tom set up housekeeping together. She falls in love with, and marries, Tom's friend John Westlock.
Mark Tapley, the good-humoured employee of the Blue Dragon Inn and suitor of Mrs Lupin (the Dragon's owner), leaves that establishment to find work that's more of a credit to his character: that is, work sufficiently miserable that his cheerfulness will be more of a credit to him. He eventually joins Young Martin Chuzzlewit on his trip to America, where he finds at last a situation that requires the full extent of his innate cheerfulness of disposition. Martin buys a piece of land in a settlement called "Eden"—which, if not actually underwater, is at least in the midst of a malarial swamp. Mark nurses him through his illness, and they eventually return to England.
Montague Tigg with Jonas (Mr Nadgett Breathes, as Usual, an Atmosphere of Mystery).
Montague Tigg / Tigg Montague is a down-on-his-luck rogue at the beginning of the story, and a hanger-on to distant Chuzzlewit kin Chevy Slyme. Later, he starts a thriving, sleazy insurance business with no money at all and lures Jonas into the business. (The Anglo-Bengalee Disinterested Loan and Life Assurance Company is in essence a classic Ponzi scheme —founded before Charles Ponzi was born—which paid off early policyholders' claims with premiums from more recent policyholders.)
John Westlock begins as a disgruntled student falling out with Pecksniff. After Tom Pinch's flight to London, John serves as a mentor and companion to both Tom and his sister; he falls in love with and eventually marries Ruth Pinch.
Mr Nadgett is a soft-spoken, mysterious individual who is Tom Pinch's landlord and serves as Montague's private investigator.
Sarah Gamp (also known as Sairey or Mrs Gamp). Sarah Gamp is an alcoholic who works as a midwife , monthly nurse , and layer-out of the dead. Even in a house of mourning, Mrs Gamp manages to enjoy all the hospitality a house can afford, with little regard for the person to whom she is there to minister; and she is often much the worse for drink. In her nursing activities, she constantly refers to a Mrs Harris, who is in fact "a phantom of Mrs Gamp's brain ... created for the express purpose of holding visionary dialogues with her on all manner of subjects, and invariably winding up with a compliment to the excellence of her nature." She habitually carries with her a battered black umbrella: so popular with the Victorian public was the character that Gamp became a slang word for an umbrella in general. The character was based upon a real nurse described to Dickens by his friend, Angela Burdett-Coutts . [3] [4]
Mary Graham is the caretaker of old Martin Chuzzlewit, who has told her she will receive nothing from him in his will. The older Martin expects that this will give Mary a strong interest in keeping him alive and well. Mary and old Martin Chuzzlewit's grandson fall in love, thus giving her an interest in the elder Chuzzlewit's death. The two lovers are separated by the events of the book, but are eventually reunited.
Mr Chuffey is an old man who works for Anthony Chuzzlewit and later Jonas Chuzzlewit.
Jefferson Brick is a war correspondent in The New York Rowdy Journal.
Mr Bailey is physically of small build and employed by the fraudster Montague Tigg and has been willing to sacrifice his Jewish beard to be a friend to a local barber, Paul(Poll) Sweedlepipe, let alone buys birds from him. There is such a frolic wonderfulness in his character and mien that even the unscrupulous rascal Montague deeply lamented for him when he was reported to suffer a fatal head injury after he was knocked out of the cabriolet, saying that he would rather lose a large sum of money than lose him. To the barber's relief and joy, he recovers from the injury in the end.
Publication
Martin Chuzzlewit was published in 19 monthly instalments, each comprising 32 pages of text and two illustrations by Hablot K. "Phiz" Browne and costing one shilling.[ citation needed ] The last part was double-length.
I – January 1843 (chapters 1–3)
II – February 1843 (chapters 4–5)
III – March 1843 (chapters 6–8)
IV – April 1843 (chapters 9–10)
V – May 1843 (chapters 11–12)
VI – June 1843 (chapters 13–15)
VII – July 1843 (chapters 16–17)
VIII – August 1843 (chapters 18–20)
IX – September 1843 (chapters 21–23)
X – October 1843 (chapters 24–26)
XI – November 1843 (chapters 27–29)
XII – December 1843 (chapters 30–32)
XIII – January 1844 (chapters 33–35)
XIV – February 1844 (chapters 36–38)
XV – March 1844 (chapters 39–41)
XVI – April 1844 (chapters 42–44)
XVII – May 1844 (chapters 45–47)
XVIII – June 1844 (chapters 48–50)
XIX-XX – July 1844 (chapters 51–54)
The early monthly numbers were not as successful as Dickens' previous work and only sold about twenty thousand copies each (compared to forty to fifty thousand for the monthly numbers of the Pickwick Papers and Nicholas Nickleby and sixty to seventy thousand for the weekly issues of Barnaby Rudge and The Old Curiosity Shop ) causing a break between Dickens and his publishers Chapman and Hall when they invoked a penalty clause in his contract requiring him to pay back money they had lent him to cover their costs. Also, Dickens' scathing satire of American modes and manners in the novel won him no friends on the other side of the Atlantic, where the instalments containing the offending chapters were greeted with a 'frenzy of wrath'. As a consequence, Dickens received much abusive mail and many newspaper clippings from the U.S. [5]
Anti-Americanism
The novel was seen by some to contain attacks on America, although Dickens himself saw it as satire, similar in spirit to his "attacks" on the people and institutions of England in novels such as Oliver Twist . Fraud is shown as a common feature in America, although the insurance scheme practised in England in this novel is equally fraudulent. Americans are satirically portrayed; they proclaim their equality at every opportunity but, when they have travelled to England, they claim to have been received only by aristocrats .
The Republic is described as "so maimed and lame, so full of sores and ulcers, foul to the eye and almost hopeless to the sense, that her best friends turn from the loathsome creature with disgust". Dickens also attacks the institution of slavery in the United States in the following words: "Thus the stars wink upon the bloody stripes; and Liberty pulls down her cap upon her eyes, and owns oppression in its vilest aspect for her sister." [6]
According to an account in the Boston Bee, the negative portrayal of America in Martin Chuzzlewit caused one Englishman to be so disgusted that he chose to drown himself so that he would not have to enter New York . [7]
George L. Rives wrote "It is perhaps not too much to say that the publication of Martin Chuzzlewit did more than almost any other one thing to drive the United States and England in the direction of war" (over the Oregon boundary dispute which was eventually resolved without war). [8]
In popular culture
In 1844 the novel was adapted into a stage play at the Queen's Theatre and featured Thomas Manders as Sarah Gamp. [9]
The novel was adapted into a television mini series of the same name in 1994. [1] Examples of references in other television productions include one in the 1956 film Our Miss Brooks (concluding the television and radio series of the same name). Miss Brooks is tutoring teenaged Gary Nolan and gives him the choice of reading and writing a book report on Martin Chuzzlewit, or simply writing an article for the school paper. In The Simpsons episode " Brother, Can You Spare Two Dimes? ", Lisa Simpson lists it as one of the books that she would receive from the Greater Books of the Western Civilization. In the Doctor Who episode " The Unquiet Dead ", The Doctor expresses his admiration for Dickens' works but criticises Martin Chuzzlewit, saying, "Mind you, for God's sake, the American bit in Martin Chuzzlewit, what's that about? Was that just padding? Or what? I mean, it's rubbish, that bit."
In cinema, the CGI movie Barbie in a Christmas Carol features a snotty cat named Chuzzlewit who is the pet of Barbie's character Eden Starling. John Travolta's character quotes from the novel in A Love Song for Bobby Long .
The novel features prominently in Jasper Fforde 's novel The Eyre Affair .
References
Dickens is said to have proclaimed Martin Chuzzlewit his best work. When early public sales of its first monthly instalments proved disappointing, Dickens changed the plot to send Martin to America, drawing on his visit there in 1842.
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Coulrophobia is the fear of what type of people? | What is the Fear of Clowns (Coulrophobia)?
Updated September 09, 2016
Coulrophobia, or fear of clowns, seems to be relatively common.
A January 2008 report from BBC News suggests that clown phobia may be more ingrained than was previously assumed.
That article cites a recent study conducted by University of Sheffield researchers who polled children in several British hospitals about an upcoming hospital redesign. According to the news story, all 250 children (age 4 to 16) expressed a fear or dislike of clowns.
The full results of the study have not yet been published.
Widespread Fear of Clowns
Why are we, as a society, collectively afraid of clowns? In a 2004 review article for Trinity University, Joseph Durwin postulates that there are two commonly accepted schools of thought. One is that the fear is based on a negative personal experience with a clown at a young age. The second theory is that mass media has created a hype surrounding evil clowns such that even children who are not personally exposed to clowns are trained to dislike or fear them. However, neither of these theories is entirely satisfactory.
History of the Clown
Durwin continues into an impressive history of the clown, dating back to the jester or fool of ancient times. In those days, the clown was given permission and even expected, to represent the deviant side of human nature, from openly defying the sexual norms of the day to mocking the gods.
As time went on, the jester morphed into the trickster, a more sinister figure with intentions that were less than honorable.
The modern circus clown is an outgrowth of the tramp clowns of the Depression era. Tramp clowns were largely members of the "unsavory" underclass who entertained the most privileged with a caricatured look at their daily existence.
Although most tramp clowns were harmless, a seedy underbelly did exist among the clown circuit.
By the 1980s, clown phobia had reached a peak. Rumors of ritual abuse of children were rampant, and clowns figured heavily into many of the stories. Spontaneous reports of clown harassment began pouring in from children nationwide. Even urban legends began to focus on killer clowns lying in wait for hapless babysitters. Soon Stephen King tapped into the national consciousness with the definitive killer clown work of fiction, "It."
Killer Clowns and Circus Clowns
In the decades that followed, killer clowns have become a part of our human myths. At Halloween events, killer clowns are often part of the festivities. Yet the killer clown's innocent cousin, the circus clown, continues to delight and amaze the young and the young at heart.
How can we justify this seemingly incompatible coexistence? A possible explanation can be found by looking to the past. Throughout history, clowns have represented the side of us that is not acceptable to society.
That side is formed from our most primal urges and is not always neat or pretty. Perhaps the clown both attracts and repels us because he or she holds up a mirror to our inner selves.
Until more research is performed, the causes of clown phobia will remain firmly in the realm of speculation. Fortunately, it is possible for mental health professionals to treat clown phobia , as any other phobia, without learning the precise reasons for its development.
Source:
| Clown |
In the US television show ‘The Sopranos’, what is the first name of Salvatore Bonpensiero’s (Big Pussy) wife? | Coulrophobia: Fear of Clowns- Causes, Symptoms and Treatment | Healthtopia
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Coulrophobia: Fear of Clowns- Causes, Symptoms and Treatment
Clowns may not be subject of laughter in actual. In fact, after the Pennywise the Clown from Stephen King’s “It” movie of 1990, even middle aged Americans were terrorized by the image of a clown. There’s a specific kind of phobia in which the person excessively and constantly fears clowns. This kind of phobia is known as coulrophobia.
Coulrophobia has been derived from Greek word “Kolon” which means stilt or stilt walker. These are commonly used by clowns. It is signified by a persistent worry of coming across a clown, and getting intensely disturbed upon any related encounter with clowns. This type of phobia is more common in children, but also occurs with adults.
What Causes Coulrophobia?
Coulrophobia can be caused by various factors:
Media Image
Coulrophobia has been often related with the media content that portrayed clowns as evil and dangerous creatures rather than comedy element. There are many horror movies like “It” by Stephen King or “Poltergeist” by Steven Spielberg which introduced heart wrecking clown characters. Such type of media image can have a long lasting fear, and that might turn out to be phobia in many people.
A traumatic encounter
Another notable cause for this kind of fear with clowns is associated with is a traumatic experience that is somewhere related with clowns. Mostly, children are more vulnerable to be traumatized by the appearance of a clown due to unfamiliar appearance. Any such distress and trauma might take a form of phobia in people unexpectedly.
The Symptoms of Coulrophobia
Common symptoms that can occur with people (both children and adults) having coulrophobia are:
Intense and irrelevant fear of clowns and coming across one
Fleeing away from a clown immediately even when it doesn’t pose any danger
Instant reactions such as crying and screaming
Avoiding amusement parks, parades and fetes to avoid clowns only
Fear is triggered even by seeing accessory such as a hat or shows of a clown
Realizing that the fear is irrational ( except in children)
Panic attacks upon such fearful experience
Physical symptoms such as trembling, trouble in breathing, increased heart rate, sweating and clammy hands, nausea or vomiting, dizziness or fainting, abdominal uneasiness and feeling hot
When to Visit a doctor?
Coulrophobia can be a problem if the person is constantly worried and having disturbing thoughts about clowns. If the above symptoms have been occurring for a long time period, exceeding over six months and disturbed the daily life of a person, one needs to visit a doctor.
How is Coulrophobia Treated?
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In March 1990 who was elected as the first-ever President of the Soviet Union? | Gorbachev elected president of the Soviet Union - Mar 14, 1990 - HISTORY.com
Gorbachev elected president of the Soviet Union
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The Congress of People’s Deputies elects General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev as the new president of the Soviet Union. While the election was a victory for Gorbachev, it also revealed serious weaknesses in his power base that would eventually lead to the collapse of his presidency in December 1991.
Gorbachev’s election in 1990 was far different from other “elections” previously held in the Soviet Union. Since coming to power in 1985, Gorbachev had worked hard to open up the political process in the Soviet Union, pushing through legislation that eliminated the Communist Party’s monopoly on power and establishing the Congress of People’s Deputies. The public at large elected the Congress by secret ballot. By 1990, however, Gorbachev was facing criticism from both reformers and communist hard-liners. The reformers, such as Boris Yeltsin, criticized Gorbachev for the slow pace of his reform agenda. Communist hard-liners, on the other hand, were appalled by what they saw as Gorbachev’s retreat from Marxist principles. In an attempt to push forward his reform program, Gorbachev led a movement that amended the Soviet constitution, including writing a section establishing a new and more powerful presidency, a position that had previously been largely symbolic.
On March 14, 1990, the Congress of People’s Deputies elected Gorbachev to a five-year term as president. While this was certainly a victory for Gorbachev, the election also vividly demonstrated the problems he faced in trying to formulate a domestic consensus supporting his political reform program. Gorbachev had worked assiduously to make sure that the Congress gave him the necessary two-thirds majority, including making repeated threats to resign if the majority was not achieved. Had he not received the necessary votes, he would have had to campaign in a general election against other candidates. Gorbachev believed that a general election would result in chaos in an already unsteady Russia; others in the Soviet Union attributed his actions to fear that he might lose such an election. The final vote in the Congress was extremely close, and Gorbachev achieved his two-thirds majority by a slim 46 votes.
Gorbachev won the presidency, but by 1991 his domestic critics were pillorying him for the nation’s terrible economic performance and faltering control over the Soviet empire. In December 1991 he resigned as president, and the Soviet Union dissolved. Despite the criticism he received, Gorbachev is credited for instituting a dizzying number of reforms that loosened the tight grip of communism on the Soviet people.
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The Frog Cake was created in 1922 by Balfours Bakery in which country? | END OF THE SOVIET UNION - Gorbachev's Six Tumultuous Years at Soviet Helm - NYTimes.com
END OF THE SOVIET UNION
END OF THE SOVIET UNION; Gorbachev's Six Tumultuous Years at Soviet Helm
Published: December 26, 1991
March 1985: Mikhail S. Gorbachev succeeds Konstantin U. Chernenko as Communist Party General Secretary. At 54, he is the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin.
April 1985: Gorbachev emphasizes the urgent need to reshape society and the economy with processes he calls glasnost, or increased openness, and perestroika, or political and economic restructuring.
July 1985: Gorbachev removes Andrei A. Gromyko, the veteran Foreign Minister, naming him to the largely ceremonial presidency. Eduard A. Shevardnadze replaces him.
November 1985: Gorbachev meets with President Reagan in Geneva for his first superpower summit.
January 1987: The Communist Party Central Committee approves Gorbachev's plan to give voters a choice of candidates in local elections.
October 1987: Boris N. Yeltsin, the Moscow party leader and favorite of those advocating swifter change, criticizes Yegor K. Ligachev, a conservative who is No. 2 party leader. Yeltsin is forced out of his post.
November 1987: On the 70th anniversary of the Russian Revolution, Gorbachev denounces Stalin, helping to legitimize criticism of organs of repression and to loosen censorship.
November 1988: Gorbachev dissolves the old Supreme Soviet, replacing it with a Congress of People's Deputies and a smaller, full-time legislature, the new Supreme Soviet.
March 1989: In the first free elections in the Soviet Union since 1917, scores of party officials suffer humiliating defeats in contests for the Congress of People's Deputies, the new national legislature.
December 1989: The Communist Party in Lithuania breaks with Moscow. Gorbachev denounces the move.
January 1990: Ethnic violence breaks out in Azerbaijan.
February 1990: Over the fierce objections of hard-liners, the Central Committee adopts Gorbachev's plan to end the party's constitutional monopoly on power -- its "leading role."
March 1990: In elections, pro-democracy groups achieve major gains in Russia, the Ukraine and Byelorussia and control of local governments in Moscow, Leningrad and other cities. Lithuania's parliament declares its annexation by the Soviet Union in 1940 null and void. Gorbachev is elected by the Soviet Parliament to the new executive presidency.
July 1990: At a Communist Party congress, Ligachev denounces Gorbachev's leadership, but loses election for the No. 2 post in reorganized Politburo. On Gorbachev's other flank, Yeltsin, who has become leader of the Russian republic and Gorbachev's chief rival, walks out of the congress and quits the party to express dismay with the pace of change.
October 1990: Gorbachev wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
December 1990: Shevardnadze resigns, saying reactionaries are pushing the country toward dictatorship.
January 1991: Soviet Interior Ministry troops storm Lithuania's radio-television center in Vilnius, killing 14.
March 1991: In a nationwide referendum, voters support Gorbachev's plan for creation of a looser union. But 6 of the 15 republics boycott the vote and in other republics, like Russia and the Ukraine, anti-Kremlin initiatives gain strong support.
July 1991: Gorbachev reaches agreement with nine republics on the draft of a new union treaty.
August 1991: With Gorbachev at his Crimean vacation home two days before the scheduled signing of the new union treaty, hard-liners take over the country, clamping down on the press and banning demonstrations. Yeltsin, president of the Russian republic, denounces Gorbachev's removal. Thousands of Yeltsin supporters demonstrate outside Russia's parliament building. Three people are killed outside the Parliament building by military vehicles. The coup fails when crack Soviet Army troops refuse orders to attack the Russian parliament building. Latvia's Parliament declares independence. Gorbachev returns to Moscow from the Crimea, resigns as head of the Communist Party, then bans it.
September 1991: Gorbachev and leaders of 10 republics transfer authority to an emergency State Council, entrusting it to run country until a new union government is fashioned. The council recognizes the independence of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.
December 1991: With the economy a shambles and the Soviet Government near bankruptcy, Yeltsin agrees to finance the Soviet payroll with the Russian republic's money. Ukraine, second most powerful republic, overwhelmingly votes in favor of independence. Russia proclaims independence and with Ukraine and Byelorussia forms Commonwealth of Independent States independent of the Soviet structure. Russia takes over the Soviet Foreign Ministry, K.G.B., Parliament and even Gorbachev's presidential office. Eight more republics join the Commonwealth. Gorbachev, a president without a country, announces his resignation.
Photo: In October 1989, Mikhail S. Gorbachev and Erich Honecker, the East German leader, reviewed troops in East Berlin on the 40th anniversary of the German Democratic Republic. (Agence France-Presse)
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Saga and Stichelton are types of which foodstuff? | A Guide to Cheese | Whole Foods Market
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Cheese
Walk into our cheese department and you'll find hundreds and hundreds of the best cheeses we can get our hands on from all over the world and right in our backyards. Free samples, naturally.
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Cheese
Holy cow, goat, sheep and buffalo! We'll admit it. We're obsessed with cheese. You may have already guessed it, though, judging by the size of our cheese counters. Walk into our stores and you'll find anywhere from 250 to 1,000 of the best cheeses we can get our hands on from all over the world.
Because we always have your best interests in mind, many of the cheeses we sell are organic and most of them are free of rBST (recombinant bovine growth hormone, that is). And we don't sell any cheese that contains artificial flavors, colors or preservatives either. Hungry for more?
We personally visit farms around the world to choose our international selection of cheeses, whether it's locally made chevre or delectable manchego from Spain. Leading the charge is our Big Cheese, Cathy Strange, Whole Foods Market's beloved Global Cheese Buyer. ( Learn more about Cathy and her cheesy talents .)
Cheese 101
Like bread or wine, cheese falls into basic categories based on its texture and the process with which it's made. Luckily for cheese heads like us, the categories are simple:
Fresh: Think of these cheeses as the ones without rinds. This category is where you'll find casual favorites like goat cheese, fresh mozzarella, ricotta and cream cheese.
Semi-Soft: If you're making a grilled cheese sandwich, consider these guys. Semi-soft cheeses—ones like Gouda, Provolone, Havarti and Jack—are great for eating out of hand and even better for melting.
Semi-Hard (a.k.a. Semi-Firm): Cheddar is the king of this category, which includes tasty favorites like Edam and Gruyère.
Hard (a.k.a. Firm): Grating cheeses (see Cheeses that Grate) and cheese tray stand-outs like Mimolette and aged Asiago rule this category.
Washed-Rind: Cheeses like Tallegio, Limburger and Muenster bathe in salty brine, sometimes with a little beer, wine or liquor added to gild the lily. The brine in turn helps cheese to form an edible rind around its soft or semi-soft interior.
Bloomy-Rind: These cheeses are purposely exposed to mold spores to create a gently fuzzy rind on the outside. The rinds on these cheeses, like those of Brie and Camembert, are generally edible, though some folks choose to skip to the creamy insides.
Blue: Love it or hate it, blue cheese is here to stay. These pungent, delicious cheeses are marked with blue mold, introduced when mold spores are injected or added to the cheese. Stilton and Maytag Blue are stand-out examples of blue cheese done right.
Cheesy Trivia
Q: Some goat cheeses are covered in black ash because:
A.) they've been playing too close to the volcano
B.) a spark from the bonfire hit the dairy barn
C.) they refuse to take a bath
D.) that's a traditional means of preserving cheese
A: The answer is D. Before refrigeration, cheeses were covered in wax, salt or ashes to keep them fresh. The tradition remains today, though cheese makers now commonly use vegetable ash instead of wood ash from a fire.
Q: True or False: It's illegal to sell raw milk cheeses in the US.
A: Man, we hope not! Thankfully, the answer is false. By law, all raw milk cheeses—essentially cheeses made with unpasteurized milk—must be aged for 60 days in order to be sold in the US. Our mouth-watering selection always meets this standard.
Q: One ½-pound block of cheese makes about ____ cups of grated cheese.
A.) 2
C.) 5
D.) 638
A: The answer is D. Nah, just kidding! (But wouldn't that be great?) The answer is A, 2 cups. Keep this handy number in mind when you're shopping for ingredients to make pasta dishes like macaroni and cheese, or our flavorful blue-cheese variation, Macaroni Sings the Blues .
Q: The enzymes listed on cheese labels are:
A.) lazy good-for-nothings
C.) vegetable- or microbial-based
D.) from a variety of sources
A: The answer is D. Most often, "rennet" is animal-based and "enzymes" are vegetable- or microbial-based. Bottom line? If you're a strict vegetarian, always contact the manufacturer for details.
Champion the Cheese Course
Planning: Putting together the perfect cheese course or cheese tray is magical, and thankfully, so easy. There really aren't any rules to it; just aim for a variety of flavors and textures. Try combining a blue cheese, a washed- or bloomy-rind cheese, a fresh cheese, a hard cheese and a unique locally-made cheese. (Wonder which cheeses fall into these categories? See Cheese 101 .)
Buying: Need an easy rule-of-thumb for deciding how much cheese to buy? Allow for about 2 ounces of cheese per person. Simple.
Serving: Give cheese about 30 to 45 minutes out of the refrigerator to come to room temperature before serving, then keep these 5 Dos and Don'ts in mind. (You can thank us later.)
Do spread fresh cheese on bread or crackers.
Don't wear a cheese head hat while serving cheese. Contrary to popular belief, everyone doesn't think they're funny. (We do, but that's beside the point.)
Do serve dried or ripe seasonal fruit (dried cranberries or fresh pears are perfect), olives or nuts alongside your cheese tray. It makes for great flavor combos and gives tasters a chance to relax their taste buds on other foods in between cheeses.
Don't serve semi-hard and hard cheeses in huge chunks. Cut them into wedges, cubes or shards instead; it exposes them to the air and broadens their flavor.
Do consider serving wine with your cheese. Ask a Team Member in our wine department for suggestions.
Ooey-Gooey: How to Cook with Cheese
Eating cheese out-of-hand is certainly satisfying enough. But keep these tips in mind when cooking with cheese and you'll find yourself in the lap of lactose luxury:
The more aged a cheese, the grainier its melted texture. The younger, the creamier—you get the idea.
Cook cheese as briefly and gently as possible (no flames leaping out of the pan, please) or incorporate it into a stable base like a cream sauce.
Combining cheese with other ingredients tends to mellow its flavor, so use flavorful cheeses in cooking, even if they're a little stronger than what you might munch on.
Cold cheese is easier to grate, crumble and slice. Cheese that's been allowed to reach room temperature is much easier to mash or spread. Plan accordingly.
Cheeses that Grate
Not on our nerves, of course! If the idea of grated cheese brings to mind a shiny green can filled with salty, powdery cheese, then something's gotta give! Luckily, there's a laundry list of venerable cheeses—aged to perfection and busting at the seams with flavor—waiting to be grated over pasta, salads and meats.
Quick Tip: Don't throw away the rind from a hard, grating cheese. Instead, toss it into a pot of stock, soup or tomato sauce for a dose of unrivaled, rich flavor.
Parmigiano Reggiano may be the granddaddy of all grating cheeses, but there are loads of other delicious choices that are ready for their close-ups, too. Check out a few of our favorites:
Parmigiano Reggiano (Italy): a creamy but grainy winner with a warm, golden sheen and a flavor that's spicy, fruity and full all at once
Pecorino Romano (Italy): a sharp and salty part-skim sheep's milk cheese
Grana Padano (Italy): an all-purpose grating and cooking cheese with rich, sharp flavor
Crottin Poivre (France): a small, black-rinded French wheel studded with peppercorns
Sbrinz (Switzerland): a nutty, slightly sweet cheese that's particularly yummy with vegetables
Argentine Parmesan (Argentina): a salty (and worthy) parmesan imitation
Sonoma Dry Jack (US): a piquant and spicy stateside treasure
Aged Gouda (Holland): a well-rounded, richly spicy cheese
Manchego (Spain): a sheep's milk cheese with smooth, creamy flavor
Rennet and Enzymes and Cheese, Oh My!
We think it's important to know what you're eating. A little education never hurt anybody, right? If you're curious about how milk becomes cheese (you know we are), read on:
What are enzymes and how are they used to make cheese? In order for milk to coagulate (i.e. separate into curds and whey) and eventually become cheese, enzymes are added to break down the proteins that keep milk a liquid.
What are rennet, rennin, and chymosin? Take a deep breath. According to Webster's Unabridged Dictionary rennet is "the lining membrane of the fourth stomach of the calf (and/or) a preparation or extract of the rennet membrane, used to curdle milk, as in making cheese…." In layman's terms, rennet is essentially a broad term used to describe any enzyme used to coagulate milk, and rennin and chymosin are enzymes found in rennet.
How many different types of enzymes are used to make cheese? Animal, vegetable, microbial and genetically engineered rennet can all be used in cheese making.
Is the use of rennet in cheese making controversial? At times, yes. Because it's an animal by-product, rennet sparks discussions on the issues of animal rights, vegetarianism, bioengineering and even religion (some animal-based rennet isn't considered "halal").
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In the theatre, topophobia is commonly known as what? | Stilton - Cheese.com
Find over 1750 specialty cheeses from 74 countries in the world's greatest cheese resource
Stilton
This is one of the best British cheeses, worthy of a sonnet. It is a quintessential English cheese, suitable not only for celebrations, but also to perk up everyday dishes. It is the only British cheese to have a Certification Trade Mark and an EU Protected Name.
The Stilton cheese can only be produced in the three counties of Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire. The cheese is made from locally produced cow's pasteurised milk. It is made in a cylindrical shape and allowed to form its own coat or crust. The distinctive feature of this cheese is magical blue veins radiating from the centre of the cheese.
Traditionally, this cheese has been paired with sherry and port wine. It is also a good choice to go with walnuts, crackers, biscuits and breads.
Made from pasteurized cow 's milk
Country of origin: England
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