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What physical feature do all pinnipeds have?	seal: Characteristic Features of All Seals seal Characteristic Features of All Seals Pinnipeds have streamlined bodies, rounded in the middle and tapered at the ends, with a thick layer of fat beneath the skin. Their limbs are short and their feet are long and webbed, forming flippers. The sea lions and fur seals (family Otariidae) and the walrus (family Odobenidae) are able to turn their hind flippers forward for walking on land; they swim chiefly by a rowing action of the long front flippers. The true seals (family Phocidae) are unable to rotate the hind flippers. They progress on land by wriggling on their bellies, pulling themselves with the short front flippers; in the water they are propelled by a side-to-side sweeping action of the hind flippers. Nearly all pinnipeds are marine, and most inhabit cold or temperate regions. Some spend most of the year in the open ocean, while others inhabit coastal waters and spend varying amounts of time on shores, islands, or ice floes. Occasionally they ascend rivers. All pinnipeds leave the water at least once a year, at breeding time. In nearly all species the females give birth a year after mating, so that the births take place on land, just before breeding begins. The pups are nursed during the period, usually of several months duration, spent on land. Some species spend most of the year far from their breeding grounds; the northern fur seals make particularly lengthy migrations each year. Most pinnipeds have diets of fish and shellfish; many are bottom feeders, with physiological adaptations for deep diving. They have acute hearing and some, if not all, make use of echolocation (sonar) for underwater navigation. Sections in this article:	Flipper
The hamadryas is a species of which monkey?	Carnivores - NatureWorks Carnivores Adapted for Meat Carnivores are predators. They hunt and eat other animals to survive. Mammals that are carnivores have sharp teeth adapted for ripping meat from a carcass. Carnivores like the wolf have large, powerful jaws that help bring down large animals like deer. The bobcat and cougar have powerful paws with sharp claws that help them catch prey. Herbivores have teeth adapted to chewing plants. Their big molars are designed to help them grind up leaves, seeds and twigs. For the Birds Meat-eating birds like hawks and owls have keen eyesight that makes it easier for them to spot prey. They have sharp talons to catch prey and curved beaks to tear up meat. All of these adaptations help these carnivorous birds catch and eat their prey. Hard Work Carnivores have to work hard for their food. Most prey animals have good defense systems to help them avoid predators. Most warm-blooded predators like the coyote have to hunt frequently. Cold-blooded predators like snakes can go days or even months between meals. Hunting in the Water Some carnivores, like the seal and the sea lion, spend a lot of time hunting in the water. Sea lions, walruses and seals are pinnipeds, which means "fin feet." Pinnipeds are adapted for hunting in the water. They have torpedo-like bodies that help them shoot through the water, flippers for legs, and some have ears and noses that close up when they are underwater. Pinnipeds eat fish, crabs and other marine animals. Keeping It All in Balance The carnivore's niche in the community is to help control populations. Very young, old or sick prey are most vulnerable to predators. Without predators, populations of animals like mice and deer would grow too large and sick animals might spread disease to other animals. By catching prey, carnivores help keep a balance in communities between producers and consumers. Advertisement:	i don't know
What kind of mammal is a sika?	Sika deer videos, photos and facts - Cervus nippon \| ARKive Top Sika deer biology Primarily nocturnal (2) or crepuscular (1) , the sika deer can also sometimes be seen foraging during the day, grazing singly or in small herds (1) (2) . The sika deer is not a particularly gregarious species, and adult males tend to be solitary for most of the year (2) (3) , only gathering together once their antlers have been shed (2) . Male and female sika deer occupy different areas for most of the year, and only come together during the mating season (3) . Sika deer do not migrate large distances between summer and winter (6) , but this species is known to migrate to lower valleys in the winter (1) . Interestingly, the sika deer is a good swimmer, and is also capable of jumping over objects up to 1.7 metres in height (2) . The sika deer is a herbivorous species (6) , feeding on many different plants (2) including grasses, browse and even fruit (1) . In the summer, this species’ diet tends to consist primarily of grasses and herbs , whereas in winter months more woody plants are consumed (2) . The shoots and bark of coniferous trees may sometimes be taken (3) , and the sika deer has been reported to feed on crops in the spring and early summer (2) . As in other deer, male sika deer rub their antlers against trees both to remove velvet and as a territory marker (5) . The antlers are cast in May (2) (5) , and grow throughout the summer (5) . The breeding season of the sika deer, known as the rut, typically occurs in the autumn (1) (4) , from about September to November (3) (6) or December (2) . Males establish and defend territories (3) (4) , using their forefeet and antlers to dig holes up to 1.6 metres wide and 0.3 metres deep in which they frequently urinate to signal territory boundaries (2) . Fierce fighting often occurs between rival males (2) (4) , who all try to drive available females into their territories where mating takes place (2) . Successful male sika deer may mate with as many as 12 females, and may be so intent on finding females that they do not feed until later on in the rutting season (2) . The gestation period of the sika deer is around 30 weeks (1) (2) (3) (4) (6) , after which time the female gives birth to a single calf (2) (3) (4) (6) , rarely two (3) (6) . The timing of birth varies slightly with geographic location, but young are typically born between April and July (1) , mostly in May and June (2) (3) (6) . Young sika deer grow rapidly, and are weaned by late summer (4) , approaching the weight of the mother by eight months of age (2) . Female sika deer may be sexually mature at six months of age, and tend to first breed as yearlings (2) (6) . The sika deer has been reported to live for up to 12 years in the wild (2) , but individuals in captivity have been known to reach 25 years old (1) (2) . Top Sika deer range The sika deer is native to Japan, China, Taiwan (1) (2) (4) (5) (6) and other adjacent regions of the eastern Asian mainland (5) , including south-eastern Siberia (6) . Although once found in both the Republic of Korea and the People’s Democratic Republic of Korea (1) (2) , the sika deer is known to be regionally extinct in the former, and potentially extinct in the latter. There are several subspecies of sika deer, which all have different distributions (1) . The sika deer has also been widely introduced to countries outside of its natural range (1) (2) , including Austria, Denmark, Germany, New Zealand (1) (6) , the United Kingdom (1) (5) (6) and the United States (1) (2) (4) (6) . This species was first introduced to the United Kingdom in 1860 when it was released into deer parks (5) (6) , and has since become established in the wild following escapes or deliberate release (5) (6) . The sika deer increased its distribution on the British mainland by 5.3 percent per year between 1972 and 2002 (6) , and continues to expand its range in Scotland (3) (6) , as well as in many other countries to which it was introduced (6) . Top Sika deer habitat Showing a preference for habitats with acidic soil (3) (5) (7) , the sika deer can be found in a variety of habitats including heath (3) (5) , coniferous forests and plantations (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) . This species tends to be found in forests with a dense understorey, but is known to forage in grassy areas (1) and in dense woody thickets along the borders of freshwater (2) or brackish marshes (4) . In its introduced range within the United Kingdom, the sika deer occupies a range of habitats, including mature broadleaf woodland, bogs, saltmarshes and offshore islands (6) . Top Sika deer threats Globally, the sika deer is not considered to be at risk of extinction, and there is a large and growing population in Japan, as well as a stable population in Russia. However, in the rest of its native range, the sika deer appears to be at risk from several factors, with fewer than 1,000 individuals of this species thought to remain in China. Key threats to this species include habitat loss, water pollution and hunting for meat and antler velvet, which is used in traditional medicines. In addition, a loss of genetic diversity through the fragmentation of the sika deer’s habitat is a cause for concern, and competition with feral animals such as goats may pose a further risk to this species (1) . Collisions with vehicles are also considered to be a threat to the sika deer (2) , but these also pose a risk to humans (5) , and the species is responsible for a number of road traffic accidents each year (6) . In many parts of its introduced range, the sika deer is having negative impacts on the local environment, as well as on the economy, particularly in areas where it is found in high numbers (5) . The sika deer causes serious damage to timber crops and to woody vegetation in forests (5) , by browsing on tree shoots or by stripping bark during antler rubbing (3) (6) . The sika deer is also reported to cause significant changes to the species composition and vegetation structure in wetlands and areas of open heathland (6) . In addition, hybridisation with the native red deer (Cervus elpahus) in areas such as the United Kingdom is posing a conservation risk to both species by threatening their genetic integrity (1) (3) (5) (6) . In Eastern Europe, the sika deer is also known to be a vector of diseases including bovine and avian tuberculosis, as well as a carrier of intestinal parasites which can affect native wildlife (6) . In optimal habitat in the United Kingdom, the sika deer has been found to be capable of expanding its range by three to five kilometres per year (6) . Top Sika deer conservation The sika deer is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List as it is abundant in Japan and increasing in number, and there is also a stable population in Russia. However, conservation action is required elsewhere in its range where the species is not faring so well. Past management activities for Cervus nippon keramae have included the construction of drinking water facilities for the deer and the filling of mine shafts which have been known to pose a threat to the species. Conducting new assessments of the mainland subspecies has been identified as a conservation priority, and other proposed conservation measures include combating poaching, securing areas of protected habitat, the removal of feral species such as goats, and the development of a conservation education programme (1) . The sika deer does occur in a number of protected areas, including China’s Tiebu Nature Reserve and Russia’s Lazovsky Nature Reserve, as well as in Taiwan’s Kenting National Park as a result of a special deer restoration project established in 1984 (1) .	Deer
Which Smiths guitarist co-wrote many of the band’s hits with Morrisey?	Sika deer Sika deer Sika deer Appearance Adult males (stags) grow to 70 - 95cm at the shoulder and weigh 40 - 70 kg. Females (hinds) are 50 - 90cm at the shoulder and 30 - 45kg, dependent on subspecies. Sika are similar in size and coat to Fallow deer, but darker. They are reddish-brown to yellow-brown in colour with a dark dorsal stripe surrounded by white spots in the summer. During winter, they are dark grey to black and the spots are faint or absent. They have a very distinct white gland on the lower back leg. Their tail is shorter and with a less distinct stripe than fallow deer. Antlers are branched and similar to red deer but usually with a maximum of eight points. The bay tine is also absent. The angle between the brow tine and the main beam is usually less than 90o. History, distribution & habitat Sika were introduced from the Far East into Britain in 1860. While several subspecies, including Chinese, Japanese, Formosan and Manchurian, were introduced into parks the only free-living form in Britain is the Japanese sika. It is possible that almost all (if not all) living English, Scottish and some Irish sika are descendants from only one stag and three hinds introduced to Viscount Powerscourt's deer park at Enniskerry, Eire in 1860. The preferred habitat is coniferous woodlands and heaths on acid soils. Distribution is widespread and expanding in Scotland from west to east with a strong population in Peebles-shire. They are patchy in England (bands exist across the north and south) and Northern Ireland (in County Fermanagh and County Tyrone). Sika graze on grasses and dwarf shrubs, especially heather, although coniferous tree shoots and tree bark may occasionally be taken in small quantities. Browsing of tree shoots and agricultural crops and bark stripping and bole scoring (gouging with the antlers) of plantation trees puts sika in conflict with farmers and foresters due to economic damage. Conversely, many country and forest estates can gain substantial revenue from recreational stalking and/or venison production. Whether in conflict or used as a resource, sika populations require careful management to maintain health and quality and ensure a sustainable balance with their environment. Breeding, behaviour & lifecycle The breeding season, or rut, occurs from the end of September to November. The environment has a strong influence on mating strategy. Typically stags defend a rutting territory, much like fallow deer, and they may also switch to harem-holding when a group of hinds has been assembled. Less typically, males may congregate to form a lek or may simply wander throughout the hinds' range in search for receptive hinds. A single calf is born during early May to late June after a gestation period of 7 ½ months. They can live, exceptionally, up to 18 years. Sika are fairly unsocial, tending to be solitary for most of the year and only forming small groups in winter. The sexes are strongly segregated and occupy discrete geographic ranges for most of the year, only coming together to mate. Sika are becoming regarded as a pest in areas of conflict since the damage that they cause is serious and the rate of hybridisation with red deer alarming. Hybridisation appears to be most pronounced at the edges of population ranges where both species meet. The first cross between the species has the appearance of both parents, but subsequent crosses result in the hybrid having the dominant parental appearance. This makes selective culling impossible, potentially reduces income from sport shooting and poses a major threat to the genetic integrity of native red deer. Indeed, some would say that there are no pure bred red deer surviving in mainland Britain and only sika in the New Forest and Peebles-shire remain pure. Sika have a wide repertoire of vocalisations. Stags groan, blow raspberries, yak-yak and give a high-pitched whistle during the rut or can emit a startling scream! Hinds with calves whine and calves reply with a bleat or squeak. When alarmed both sexes give a short, high-pitched bark. Sika are active throughout the 24-hour period but are more active during the hours of darkness in populations experiencing frequent disturbance.	i don't know
In what part of the body is the deltoid muscle?	Deltoid Muscle - Anatomy Pictures and Information Home > Muscular System > Muscles of the Arm and Hand > Muscles of the Shoulder > Deltoid Muscle Deltoid Muscle The deltoid muscle is a rounded, triangular muscle located on the uppermost part of the arm and the top of the shoulder. It is named after the Greek letter delta, which is shaped like an equilateral triangle. The deltoid is attached by tendons to the skeleton at the clavicle (collarbone), scapula (shoulder blade), and humerus (upper arm bone). The deltoid is widest at the top of the shoulder and narrows to its apex as it travels down the arm. Contraction of the deltoid muscle results in a wide range of movement of the arm at the shoulder due to its location and the wide separation of its muscle fibers.... Move up/down/left/right: Click compass arrows Rotate image: Click and drag in any direction, anywhere in the frame Identify objects: Click on them in the image 2D Interactive 3D Rotate & Zoom Change Anatomical System Full Deltoid Muscle Description [Continued from above] . . . The deltoid has three origins: the lateral end of the clavicle, the acromion of the scapula at the top of the shoulder, and the spine of the scapula. Each origin gives rise to its own band of muscle fibers with the anterior band forming at the clavicle, the lateral fibers forming at the acromion, and the posterior fibers forming at the spine of the scapula. The bands merge together as they approach the insertion point on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus. The deltoid has three distinct functions that correspond to the three bands of muscle fibers. Contraction of the anterior fibers flexes and medially rotates the arm by pulling the humerus towards the clavicle. Flexion and medial rotation of the arm moves the arm anteriorly, as in reaching forward or throwing a ball underhand. The lateral fibers abduct the arm by pulling the humerus toward the acromion. Abduction of the arm results in the arm moving away from the body, as in reaching out to the side. Contraction of the posterior fibers extends and laterally rotates the arm by pulling the humerus toward the spine of the scapula. Extension and lateral rotation moves the arm posteriorly, as in reaching backwards or winding up to throw a ball underhand. Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor	Shoulder
Bingo slang ‘dancing queen’ represents which number?	Muscles of the Chest and Upper Back Home > Muscular System > Muscles of the Chest and Upper Back Muscles of the Chest and Upper Back The muscles of the chest and upper back occupy the thoracic region of the body inferior to the neck and superior to the abdominal region and include the muscles of the shoulders. These important muscles control many motions that involve moving the arms and head – such as throwing a ball, looking up at the sky, and raising your hand. Breathing, a vital body function, is also controlled by the muscles connected to the ribs of the chest and upper back.... Move up/down/left/right: Click compass arrows Rotate image: Click and drag in any direction, anywhere in the frame Identify objects: Click on them in the image Full Muscles of the Chest and Upper Back Description [Continued from above] . . . The bones of the pectoral girdles, consisting of the clavicle (collar bone) and scapula (shoulder blade), greatly increase the range of motion possible in the shoulder region beyond what would be possible with the shoulder joint alone. The muscles of this region both allow for this range of motion and contract to stabilize this region and prevent any extraneous motion. On the anterior side of the thoracic region, the pectoralis minor and serratus anterior muscles originate on the anterior ribs and insert on the scapula. These muscles work together to move the scapula anteriorly and laterally during pushing, throwing, or punching motions. In the upper back region, the trapezius, rhomboid major, and levator scapulae muscles anchor the scapula and clavicle to the spines of several vertebrae and the occipital bone of the skull. When these muscles contract, they elevate the pectoral girdle (as in shrugging) and move the scapula medially and posteriorly toward the center of the back (as in rowing). The trapezius also contracts along the back of the neck to extend the head at the neck and hold it upright throughout the day. Nine muscles of the chest and upper back are used to move the humerus (upper arm bone). The coracobrachialis and pectoralis major muscles connect the humerus anteriorly to the scapula and ribs, flexing and adducting the arm toward the front of the body when you reach forward to grab an object. On the posterior side of the arm the teres major and latissimus dorsi extend and adduct the arm towards the scapula and vertebra when you pull an object down off of a shelf above your head. The deltoid and supraspinatus muscles run superiorly between the scapula and humerus to abduct as well as flex and extend the arm. These muscles allow us to raise our arm in the air or swing the arm as in throwing a ball underhand. Rotation of the humerus is achieved by the actions of the subscapularis, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles that run from the scapula to the humerus. These three rotator muscles, along with the supraspinatus, end in wide tendons that completely surround the head of the humerus and form a structure known as the rotator cuff, which holds the humerus in place and prevents dislocation. Rotation of the humerus by the rotator cuff muscles is necessary for activities such as throwing a ball overhand or swinging a hammer. In addition to moving the arm and pectoral girdle, muscles of the chest and upper back work together as a group to support the vital process of breathing. The diaphragm is a strong, thin, dome-shaped muscle that spans the entire inferior border of the rib cage, separating the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. Contraction of the diaphragm causes it to descend towards the abdomen, increasing the space of the thoracic cavity and expanding the lungs, filling them with air. Small muscles running between the ribs, known as the external intercostal muscles, lift the ribs during deep breathing to further expand the chest and lungs and provide even more air to the body. During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity, forcing air out of the lungs. Additional air can be forced out of the lungs during deep exhalation by contraction of the internal intercostal muscles, which push the ribs together and help compress the thoracic cavity. Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor	i don't know
Bingo slang ‘droopy drawers’ represents which number?	Bingo Calls, Lingo and Slang Terms Bingo Calls, Lingo and Slang Terms Bingo Calls, Lingo and Slang Terms As online bingo continues to grow in popularity, more and more players are rushing to the web for their chance to win big. However, for new players the vocabulary used on the sites and by other players can be both confusing and overwhelming. Contents Sign up to download our complete bingo calls FREE PDF Sign Up To Newsletter Get the PDF Here While most people are familiar with some basic bingo terms, the vocabulary used in the online bingo community varies slightly from the terms used in regular, in person bingo games. To make the assimilation process for new players an easier transition, we’ve covered some of the most confusing aspects of play such as traditional bingo calls and rude bingo calls, as well as several other tips and tricks to keep you from stepping on anyone’s toes the first few times you play. Alternative bingo calls While you may be confused if someone asks you if they just called Dirty Gertie, they’re merely using dirty bingo calls, also known as alternative bingo calls or bingo call nicknames. Usually made up of funny or inappropriate short phrases that rhyme with a given number, such as 30 “Dirty Girty”, these bingo call outs can also make a cultural reference, such as “All the Beans” for 57. Share this Image On Your Site <p><strong>Please include attribution to www.boomtownbingo.com with this graphic.</strong></p><br /><br /><br /> <p><a href=’http://www.boomtownbingo.com/bingo-calls-lingo-slang-terms’><img src=’http://www.boomtownbingo.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Traditional-Bingo-calls-infographic.png’ alt=’Traditional Bingo Calls’ width=’788px’ border=’0′ /></a></p><br /><br /><br /> <p> Originally used to catch the attention of players in a noisy, crowded bingo hall, creating funny words or phrases associated with each number kept game play interesting and prevented callers from repeating themselves multiple times. Although no longer needed as bingo has gone electronic, these funny bingo calls have persisted and are still sometimes used in online play. Although there are many similarities, dirty bingo calls tend to vary from site to site and from player to player. Some of these bingo number names include “young and keen” for 15, “droopy drawers” for 44, or “dirty knees” for 33. While most are meant to be funny or make players smile, some rude bingo calls do exist. One such bingo numbers nicknames is the “either way up” call that can sometimes be used for the number 69. While different callers and bingo sites may use their own unique bingo calls, websites like ildado.com offer fairly comprehensive bingo calls list of UK bingo call outs, which can be found here . Chat Etiquette One of the most unique and most popular features of online bingo sites are the chat rooms available to players. Meant to mimic the companionship and comradery of a traditional bingo hall, the chat function in a game room is open to all players and is a place to form friendships, discuss the game, and offer congratulations to other players. The majority of chats are run by a chat moderator, or CM. This person’s job is to act as a facilitator for the chat portion of the game room, ensuring all players feel welcome and at home and are treat each other respectfully. CM’s have no control over game play itself, and while they can sometimes help with technical issues, it is best to send those concerns to the website’s tech support. Most CM’s will send a welcome message to players as they join a room, and encourage players to congratulate each other after each round is played. While specific chat rules vary from site to site, most bingo sites have rules preventing racial or sexist slurs, rude or offensive language, or promoting or soliciting a business or service. Likewise, asking other players for money is universally frowned upon, as is harassment or disrespectful behavior. It is also important to note that almost all chat logs are recorded, and most websites report any threats made to the authorities. Players who repeatedly violate the rules can be blocked from the chat function or banned from a website altogether. Most veteran players use a variety of bingo slang or shorthand when chatting. Although similar to some popular text message abbreviations, some can be confusing when seen for the first time. Common slang for gameplay includes fc for fingers crossed, gl for good luck, or gg for good game. Other frequently used terms are wtg for way to go, afk for away from keyboard, and pm for private message. If a term is unfamiliar or undecipherable, most CM’s or players are happy to define it for new players. Types of Bingo Most popular bingo sites offer more than one variety of bingo, which can be confusing for players new to the game . While all varieties are essentially the same, with a caller announcing numbers and players daubing those on their cards, some games vary based on the number of balls used to play. Found at most bingo halls in the UK, 90 Ball Bingo uses tickets of three rows and nine columns. On these cards, each row has five numbers and four blanks. The three winning combinations in 90 ball bingo are one line, two line, or full house. A one line winning combination is having all of the numbers for one horizontal row, a two line combination is having all of the numbers for two horizontal rows, and a full house, or blackout, is having all of the given numbers for all three rows, covering the entire card. More popular in the US than in the UK, 75 Ball Bingo is played with 5X5 grid tickets with a free space in the middle. Because of the shape of the card, there are many more different ways to create a winning combination in this style of bingo play. A game or room where 75 ball bingo is being played will establish the winning combination or combinations before game play begins. Sample combinations include horizontal or vertical lines, blackout, diamond, or letter s. While there are players who adamantly favor one type over the other, it is ultimately a player’s personal choice whether they prefer 90 or 75 ball bingo. Despite the differences in the cards and number of balls in play, the chances of winning with either variety are nearly identical, giving neither game an advantage in winning odds or percentages. Subscribe to our Newsletter!	44
Which US city is nicknamed ‘Lost Wages’?	Bingo Calls Explained Bingo Calls Explained Bingo and Tambola Menu Bingo's popularity is boosted by its entertainment aspect and lively social setting. The showmanship of bingo callers and the humor of the bingo calls make the atmosphere fun and lively. Callers use each number's bingo lingo nickname. Some are silly sayings, simple rhymes while others have interesting stories behind them. Here are some bingo calls explained. Doctor's orders - 9 It refers to the number nine pill given by doctors to British soldiers during World War II. It was memorable for the soldiers as it was a potent laxative. Legs Eleven - 11 This is a reference to the number looking like a pair of legs. Dancing Queen - 17 This call is taken from the lyrics of Abba's 1976 hit: "You are the Dancing Queen, young and sweet, only seventeen." Duck with a crutch - 27 This is sometimes called "gateway to heaven" but the use of this traditional image is still more popular. The duck is the number two and the crutch is the number seven. Dirty Gertie - 30 The call is believed to be based on the song 'Dirty Gertie From Bizerte', which British troops sang during World War II. Players named Gertrude could expect some teasing when this number is called. Droopy Drawers - 44 This is nothing more than simple rhyming slang but it always draws a smile from players. Danny La Rue - 52 Named after the late entertainer who specialized in impersonations of famous women. Some attempted to replace this with "chicken vindaloo" years back but did not become popular. Either way up - 69 This is the cleanest of the terms used for 69 at bingo clubs. More daring callers opt for "that's rude" or sometimes even worse terms. Was she worth it? - 76 This refers to the 7/6d price of the marriage license prior to decimalization and is often asked as a question to largely female audiences, who reply with "every penny". Ghandi's breakfast - 80 This nickname refers to how the image of Indian leader Ghandi sitting cross-legged in front of a plate may look like. Some callers now use the easier to understand "eight and blank" instead. Two fat ladies - 88 This refers to the rounded shape of the number eight, not meant as an insult to the more rounded players.	i don't know
DJ Kenny Everett allegedly gave the BBC which nickname?	BBC - Kent - BBC Radio Kent - Our Man At Westminster - Paul Rowley You are in: Kent > BBC Radio Kent > Weekday programmes > John Warnett > Our Man At Westminster - Paul Rowley Our Man At Westminster - Paul Rowley I've interviewed every Prime Minister since Harold Wilson. I've covered nine General Elections. And this is my 26th year of covering party conferences. Yet, I have to admit, I found politics a bit of a yawn when I was growing up. At junior school in Wigan I had only one ambition - to be on the radio. My hero worked for BBC Radio Kent. Well, he did one show for its predecessor BBC Radio Medway more than 30 years ago. He was the legendary Kenny Everett, of more later. The love affair with the wireless began at the age of seven at the start of Beatlemania. Although there wasn't much of it in those days. Pop music was very much restricted on the stuffy old BBC Light Programme. It was only the advent of the offshore pirates in 1964, plus late-night listening from the fading continental signal of Radio Luxembourg that wowed me to the wonders of the old tranny. Even though I became a hard-nosed hack, I cried when the old pirate ships closed down. BBC Radio 1 was a poor imitation, especially as they were on grotty medium wave, and by the early 70s I had started listening to the fledgling BBC local stations in the northwest. They weren't particularly aimed at young people, but the big plus was that you could hear pop records on crystal clear VHF (now known as FM). It was obvious there weren't that many listeners. Every time I went in for a competition, I seemed to win. So my mum was quite bamboozled when all these LPs, gift vouchers and books started to arrive on the doorstep. A prize winner I won so many prizes, Radio Merseyside's top presenter Brian Smart came round to hand deliver them, even though the station was 20 miles away. It clearly saved on the postage. He was still a teenager himself, he was only two years older than me, he was interviewing the stars of the day, and he drove a Jag! That's the life for me I thought. He invited me to see his programme going out, and I was blown away by the jingles, the faders, and the technical wizardry of it all. My first broadcasting experience came about as a fluke when I was 17. I used to write (allegedly) humorous articles for my school magazine, and I sent Brian a short five minute sketch, never really thinking it would be used. It was a spoof called "The Terrific Adventures of Super-Smart" which slightly took the mickey out of BBC Local Radio. The station liked it, so I wrote a weekly serial. Brian presented it and mixed it with sound effects, with the extracts also being broadcast by BBC Radio Manchester. After A-Levels, I was fortunate to win a place on a year-long journalist training course at Preston Polytechnic. It grounded you in the basics of reporting, typing, shorthand (I can still do 100 words per minute), and the law. At the end of the course, I joined a Southport based newspaper group, spending most of my three year "indentures" (which I always thought sounded like something for dodgy teeth) with the Bootle Times, where I became its news-editor at the age of 21. My first broadcast My first real broadcast came just weeks after leaving college. And again it was the pure luck. My dream of legalised commercial radio had materialised, with the Liverpool independent Radio City opening in October 1974. It was a brilliant station, the biggest outside London, full of pioneering ideas, talented people, and classy music. I simply phoned up, offering my services, and was on air in the first week, doing a non-league football slot on a Saturday morning sports programme. I was then asked to co-present a Sunday evening football round-up programme, and within weeks I was covering Football League games. I joined the station full-time in 1977, reporting in one of the busiest regions in the country, and reading news bulletins around the clock. Then in the early 80s, fate took a hand again. I was asked to become the station's local government editor on the basis that I'd covered a few council meetings, had understood the complicated jargon, and unlike some of my colleagues hadn't fallen asleep during proceedings. It may have sounded a boring job description, but it became far from a boring job. It coincided with arguably the most explosive period in Liverpool's political history, when the Militant Tendency effectively ran the City Council. Troubled times There was a national story every day for 4 years. The city almost went bankrupt, 47 councillors were thrown out of office, and Derek Hatton and his mates were kicked out of the Labour Party. I wasn't complaining. My coverage of the crisis (maybe that should be crises), won me the National Union of Journalists Radio Reporter of the Year award in 1984, and the following year became the Whitbread Broadcaster of the Year. On one occasion I even made the national headlines myself, when I was thumped while covering at demonstration at Liverpool Town Hall, and my tape-recorder was smashed. More importantly, though, the newspapers did spell my name correctly. The next move similarly came out of the blue. After the 1987 I was asked to move to London to become political correspondent for Independent Radio News. I jumped at the chance to cover the House of Commons (in contrast to politics in Liverpool it seemed quieter), staying for seven years until I crossed the floor to do a similar job for the BBC in 1994. Working for the Beeb I never thought I'd work for the BBC. I wasn't that sure they would want someone like me with a background in commercial radio. But I joined at a time of change, and it was clear listeners seemed to enjoy my informal, friendly style. I regard part of the job as making a complicated subject matter accessible to an audience that may not be obsessed with raw politics. Again, it proved fruitful, personally. I won the bronze prize for Reporter of the Year in BBC Local Radio's annual Frank Gillard Awards in 2001, getting the silver award the following year. Last year I was included in the gold award for the Best Breakfast Show, won by John Warnett and his team. Despite being in the industry for more than 30 years, I still get excited talking to my pirate radio heroes now on BBC Radio Kent such as Dave Cash and Roger Day, plus the MP for Thanet North, Roger Gale, who I remember as a swinging Radio Caroline DJ forty years ago. My hero Kenny Which brings me to Kenny Everett. Four years ago I compiled a documentary about his work on BBC Local Radio in the early 70s when he was sacked from Radio 1. He worked for six stations, including Radio Medway, where he did one programme at Christmas 1972. But no-one at the station seemed to be aware that this broadcasting genius worked here. It was only with the help of the redoubtable Stena Riches that I tracked down former programme organiser Dennis Lewell who sanctioned the show. My documentary was broadcast on 40 BBC Local stations in total, which I think is a record. BBC Radio Kent has broadcast it several times. Plus I was shortlisted for a prestigious Sony Radio Award, in the Music Special category. So, even though I never made it as a disc-jockey myself, I can at least say I managed to work on an award-winning programme about the man who inspired me to be a broadcaster. last updated: 18/05/07SEE ALSO	Beeb
Which foreign political leader is nicknamed 'Bibi'?	BBC - Kent - BBC Radio Kent - Our Man At Westminster - Paul Rowley You are in: Kent > BBC Radio Kent > Weekday programmes > John Warnett > Our Man At Westminster - Paul Rowley Our Man At Westminster - Paul Rowley I've interviewed every Prime Minister since Harold Wilson. I've covered nine General Elections. And this is my 26th year of covering party conferences. Yet, I have to admit, I found politics a bit of a yawn when I was growing up. At junior school in Wigan I had only one ambition - to be on the radio. My hero worked for BBC Radio Kent. Well, he did one show for its predecessor BBC Radio Medway more than 30 years ago. He was the legendary Kenny Everett, of more later. The love affair with the wireless began at the age of seven at the start of Beatlemania. Although there wasn't much of it in those days. Pop music was very much restricted on the stuffy old BBC Light Programme. It was only the advent of the offshore pirates in 1964, plus late-night listening from the fading continental signal of Radio Luxembourg that wowed me to the wonders of the old tranny. Even though I became a hard-nosed hack, I cried when the old pirate ships closed down. BBC Radio 1 was a poor imitation, especially as they were on grotty medium wave, and by the early 70s I had started listening to the fledgling BBC local stations in the northwest. They weren't particularly aimed at young people, but the big plus was that you could hear pop records on crystal clear VHF (now known as FM). It was obvious there weren't that many listeners. Every time I went in for a competition, I seemed to win. So my mum was quite bamboozled when all these LPs, gift vouchers and books started to arrive on the doorstep. A prize winner I won so many prizes, Radio Merseyside's top presenter Brian Smart came round to hand deliver them, even though the station was 20 miles away. It clearly saved on the postage. He was still a teenager himself, he was only two years older than me, he was interviewing the stars of the day, and he drove a Jag! That's the life for me I thought. He invited me to see his programme going out, and I was blown away by the jingles, the faders, and the technical wizardry of it all. My first broadcasting experience came about as a fluke when I was 17. I used to write (allegedly) humorous articles for my school magazine, and I sent Brian a short five minute sketch, never really thinking it would be used. It was a spoof called "The Terrific Adventures of Super-Smart" which slightly took the mickey out of BBC Local Radio. The station liked it, so I wrote a weekly serial. Brian presented it and mixed it with sound effects, with the extracts also being broadcast by BBC Radio Manchester. After A-Levels, I was fortunate to win a place on a year-long journalist training course at Preston Polytechnic. It grounded you in the basics of reporting, typing, shorthand (I can still do 100 words per minute), and the law. At the end of the course, I joined a Southport based newspaper group, spending most of my three year "indentures" (which I always thought sounded like something for dodgy teeth) with the Bootle Times, where I became its news-editor at the age of 21. My first broadcast My first real broadcast came just weeks after leaving college. And again it was the pure luck. My dream of legalised commercial radio had materialised, with the Liverpool independent Radio City opening in October 1974. It was a brilliant station, the biggest outside London, full of pioneering ideas, talented people, and classy music. I simply phoned up, offering my services, and was on air in the first week, doing a non-league football slot on a Saturday morning sports programme. I was then asked to co-present a Sunday evening football round-up programme, and within weeks I was covering Football League games. I joined the station full-time in 1977, reporting in one of the busiest regions in the country, and reading news bulletins around the clock. Then in the early 80s, fate took a hand again. I was asked to become the station's local government editor on the basis that I'd covered a few council meetings, had understood the complicated jargon, and unlike some of my colleagues hadn't fallen asleep during proceedings. It may have sounded a boring job description, but it became far from a boring job. It coincided with arguably the most explosive period in Liverpool's political history, when the Militant Tendency effectively ran the City Council. Troubled times There was a national story every day for 4 years. The city almost went bankrupt, 47 councillors were thrown out of office, and Derek Hatton and his mates were kicked out of the Labour Party. I wasn't complaining. My coverage of the crisis (maybe that should be crises), won me the National Union of Journalists Radio Reporter of the Year award in 1984, and the following year became the Whitbread Broadcaster of the Year. On one occasion I even made the national headlines myself, when I was thumped while covering at demonstration at Liverpool Town Hall, and my tape-recorder was smashed. More importantly, though, the newspapers did spell my name correctly. The next move similarly came out of the blue. After the 1987 I was asked to move to London to become political correspondent for Independent Radio News. I jumped at the chance to cover the House of Commons (in contrast to politics in Liverpool it seemed quieter), staying for seven years until I crossed the floor to do a similar job for the BBC in 1994. Working for the Beeb I never thought I'd work for the BBC. I wasn't that sure they would want someone like me with a background in commercial radio. But I joined at a time of change, and it was clear listeners seemed to enjoy my informal, friendly style. I regard part of the job as making a complicated subject matter accessible to an audience that may not be obsessed with raw politics. Again, it proved fruitful, personally. I won the bronze prize for Reporter of the Year in BBC Local Radio's annual Frank Gillard Awards in 2001, getting the silver award the following year. Last year I was included in the gold award for the Best Breakfast Show, won by John Warnett and his team. Despite being in the industry for more than 30 years, I still get excited talking to my pirate radio heroes now on BBC Radio Kent such as Dave Cash and Roger Day, plus the MP for Thanet North, Roger Gale, who I remember as a swinging Radio Caroline DJ forty years ago. My hero Kenny Which brings me to Kenny Everett. Four years ago I compiled a documentary about his work on BBC Local Radio in the early 70s when he was sacked from Radio 1. He worked for six stations, including Radio Medway, where he did one programme at Christmas 1972. But no-one at the station seemed to be aware that this broadcasting genius worked here. It was only with the help of the redoubtable Stena Riches that I tracked down former programme organiser Dennis Lewell who sanctioned the show. My documentary was broadcast on 40 BBC Local stations in total, which I think is a record. BBC Radio Kent has broadcast it several times. Plus I was shortlisted for a prestigious Sony Radio Award, in the Music Special category. So, even though I never made it as a disc-jockey myself, I can at least say I managed to work on an award-winning programme about the man who inspired me to be a broadcaster. last updated: 18/05/07SEE ALSO	i don't know
Which wartime nickname was shared by the 7th Armoured Division and the 8th Army?	Add to this record. Joseph Lawson 37th Reserve MT Royal Army Service Corps My name is Joseph Lawson. I enlisted in 1940, although I wanted to join RAF, when I told the recruiting Officer I could drive, there was only one place for me: as a driver with the RASC. After basic training, I joined the 37th Reserve MT and was sent off to North Africa to join the Middle Eastern Expeditionary Force, later to be known as the 8th Army. During my time in the Desert, I was attached to many different Regiments and Divisions: 4th Indians, New Zealand, British 10 Corps. After El Alamein, I then joined up with 1st Army for the Italian campaign, landing at Salerno, near Naples. And in Italy I stayed until 1945, eventually being de-mobbed in 1946, six years after saying goodbye to my family and friends. I am proud to say that I was a D Day Dodger! It would make me very happy to make contact with anyone who also got their "knees brown" and possibly swap some stories of leave in the Cairo souks, Alex, or Rome. In Winston's words: "Hello My Dear Desert Rat" Joseph Lawson Add to this record. Gordon Henry Rout RASC 8th Army I am trying to trace anyone who may have have known my great uncle Gordon Rout. He served in the RASC in East Africa and then in Italy. He was attached to the Eighth Army. I have recently discovered a diary he appears to written after the war in which he recounts his experiences from setting off up the Clyde in May 1942, to arriving in Egypt 9 weeks later. I would be interested to hear from anyone who has information about him as all I have are his diary, some photos and his medals which although give a good picture of the war and his experiences, I would like to know more about what he was like as a person. Catherine Starling Add to this record. Albert Stanley Dale Nottingham Regiment My father Albert Stanley Dale, who sadly is no longer with us, served in the Rats of Tobruk, Nottingham Regiment. Dad never had any photographs so I am looking for any information or photographs. All I know is that Dad served with Johnny Player who I think died. Penny Dale Add to this record. Sgt. Robert Heaton MID. Royal Artillery My Father, Robert Heaton, was in the RASC and served with the BEF in Europe and later with the Eighth Army in the Middle East (and I think in Italy) after the war he was with BAOR in Germany. I think he may have transferred regiments, as his service medals are in a box which has RA (presumably Royal Artillery) on the back. When he was first in the Army he had the prefix T before his number, by the time of his discharge the prefix was S. I think that he was a driver at first but later was a despatch rider. He has the France and Germany Star, 1939-1945 Star, Italy Star, Defence Medal and an oak leaf on a ribbon with a narrow red stripe in the centre with a narrow white stripe, then a blue, then a red on either side. I don't know if there should be a medal to go with that. I have a birthday card which he sent me with T 50124 Dvr R Heaton, H Q 5th Div, BEF on the back. I know that he was at Dunkirk and that he was home more than once on embarkation leave (he seemed to get sent back to Fulwood Barracks Preston before embarkation). Quite often I was allowed to sew new insignia on his uniform and I was very proud whenever he added a stripe, he also let me clean his buttons - as I was very young I wonder now if he got into trouble for things not done correctly but I know that he would think it worth it for the love that went into those tasks. I would love to know his full record, particularly why he was mentioned in despatches (he always said that it was for getting the General's beer through, but didn't say which General although I know that Monty was his great hero) NOTE: The medal ribbon described is for the War Medal and there should be a medal to accompany it, it is a circular medal with the kings head on the front and a lion and the date 1939-1945 on the reverse. Barbara Radway Add to this record. Cpl. Kenneth Aubrey "Scottie" Wilkins Royal Signals I am trying to put together my late fathers war history as like many others it was kept within. He was Cpl Kenneth Wilkins, known as Scottie. He enlisted in 1939 at the Barracks of the South Wales Borderers in Brecon, in 1942 he was moved to the Royal Corps of Signals and posted to the 8th army. He was in Egypt for 7 months then North Africa for 5 months until posted to Sicily and Italy, seeing service at Cassino with No 1 A.S.S.U. He was demobed at Villach in Austria in 1945. I do have a photo showing my father with two comrades possibly taken in Italy. I would like to know if any comrades might have memories they can share? Steve Wilkins Add to this record. Sgt. Edwin Horton Hickman 8th Army Desert Rats. Ted Horton was my Grandfather, he passed away when I was 18 months old so I didn't have the pleasure of getting to know him. My Grandmother passed away 19 years ago and my father 4 years ago. Neither of them talked much about my Grandfather or his service in the British Army. I would be interested to learn all I can about his service in World War 2. Where it took him too, from where he commenced his basic training and what life would have been like for him and his regiment. I would also love to know what kind of man he was and what his comrades thought of him if any records of this still exist today. Any information no matter how small it may seem would be very helpful to me. Sonia Hickman Add to this record. Arthur Snaith Royal Signals My father Arthur Snaith was with the Royal Signals, and I am trying to find out more about his army service but the MOD need his army number which I don't have. I know he was called up in 1941 and fought as a dispatch rider in Egypt with the 8th Army. He was injured and was moved to Syria, where I'm told he got to ride horses. He was demobbed in 1946 and I'm afraid that's all I know. He died in 1983 but I never found out how he was injured. I do know he gained 3 medals and if anyone can identify serving with him or know his service number, I would be most grateful. Mary Lloyd Add to this record. Capt. Bernard Waite I am trying to find some information about my great uncle Bernard Waite who was a Captain in the 8th Army, the Desert Rats. Nick Stonad Add to this record. Joseph James marston My Dad, Joseph James Marston was in the Desert Rats, he often spoke about he frinds that were killed. He told us about when he was shot and showed us the scars. He also was lucky to drive Monty around, we did have some photos but they have been lost, does anyone have a copy? Janet Murray Add to this record. Robert Bernard Crabtree My Uncle Robert Bernard Crabtree was in the "desert rats" in WW2. This is all we know can anyone help. Robert Edmond Add to this record. Gnr. John W. Keningale 2/28th HAA Royal Artillery Looking for any information on John Keningale (or Jack as he was known). My grandfather served in the 8th Army, Royal Artillery as a Gunner, although I'm finding it hard to come up with any info on his particular outfit due to conflicting information on his discharge papers. On one set of documents he is listed as belonging to the 28/2 HAA RA and on another he is docmented as belonging to the 16/2 RA. I know he served in Africa and I believe he was also in Italy, as that's where he met my grandmother. If anyone has any stories about him or knew him personally, I love to hear about them. Benjamin Keningale Add to this record. Alfred Roland Naylor 8th Army My Granddad Alfred Naylor was a Dessert Rat but that is all my mum or auntie can tell me. Both my Granddad and Grandma are dead so I cannot ask them, I'm trying to find out which regiment he served with as I am trying to do my family tree. Editors Note: Do you have any photos of him in uniform or any documents giving his service number? If their marriage was during the war, his regiment might be listed on the certificate. Lynn Trossell Add to this record. Walter John Cope I am trying to find out anything about my father Walter John Cope who I know nothing about. I do not even know what he looked like. I would like any information. The little I do know is he was a Desert Rat. I believe he was wounded and only had a few years to live after the war. I am sixty two years old and would like to know what my dad looked like before I die. Thanking you Eileen Brooke nee Cope Add to this record. Reginald King Royal Army Service Corps Reginald King , served in Africa , Italy and Dunkerqe and was involved in MT / Dispatch riding /Mechanics. He died when I was young (1982). He originated from Shropshire, but moved to British Steel in Scunthorpe after he left the service. Would appreciate any photographs if anyone has groupshots with named servicemen etc. David Betts Add to this record. Lt. Ian Menzies Todd 5th Btn. Black Watch I am looking for information about my father, Ian Menzies Todd, who served during WWII in the 5th Battalion Black Watch of the 51st Division in Montgomery's 8th Army. Could anyone help me or give me a lead? I would be very grateful. Shane Todd Add to this record. Dvr. William Millar Bennett 52 Lowland Division Royal Army Service Corps My Granddad, William Bennett was a Driver on trucks in the RASC. He joined the 52 Lowland Divisional RASC (TA) in September 1939 at the Yorkhill Parade Ground in Glasgow He was in North Africa for most of his time in the Army. He says he was part of the 8th Army. He was a truck driver who also boxed a bit but was not overly good. He was in Cairo, Tobruk and a few places in between. His truck was hit by a bomb and he was badly injured. He says he only survived due to a couple of Irish guys from Dublin pulling him out of the wreckage. Danny O'Sullivan, Dave O'Gorman and Danny Kelly are the guys he has mentioned. He would love to hear from them or anybody who knew them. He wished he could have seen them since the war. He was medically discharged in 1943 after going through a number of hospitals. He and I would be very grateful if anybody could help us with information or photos of his unit or friends or get in touch if they knew him Jamie Bennett Add to this record. Sgt. Fred Bosworth Abbott MID My grandad, Fred Abbott, served in the 8th Army during the Second World War. He didn't go into too much detail as I was only young but he would tell us about cooking food on the side of the tank, a small dog he had and having to shoot it when going back after leave. He also told us of the guns jamming in the desert. One thing he did do was to save a fellow soldier and getting shot in doing so,lost half his finger and having shrapnel in his hand. He was mentioned in Dispatches and the London Gazette. Grandad gave me his beret, water bottle, webbing, gaiters, German medals, a German bayonet, photos,post cards,personal massage from commander L.O.Lyne's soldiers pay book. I've got grandad's medals handed down to me from my dad. I've made a presentation box/case which both my kids have taken to school for show 'n tell. I remember going to the War Memorial in Shaw with him wearing his pin of miniature medals and feeling very proud of my grandad as I still do even though he is no longer with us When my dad died we buried the miniatures with dad some thing of his own fathers to be with him. Let us all remember. Paul Abbott Add to this record. A/Maj. Ralph Kent Green 517 Petrol Coy. Royal Army Service Corps My uncle Ralph Kent Green, volunteered on September 12, 1939 and 3 weeks later was commissioned as a 2nd Lieutenant, probably because he had taken OTC at school. He joined the BEF, 48th Division, No. 517 Petrol Coy. in France on 5 January 1940, and was later rescued from Dunkirk. He seems to have moved around a bit during his war service. He was posted as the RASC officer to first the 73rd Independent Infantry Brigade (29-3-1941 to 28-4-1943), then with the Commander RASC staff/1st Airborne Division at Bulford. Ralph Kent Green my uncle is back row, 5th from the left taken by a photographer from Cornwall possibly just after the return from Dunkirk. On 12-5-1943 he went to N. Africa, which was the staging area for troops going to Italy. We think he may have been assigned to the 8th Army as part of Operation Baytown. On his return 3-10-1943, he was posted to Airborne Supply Training Wing of the 6th Airborne, which was later re-designated at the Air Training Centre in Lemsford, where he was the Chief Instructor. After parachute training in July 1944, Kent was assigned on temporary duty to SEAC/India in Leicester, and then about 4-4-1945 again with Commander RASC in Kensington. The words "Syrencote House, Bulford, Salisbury, Wilt," are scribbled on his record, so he may have spent time there as well. On 10-3-1945 he went by plane to Brussels, Belgium, which was the tactical headquarters for the 6th Airborne for Operation Varsity and Rhine Crossing. After that he returned to the 6th Airborne. What I remember best about him were my grandmother's stories that had nothing to do with his war service. Apparently he had a trick gullet and could down a beer by simply pouring it directly into his stomach! It seems that gave him a considerable advantage in beer drinking races held along local beaches. At some point Kent contracted TB, and was in hospital after the war and he died in 1977. I would love to hear from anyone who knew him or served in any of the same units. Barbara Kent Lawrence Add to this record. Frank Esdale Royal Tank Regiment Our grandad Frank Esdale served with Monty in Italy driving a tank as far as we know. We know that he had a Polish friend who served with him. This gentleman took photos and also painted. The Corps also had a football team which Frank played for. We think that he may have got into some sort of trouble with his CO and was reduced to the ranks. Any info about this would be great as it is a mystery and we would like to get to the bottom of it. Sharon Bond Add to this record. Sidney Chandler My grandad, Sidney Chandler was in the 8th army desert rats, my dad says that he was at Dunkirk and in Africa. I would be so grateful if I could find out were he went, as he wouldn't speak much about the war. I want to be able to tell my boy what his great grandad did during the war and why we owe the service men and women so much. Paul Chandler Add to this record. James Fisher Royal Tank Regiment My uncle died at Tobruk his name was James Fisher, I think he was in the Tank Regiment would love to here from anyone who knew him. Brian Houliston Add to this record. Leonard Howlett My Grandad, Leonard Howlett was with the RAF mobile ground radar unit seconded to the 8th army. I have some of his photos from his time in Italy and Egypt of many chaps that he was with as well as some graves of his friends. I would love to know who some of them are. Is there anyone out there who has a relative who was also with this RAF unit? Natalie Wells Add to this record. Donald Robert McColl Kings Liverpool I am trying to find out any information and looking for any photos of my Dad, Donald McColl. I know he was in the desert at the beginning of war where he was riding motorbike as I've seen a picture. He could have been in Syria or Libya also. We grew up apart and he died 1990. I would be really grateful for any info or a picture would be fantastic. Keith McColl Bombardier Robert Comfort Edwards 57th Field Regiment Royal Artillery This is my Father's account of World War II. Bombardier Robert Comfort "Robbie" Edwards 57th Field Regiment 898397 Signaller. My father was born in Robertson Road, Preston, Brighton, Sussex, he attended the TA from a teenager. TA1938. : In 1938 he was drafted into the Army from Brighton and mobilised in September 1939, from Willingdon Observation Post, Motella Towers Hastings - Sittingbourne. From March 1940 his service was in France with the BEF, then Battle of the Escaut withdrew from BEF for final evacuation from Dunkirk in April. They were walking along the many roads to Dunkirk when a plane flew at them they thought it was German so they all jumped in a stagnant ditch, but it was an Allied plane, they stank all the way to Dunkirk and eventually to Blighty. Dad remembers he was on a little boat with one funnel. In May 1942 sailed with 44 Division under Lieut. Colonel R E Green, arrived in Egypt on 23rd July 1942. They had 251lbs pounders artillery guns. When they came across Arabs sitting on their camels making their wives walk along by their sides they took off the Arabs and put the women on the camels! They also sold them used teabags! Desert warfare training at Khatatba. 57th Field Regiment ordered to reconnoitre Gun Areas near Delta Barrage. In August 1942 44th Division ordered to take up defensive positions at Bare Ridge, Battle of Dier el Munassib, Oct 1942 El Alamein. They were in convoy in Egypt, the West coast of Africa at Freetown Cape Town for 3 days. In army vehicles up to Suez Canal to Cairo and then in to the Desert (he was a Desert Rat) to stop Rommel getting into Cairo then Monty arrived in the heat of the desert. 440 Field Battery RA of 57th Field Regiment was temporarily attached to the 50th division. 57th Field Regiment RA became an Army Field Regiment RA. Battles: Dec 1942 Suerra, South of Mersa Berga under 51st (Highland Division) Jan 1943 Sonda, advance to Tripoli under 7th Armoured Division. Mar 1943, mobile operation 22nd Armoured Brigade and 8th Armoured Brigade Regiment then joined 51st (Highland) Division for the Battle of Medenine. Later in Mar 1943 the 57th Army Field Regiment Battle of Mareth under command of 50th Division, 4th Light Armoured Brigade, 201 Guards Brigade and 51st (Highland) Division. April 1943 Battle of Wadi Akarit under 51st (Highland) Division then regiment proceeded to parts of the Front near Enfidalville under command 5 AGRA in support of 4th Indian Division, 2nd New Zealand Division, 56th London Division, 4th Armoured Brigade and the fighting French Brigade. In May 1943 Hostilities in North Africa the Regiment returned to Tripoli for refitting under 10 Corps. They travelled along the North African Coast to Birzata. Where Dad went on a Driver Operator course in a tank, he said the clutch was too long! 440 Battery would not return to 57th Army Field Regiment and 160 Independent Battery, formerly part of the 174th regiment joined 57th Army Field Regiment.In June 1943 Regiment was informed that it was to be considered in Eight Army Reserve. On the 23rd of July 1943, 57th Army Field Regiment arrived in Sicily, after a few days under 1st Canadian Division fought throughout the Sicilian Campaign with 78th Division in Battles of Catenauova, Cenutripe, Adrana and Bronte. In September 1943, 57th Army Field Regiment Fire Plan to support landing at Reggio, Italy, and 226 Battery of 57th Army Field Regiment occupied positions on the Sea Front at Messina and fired AP Shells with tracer to guide British Landing Craft to the Italian Coast. He recalls that In 1944 my Uncle Jonathan Edwards (his brother) picked him up from the Regiment and took him to Naples where Vesuvio was erupting, the ash was everywhere. He recalls that many of his best friends perished, one was near him and a bomb just blew him to pieces in a second. The noise from the shells and bombs was very deafening. Most nights were lit up with gun fire. Dad was 92 in February 2011. He now says it was a complete waste of time fighting this war because what he fought for has now diminished. Glynis Leaney Add to this record. William Arthur Brookes I am trying to trace my Dad's military life during the war. I know that he served in North Africa and was wounded there. I think he was sent back to the UK for treatment and met my Mum. He also served in Italy and I recollect a long lost photo that was taken in Yugoslavia. I think he was in either a tank unit or artillery, with the 8th Army. His name was Willian Arthur Brookes and he hailed from Bolton, Lancashire. William Brookes Add to this record. RSM. Reginald Charles "Mac" McDonnell Rifle Brigade My father, Reginald McDonnell, told me of his time with the Desert Rats in North Africa and of his capture at Tobruk. He was in the Rifle Brigade. He said he was promoted in the field to RSM because all those above that rank had been killed. After his capture he and 4 colleagues were transferred to Northern Italy where it was freezing cold and they were still wearing their desert gear. He escaped with his colleagues by killing their guard using his thumbs in the side of the temple. They then swam over a mile down a sewage infested canal and walked the length of the border with Greece and back only to get through near where they had started from. The only casualty among them was the only married chap, he was killed. When my father was repatriated he was full of Beri-beri and dysentry and suffering from what would now be called Post Traumatic Stress. He was hospitalized but discovered that his fiance was marrying another man, a sailor much to his disgust. He dragged himself to the church and confronted them but it was too late. Her excuse was that his mother had recieved "the telegram" 3 times and refused to believe he was dead but on the 4th she thought he must have perished. He went on to live another 43 years until he died on my birthday in 1988. For years I played with his medals but never fully understood the horrors he went through. This was the only time he opened up about his wartime experiences. I sincerely wish I had been less of a me me person in my youth but its too late now. God bless you Dad, and thanks. Ian C McDonnell Add to this record. Cpl. Ernest Richard Evans 2nd Btn. King's Royal Rifle Corps (d.20th Oct 1944 ) My brother Ernie Evans was with the 2nd KRRC, after being with the 8th army in the North African Desert came home in 1944 to prepare for D Day leaving for France in June 1944. It appears that during a battle at a place in Holland Tilberg my brother was wounded in the abdomen, he returned to base with his men then for some unknown reason was last seen heading back to where the battle took place. I assume to perhaps help a comrade whom he had left there. The next news we received his grave was in Leopoldberg cemetery Belgium. The mystery was if the action took place in Holland why was he buried in Belgium. On a visit to the cemetary I spoke to a man who with his father created the cemetery, he told me that during the war that area had a German field hospital and my brother was wounded in Tilberg and possiblly captured and brought down to the hospital for treatment. In the cemetary where my brother is buried, the grave just behind him is the grave of his friend Rfn Gavin. Could my brother gone back to the action to help him and been taken prisoner? That we will never know. Frank Evans Add to this record. L/Bdr. Albert Henry Hardwick Royal Artillery My Grandad, Albert Hardwick served in Africa and Italy during the war. All we know is that he was a driver in the Royal Artillery, as part of the Desert Rats, 13th HQ Corps. Victoria Hardwick Add to this record. Sgt. Ronald James McEvoy 2nd Btn. Grenadier Guards In 1931 my father Ronald James McEvoy enrolled with the 2nd Battalion of the Grenadier Guards. In March 1936 his battalion was stationed at Mustapha Barracks, Alexandria, Egypt. As war was declared on Germany on the 31st August 1939, Ron had just finished his military service and had joined the Southampton Police Force, he put his uniform back on and headed for Wellington Barracks. Ron�s battalion then became part of the British Expeditionary Force on the French, Belgium frontier. He was one of the lucky ones and evacuated from Dunkirk. During his time in England he had prisoner escort duties and guard duties at Windsor Castle, Buckingham Palace; he was also escort for the keys to the Tower of London. On the 9th May 1942 he married Eileen Hendry at St Boniface Catholic Church, Tooting. Between the 9th and 18th of September 1943 Ron's battalion became part of the 8th Army and landed at Salerno Italy. Ron was captured by the German's in November 1943 and after two weeks in a cattle wagon he became incarcerated at Stalag 357 Thorn, Poland. On the advance of the Russians the prison population was marched to Stalag XI-B in Fallingbostel, Germany. After liberation from there my father teamed up with a few friends and roamed through the German countryside living off the land. After about a week they met up with some allied troops and were flown back home. I have come across three aces "dated 18th April 1945" from a pack of cards, the ace of clubs is signed by someone called J W T Hurlley? of Green-Royd, Boston Road, Holbeach, Spalding, Lincolnshire. The ace of hearts is signed by a gentleman called Maxwell of 16 Green Walk, Greater, Manchester. The ace of spades belongs to Fred W Bernard, Box 226 Chathery, New Brunswick, Canada. Ron was offered a commission in another regiment however Ron and Eileen wanted the freedom of life away from the army. On being demobbed Ron was sent on an engineering course based in Cambridge; however on finishing he joined as an Agent of the Prudential Assurance Co Ltd; he was based in Balham, London. One year later he joined the War Office Police Service, later to become the Ministry of Defence Police Service. He was able to retain his military rank of Sergeant and was based at the War Office, Whitehall, London. In 1955 Ron was transferred to The Government Research Establishment in Waltham Abbey, Essex seeing out his working life until retirement in 1976. Ron McEvoy Add to this record. Sig. Stanley Arnold "Rass" Newham 12th Signals Coy. Royal Corps Signals Stanley Arnold Newham was my father. He joined up in December 1939 at Nottingham and was assigned to N.Midland District Signals and disembarked in Egypt on the 1st of October 1941. He in the Middle East till 24th November 1943 with 30 Corps then Home till 6th June 1944. He married my Mother Nancy Elizabeth Carlile, on 4th April 1944. He then was in France 'till 12th June 1944. He came home (injured) 'till 9th September 1944 then back in France 'till 13 December 1945. He came home and discharged on 26th April 1946. He was awarded he Africa Star with 8th Army Clasp, and 1939/45 Star of Italy, Star of France and Germany Star all of which have sadly been lost and no replacements are available any more. He was a Dispatch Rider throughout the war. He was not Discharged from Reserve Liability till 30 June 1959. Stanley V. H. Newham Add to this record. Jack Langdon My Father Jack Langdon was a Desert Rat in the Army. He never told me anything about it but I do have a picture of him on a camel in Egypt just by the Sphinx and I know he was a driver. Sorry it's not much but would love to know more. Mandy Add to this record. George Edward "Popeye" Wells Royal Tank Regiment My Father, George Wells was in the Desert Rats, in the Tank Regiment. He got his nickname as he lost his right eye out there. He had seven operations to try and save it, but sadly it was not successful and he ended up having it removed and having a glass one. Much to our amusment he could take his eye out when we were young children. After he had recovered from this ordeal he was not sent to the front line again but taught other Troopers to drive Tanks. I too am afraid my Dad did not talk about the War either, my brothers may know more. The one thing he did tell us was, Richard Green, the Actor lived in his street when he was young in London, I am not sure if he was in Dad's Regiment as well. Valerie Ruane Add to this record. Dvr. Joe Sheen Royal Army Service Corps My grandfather Joe Sheen, was in Desert Rats, 8th Armoured Division, Army Corps. He was a Lorry Driver he was in Cairo in April 1941 and was wounded in Cairo in 1943, he was sent to JoBurg in South Africa to the hospital and remained there until the end of the war. Does anyone remember him? Anna Humphreys Add to this record. ASM. Alfred Henry George "Ali" Barber Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers I am trying to do my family history, all we know about my Grandad Alfred Barber is that he served with REME in the Desert Rats, The 8th Army. Though I do have a lovely photo of all of the Regiment in Cairo and he is in it and the other day clearning out my dad's garage and we came across his kit bag on it says - ASM Barber A 7638305, REME. If you knew an Alfred (Ali) Barber, please contact me. L.Barber Add to this record. James Evans The Buffs My Uncle Jim Evans was a Desert Rat in WW11. I believe he was with The Buffs. I found three diaries which I am offering to the Imperial War Museum shortly. They contain lots of everyday writing but he seems to be in transport as he speaks quite often of 'Dixie' which appears to have been his lorry. He mentions a man called Darkie and an officer called Blakeland. He spent a lot of time in Rome and he also used to like mending watches. Not a lot that I know but someone may remember him. H Gunn Add to this record. GSM. John Harold "The Duke" Brookes MID. Coldstream Guards My Father, John Harold Brookes joined the Coldstream Guards aged 16 in 1935. He was posted out to North Africa and served in the Desert Rats. Dad was mentioned in dispatches for distinguished service in the Battle of Sidi Barrani, when he and an NCO stormed an Italian machine gun nest. The NCO was given a DSO despite, according to legend, being behind my Father during the advance. The dispatch was recorded in the London Gazette on September 13th 1940. Later, post war, Dad joined the Palestine police serving until the 1947 handover to the Isrealis. Vincent John Brookes Add to this record. William Surridge My Grandfather was in the 8th Army, William Surridge (known as Bill) and I wonder whether anyone knows anything about him as he has passed away now. Lisa Surridge Add to this record. Matthew McAllister (d.1942) My Great Uncle, Matthew McAllister from Carrickfergus Co. Antrim served in the 8th Army and died at the Battle of El Alamein Africa. The last my family heard from him was a postcard form Leeds when he got married. My family never knew his wife's name, so when he died she was his next of kin. Therefore, details sent to my grandfather were slim. If anyone remembers him I would really appreciate any information. Mark McAllister Add to this record. Patrick Mooney Irish Guards My Grandad, Paddy Mooney was a Derset Rat and fought in WW2 against Rommel in North Africa. He was from Dublin, Ireland. Does anyone have any information about him? Tracey Mooney Add to this record. Sgt. James Cuningham Nelson Sadly my father, James Nelson died when I was young and did not talk about the war. I know he was in the Desert Rats until he got burnt when his tank was hit. He was then in the tanks on D-Day and was one of the first to hit the beaches. What regiment he was in I do not know and would love to find more about him and his experiencs. I have no pictures of him from the war time, but have not been through my mum's personal effects yet after she died a couple of years ago. Pete Nelson Add to this record. Cpl. Edward William Hickmott MiD. My father, Ted Hickmot, returned from the war and like so many veterans never talked about his experience. Sadly I was just 8 years old when he died and of course I was too young to understand that I should have found out more from him. My mother knew very little of what he experienced and it was only after she died that I found his campagn medals and was able to identify where he had experienced the war. I know he was in the Middle East since I have in the past recieved correspondance from families he visited from South Africa on route to Egypt. He was involved in actions in North Africa where we like to think Rommel gave up when my dad arrived on the scene, all eight and a half stone of him! He appears to have been in Scicily and returned home then to be involved in the invasion of Normandy. It was sometime in that theatre that he was Mentioned in Despatches, something I would like to learn more of but not sure where to start. I have photos of him in Belgium and Holland when he was in Arnhem. My abiding memory is of his return from service and having watched a DC3 fly by and convinced that my father would be on it, who knows maybe he was. John Hickmott Add to this record. Len Joynes Coldstream Guards My late father, Len Joynes, was in the Coldstream Guards when he was captured on 20th June 1942 at Tobruk. My information is that he was held prisoner of war at Campo 73 and escaped when the Italians surrendered in September 1943. His army records show him being a prisoner of war up until April 1944 during which time I am pretty sure he spent with Italian partisans near to Pescara as I have some wonderful letters from an Italian family and fellow escapees. I am presently trying to make contact with this family as well as trying to piece together any information that would enable me to put together what must have been a most wonderful journey in life. K.Joynes Add to this record. Arthur Ernest Bates 5th Regiment Royal Artillery My Dad, Arthur Ernest Bates, served in the 5th RHA from 1940 to 1946 and went through North Africa, Italy, Normandy & Germany. He was born in Australia but returned to England when he was three years old. He has many memories of what he went through and it is only in recent years that he has disclosed some of them to me. Amongst many other stories, he shook hands with King George, and also �spotted� Rommel during his North Africa service. Peter Bates Add to this record. Jack Winter Life Guards My Dad, Jack Winter, was a tank driver in the 8th Army he served in the Middle East, Africa and Italy. I know he particularly mentioned Tobruk. My Mum still has photos of him. but I would like to know if anyone remembers him. He also served with the famous comedian Tommy Cooper. Dad was initially in the Kings Life Guards but I am not sure what they became when war broke out. If any one can help I'd love to hear from you. Sue Thacker Add to this record. Frederick George Gully My great grandfather was Fredrick George Gully, known as George. He was close friends with a Len from Birmingham. I have a picture of him and two of his friends one being Len. I also believe he was a mechanic, he was not on the frontline. He also was believed to have travelled to Synapore and India. I met him many times when I was young but he died a couple of years ago. If anyone has any information regarding him, I would be very much grateful. Bethan Owen Add to this record. L/Cpl. Sydney "Syd" Sole Leicestershire Regiment My Grandfather, Sydney Sole never liked to talk about the War much but we did get a few facts. He was a fly weight boxer in the army. He joined the Leicestershire Regiment on the 20th of June 1940 but was transferred to the Welch Regiment on the 7th of April. He served first in Egypt and Eritriea then went to invade Sicily and fought up Italy into Yugoslavia. I would love to have contact from anyone who knows more. Darren Blackburn Add to this record. William Roe My great grandfather Thomas Walter Roe and his elder brother William were from an army family. Thomas Roe was stationed in India and was in the Italian campaign. William Roe was in 8th Army and was wounded in a hotel explosion. He retired later as Major General Sir William Roe. He died in the early 1970s. Last known adress was 149 Poverest Road Kent. Can anyone give any further information about William Roe? Azo Chakhesang Add to this record. Sgt. Herbert W. Denton 1St Btn. Rifle Brigade The memories of Herbert W Denton, Sergeant 7th Armoured Division (Desert Rats), Compiled 2010, with additions from a recorded interview. Called up The war had started in 1939 and in 1940 I was called up. On receiving call-up papers I went to Tidworth Barracks in Wiltshire for Army Training, consisting of drill, rifle shooting and lectures. This was the Rifle Brigade 1st Battalion and where I remained for the whole of the war. The Driving Test Well, there was a strange driving test. A vehicle was driven in between two trees with one foot to spare that side and one foot to spare the other side. The driver being tested had to back out, round and then reverse into the same space �without hesitation�. The Chief Tester of Sunbeam Talbot was one of our fellows - he failed. I was the next one to go and I went off and round �as clean as a whistle� and I don�t think it was good driving it was just a fluke. I passed so I became a driver. I did all right out of it because one of the officers in 8 Platoon had to go to Ashford in Kent. He asked for me to be the driver and I wasn�t even in his Platoon. I didn�t like him anyway so why should I be selected. Anyway, we went to Ashford and there was another car with another officer as well. The officers went into a hotel for lunch. We looked around Ashford for where we could have lunch and found nothing. So I said to the other chap �We�ll go in the hotel too�. He said �We can�t go in there with the officers�. I said �We�ve got to eat and Officers or no Officers I�m going in�. Of course, he followed me. The officers looked across but I ordered the meal and, of course, I paid for it. If we hadn�t eaten then we would have had nothing all day. I drove all sorts of funny things after that, including a 20 ton Lancia truck which was captured in the Western Dessert. Off To Africa When training was finished we drove up to Glasgow and boarded the �Strathaird� troopship. We sailed past Ireland, Greenland, down close to America, then back across the Atlantic to Freetown, Sierra Leone where the boat was refuelled. There we stopped a mile off shore and did not land there. Our escort of 1 Battleship, 2 Destroyers and 6 Corvettes left us at Freetown. After only one day we then sailed on the Capetown where we stayed for four days. As far as the army was concerned when we went ashore everything was paid for. We were wined and dined by the South Africans in every place where we ate or drank. When we asked for the bill we were told �Oh, this is with the compliments of Mr. or Mrs Van Heuten or So-and-so over there, they have paid the bill�. It became quite embarrassing. I phoned Johannesburg to talk to my uncle, heard he was in Cape Town and coming home that day on the �Blue Train�. While on the phone I saw the train go out of the station. When my C.O. heard about that he said if he had known I could have gone up to see my uncle and joined the ship at Durban. That was the next port of call before we sailed to Port Tufic on the Suez Canal. Into The Desert From Port Tufic a train took us via Cairo to a spot somewhere out in the Egyptian Desert. We went to a camp there for a few days then we got our trucks and our desert journeys began. A Dusabled Truck We went via Tobruk to El Agheila where our first battle took place. We got as far as Marsa Brega but then we were bashed back to Alamein - not quite to Cairo, more Alexandria. I went into Tobruk when my truck had virtually broken down. It was a six cylinder truck and it was only working on two cylinders. I must have been the last vehicle out of Tobruk. Germans were using very lights, green and red - it was the green ones I was watching because that�s the movement forward. I said to the Corporal who was with me �As long as we get beyond the El Adem road we�re safe�. He said �Where�s the El Adem road�. I said �about a mile further down from here�. So, we�re watching these very lights and we passed the El Adem road with the lights very close. We only just �made it�. So, I staggered on at eight miles an hour, flat out, and got right the way down to Bardia. From there we got a tow all the way back to Alamein. We didn�t go along the coast road but through the desert. We had to get over �Hell-Fire Pass� as Halfaya Pass was known, dragged over that and then plain flat desert all the way back to Alamein, in all about a hundred miles. I�d had very little sleep for a couple of days and I nodded off and woke up just in time to slam on the brakes before hitting the truck in front. A German Surprise I had stopped late at night; it�s no good going on after dark because you can�t see what you are doing. Some tanks must have come in and Laagered during the night and I was on the edge of it but they were all facing the opposite direction to me. I was so tired I must have slept through all the noise of the tanks arriving. When I woke up I was surprised when I looked at the tank tracks and saw they had quite little wheels. Only the German tanks had little wheels on their tracks! In the distance they had discovered a South African Laager and when the battle started next morning as I was on the outside edge they never saw me. I nipped out and away. I got into the vehicle without my trousers, without my socks and drove like mad. I heard a bang and I thought they were firing at me but they weren�t, they were firing at the South Africans. After a time I stopped and put my trousers and my boots on again and we went on. We didn�t see much of the German Air Force once the RAF got cracking out there. They seemed to give up and go back to concentrate on Europe. As for the Italian Air Force I saw one Spitfire see off six Italian bombers at one go! We didn�t see much of them after that! R.A.F. and German Tactics The RAF were in, bomb, bang, and away! The Germans, you could watch them and you knew who was going to be the target. So, you just got out the way. If they had done the same that the RAF were doing we wouldn�t have stood a chance. At Alamein the RAF came over us to the Germans and whoosh, bang and within a matter of two or three minutes it was all over. The German Air Force came in and you can stand there watching them, to see where they were going, and if they turned there and came back you knew who was going to be the target. So, you merely just wandered away out of the way. Of course, the bombs dropped and when they left we just went back to where we were. You learned rapidly in the war! El Alamein and Italians When Gen. Montgomery took over we were sent down south for a rest but arrived in time to stop the Italians from outflanking the Alamein line. We remained in the south for a week or two and then we were brought up to the main front line. We were sitting right at the south of the front looking at a hill. One night I went forward to get some information from the forward troops. I misfired - there were one or two sitting in very deep slit trenches and I thought, �this is funny�. Our forward troops were not in slit trenches! I then heard somebody talking in Italian - I was only behind the Italian Lines. One popped his head out and looked at me � I put my first finger up vertically against my lips and he bobbed back out of sight. After that I just walked out. I didn�t run - I thought take it easy and hope for the best. Nobody challenged me. Of course, I got back to my lot, our lines and I was promptly challenged. A gruff voice said �Who goes there?� I said �friend�. �Advance friend� So, Friend advanced! It was a bloke I knew. He looked at me and said �Where the bloody �ell have you been?� I said �Unfortunately, in the Italian Lines� He said �How the hell did you get out again?� I said �Well, nobody challenged me so I gently walked out again until I got here!� El Alamein and Germans We were attacked at Alamein by Germans, 110 Tiger Tanks. They came at us in single file! We knocked out the leader and as the second one pulled out to pass him we knocked that one out too. We knocked out 96 of them and the other 14 retired! That was the last battle before Alamein and the breakout, and from then onwards I don�t think we lost anywhere. Just before Alamein, the Sergeant Major�s arm was going black so I told him to go to the MO. �I�m alright� he said. So I said �you�re a Bloody Fool if you don�t go�. He said �Don�t call me a Bloody Fool I�m a Warrant Officer class 2� I said �I don�t care if you�re a Warrant Officer Class 1 I�ll give you five minutes to go or I�m fetching the MO�. I got down to one minute before he decided he had better go. I never saw him again but I had a letter from him. He apologised for all the harsh words he�d used and he said �You did right and if I had left it another day I�d have lost my arm�. When I applied for an NCO to take over from him I was told �There isn�t anybody available - you do it�. I was an ordinary Rifleman then so I promoted myself to Lance Corporal and it went through. Somebody had to be in control, so I ran the �A� Echelon as a Lance Corporal. The Battle of El Alamein The battle for Alamein started with Gen. Montgomery in charge. That was some battle - I was right in front of the guns and I�ve never heard such a racket in my life. There was one gun every twenty-five yards and they all opened up at the same time. After a short time the tanks went forward with us following. You did things that if you had thought about it you wouldn�t have ruddy well done it! At Alamein we had a tank get a direct hit about 20 yards away from us and it was going up in flames. I just went forward and helped them get out of this burning tank. That was all I did and afterwards I thought �What the hell were you doing sticking your neck out like that�! But, you just do it, you don�t think about it. It was a British made tank but it didn�t occur to me that I might get hurt. Lots of funny things got done. We had one Victoria Cross, Colonel Turner. I don�t know what it was all about, he was in the 2nd. Battalion not the 1st. I did know him but not what he did. One fellow was walking around and he saw something on the floor, he kicked it and it blew up and he lost his foot. Two or three days afterwards I was sent to pick up some recruits. They came along and there was a fountain pen on the floor. One of them was about to pick it up and I said �Don�t touch it!� They looked at me startled so I picked up some stones and threw them at it. When I hit it, it blew up. I said �That�s why I said don�t touch it�. There were a lot of booby traps like that at the start. They soon gave that up because it didn�t take long to learn. I had heard about these fountain pens but I thought� If it is a fountain pen and I seem a bloody fool then there is nothing lost�. I explained to them if you see something on the ground do what I did, and if it doesn�t blow up, then you can pick it up. Casualties I knew the battle was on but I was always doing something else. We had lost all the officers and the Orderly Room Staff after one battle and because I was the only one with clerical experience I ended up running the Orderly Room. The first thing I was asked was who were casualties in the Rifle Brigade. I had no Idea of who was in the other platoons, numbers 5, 7, and 8; I only knew of mine No. 6. But I had to find out, so having found a phone that worked I phoned the Records Office in England. I said I wanted to know who was in the Rifle Brigade and they gave me all the names of who were in the whole of the Rifle Brigade. I wandered around to find out who we had left and the rest of them I posted as �missing, presumed captured�. I couldn�t think of anything else to say, and that was that! From then on as I was the only clerk in the office I became the Orderly Room Sergeant � I had very quick promotion. When we went forward we kept on going. Captured Benghazi on our way back across the desert. The Lancia Truck The funniest one was the captured Lancia twenty ton truck. You get into the cab, one two three, you pull a lever then get out of the cab, go round the front and you wind, wind, wind then you get back in the cab and pull a lever and if it doesn�t start you do it all over again! And that�s why the Italians were always getting caught in the Laager. Being an NCO I didn�t drive. �Who�s driving the Italian Wagon?�. Silence. �Well, Corporal Denton can drive he can drive the Wagon�. From then on I had that for a long time - went up and down the desert in it. It would go over anything. One time I took it up the side of an escarpment. It was being used as a ration wagon. I had got everything unloaded and then there was �a flap on� and everybody vanished! So I picked up the remaining stuff and put it on board and moved off, to be chased by a little German scout car. I came upon an escarpment, changed gear from top down to lower boost without scraping the sides and went up the escarpment! The little fellow couldn�t get up there so we got away that time. I�d never been able to do that since - there were two gear levers and it went in as clean as a whistle. And I�ve never done it since. Opposition to Deal With We kept going out of Egypt into Libya where a small battle took place near Tobruk. After that we kept going till we got to Sousse where we were stopped. During the night the Gurkhas and Maoris went in and came back with 1 prisoner - they had killed all the rest. Rommel On one occasion I was out at the forward lines and went into an ambulance station we had just recaptured. At the other end of the camp I saw a German Staff Car occupied by an officer. It was Rommel � he stood up and saluted as he was driven off at high speed. I had no chance to catch up in my truck, and my rifle was stowed in the truck, so I missed a chance to get him. Marksmanship I was armed with a pencil and paper most of the time but I always had my rifle with me. As a �marksman� I could hit a bull�s-eye at 200 yards with all five bullets [in the magazine]. But, I never had to use my rifle during the battles. It seemed much harder gathering up all the required information than lying down firing at anybody. The rifle was always loaded, in case. I knew that if I had to use it, whatever the target was I�d hit it. We had a rifle competition in a quiet period when we were stationed at Tobruk and I won 10 Piastres, that was the prize. The target was one of these pop up things and I had five shots and hit it five times. One or two of the others hit it but not five times. I found it perfectly simple Always Driving Once I became an NCO you didn�t drive but we were running so short of drivers I was always driving. Just before we attacked Tripoli, we travelled at night, and the convoy stopped. I heard the convoy move off and we didn�t. I nipped out the truck, found my driver had gone to sleep, so I hoiked him out of the cab, got him in the back and I got in and started driving. Pitch black - couldn�t see a thing -just hoped I was going to catch the others up! It took me fifteen minutes before I caught them. All I could see was just a little light on the back of the vehicle in front, which was very very fortunate. Tripoli; The Italians That was just before the capture of Tripoli. When we captured Tripoli a boat came loaded with Italian soldiers, as they came off the boat we said �Right, just come this way�. I had a couple on my truck for a week and they were quite happy there. One of them who spoke English fairly well said the Italians didn�t want to fight the British. It was only the fact that Mussolini was with Hitler that meant the Italians were drawn into the war against us. We discovered as far as the Italians were concerned in the desert they were �easy meat�. It was quite obvious that they hadn�t any intention of doing any real fighting. The only time they did any of that was when the Germans were with them, when they hadn�t much option. Tripoli; The Germans When we had just captured Tripoli I was walking around, turned a corner and came face to face with a complete Platoon of German Soldiers. They were armed to the teeth. The officer came up to me and saluted, so I gave him one back and he said they were surrendering. So I said �Carry on. Prisoners are being accepted round the corner�. I didn�t want anything to do with them. They marched off, presumably into captivity and I never saw them again. I had had enough of a shock coming face to face with a fully armed Platoon of soldiers. I could easily have ended up dead. The capture of Tripoli was a �walk-in� which finished the Desert War, we were able to push on steadily until we reached Tunisia. Having got to Tunis we then met up with the American First Army. A Royal Visit Before we left Africa we were all on parade while the King made a visit, but he just drove past us at about 50 mph. Salerno Landing We sat in the desert for some days before boarding boats and making the landing in Italy. At Salerno there was no opposition on the beach whatsoever. We just landed and the Italian Ladies that met us were quite happy to see us. We kept on going until we got to Monte Casino. There was nothing for us to do there, we would leave it to those who were already there, so we came back to Naples. We stayed at Naples for two or three weeks where it was functioning as a normal town. While we were there the Colonel asked me if I liked opera and I replied that I did. I was a lance corporal. The Brigadier said �I am Charles�. How does a lance corporal call a Brigadier Charles? Right, be ready at 6, there is a good opera in town and the Opera House is functioning normally. I got in the Staff Car at the appointed time and off we went. There I was sitting with the Colonel. I don�t know why he picked on me but I enjoyed the evening and we went back after to the billets about 20 miles South of Naples. Anyway we had a very pleasant evening. Two days later we were on a boat on the way home. England and �D� Day Leave was granted and then we were billeted in tents on Wanstead Common. �D� Day came and we were first to land in France. The Canadians on our left and the Americans on our right had terrible battles. For us it was just like Salerno with nothing to stop us at all as we went in with the first wave. The Sappers had cleared the beach in almost minutes and we just followed up, going two or three miles inland before the Colonel decided we were �getting a bit ahead of ourselves� so we went back a bit. We then headed out of France into Belgium where we stopped at Liege for a few days refuelling, etc. There, the Air landing at Arnhem took place and the old Desert Rats went up to help out. Dutch Hospitality We came back down and were billeted with a Dutch couple, elderly, but insisted on us having a fruit flan. This was the biggest flan I have ever seen. The dish was round and at least two feet across. This flan was delicious and we, 6 of us, used up half of it so took the other half back to the old lady who said �No, it is all for you�. I had some cocoa sent in a parcel by a cousin in South Africa so I asked the old lady for some boiling water. She made the cocoa and used milk. I made sure the old couple had some as well. When we left I had a pint bottle of Rum. I used to bottle my rum ration. I gave this bottle to the old couple plus my cigarette rations when we left and they burst into tears. Into Germany The next day we crossed the Rhine over the most rickety bridge I have ever seen. The Brigadier looked at it and said to me �That looks as though someone is going to finish up in the Rhine�. He went first carefully and I followed also very carefully. It was a bit dodgy. As soon as the fighting part of the brigade was over we went flat out for Hamburg. The German forces had left Hamburg an open city so there was no fighting. While sitting in the truck a woman came up to us and said �That car that has just gone out, that was Ribbentrop� so we set off after him. We chased him up one side of the Schleswig-Holstein peninsular and down the other and caught him back in Hamburg and handed him over to the Signallers while we went on our way east. We got as far as Gluckstadt when the armistice was declared so we stopped there. A �Friendly� Dog At Gluckstadt there was a dog tethered on a chain as thick as my wrist. This dog stood about as high as a young Shetland Pony and it was terribly vicious. When I threw it a biscuit it first sniffed it but then picked it up and found it rather liked it. The next morning I went out and it half heartedly growled so I went a bit closer to it and threw a biscuit which it promptly picked up. Day three as I approached it the tail was wagging, no growl, I went right up to it and it took a biscuit nicely and I was stroking it just as the farmer came out. He �nearly did his nut�; he thought I would be �savaged�! I said �What him; Bruno�s an old Softy�. What was a vicious dog hadn�t taken me long to tame. This dog was used to pull a milk cart. I went out for a walk one day, fully armed I might add in case of accidents, turned a corner and what do I meet - dog pulling a milk cart. Dog saw me, dog follows me and I finish up doing a milk round. Everybody thought that was most humorous, a fully armed British Soldier doing a milk round. I hadn�t got any option, the dog wouldn�t leave me. It was one of the biggest dogs I�ve ever seen. Brussels When the battles were all over and we were in Germany the �powers that be� decided that all the Orderly Room Sergeants would run their unit from Brussels � my unit was at Gluckstadt in Germany. I thought to myself this is bloody silly, running a unit 200 miles away. Not that I minded, I had the time of my life in Brussels. You could go to theatres, cinemas, they were all open. Shops were open, restaurants were open. I didn�t ever eat in the Mess; I used to go out to a restaurant. Getting off the train another chap who got off and said to me �Do you know where GHQ is?� I said �No, but I am going there�. He introduced himself and I did likewise and we became good friends. His name was Colin. The Work in Brussels The work was not much different from what I had been doing and pre-war I had been a clerk working in an office so it meant nothing to me. It was perfectly simple. Poor Old Colin who was given the job of running the Worcester�s, he didn�t know whether he was on his arse or his elbows. I went in and showed him what to do. In fact I did it. For two or three days I ran the Worcester�s until Colin had got hold of the �Brass Tacks� of it. Then I left him to it. As far as I was concerned it was simple, I was used to it. One afternoon in the street, I was talking to Colin when he suddenly sprung to attention and saluted. I turned round to see who it was and was greeted with a handshake. It was the Brigadier who had taken me to the theatre in Naples. I did not get a chance to salute him as he grabbed my hand and shook it saying �I thought I recognised you�. He was in Brussels to get orders and I noticed he was now a General. He chatted for some time before saying �I have to see the governor� meaning the Field Marshall so, shaking my hand again, off he went. Difficult Asministration My regiment had a new commanding officer who insisted all ranks would do drill so the Orderly Room staff could not get their work done till late. I in Brussels was getting information for publication late afternoon instead of 9 o�clock in the morning. I went and saw the Brigadier who wrote a letter and said �Go back to your unit and sort them out�. I left Brussels at 4pm that day (Thursday) and arrived midday Saturday. The train had no windows, it was 7 January and bitterly cold and my temper on arriving at the regiment was at boiling point. The first person I saw was the R.S.M and I was not very polite to him. The Orderly Room staff were trying to catch up with work and I said �This doing parade is going to stop. The returns for publication are needed at 9 am not 5pm�. I then went to see the C.O. and handed him the letter from the Brigadier. He read the letter and said �I am in command of this battalion�, so I said �I will inform the Brigadier of your decision� and left. The cook made me a bundle of sandwiches for my journey back to Brussels where I arrived at 9am Monday. I went directly to the Brigadier to report. He greeted me with �A good job, your Colonel has agreed to all you recommended and everything should go smoothly from now�. It did for a while. Before long there was another problem with the Colonel and I knew what to do now! I went to see the Brigadier who took me to the General. The General then said �John�, to the Brigadier, �go and sort this Colonel out!� The Brigadier and I went to the Colonel�s Office. Without looking up the Colonel shouted �Get out!� We ventured further in and were greeted with �Get out!� again. The Brigadier roared �Colonel!�, and that got his attention, �you are no longer in command. Pack now and report to the Officers� Allocation Unit.� The Colonel protested and apologised but was sent off �with his tail between his legs�. The Brigadier now had to find a replacement CO and was going to look to other Units for someone. I suggested that our Major was very good and would be very suitable. I went and found him and he was promoted on the spot! He was surprised and mentioned to me later that it was not something he would have ever expected. Pelota Brussels was very nice. I went to see a game of Pelota. That�s the game with curved racquets that you swing � and you could bet on that! I bet on Mr. Jose, and he won. So, I came away with twenty francs better than when I started. I didn�t do any more betting but I watched a game and realised that whoever you bet on, they played six sets, and they would win one of them! Didn�t matter whether it was the first, second or the last. I had worked all that out so the next time I went down I bought my ticket for the first one � and he lost. So I bought two tickets for the second one � and he lost again. So, the third time I bought three tickets and he won. So, I got all my money back plus a bit extra! I had worked all that out like that and we would go and see this Pelota two or three times a week. Demob Time Belgium was working as if nothing had ever happened � well, Brussels was. This Pelota business, I won so much money that by the time it was time to come home I couldn�t change it! I changed as much as I could into English money and the rest of it � I went out on a shopping spree. I bought six pairs of silk stockings that I brought home, all for Kath. I bought all sorts of things and spent the rest. There was a kid standing around so I gave him some and he stood there with his mouth open! Never seen so much money in his life � it was no good to me, coming home! It was his lucky day. It wasn�t all that much but I had changed all I could and bought God knows what with the rest. Helping Hand The following day I packed all my kit and went out to catch a train. I felt bloody awful. There was a Sergeant Major standing there and he said �are you all right?� I said �not really, but I�m going home�. �Well�, he said �there�s no train till 4 o�clock�. This was about 12 I think. �Go and lay down on one of the benches� he said �I�ll wake you when the train comes�. I did go to sleep and about ten to four he woke me up saying �train will be in, in 10 minutes�. Of course, I felt a lot better by then, not right - but better. The train came in; he picked up my kitbag and carried it for me! I was very happy to see England again knowing I would not have to cross the Channel again in uniform. The very next day I got my civvie suit and that was the end of my Army career. Paul Wilson Add to this record. Bdr. John Stewart Wibberley Royal Artillery My dad, Jack Wibberley, talked about being in the Eighth Army, and about visiting Cairo. He was captured at Tobruk in June 1942 and was taken to Italy where he was a POW in the following camps: 85 Turturano near Brindisi 73 Fossoli of Carpi 53 Sforzacosta I know he escaped from one of the camps with a friend Mac. He was taken in by a farming family & lived with them. One day when working in the fields he was challenged & beaten with rifles by some Axis troops - he agreed to meet them in the market in Naples the next day & bring another POW with him. Needless to say, he didn't do that! [I read a report he wrote about this when I was about 13, but that report wasn't in family papers when we cleared the family house] In June 1944 his war record states he was known to have reached Southern Italy & was in Allied hands. By August 1944 he had returned to England & was in Liverpool Transit Camp He was posted to Clacton on Sea in Essex where he was part of the Heavy Ack Ack Battery. In the NAAFI there he met my mum Ada Letch who was in the ATS. They got married in December 1945. He died in 1958 and my mum died in 1980. I would love to know if anyone remembers him - he was always known as Jack. Jan Kitchin Add to this record. George Richard Cheek My Grandad Geroge Cheek was captured by the Afrika Corps and then handed over to the Italians. He escaped from them just to get to the Germans and got machine gunned for his efforts. He got better treatment with them though. J.A. Jones Add to this record. Pte. Louis Gillen Black Watch My father, Louis Gillen, was captured after the North African Campaign. He was captured in Italy but managed to escape twice. He joined the army with the Ulster Rifles but was attached to Black Watch in 8th Army. He was eventually captured and sent to Stalag 11a in Altengrabow. He remained there until they were liberated. He passed away in 1983. He was a wonderful man. Does anyone have any information on him as I would be delighted to hear anything. Leonie Add to this record. Frank Pelham C Squadron Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry My Grandad, Frank Pelham, was a Desert Rat Tank Driver and mechanic with the Notts Sherwood Rangers. I have several of his papers including a letter of congratulations on the birth of my auntie from Philis Mcgrath at the Old Comrades and Welfare Association, his pay & service book, a copy of his standing orders book for drivers, and a copy of the "8th Armoured Bridge" book. I'm desperatly seeking any photos that may be in circulation, if anyone can help I would greatly appreciate it. I'd like to make contact with anyone who may have served alongside my grandad in WW2 Emma Alford Add to this record. Pte. Robert Willacey My Dad Robert Willacey, survived the Lancastria sinking. His story is slightly different from other versions. He was above sea level with mates and saw the German plane approaching. He realised they had no chance and jumped off the ship. He said one of the bombs went down the funnel which presumably explains all the oil in the water. Some was ignited so being a good swimmer he dived and swimming towards shore he came up for air when he saw no flames above him. Some people sadly came up into the flames.He swam all the way to the coast and was later sent back to England. He became a desert rat fighting Rommel in Africa where he was a tank driver and had some horrendous experiences. Moving on to Sicily he became a POW but escaped and finished the war in Naples.He had shrapnel injuries and spent a year in an Italian hospital. He helped to evacuate locals from the erupting Vesuvius just after the war in 1945. My parents had married Xmas Eve 1939 in Manchester Cathedral. Mum didn't see him when his leave ended after returning from France in 1940 until 1945. He died at the age of 84 in 2003. Robert Anthony Willacey Add to this record. Pte. Laurence Pearson Laurence Pearson was born in Birkinhead in 1926 and served in the 'Desert Rats' during the 2nd World War. Larry married his sweetheart Catherine Kitty Steenson in 1945 when he was allowed one days leave from the army. Tony Pearson Add to this record. Dvr. Charles Albert Mills Royal Artillery My Father Charles Mills was in the Royal Artillery, a driver of anti-tank guns. Posted to North Africa with Montgomery in the 8th Army then moved onto Anzio where he was caught in a bomb blast and then demoted and looked after a hotel in Venice where Italian women who had married English soldiers were held waiting to come to England. Teresa Mills Add to this record. Joseph Maurice Asher 40 Sqdn My father, Joseph Asher was a Wireless operator, rear gunner. He flew on Blenheims, Wellingtons & Sterlings. He was with 40 Squadron. He found himself on the beach at Dunkirk and he spent some time attached to Monty's 8th Army in North Africa. He was part of the bombing of Dresden, Germany. In the 50's and 60's he used to wake up nights, screaming. The left over legacy from the conflicts. He died in 2001 at the age of 81. Add to this record. Sgt. William Griffith James R.A.S.C My Dad, Bill James, like many who caught by the Japanese never spoke much of their nightmare as FEPOWS. He was in the Tank regiment at first, I've shown his photos to a Tank expert and they say he was involved in Burma, North Africa, El Alamein and Tobruk then Singapore where he was taken by the Japs. I've sent away to the MOD for his war records, still waiting, patiently. So I was wondering if anyone might have info on my father's FEPOW nightmare? Hugh James Add to this record. John Fielding Highland Light Infantry I would love to hear from anyone who knew my dad, John Fielding. I know he was a Desert Rat and I have a photo of him taken with a few of his army pals. It looks like the Middle East. Hazel Fielding Add to this record. Matthew McAllister 8th Army (d.1942) My Great Uncle, Matthew McAllister from Carrickfergus Co. Antrim served in the 8th Army and died at the Battle of El Alamein Africa. The last my family heard from him was a postcard form Leeds when he got married. My family never knew his wife's name, so when he died she was his next of kin. Therefore, details sent to my grandfather were slim. Attached is a photo of him and his wife. If anyone remembers him I would really appreciate any information. Mark McAllister Add to this record. Pte. Arthur Sidney "Taffy" Pascoe 73 G.T.Coy R.A.S.C My father left England at the end of 1942 aboard the "Windsor Castle " and served in Algeria, Sicily, Italy and Palestine. He left a journal and diary relating his war time experiences. I am transcribing them and would love to get in touch with any family of the following people mentioned by my Dad: Les Herman, Charles Brewer ( died in Sicily ), John Bragg ( died in Italy), John Vaughan, "Taffy" Evans, "Jock" Read and "Hank" Stockton. I have photographs and stories they may be interested in. My Dad was the company sign writer and later a vehicle mechanic. His journals tell of the conditions they endured in North Africa in detail, but unfortunately the details of Sicily and Italy are not as good. I would love to complete his work to give to the Grandchildren he never knew. His company was the 73rd Transport which was with the 8th Army and also the American 5th. Dianne Mortimer Add to this record. Jacob James Grossman Royal Artillery My grandad was a Desert Rat and his name was Jimmy Grossman. He was at Trobruk etc. Ef any one has any photos or information concerning him please get in touch. Thanks Lisa Add to this record. Pte. Leslie Simmonds 8th Btn. Royal Fusiliers My father, Leslie Simmonds had the Jerboa insignia on his shirt in a photo and served in the 8th Army. Records are very far and few because of my mother burning his processions a few years ago. He was from Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire. Can anyone help me with details of his service? Steve Simmonds Add to this record. Percival John Short My grand father Percival Short was in WW2 under what I know as Desert Rats I have some photos and mMy Uncle Steven has his medals at present. I'm just wondering, as a grand son who never met his grandad, I would like to know some history or maybe find an archive of possible troops from the London area to see exactly what and where he was during WW2. I know he was based in Africa, possibly Malta and Sicily. Justin Robinson Add to this record. Sgt. Donald Field Royal Signals Donald Field was my uncle. For some reason he came south to the Godalming, Surrey area and married my mother's sister. I understand he spent some time in Signals with the 4th Indian Division, 8th Army. David Reid Add to this record. Ronald Claude Mihlenstedt I've been trying to find out more about my grandad's time in the war. I have been on the war time web site and nothing comes up with the name Ron Mihlenstedt. I didn't know if he would have changed his last name as it's German. All I know is he was a Desert Rat and used to drive a tank. We had a picture of him in the desert but don't know where it is now. My grandad never talked about the War so was just interested in finding something out Lindsey Simpson Add to this record. Sargent Sidney Freeman 8 Armoured Brigade Desert Rats My grandfather, Sidney Freeman, was a sargent in the South African army fighting against the Germans in World War II. He was part of an infantry referred to as �The Desert Rats� and they fought in North Africa. Below is a transcript from a newspaper article summarising an event in which my grandsfather was later awarded a Military medal for his bravery. The incident happened in Tobruk. We think they were in the Eighth Army going to El Alamein. "Corporal Sidney Freeman was awarded the Military Medal "on June 29 while commanding a car in a troop of armoured cars," said the official narrative, "he was ordered to act as a decoy to three German guns which were shelling the forward patrol line. Corporal Freeman did this with skill and courage and with a total disregard for personal safety, and it was in great measure due to him that the two -pounder gun was deployed with success. Throughout this action Corporal Freeman car was under heavy fire." My grandfather also told my family that Rommel flew over them a number of times and on one occasion he was in their sights but their gun jammed and he was unable to fire. Mark Freeman Add to this record. Cpl. Edward William Hickmott MID 30 Corps Royal Corps of Signals Ted Hickmott, my father, was called up to serve in 1940, he was 34 years old he enlisted in Catterick on the 13th March 1941. He served in North Africa, Italy and northern Europe through D Day at Normandy soon after being Mentioned in Despatches. Throughout he was a wireless mechanic serving in the 8th Army. John Hickmott Add to this record. Pte. Frank Moth 2nd Battalion The Buffs Frank Moth. Enlisted: Canterbury, Kent, 18th April 1940 From dad�s wartime diary (my words in brackets for clarity): - 28/5/42 � �12o�clock embarked Liverpool� (this would have been on the SS Laconia with the 2nd Battalion The Buffs) 29th � 30th May �42 � �Laying off coast� 31/5/42 � �11.45 left River Mersey� 1/6/42 � �Big escort, lads mostly sick in North Atlantic, 7o�clock 18 miles Iceland� June � Freetown, (Sierra Leone) Add to this record. William Henry Davies My Grandfather William H. Davies was a Desert Rat. He was also captured by the Japanese army & held captive. He was tortured to give info & he had his ankles broken & when the bones would start to heal they would be broken again. He also had a wire put up his nose as a method to make him talk & until the day he died he could not smell. I am looking for any photos anyone might have of my grandfather from the 8th Army. Heidi Mason Add to this record. Victor Day My grandfather was a Desert Rat 8th Army. His name was Victor Day. Unfortunately he passed away a year before I was born. My mother told me that my grandfather never spoke of the war. We then found, in a secret draw in a Victorian cupboard that belonged to him, 10 years later a personal letter addressed to my grandfather from the King of Greece stating my grandfather was indeed a personal bodyguard to the King of Greece just after the war. I would love to be able to find some photos of my grandfather in the desert if anyone could help please. Annika Jones Add to this record. Christopher Charles Redman 8th Army All I know is my late Grandad Christopher Charles Redman served in the British 8th Army and was a Desert Rat. I remember he said he went to Africa, but am unsure of anywhere else. I remember his shin had a huge scar running down it. He told me that a sniper had shot him off the motorbike that he was riding on through the desert, but being young when he used to tell me stories regarding the war I'm saddened to say that I sadly don't remember anything else that my dear granddad told me. I have gone blank. My granddad was my world as my dad left my mum when I was 6 months old and my granddad with my nan helped my mum bring me up until the day he could it no more as he sadly passed away from cancer on 28th December 2003, aged 83. He lived a strong healthy life after the war and he went on to marry my nan, Rhoda Fermoy on Christmas Day and went on to live in Hackney, London. They had 2 daughters one of which is my mum. He was born in Bethnal Green, London on the 17th December 1919. I feel very passionate about finding any information regarding my granddad. I have only one picture of him from the army, looking very handsome, which is in a frame on my mum's mantelpiece. I would appreciate any replies and am very grateful for this opportunity to add my granddad to the list. Thanks to anybody who can help me. Shelley Casey Add to this record. Pte. Terry Gorman 5th Btn. Green Howards Private Terry Gorman served with the 5th Bn the Green Howards. He was probably taken prisoner as were most of the 4th and 5th Battalions (part of 150th Brigade) when ammunition ran out against Rommel's forces in the Gazala Line. Most went to prisoner of war camps in Italy. Add to this record. Cpl. John Edward Davis 8th Army My grandfather Jack Davis served in the 8th Army, Desert Rats under Montgomery. I am looking to collect as much information about him and his time in the Army as I was only two when he died. I would love to hear about his time and what he was like. He was only married for 6 weeks and then joined the Army for about three weeks. Any one has any information about him please contact me. Sarah Add to this record. L/Cpl. Donald George Durrant Royal Engineers My Dad, Donald George Durrant, was an engineer in the 8th Army. They were called the Desert Rats and he was posted to the Sahara Desert. He was taken prisoner - it may have been at Tobruk - and was sent to a POW Camp. He attempted to escape twice. Once with his friend Tich. As they were crawling on their bellies along a wall some Germans were crawling along the other side of the wall. Unfortunately they met at the end and they were both returned to the camp. He tried escaping again but got caught on the wire and was shot through the groin but recovered. The guys in the camp were shipped over the Med to Italy and the prisoners were marched up through Italy all the way to Bologna where the city turned out in the streets to watch the column march through. Don dropped down to his knees and crawled out into the crowd under the noses of the German guards. He was taken in by Italians. Don let his black hair and moustache grow. He learned to speak Italian and joined the Italian resistance. However after a couple of years he was re-captured and sent to a POW camp in Gorlitz, Poland called Stalag 8a. He was badly treated and starved there and the prisoners were made to break rocks in a quarry. Don somehow survived to the end of the war and was liberated by the Russians. He was taken back home where my grandmother had decorated the street and everyone turned out to welcome him home. However he was too tired and emaciated. He couldn't face up to all the fuss and hid around the corner. To add to the trauma, since he was away for years, his fiancee thought he was dead, as he hadn't been heard of and had married someone else which broke his heart. There is lots more to tell and I have been asked to write a book of his story so I am researching and gathering evidence in earnest. If anyone has a relative or knows anyone from the WW2 Desert Rats or knows of his friend who was nicknamed Tich as he was short in stature, or maybe had a relative that was in Stalag 8a, please do get in touch, any information or contacts you have would be gratefully received. Annie Durrant Add to this record. Eddie Eccles 31 Field Regiment, 105/119 Bty. Royal Artillery These photos from the camp include my father in law Eddie Eccles (105/119 battery of the 31 Field Regiment R.A.) who was caught at Tobruk on 15th Dec 1941 whilst taking part in the great Battle of Halem Hamza in the Libyan Desert. Understandably Eddie was reluctant to talk about his experiences so I would love to hear from others who may have knowledge of the battle and times of this Field Regiment during this period in the Libyan Desert and also at Stalag 8B. Gwyn Hughes Add to this record. Claude Wyatt-Mair British 8th Army My Dad, Claude Wyatt-Mair wrote a memoir of his time between 1939 and 1945. He was captured in Tobruk and ended up in Stalag 8c and 8b lamsdorf 344. I am trying to locate anyone who knew him. David Wyatt-Mair Add to this record. L/Cpl Cyril Tracy "Ginger" Cheesman 613 C(M)T Coy Royal Army Service Corps My dad, Cyril Tracy Cheesman, nicknamed ''Ginger'' was in 613 C(M)T Coy RASC. He was in the Eighth Army. He wrote down on the back of a photo to my mum all the places he visited during his time during the North African conflict. I assume due to German activity in the Med, his convoy went to Cape Town first. I'll now mention some of the places on his very comprehensive list: Port Taufuq, Add to this record. Rfmn. A. Leckenby 2nd Btn. Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) A Leckenby and the 2nd Battalion joined Montgomery's 8th Army for the invasion of Sicily and the battle for Italy in 1943, and from there was involved with the Garigliano Crossing. Unfortunately, he was captured and ended up bound for Germany on a POW train. It was on this journey that the Allerona tragedy took place. On 28th January 1944 at the Orvieto North railway bridge at Allerona, Italy, a train full of Allied prisoners, most of whom had come from Camp P.G. 54, Fara in Sabina, north of Rome, was hit by friendly fire from the American 320th Bombardment Group. U.S. Army member Richard Morris was on the train and wrote that the journey was stopped on the bridge over the river, and that the German guards fled as soon as the bombs struck. The prisoners were left locked inside the carriages. Many, including A Leckenby, managed to escape through holes in the boxcars caused by the bombing, and jumped into the river below. It was a great tragedy of the war resulting in the deaths of hundreds of men. Leckenby was uninjured in the train crash, but was captured at Garigliano. He was sent to POW camp Stalag 344 in Lamsdorf, Poland. S Flynn Add to this record. William John "Jock" Wood My father Jock Wood served in the Desert Rats in World War Two. He was shot in the desert and taken prisoner, I would like to know if anyone out there knew him. Anne Clough Add to this record. Gnr. John Hilton Hoyle Royal Artillery My late father, Jack Hoyle, served with the Royal Artillery 8th Army, and was a driver/gunner throughout the North African Desert campaign from 1940, then Sicily, then Italy, then across on the 1944 D-Day invasion, through to Berlin in 1945. His collection of four campaign stars remains testament to that service, although the medals were never exposed during his long post-war life - they are now framed in my hallway with his photograph, attracting attention and admiration from many visitors. He maintained that he was neither brave nor exceptional, spending five involuntary years mostly scared but eventually very lucky. As with many who saw such active service, he spoke little of the true horrors he had seen, tending only to reminisce with anecdotes about the many humorous incidents along the way and the colleagues with whom he served - probably a common way to deal with the harsh reality he had endured. I learnt more of his exploits by talking privately many years later to one of his fellow Desert Rats (MacDonald) than he had ever told me directly. A craftsman bookbinder by trade, he returned to that in 1946 and continued until his retirement in 1975. He died, aged 85, in May 1998. If anyone has any information regarding his service, I would be delighted to know of it. Graham Hoyle Add to this record. Pte. David Colville 5th Btn. Blackwatch (Royal Highlanders) (d.26th Jul 1943) We have just found the documents attaining to David Colville's death, aged 30, in Sicily. No-one in the family had ever met him, but all knew of him. We also have his four campaign medals from the 8th Army. He served from 1939 until 1943 when he was killed in action. It is very sad but we do not have a photograph of him and there are no members of the Colville family alive. We visited his grave in Catania War Cemetery in February this year and it very moving indeed. If by any chance anyone has any photos we would appreciate a copy. We would appreciate any more information about him or his friends. Roberta Craig Add to this record. Pte. Henry Charles Foster Royal Artillery My dear Dad Charlie Foster was captured at Tobruk North Africa by the German Afrika Corps, taken as prisoner to Benghazi, then by boat to Brindezi, and to Bari. Onto PG70 Prison Camp near Porto St Georgia and Fermo, then to Germany, Stalag IVB Dresden. He never spoke to me about this but I have a diary he kept. The last entry reads - Sunday 13th, I am writing this in the plane I have waited so long for. We are having a glorious run, just passed over Stuttgart, the 2nd pilot who is American says we shall be in Rheims by 12.30am and perhaps tomorrow we shall be in England.... He sadly passed away in 1997. Julie Wilkinson Add to this record. Eric William Hann Eric William Hann served with the 8th Army. He was at the battle for Monte Casino, in Palestine and Egypt. He recently died and while alive wouldn't divulge much about this episode of his life. As a family we would like to find out more about his life and times in the army, in recognition of his contribution to this country and it's standing. He signed up for service at Farringdon house, in Stonecot Hill, Mordon, London. Please contact me if you knew him personally or of him during this period. Jonathan Hann Add to this record. A/Major John H. Freeman 1st Btn. Rifle Brigade My father, John H. Freeman was with Desert Rats and then in Europe with Montgomery. He saw a fair bit of action, took shrapnel in his leg but never wanted to talk about it. I believe he achieved rank of Acting Major having been commissioned into 1st Battalion of The Rifle Brigade. Family lore has him as part of Monty's staff. Don't know if that's true. Perhaps he operated a radio or wrote dispatches. After the war he was a journalist. He was a tall man with bright red hair. Very curious to know more about his war. I wondered if any 8th Army expert has heard of him. Trying to find info on my father's service. Thomas Freeman Billy Willetts served with the Desert Rats. Jennifer Willetts Add to this record. Pte. James Hemmington 8th Army My grandfather, James Hemmington, served in the 8th Army in Africa during WW2. He never spoke about his experiences to us, but I know he was in Africa, and part of the Desert Rats. He was shot and injured 3 times, but served until the end of the war. If anyone knows or remembers him from the war I would love to know. Mark Rankin Add to this record. Sgt. Horace Ivor Coles 55th L.A.A. Regiment, 165th Bty. Royal Artillery Horace Ivor Coles enlisted on 14 April 1939 and was discharged on 29 November 1945. From 1941 to 1945, he fought in Burma with the 165th L.A.A. Battery, 55th L.A.A. Regiment of the Royal Artillery and was part of the Eighth Army. Horace died in 1998, leaving his wife Clarice Pamela Coles and daughter Irene. Irene Coles Add to this record. John "Jim" Rogers 8th Army (Desert Rats) Jim Rogers worked in the desert dragging the scrap out of the desert and got shot 3 times while he was out there. Barrington Rogers Add to this record. L/Sgt. Archibald Robert Park Scots Guards My Uncle Archie Park was captured at Anzio Beach in 1944. He had been involved in the Norwegian Landings and also throughout North Africa with the 8th Army. After capture he was a prisoner at Stalag 4b, Muhlberg. I would like to hear from anyone that can remember or knows of Archie Park. Arne Park Add to this record. Bdr. Robert Comfort "Robbie" Edwards 57th Field Regiment Royal Artillery This is what My father Robert Edwards born 26/2/1919 Robbie, recalls. He was born on 26th Feb 1919 in Robertson Road, Preston, Brighton, Sussex, he attended the TA from a teenager and as Bombardier Robert Comfort "Robbie" Edwards 57th Field Regiment 898397 Signaller. This is his account of the war: In 1938 drafted into the Army from Brighton. Mobilised in September 1939, from Willingdon Observation Post, Motella Towers Hastings - Sittingbourne. March 1940 Service in France. BEF April 1940, then Battle of the Escaut withdrew from BEF for final evacuation from Dunkirk. They were walking along the many roads to Dunkirk when a plane flew at them they thought it was German so they all jumped in a stagnant ditch - it was an allied plane - they stunk all the way to Dunkirk and eventually to Blighty. Dad remembers he was on a little boat with one funnel. In May 1942 he sailed with 44 Division under Lieut. Colonel R E Green, arrived in Egypt on 23rd July 1942. They had 25 pounder artillery guns. When they came across Arabs sitting on their camels making their wives walk along by their sides they took off the Arabs and put the women on the camels! They also sold them used teabags! Desert warfare training at Khatatba. 57th Field regiment ordered to reconnoitre Gun Areas near Delta Barrage. Aug 1942 44th Division ordered to take up defensive positions at Bare Ridge, Battle of Dier el Munassib, Oct 1942 El Alamein. They were in convoy in Egypt, the West coast of Africa at Freetown Cape Town for 3 days. In army vehicles up to Suez Canal to Cairo and then in to the Desert (he was in the Desert Rats) to stop Rommel getting into Cairo then �Monty� arrived in the heat of the desert. 440 Field Battery RA of 57th Field Regiment was temporarily attached to the 50th division. 57th Field Regiment RA became an Army Field Regiment RA. Battles: Dec 1942 Suerra, South of Mersa Berga under 51st (Highland Division) Jan 1943 Sonda, advance to Tripoli under 7th Armoured Division. Mar 1943, mobile operation 22nd Armoured Brigade and 8th Armoured Brigade Regiment then joined 51st (Highland) Division for the Battle of Medenine. Later in Mar 1943 the 57th Army Field Regiment Battle of Mareth under command of 50th Division, 4th Light Armoured Brigade, 201 Guards Brigade and 51st (Highland) Division. April 1943 Battle of Wadi Akarit under 51st (Highland) Division then regiment proceeded to parts of the Front near Enfidalville under command 5 AGRA in support of 4th Indian Division, 2nd New Zealand Division, 56th London Division, 4th Armoured Brigade and the fighting French Brigade. In May 1943 Hostilities in North Africa the Regiment returned to Tripoli for refitting under 10 Corps. Travelled along the North African Coast to Birzata. Where dad went on a Driver Operator course in a tank he said the clutch was too long! 440 Battery would not return to 57th Army Field Regiment and 160 Independent Battery, formerly part of the 174th regiment joined 57th Army Field Regiment. Jun 1943 Regiment was informed that it was to be considered in Eight Army Reserve. 23rd Jul 1943, 57th Army Field Regiment arrived in Sicily, after a few days under 1 Canadian Division fought throughout the Sicilian Campaign with 78th Division in Battles of Catenauova, Cenutripe, Adrana and Bronte. Sep 1943, 57th Army Field Regiment Fire Plan to support landing at Reggio, Italy, and 226 Battery of 57th Army Field Regiment occupied positions on the Sea Front at Messina and fired AP Shells with tracer to guide British Landing Craft to the Italian Coast. He recalls that in 1944 my Uncle Jonathan Edwards (his brother) picked him up from the Regiment and took him to Naples where Vesuvio was erupting the ash was everywhere. He recalls that many of his best friends perished, one was near him and a bomb just blew him to pieces in a second. The noise from the shells and bombs was very deafening. Most nights were lit up with gunfire. He was 95 in February 2014. He now says it was a complete waste of time fighting this war because what he fought for has now diminished. Glynis Leaney Add to this record. Sydney Hampson My granddad, on my father's side, Syd Hampson fought in North Africa during WW2, a Desert Rat, against Rommell. He was a hard fighter behind the tanks as they went forward. He was promoted to NCO because he was a good soldier, especially with the sten gun, a machine gun fired from the hip, so I am led to believe. His name was Sydney Hampson, married to Edith, from Liverpool, Walton area. Fit A1 health. My dad, Syd, often talks about him, he was in the 8th Army, I think. He led the Battle of El Alamein againt Rommel, for Montgomery. He died in 1982 Nick Hampson Add to this record. Pte. William Crawford 14th Light Field Ambulance Royal Army Medical Corps To Commemorate the 70th Anniversary of VE Day, and honor those that fell. I thought I would share this with you, about a certain 13 men. This is photo of my Grandad, William Crawford's war diary written in 1942 as they where retreating from the Germans in the North Africa Campaign being pushed East towards the Suez Canal near El Alamein. He was part of the 7th Armoured Division the 'Desert Rats'. Black Friday 29th May 1942: 'We are still on the move, buried Jerry prisoner. 4.30pm Dived bombed and machine gunned by Stukhas, 13 of our lads killed, 10 wounded, burying the bodies, stayed behind with MDS (medical dressing station) Surrender to Jerry if necessary, 3.30am buried Private Thomas, can't evacuate wounded, going to be surrounded' Saturday 30th: '6.30 Trying to make our way out, carrying wounded, arrived on coast above Tobruk, lost 2 ambulances, 2 lorries, got first nights sleep for 4 nights, battle still raging'. Sunday 31st: 'Had parade to lay and find particulars of missing and killed. 3.30 went to sea for bathing not been able to wash for days. 8.30 Had memorial service. The names of the 13, are listed on the 2nd photo of the diary entry. Killed: Pte. Masefield Add to this record. John Davis 8th Army (Desert Rats) My grandad was in the 8th Army, Desert Rats.� His name was John Davis.� He served in the army for 6 years.�I am trying to find people that have photos of him, if you could please contact me�I would really appreciate it. � Sarah Davis Add to this record. Frederick George Rose 8th Army My grandad was in the 8th Army Desert Rats under Field Marshal Montgomery. He never talked about it though. His name was Frederick Rose. He died in 1985 aged 61, bless him. We were given his medals, such as the African Star, after he passed, although he hadn't wanted to claim them. We are very proud of him. Any information anyone might have about my grandfather would be greatly appreciated. Add to this record. Gnr. Ronald Frederick Hale Royal Artillery My dad, Ron Hale along with his older brother Harry were retreating to Dunkirk. As my dad suffered from badly blistered feet, when an abandoned motor bike was found Harry got him to ride it and said that they would meet at Dunkirk. When dad got to the beach he walked along crying out "Harry Harry!" The soldiers laughed and mimicked him, but they found each other. My dad was too short to man the guns so he drove the "ammo" trucks. He hated the flies in Egypt and wouldn't emigrate to Australia because of it. He was at Anzio and got very upset when an Indian soldier refused to leave the foxhole. Jean Tyson Add to this record. Col. John Fenwick Lovell Gwatkin-Williams 8th Army My father John Gwatkin-Williams was Commander of Moreton-on-Lugg towards the close of war. He was taken off active duty and put in to run the camp as there had been much disturbance in the camp and the POWs had been restless. He was very successful and the POWs presented him with a ship-in-a-bottle which they had created for him and which we still have. I would like to know much more about the POW camp and am unable to learn very much (I live in Australia). My father was son of Capt Gwatkin-Williams RN, author of 'Prisoners of the Red Desert' and 'Under the Black Ensign'. Joanne Gwatkin-Williams Add to this record. Sgt. Thomas Joseph Flynn 8th Army All I know is that my dad Tommy Flynn was in the 8th Army (from Liverpool) and in the Desert Rats. He was a sergeant. It wasn't something people seemed to talk about then and he never really talked much anyway. He died when I was in my twenties. I only really found everything out by seeing the news and programmes in recent years. I wish he was here so I could ask questions. I do remember him saying once that his friend's head was shot off in the desert and he kept running for a couple of seconds. Sometimes he would just say something when he had been drinking. It would be nice to have his name somewhere. He died in 1980. Rona Flynn Add to this record. Sydney James "Lucky" Horton 8th Army My uncle, Sydney James Horton, served in the 8th Army in North Africa, Italy and Austria. He was known as `Lucky' Horton because he never got a scratch. He is mentioned in the regimental newspaper by this nickname. I have photos of him in Egypt with fellow soldiers and I wonder who they are. David Horton Add to this record. "Boxer" Sullivan 8th Army My grandad was in the Desert Rats [8th Army]. He was known by his nickname `Boxer'. He was stationed by the Nile and one of his mates had a leg blown off by a landmine whilst they were walking side by side. Mark Dollard Add to this record. Sgt. William John Thomas Turner Royal Army Service Corps William Turner served with the RASC in N. Africa at the siege of Tobruk and the Battle of el Alamein also in Italy, France and Belgium. Mel Turner Add to this record. Edgar Dutcher Romig 8th Army Edgar was my uncle and was a volunteer in the British 8th Army as an ambulance driver in the North of Africa. Thanks Diana Romig Mellin The Longest Siege: Tobruk - the Battle That Saved North Africa Robert Lyman Beginning on 10th April 1941, and lasting for 240 days, the siege of Tobruk is a mesmerising tale of human endurance and heroism. It is an epic story of extraordinary resilience as the Libyan port's 24,000 defenders met increasingly desperate attempts by Rommel's Panzer divisions to break through the hurriedly thrown-up defences. It was a battle of bayonets and grenades against tanks, of David versus Goliath.The eventual allied victory came against overwhelming odds, plus the morale sapping knowledge that the defenders were surrounded on one side by the sea, and on the other by Hitler's men and machines (who, only the year before, had brought Western Europe to its knees). Tobruk was defended in the main by the Australian 9th Division, followed by the British 70th Infantry Division who then linked up with the advancing 8th Army. The Royal Navy also played an important role in Tobruk's defence. By December 1941 Rommel had been beaten and forced to withdraw his forces from Cyrenaica. The More information on:	7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)
Which television presenter is nicknamed The Hamster?	Divisional Commanders of 7th Armoured Division Divisional Commanders The purpose of this page is to document the names and details of the men who Commanded the 7th Armoured Division during the Second World War. PERCY "HOBO" HOBART (1885-1976) Major-General Sir Percy Cleghom Stanley Hobart KBE, CB, DSO, MC (or Hobo" as he was known to one and all) was responsible for the initial training of the Mobile Division and thus the architect of much of its greatness. After being unfairly "retired" because he had fallen out with those in higher authority who knew nothing about tanks and armoured warfare, he was rescued from obscurity (being at that time a Lance Corporal in the Home Guard!) by Winston Churchill. He would then go on to form and train both 11th Armoured Division and 79th Armoured Division. As historian Sir Basil Liddell Hart said of him: 'To have moulded the best two British armoured divisions of the war was an outstanding achievement, but Hobart made it a "hat trick" by his subsequent training of the specialised 79th Armoured Division, the decisive factor on D-Day. "DICKIE" CREAGH (1892-1970) Major-General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh, KBE, MC led the division through its earliest triumphs against the Italians, including its first major battle at Sidi Barrani in 1940. His tenure of command was the longest during the war. It was he who took the bold decision to send a "Flying Column" (Combe Force) southwest across the virtually unmapped Libyan Desert to cut off the Italians at Sidi Saleh and Beda Fomm . This daring stroke led to the surrender of the entire Italian Tenth Army on 5th-7th February 1941. " STRAFER" GOTT (1897-1942) Lieutenant-General W. H. E. "Strafer" Gott CB, DSO, MC (below right) began his career in the division as its first wartime GSO and later commanded the Support Group. After commanding 7th Armoured Division he went on to become commander XIII Corps and in August 1942 was appointed to command the Eighth Army. Tragically, whilst flying back to Cairo from the battle area a few days later, his Bombay transport aircraft was shot down by a German fighter. He survived the crash, but was killed by machine gun fire during the second strafing with all but four of the other occupants. One account states this was whilst rescuing others from the wreckage, whereas the Pilot's account states that he never having made it out of the aircraft himself. Either way it was a lost to the Division and the 8th Army. "JOCK" CAMPBELL (1894-1942) Major-General J. C. Campbell, VC, DSO, MC (above left) was perhaps the most famous of all "Desert Rats", his name being a byword for courage through the division. He was awarded the Victoria Cross at Sidi Rezegh in November 1941, whilst commanding the Support Group. It was he who conceived the idea of forming mobile columns to harass the Italians ï¿½ called "Jock Columns" after him. He was killed when his staff car overturned on a clay road near Halfaya Pass. FRANK MESSERVY (1893-1974) Lieutenant-General Sir Frank Walter Messervy CB, DSO took over the division after commanding 4th Indian Division. Known as the "Bearded Man" because he tended not to shave in battle. Knew little about tanks and was commanding when Div HQ was captured by the Germans at the start of the Gazala offensive, but managed to bluff them into believing he was a batman, escaped with other members of his staff and rejoined Div HQ the following day! He went on to command IV Corps in Burma. "WINGY" RENTON (1898-1972) Major-General James Malcolm Leslie Renton CB, DSO, OBE was known as "Wingy" Renton or 'Callum'. One rumour for the nickname was because he had lost an arm whilst commanding 2nd Rifle Brigade during the battle at Sidi Saleh in 1941, but a photograph of the 2nd Rifle Brigade Officers in 1940 shows his right arm missing then. He later commanded the Support Group, 7th Motor Brigade, during the Gazala battles. LORD HARDING (1896-1989) Field Marshal, The Lord Harding of Petherton, GCB, CBE, DSO, MC took over command after serving as Chief of Staff to Gen Sir Richard O'Connor and his successors in the early days in the desert. Fearless and brilliant, he was responsible for the division's breakout at El Alamein in October 1942. Badly wounded near Tarhuna on 20th January 1943, he recovered and continued a distinguished career, becoming C-in-C Far East (1949- 51), C-in-C BAOR (1951-2), CIGS (1952-3), then Governor and C-in-C Cyprus (1955-7). Montgomery called him "that little tiger". "BOBBIE" ERSKINE (1899-1965) General Sir George W. E. J. Erskine, GCB, KBE, DSO commanded during the memorable advance from Tripoli to Tunis and throughout the short campaign in Italy . He also launched the division into Northwest Europe . A man of great integrity and considerable physical and moral courage, he was commanding during the debacle at Villers-Bocage in June 1944 and was "sacked" by Montgomery along with the Corps Commander, Gen Bucknall. Nevertheless, he went on to become C-in-C East Africa during the Mau Mau rebellion, Kenya, and, on retirement, Lt Governor and C-in-C Jersey. GERALD VERNEY (1900-1957) Major-General Gerald Lloyd Verney, DSO, MVO was personally appointed by "Monty" to take command of the Desert Rats in Normandy on 4 August 1944, after the division's disappointing showing in the bocage. Verney commented, in the history of the division (which he wrote postwar), that before the battles of Caumont he had been warned to look out for the transport of the 7th Armoured on the road, because its march discipline was "non-existent!" He also said that they "greatly deserved the criticism they received". A no-nonsense Guardsman, Verney soon had them "firing on all cylinders" again. He left in November 1944 to command 6th Armoured Division. "LEW" LYNE (1899-1970) Major-General Lewis Owen Lyne CB, DSO took over command of the division on 22 November 1944, when Gen Verney went to Italy to command 6th Armoured Division. Gen Lyne had commanded 50th Northumbrian Division in Normandy, when Gen Graham was injured, until it became a training division in the UK. He would then command the "Desert Rats" on the final lap through the Siegfried Line, into Germany and on to the surrender of Hamburg and the end of the war. Postwar he was the first Military Governor of the British Zone of Berlin, then Director Staff Duties at the War Office, before retiring in 1949. "PIP" ROBERTS (1906-1997) Major-General George Philip Bradley Roberts CB, DSO, MC was a charismatic wartime commander of 11th Armoured Division, and rated the best British armoured divisional commander of the war, Gen "Pip" Roberts was the first (and only) peacetime commander of 7th Armoured Division. He was no stranger to the Division, having been the DAQMG when the Italians invaded Egypt in 1940, GS02 during the Brevity and Battleaxe operations, Commanding Officer of 3rd RTR, Commander of 22nd Armoured Brigade and had commanded the Division for four days (20th-24th January 1943) when Gen Harding was wounded. He would command the "Desert Rats" through the early postwar days to their first disbandment in January 1948. He then became Director of the Royal Armoured Corps and retired from the Army in September 1949. His book From the Desert to the Baltic is a very readable account of all his wartime battles. Lists of Divisional Commanders	i don't know
The Sentinel serves which Midlands city?	Jobs in West Midlands Region \| TheSentinelStokeJobs Jobs in West Midlands Region Sign up for job alerts Email me jobs like this Did you mean ? WS11 5DD, Cannock + Bonuses + Free Accommodation + Team Company Car Wesser Ltd Help us raise funds as a charity fundraiser for a cause that truly saves lives! Telford, Shropshire £35,000 + Benefits Hiredonline Electrical Controls Systems Engineers to work a standard day shift, offering a salary of £35,000 plus benefits Telford, Shropshire £30,000-£34,000 Hiredonline Mechanical Engineer- Purpose built machinery - Standard days - an exciting opportunity to join their team Telford, Shropshire £35,000 + Benefits Hiredonline Electrical Design Engineer, based in Telford offering a salary of £35,000 plus benefits. Cluster Store Manager - Retail Cannock, Staffordshire Up to £40,000 dependent on experience CHM Recruit This is a critical role which is responsible for driving sales and maximising profit by managing controllable costs in a sustainable method. Customer Finance Advisor / Motor Finance Adviser Stoke on Trent, Staffordshire, England £21000 per annum Bluetownonline Ltd Job Title: Customer Relationship Specialist Location: Stoke Salary: £21,000 monthly bonus scheme & benefits Hours: 40 hours per week between Mon... Part Time Call Centre Operator Norton Canes, Cannock Exceeds National Minimum Wage Smart Home Protection Excellent Opportunity for Part Time Call Centre Operators To Join A Forward Thinking Company In Norton Canes - Due to expansion... REGISTERED CHILDREN’S NURSES Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire £24,860 - £35,994 THE DONNA LOUISE TRUST You’ll play a pivotal role in providing on-going expert care and support to children, young people and their families. Part-Time Receptionist/Data Entry Administrator - Evening role Stoke on Trent, Staffordshire, England Negptiable dependant upon experience LA International Receptionist/Data Entry Administrator - Part-Time Evening role (6:00pm to 8:00pm - Monday to Thursday)The ideal candidate will be looking for Part... You need to sign in or create an account to save New Credit Control and Invoicing Administrator Staffordshire, England, Stoke on Trent £15000 per annum LA International DescriptionWorking as a member of a busy and continually growing finance function, reporting to the Senior Credit Controllers, you will have respon... You need to sign in or create an account to save New Credit Control and Invoicing Administrator England, Stoke on Trent, Staffordshire £15000 per annum LA International DescriptionWorking as a member of a busy and continually growing finance function, reporting to the Senior Credit Controllers, you will have respon... You need to sign in or create an account to save New Credit Control and Invoicing Administrator Stoke on Trent, England, Staffordshire £15000 per annum LA International DescriptionWorking as a member of a busy and continually growing finance function, reporting to the Senior Credit Controllers, you will have respon... You need to sign in or create an account to save New Stafford, Staffordshire Competitive Simona UK Limited We are currently seeking an experienced enthusiastic team player to join our small friendly sales team... You need to sign in or create an account to save New Office Administrator / Cold Store Picker 1 Thatchmoor Farm, Broad Lane, Huddlesford, Lichfield £7.50 per hour. Wiltshire Farm Foods An Office Administrator and Cold Store Operative is required. This is a part-time position with flexible working hours.A minimum of 26 hours per week.	Stoke-on-Trent
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Where is England's most complete workhouse to be found?	The rise and fall of the workhouse \| History Extra Directory The rise and fall of the workhouse Charlotte Hodgman talks to Peter Higginbotham about British workhouses, and visits ten locations linked with the provision of relief to Britain’s poor Monday 20th December 2010 BBC History Magazine - 5 issues for £5 For many, the word ‘workhouse’ conjures up the image of an orphaned Oliver Twist begging for food from a cruel master. The reality, however, was somewhat different, and Britain’s system of poor relief arguably saved thousands of people from starvation over the course of its 300-year history. The provision of state-provided poor relief was crystallised in the 1601 Poor Relief Act, which gave parish officials the legal ability to collect money from rate payers to spend on poor relief for the sick, elderly and infirm – the ‘deserving’ poor. Labelled ‘out relief’, handouts usually took the form of bread, clothing, fuel or money. Though they were termed ‘workhouses’ from the 1620s, the early institutions that provided poor relief were, more often than not, non-residential, offering handouts in return for work. Much like today’s taxpayers, those funding poor relief were anxious to see their money well spent, wishing to deter those capable of working from claiming assistance. By the end of the 17th century, providing care under one roof was widely regarded as the most effective way of saving money and, as a result, the early 1700s saw a flurry of workhouses opening. Yet workhouses only really became part of Britain’s social landscape after 1723, when Sir Edward Knatchbull’s Workhouse Test Act won parliamentary approval. The act embodied the principle that the prospect of the workhouse should act as a deterrent and that relief should only be available to those desperate enough to accept its regime. Its impact on the provision of poor relief was dramatic: by the 1770s the number of parish workhouses in England and Wales had soared to around 2,000. Conditions during the early 19th century, though, meant the government was forced to reassess the way it helped the most impoverished members of society. The return of unemployed or injured servicemen from the Napoleonic Wars saw the national poor relief bill quadruple between 1795 and 1815, rising from £2 million to £8 million. To make matters worse, new Corn Laws restricted grain imports and pushed up the cost of bread. The government’s response was to pass a Poor Law Amendment Act in 1834, based on the recommendation of a royal commission. The new system was still funded by rate payers, but was now administered by unions – groupings of parishes – presided over by a locally elected Board of Guardians. Each union was responsible for providing a central workhouse for its member parishes, and out relief was abolished except in special cases. For the able-bodied poor, it was the workhouse or nothing. “Entering the workhouse was not simply a matter of turning up at the gate,” says Peter Higginbotham, author of The Workhouse Cookbook. “The poor would first meet with a relieving officer who toured the union on a regular basis. In most cases they would be ‘offered the house’ and given a ticket of admission. The family would then make its way to the workhouse where their clothes were put into storage, and they would be issued with a uniform, given a bath and subjected to a medical examination.” Men and women were separated, as were the able-bodied and infirm. Those who were able to work did so for their bed and board. Women took on domestic chores such as cooking, laundry and sewing, while men performed physical labour, usually stone breaking, oakum picking or bone crushing. Conditions were basic: parents and children were permitted to meet briefly on a daily basis, or on Sundays. Inmates ate simple fare in a large communal dining hall, and were compelled to take regular, supervised baths. Until 1860, medical provision in the workhouses was often dire, with nursing duties generally performed by elderly female inmates, many of whom could not read, were hard of hearing, visually impaired, and fond of a drink. Medical wards were frequently cramped and poorly ventilated but, following a sustained campaign led by the medical profession during the 1860s, the government passed the Metropolitan Poor Act, forcing London’s workhouses to run separate infirmaries, preferably on separate sites. Meanwhile, the Metropolitan Asylums Board (established in 1867) provided care for fever cases that would ordinarily have ended up in the infirmaries. By the 1880s, the unions widely employed trained nurses, and the poor could increasingly visit workhouse infirmaries for treatment without having to formally enter the institution. Another problem faced by unions was the homeless poor. The 1834 act made no provision for vagrants, and workhouses were only allowed to serve people residing permanently in the area of the union. The authorities’ solution to this problem was, during the 1840s, to introduce casual blocks, where the homeless could stay for one night per 30-day period. In the 1880s these rules changed, and vagrants could stay two nights, perform one day’s work and be released at dawn on the third day. Treatment of vagrants varied, but generally they were deemed lower class citizens and subjected to harsher treatment than the ‘deserving’ poor. The mid-19th century saw many so-called ‘social explorers’ and journalists disguise themselves as vagrants and admit themselves to casual wards to experience this treatment for themselves. One of the best- known of these was James Greenwood, who published A Night in a Workhouse in the Pall Mall Gazette, a piece that generated a huge amount of public interest. Historians are still debating when exactly the workhouse system came to an end. Some date its demise to 1930 when the Board of Guardians system was abolished and many workhouses were redesignated as Public Assistance Institutions, becoming the responsibility of local councils. Others date it to 1948 and the introduction of the National Health Service, when many former workhouse buildings were turned into public hospitals, many of which still survive today. Where the unemployed could find work The building of this former workhouse was funded by a legacy of £4,800 from a wealthy merchant draper in 1624 and opened as a parish workhouse in 1627, providing poor relief in the form of work for unemployed clothiers and training for pauper children. Most likely a non-residential institution, Newbury’s workhouse provided textile labour for up to 80 workers each year but floundered when it was unable to sell the cloth that it produced and subsequently lost money. The building processed wool through its various stages and even had its own weaving shop with both broad and narrow looms. Newbury workhouse continued to operate as a pauper school and workhouse during the Civil War but had been partly demolished by 1689. The surviving section now houses the West Berkshire Museum, though this is currently closed for refurbishment until 2014. 01635 519562 An example of a ‘model’ workhouse Built to accommodate around 158 inmates, the operation of Southwell workhouse was widely viewed as a model example of what the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act had set out to achieve in terms of frugality. Designed by the Reverend John T Becher, Southwell was built in 1824 and run by the Thurgarton Incorporation. A strict regime worked as a successful deterrent to potential ‘scroungers’ – and beer, snuff and tobacco were all banned. As was customary at the time, men and women were segregated, but Southwell also divided the two groups further into the ‘deserving’ and ‘undeserving’ poor – the four units never met and even used separate internal staircases. The master’s quarters were located in the central hub of the building and were designed to allow him a view of the partitioned yards where inmates exercised. Now preserved by the National Trust, Southwell looks almost exactly the same as it did in the 19th century. 01636 817260 3. 48 Doughty Street, London Where Charles Dickens wrote Oliver Twist The concept of the workhouse has inspired countless songs, works of art, and books – none more famous than Charles Dickens’s Oliver Twist, which first appeared in serial form in Bentley’s Miscellany in 1837. Written shortly after the introduction of the Poor Law Amendment Act, Oliver Twist presents a rather confused version of a workhouse regime that was still transitioning from the old parish-based system. Just one of its discrepancies lies in Oliver’s famous line: “Please, sir, I want some more”. Although there is evidence of some inmates being underfed, the diet, although plain, should have been sufficient for their needs. In fact, as a nine-year-old boy, Oliver would have received the same rations as an adult woman, which would have added at least a portion of bread to his meals. Christmas in the workhouse came under scrutiny from many contemporary writers, and the celebration certainly evolved over the years. The 1830s saw a clampdown on any extra costs for rate payers but a Christmas dinner was often provided by the Board of Guardians or local gentry, who would frequently oversee proceedings. By the 1880s, Christmas had become a focal point for workhouse inmates and contemporary newspaper accounts report gifts of tobacco or snuff for male inmates, while females were often treated to dried tea. Number 48 Doughty Street, once home to Charles Dickens, now houses the Dickens Museum. 020 7405 2127 4. Andover union workhouse, Hants Where starving inmates fought over rotten meat Despite a strict set of guidelines and rules, workhouses weren’t always run with the welfare of the inmates in mind and, as a result, a number of scandals hit the headlines during the 19th century. One such incident occurred in the Andover union workhouse in 1845 after it emerged that underfed male inmates had been fighting over the rotten shreds of meat and marrow left on the bones they had been told to crush for fertiliser. Andover had a reputation for strictness, run as it was by a former sergeant major, and expenditure was kept to a minimum. Inmates ate their meals using their fingers and were denied the extra food and drink at Christmas that was customary in most workhouses. Complaints about the lack of food were common among inmates, and vagrants in particular often claimed they did not receive the rations they were entitled to. Many tramps, in fact, deliberately tore up their workhouse uniforms and were only too happy to be sentenced to a spell in prison where they could expect better food, warmth, a bed, and a cell to themselves – all without having to perform a day’s work. Andover workhouse has now been converted to residential use, but its exterior remains relatively unchanged. 01264 324320 5. Rhayader union workhouse, Powys Where a workhouse was opened after years of resistance Despite falling under the same laws as England, much of Wales proved particularly resistant to the changes enforced by the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act, especially those related to the abolishment of outdoor relief. Although 47 new Welsh unions had come into force by 1838, Poor Law commissioners in 1845 recorded that 17 out of the 47 did not have “efficient workhouses in operation” – compared to just 19 out of the 544 unions in England. Resistance to the workhouse system was particularly prevalent in central and rural Wales, and the country witnessed a number of related riots between 1842 and 1843. By the 1860s, a handful of unions, including Rhayader, had held out against establishing a system of indoor relief. In fact, Rhayader’s guardians successfully resisted implementing a union workhouse for over 40 years but, under threat of dissolution by the central authorities, its workhouse opened in August 1879 – the last to open in England and Wales under the 1834 act. Today, the workhouse buildings form part of Rhayader’s country house hotel. 01597 810735 6. Edinburgh’s charity poorhouse, Edinburgh Where the Scottish poor could seek help Scotland operated a separate poor law system to England and Wales, beginning in 1579 with an act issued by the Scottish parliament, which laid the foundations for the care of the country’s poor. In 1597, the responsibility of poor relief was shifted onto the church, and a further act in 1672 ordered the establishment of ‘correction houses’, where beggars could work in return for handouts. Although Scotland was not affected by England’s 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act, an inquiry into Scotland’s poor relief system was set up in 1843 and a number of proposals were put forward two years later, including the exemption of the able-bodied from receiving poor relief, the continuation of outdoor relief and the voluntary operation of poorhouses. Funded by taxes and charitable donations, the Edinburgh charity poorhouse, one of Scotland’s earliest, was established in Port Bristo in 1743, and by 1778 it could house up to 484 adults and 180 children. Part of the former east wing of the poorhouse, which originally included the men’s section, doctor’s surgery and children’s school, can still be seen at Forest Hill. Other parts of the former workhouse buildings have been incorporated into the nearby Hotel du Vin. 0845 22 55 121 7. Londonderry union workhouse, Londonderry/Derry Where many died during the Great Famine ‘Houses of Industry’ existed in Ireland prior to the union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800, but it was the Irish Poor Law Act of 1838 that brought the English workhouse system to Ireland, creating an initial 130 unions, a figure that rose to 163, with a complete exclusion of outdoor relief. All Irish workhouses were built to the same model, designed by architect George Wilkinson, and 112 had been completed by April 1843. Sources tell us that life in Irish workhouses was even harsher than in their English counterparts with cramped, poorly ventilated dormitories, raised planks and straw mattresses for beds, and toilet facilities that were far from adequate for the numbers housed. Irish workhouses came under immense pressure during the Great Famine of 1845–50 as the system struggled to cope with the demand for space. Conditions within the workhouse worsened during the period as diseases such as typhus fever and dysentery struck many inmates and many workhouse burial grounds overflowed. Londonderry union workhouse opened its doors to the poor on 10 November 1840 and was based on one of Wilkinson’s standard workhouse designs, accommodating some 800 inmates. During the years of famine, a building was erected in the women’s yard to accommodate a further 40 people, along with temporary fever sheds for 60 people. The central part of the original building is now a library with a famine and workhouse museum situated on its upper floors. 028 7131 8328 8. Strand union workhouse, London Where medical care came under fire This former workhouse originally opened in 1778 but hit the headlines in 1865 after criticisms of its medical care and infirmary were printed in The Lancet medical journal. The Lancet stated that “very few [of the nursing staff] can be considered fitted for their work as far as regards knowledge, and many are mainly incompetent from age or physical feebleness. The helpers are, of course, mere ignorant drudges”. Dr Joseph Rogers, who became medical officer for the workhouse in 1855, was also appalled at the conditions he encountered and began a campaign to improve medical care. The ensuing outcry was instrumental in the passing of the Metropolitan Poor Act of 1867, which introduced changes for the care of London’s poor. The mental welfare of workhouse inmates was also under scrutiny during the mid-19th century, and 1858 saw the introduction of the Workhouse Visiting Society for “the promotion of the moral and spiritual improvement of workhouse inmates”, allowing volunteer visitors, as well as small comforts such as flowers and books, into the workhouse. This, together with support from prominent figures such as Charles Dickens and Florence Nightingale, led to positive changes in the medical provision for London’s sick poor. Until recently, the Strand workhouse, on Cleveland Street, housed the outpatients department for the Middlesex Hospital. Much of the original building still stands – though it is currently under threat of demolition. 08701 566 366 Where vagrants were put to work Vagrants made up a large proportion of most workhouse populations and were usually placed in more basic accommodation than that in the main workhouse. On entering the casual ward, or ‘Spike’ as it was commonly called, a vagrant’s clothes would be seized and fumigated overnight in a sulphur or steam oven to kill any vermin or fleas – often clothes and shoes came out in a worse state than when they went into the oven. Food usually consisted of bread and water, possibly with a little porridge in the more sympathetic institutions, but casuals were expected to work hard for their bed and board. A popular form of labour assigned to vagrants was the breaking of large stones into smaller pieces, which could then be used on the roads. The casual ward at Guildford Spike comprised a prison-like corridor of cells, many of which were used for stone breaking. The broken particles were then passed through a metal grid. Some casual wards even show evidence of tramp ‘graffiti’ left in the form of messages and poems, often commenting on the type of relief available in the different unions. There are even suggestions that vagrants used a system of secret signs scratched outside workhouses to warn others of the treatment they could expect. Guildford Spike is now preserved as a heritage centre that is open to the public. 01483 598420 10. Chorlton union workhouse, Lancashire Where the Nightingale Ward was introduced On its opening on Nell Lane in 1855, the Chorlton union workhouse could house up to 1,500 inmates and was one of the largest institutions of its kind in the country. As well as being renowned for its size, Chorlton boasted England’s first ever ‘pavilion plan’ workhouse infirmary, comprising five well-spaced ward blocks, linked by a covered way, and each accommodating 96 patients. Later known as ‘Nightingale Wards’, the layout was praised by Florence Nightingale herself who commented: “Your hospital plan is a very good one: when completed it will be one of the best, if not the best, in the country… we shall hasten to imitate you; for you will have set up a model for the whole country.” The design, of elongated wards with beds and windows alternating down either side, was later adopted as a standard infirmary layout. Although the infirmary blocks have been demolished, the main workhouse building still stands. 0871 222 8223 www.visitmanchester.com Words by Charlotte Hodgman. Historical advisor: Peter Higginbotham, creator of www.workhouses.org.uk and author of The Workhouse Cookbook (Tempus Publishing, 2008)	Southwell
Which manager appeared on TV's Fast Show?	BBC - History - British History in depth: Beneath the Surface: A Country of Two Nations A country of two nations Print this page A country of two nations Two nations between whom there is no intercourse and no sympathy; who are ignorant of each other's habits, thoughts and feelings, as if they were dwellers in different zones or inhabitants of different planets; who are formed by different breeding, are fed by different food, are ordered by different manners, and are not governed by the same laws ... THE RICH AND THE POOR. This extract from Benjamin Disraeli's novel Sybil, published in 1845, goes to the heart of one of the most controversial subjects of 19th century history - the extent to which industrialisation improved or depressed living standards, and the ways in which the poor were treated. For the first half of the 19th century, the rural and urban poor had much in common... For the first half of the 19th century the rural and urban poor had much in common: unsanitary and overcrowded housing, low wages, poor diet, insecure employment and the dreaded effects of sickness and old age. By 1851 the census showed the urban population was larger than that of the rural areas. Towns provided a wider range of jobs, but unskilled and casual workers continued to struggle with low wages and irregular incomes, the fear of accidents and the dread of slipping into that 'sunken sixth' of the workforce, the 'residuum' so close to the criminal underworld which Dickens wrote about. Top Optimists and pessimists The rich and the poor at Crystal Palace (Punch cartoon, 1851) © The debate around industrialisation and poverty - its nature, extent, and impact - continues to sharply divide historians. In general terms, 'optimists' argue that industrialisation brought higher wages, and a better standard of living, whereas 'pessimists' argue that the quality of life for workers deteriorated especially between 1780 and 1850, with only limited improvements for some skilled sectors before the 1870s. ...many Victorians struggled to understand and explain poverty. It would seem that only in the last quarter of the century did the standard of living for the industrial labourer began to rise, as prices fell rapidly and sanitation, housing and health improvements changed the urban environment. Whilst industrialisation brought a number of dramatic changes and opportunities, insecurity and the resultant downwards spiral into poverty remained a deeply entrenched continuity. Yet, many Victorians struggled to understand and explain poverty. Was it because of personal misfortune, because of social circumstances beyond an individual's control, or, the direct result of a person's character, their laziness and indolence? Were the poor, therefore, 'deserving' or 'undeserving'? Who was responsible for those who became so poor that they could not maintain themselves and how should these paupers be cared for? Top The labouring poor At the beginning of the 19th century poverty was regarded as the natural condition of the labouring poor - those who worked with their hands. The fluctuations of harvests, the disruptions of war and the fine line between subsistence and penury were seen as inevitable and difficult to change. ...poverty was regarded as the natural condition of the labouring poor... Since the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 relief had been available for the poor within their parish, financed by the poor rate (a tax based on land and buildings), with 'outdoor relief' and the workhouse. Outdoor relief provided payments for a range of needs, or relief in kind such as clothing and food, with the intent of enabling the able-bodied poor to remain at home. The workhouse provided 'indoor relief', for the sick, elderly or orphaned - the 'impotent' poor who were unable to support themselves. The principle of settlement, established in 1662, meant that travelling paupers could be returned to their home parish, usually that of their birth for relief, unless they carried a certificate which promised that their parish would reimburse the parish where they became dependent. Top Rural and urban poverty Horse and carriage © From 1780 and into the first quarter of the 19th century the poor relief system was under strain, with an increasing population and agricultural depressions. The enclosure movements dispossessed a generation from the land. Where common land was enclosed labourers lost a number of rural benefits such as grazing and fuel-gathering rights. The enclosure movements dispossessed a generation from the land. Although there were regional variations, fluctuations in wages and food prices resulted in a number of riots and rick-burning, especially in the major agricultural areas of the south and east of England, between 1829-31. The changes in manufacturing, begun in the textile industry, provided another area of employment for families and an apparent escape from the difficulties of the countryside. The rapid growth of the new industrial towns did not necessarily alleviate the endemic problem of unemployment and under-employment, or make life any more secure, although the relative cost of poor relief in these towns was lower than in the country. Top Official attitudes to the relief of poverty A labour home © By 1832 the concern about the system of poor relief led to the setting up of a Royal Commission. At the same time principles and management of the old Poor Law were also challenged on the grounds both of mismanagement and inefficiency and its alleged cause of rapid population growth. The ideas of Malthus and Bentham had much influence on contemporary ideas. Malthus in his popular 'Essay on the Principles of Population' argued that agricultural production would be overtaken by demographic pressures, and that the only ways to check these were either by natural disasters to limit population or by individuals practising prudence and self-restraint. ...the alleged generosity of outdoor relief benefited the feckless and reduced the resources available to the deserving poor. The practice of giving child allowances under the old Poor Law was seen as encouraging large families while the alleged generosity of outdoor relief was seen as benefiting the feckless and reducing the resources available to the deserving poor. Jeremy Bentham's philosophy of Utilitarianism advocated judgement by rational criteria, underpinned the principle of 'the greatest good of the greatest number'. Government action was to be based on careful study of the 'facts'. It was the combination of these ideas and developments, which became the basis of the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 in England and Wales. The Act continued to rely on the parish rate and, set the principles of social policy for the rest of the century and beyond. It established the importance of local administration under centralised control and encouraged attitudes and images of poverty which dominated public perceptions in the 19th century. Top Lowest standard of living Hardship and despair was mitigated by the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 (Punch cartoon, 1894) © Designed to reduce the costs of poor relief, the Act placed the workhouse (provided by a union of parishes) at the centre of provision, with the guiding principle of 'less eligibility' - that workhouse conditions should be worse than the lowest living standards of the independent labourer - as its central tenet. Those entering the workhouse would find life there harsh, monotonous and characterised by the intent of improving the inmate's moral character. It was felt that local resources should be used more effectively and costs would be further reduced as paupers would be deterred by the appearance of the workhouses and knowledge of the harsh treatment of their 'inmates'. ...paupers would be deterred by the appearance of the workhouses and knowledge of the harsh treatment of their 'inmates'. Although the Poor Law Commissioners (later the Poor Law Board) regulated conditions, it was an elected Board of Guardians who managed each union with waged staff to run the workhouse. The Act faced initial hostility, especially in the industrial north in 1837/8, where it was felt to be unsuitable for the patterns of industrial workers' needs, and amongst those in rural areas who felt that they best understood their area and its inhabitants. Radical politicians, such as the Chartists, likened workhouses to 'bastilles' and argued that the Act was an attempt to reduce wages and create a subservient workforce. These attitudes and the cost of building new workhouses meant that the Act was not fully implemented for some 20 years. Although 'outdoor' relief for the poor was continued, the stigma attached to it and the low level of relief meant that fewer applied for it. Increasingly stringent controls, particularly after 1872, instilled in the poor the sense that they, not the state, were primarily responsible for maintaining themselves. Top The workhouse At dinner in a London workhouse © Many workhouses had a significant transient population, being under obligation to provide for anyone who applied. These wards appear to have provided shelter for many others, including those 'tramping poor' searching for seasonal work, although it is difficult to know exactly how the casual wards were used, or when and how often an individual or family entered a workhouse. In these casual wards vagrants were housed separately from longer-term residents as they were deemed to be the most workshy and had, it was feared, a potential for violence and criminal behaviour, and the potential to corrupt the deserving poor. ...by the end of the Victorian period the largest group of inmates was elderly men... What is clear from official records is that a high proportion of women were forced to resort to the workhouse - not only the 'fallen women' characterised in some Victorian novels but also deserted wives, widows with young children and unemployed servants. However, by the end of the Victorian period the largest group of inmates was elderly men, often long-term residents, along with the infirm and young orphans, although many of these youngsters were increasingly sent to 'foster homes', a practice which had first been widely adopted in Scotland. Top The Scottish Poor Law Aid in Scotland was provided by voluntary contributions and the ablebodied poor had no automatic right to relief (Punch cartoon, 1894) © In Scotland, a different system operated, with voluntary contributions distributed under the direction of the minister and elders of the Kirk and, from 1752, more strongly by the direction of the landowners, who were the principal ratepayers. The able-bodied poor had no right to statutory relief as in England. Scottish poor law reform developed differently, mainly because of the differences in agricultural organisation and in a later industrialisation of manufacture. Unlike England, the poor had the right of legal appeal against the denial of relief. The Scottish Poor Law Amendment Act of 1845 created a central Board of Supervisors and parochial boards, with the authority to raise local, necessary funds and decide on their distribution. Unlike England, the poor had the right of legal appeal against the denial of relief. Outdoor relief continued to be favoured, but the rise in costs and claims of extravagance and poor mismanagement brought demands for a more restricted system after 1868, with less use of the poorhouse and testing each applicant's need for support. By 1894 the creation of the Local Government Board made Scottish practice much closer to that of England. Top Charity and self-help Mildmay hospital © Because the operations of the Poor Law were so circumscribed and the poor were unwilling to apply for relief, other ways of dealing with life's misfortunes became increasingly important. Almsgiving and charitable endowments already had a long history but from the end of the 18th century the number of voluntary charities gradually increased. Charity was directed at those least able to help themselves, such as children and the sick, while relief for the destitute was influenced both by the ideology of self-help and by evangelical religion. Charity was increasingly directed at those least able to help themselves... These placed an emphasis on the role of charity in encouraging moral regeneration and on the virtues of self-reliance and respectability. Like the poor law, charities sought to distinguish the 'deserving' from the 'undeserving' poor. The Charity Organisation Society, founded in 1869, at a time when outdoor relief was being further curtailed, was partly an attempt to ensure that charity did not undermine the intent of state provision. Their use of an early form of social investigation - visiting homes and interviewing the poor - was designed to link assistance to observable conditions. People were not necessarily helpless or passive recipients of state intervention in nascent welfare provision, nor were they simply the beneficiaries of groups with charitable intent. Formally organised mutual aid - especially the friendly societies (the most popular form of social insurance for the working man and woman) formed from the late 18th century - levied a weekly subscription on members and provided financial assistance in times of need, such as sickness and death. Trade unions, which grew more slowly in the 19th century, usually offered similar benefits. Co-operative societies from the 1840s sought to provide cheap, unadulterated food for their members. Top Conclusion Banks, insurance policies and community assistance helped support the poor during hard times (Punch cartoon, 1894) © Penny savings banks were established to provide safe havens for small savers, while, in some parts of the country, early forms of insurance companies offered policies to pay for death benefits. High levels of infant mortality meant that, in some cases, insurance policies were taken out on babies' lives almost as soon as they were born. Even more important was the informal, mutual support within working class neighbourhoods for help in 'making ends meet'. This ranged from that of family and friends, the loan of money or goods, the taking in of lodgers or washing, and the availability of credit, resort to pawnshops and local moneylenders. These communal resources were all used to avoid the stigma of entry into the workhouse or the final indignity of a pauper funeral. Declining levels of poor relief during the century, therefore, did not necessarily mean that the needs of the poor were falling, only that they were continuing to find other ways of supporting themselves in times of need. Find out more Books Poverty and Poor Law Reform in Nineteenth Century Britain 1834-1914 - from Chadwick to Boothby David Englander (Longman, 1998). A comprehensive account of poverty and the response to it in Victorian Britain, with an extensive bibliography of useful national, local and regional material. Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain by Edwin Chadwick, 1842, ed. M.W. Flinn (1965). The full text of Chadwick's report includes his use of extracts from the reports of the local investigators. The book includes an introduction to the Report and an explanation of its significance to public health reform. The English Town by Mark Girouard (Yale University Press 1995). A colourful illustrated introduction to all aspects of the history of towns with an extensive section on Victorian Britain. (publisher, date) State, Society and the Poor in Nineteenth Century England by Alan Kidd, (Palgrave, 1999). This book in the Social History in Perspective series focuses as much on self-help, voluntary and charity provision for the poor as it does on assistance provided by the state. Places to visit The Public Record Office at Kew is the major repository of Poor Law Union, Commission and Board papers. Local History Libraries are a rich source of many of the records of the 19th century. Thackray Medical Museum, Beckett Street, Leeds, LS9 7LN, Tel: 0113245 7084 (on the St James's Hospital/Jimmy's site). This museum is housed in the building that was the Leeds Union Workhouse built in 1861. A visit there opens with Robert Baker's description of Leeds in 1842 and an invitation to tour the reconstructed unhealthy and insanitary streets of the town. You are able to choose a character and follow their life expectancy, and to find out about the possible - and impossible - cures for illnesses. Ripon Workhouse Museum, St Marygate, Ripon, North Yorkshire, HG4 1LX, Tel: 01765 690799. This is believed to be the only workhouse museum in the country, it is established in the Men's Casual Wards of 1877 in the Workhouse buildings. The cells, dayroom and workyard have been refurbished, and with a Hard Times Gallery of images, this museum gives a unique picture of the reality of the Poor Law at work. The Workhouse, Southwell, Nottinghamshire. (Not yet open, but due to open at Easter 2002.) This workhouse is currently being renovated by the National Trust. Top About the author Joanne de Pennington is a lecturer at Trinity and All Saints College, University of Leeds. She specialises in 19th century social history and 20th century political history. She recently contributed to The Practice of University History Teaching, (Manchester University Press, 2000).	i don't know
Who became manager of Melchester Rovers in 1978?	Melchester Rovers - The Full Wiki The Full Wiki More info on Melchester Rovers Wikis Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles . Related top topics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Melchester Rovers Away colours Melchester Rovers are a fictional football team with whom Roy Race spent most of his illustrious career in the British comic strip Roy of the Rovers , which first appeared in Tiger at its inception in 1954. Contents Advertisements Early years According to the comic strip's continuity, Melchester Rovers were founded in 1885 winning at least three League Championships and a number of FA Cups during the pre-war years of their existence. In 1954, however, the first Roy of the Rovers strip appeared, telling the story of the club and its star striker Roy Race (whose grandfather, Billy Race, had played for the club in the early part of the 20th Century). Melchester finally became League Champions in 1958, and won the FA Cup the following season, by which time Race was captain. 1960s It was in the 1960s, however, that Rovers became a footballing force to be bargained with. The decade brought three league titles, two FA Cups , two European Cups , one European Cup Winners' Cup and one Intercontinental Cup . It wasn't a decade without its problems, though, and in an example of the topsy-turvy nature of the history that would follow, Rovers only narrowly avoided relegation at the end of 1967, the same year they won the Cup Winners' Cup. 1970s In 1972, Rovers achieved their first - and currently only - League and Cup " Double ", and later that year, long-serving team manager Ben Galloway was promoted upstairs to General Manager, with former Rovers winger Tony Storme taking over team affairs. His tenure began well, with a third European Cup win in 1973, and Rovers began the next season with an all-new, modern strip and a strong sense of optimism. Poor results and a spate of injuries, however, meant a demoralising first half of the season, with many of the team believing the new kit was "jinxed". Happily, this was overcome, and despite a disappointing league season, achieved their first domestic cup double, winning the League Cup in addition to another FA Cup. In 1975, though, a humiliating defeat in the 3rd Round of the Cup to non-league minnows Sleeford Town led to the disappearance of manager Tony Storme. Roy Race took over as player-manager, and kept the post when Storme came out of hiding some months later and made his retirement official. Race's Melchester won a trophy at their first attempt, the 1975 Cup Winners' Cup. The first title under Roy came two years later, in 1977, the season in which a supermarket chain offered a (then) staggering £30,000 to the first player in England to score 50 League and Cup goals. The competition went down to the last day of the season, and was won by Mervyn Wallace, despite many fans' belief that Race himself had got the last touch on what would have been his 50th goal. Controversy reigned in 1978, when it was rumoured that Race was due to accept a £1million offer to take over as team manager of Middle-Eastern state Basran. Rovers' form slumped, and Ben Galloway temporarily took back over as manager. However, once the rumours were quashed, Roy was reinstated and Rovers pulled themselves out of the relegation zone, the 1978-79 season ending in style with a UEFA Cup win. 1980s The 1980s were full of drama with many events of a "soap opera" style, the sort that would eventually inspire series like Sky One 's Dream Team . Melchester were League Champions in 1979-80 but were relegated to Division Two by one goal just one year later. The 1981-82 season saw a potential tragedy when Roy was shot by a jealous actor, Elton Blake, who was due to play him in a TV series about the club. Rovers set a new league goal-scoring record - 14-0 against Keysborough - an event that saw Roy recover from his coma when the commentary was played in the hospital. Sir Alf Ramsey managed the club during this period and helped Rovers to set a new league record of 34 games undefeated and comfortably win the Second Division. Roy recovered to start the 1982-83 season where Mel Park becomes Britain's first all-seater stadium. However, in April 1983 Roy sensationally quit Melchester after a row with Rovers chairman Sam Barlow and signed for Walford Rovers. Blackie Gray was appointed new player-manager, but his reign was short-lived, as Roy returned in December 1983 and led an injury-ravaged Rovers to an unlikely FA Cup win over Walford. They followed up this dramatic FA Cup win with an equally dramatic European Cup-Winners' Cup victory on penalties against Real Santana of Spain in 1985 (Rovers would not reappear in Europe for another five years due to English clubs being banned). The following season was an eventful one, as Roy shook up the team by signing retired players turned TV pundits Bob Wilson and Emlyn Hughes , as well as two members of pop group Spandau Ballet ! Rovers won the Milk Cup , beating Tynecaster 3-0 and set a new league record of 12 consecutive games without conceding a goal, but in the close season, the club faced its biggest tragedy ever when a terrorist bomb in Basran killed eight team members - Noel Baxter, Vic Guthrie, Steve Naylor, Carl Hunt, Neville Jones, Kenny Logan, Jimmy Slade and Trevor Cassidy. Roy dedicated Rovers' 2-1 Littlewoods Cup Final win over Stambridge City in 1987 to those players. 1987-88 saw the club become League Champions once again, but they were fighting relegation in 1988-89 during a season that saw them play most of their home matches at Wembley Stadium after massive local subsidence during a match led to Mel Park being closed for major reconstruction. Rovers avoided relegation with a 3-1 win over Melboro' in the season's final match. 1990s Rovers started the decade well by winning the 1990 FA Cup Final, 2-1 against Weston Villa. They were League Champions in 1991-92 while Roy set a new league goal-scoring record, notching up his 436th goal to win a charity bet with former record-holder and now TV pundit "Chippy" Croker (an obvious analogue for Jimmy Greaves ). 1992-93 saw a season of turmoil when Roy resigned as manager live on Sky TV. He returned before the end of the season, but on the way to scout a promising youth player, crashed his helicopter and was left in a coma and badly injured. He recovered in time for the 1993-94 season, but learned that his left foot had been amputated. Recovering, he left England to become manager of Italian side AC Monza. With his departure, Rovers' fortunes became bleaker, occasional moments of brilliance from players such as Roy's son "Rocky" Race and the Nigerian Paul "Del" Ntende shining among the troubles, which included now-manager Blackie Gray resigning after receiving death threats, and the club only narrowly avoiding relegation in the 1993/94 season, with Rocky scoring a last-minute goal to save them. However, soon after that match a Melchester Director was found guilty of attempting to bribe the opposition to throw the game. They won the FA Cup in 1995 but, after the death of Rocky's mother Penny in a car crash in Italy, Rocky quit Rovers to join fierce local rivals Melborough. 1995-96 was a complete disaster for Rovers as more top players left after a bribery scandal shamed the club, and they were relegated at the end of the season into Division One. In 1996-97, Roy Race Sr. returned to manage the club, and arrived in time to save the Rovers from an impending second successive relegation. In 1997-98, Rovers finished the season fourth in Division One but won in the play-offs to gain promotion back to the Premier League. Following Rocky's transfer back to the club, they won the 1999 FA Cup in extra time, and the turnaround was complete in 1999-2000, when they won the Premier League title on the last day of the season, their first top-flight title in eight years and their most recent to date. The following season, Race was finally able to buy out the club's owners, the Vitner brothers, and the club began to look forward to the new millennium, with a planned move to an exciting new stadium under the ownership of their greatest hero. Colours and kits The various kits worn by Melchester over the years Melchester Rovers' colours have always involved some combination of red and yellow, although as with real life professional teams, their precise shirt designs have varied considerably over the years. When the comic was first introduced, the club played in plain red shirts with yellow sleeves, and navy blue shorts. This strip persisted for many years, until a dramatic new look was introduced in 1973. This involved an all-red strip, with a yellow vertical stripe running down one side of the shirt, one on the other side of the shorts, and a yellow "T"-shape on the socks. In addition, the shirts uniquely featured the players' numbers on one sleeve. This kit was worn until 1981, when Rovers were relegated to the Second Division, and switched back to a more conventional, symmetrical design. This shirt featured yellow bands across the chest, waist and sleeves, and would remain until 1986, when following the drastic rebuilding of the team a fresh new kit was introduced, this time all-red with a narrow yellow stripe running down each side. Then in 1991, a competition was held for Roy of the Rovers readers to design a new kit for the team. The winning entry was a simple and classic combination of yellow and red stripes with red shorts. Variations on this kit (sometimes using more yellow than red) would continue to be used until the end of the weekly comic, and for the duration of the subsequent monthly one. However, when ROTR strips returned in Match of the Day Magazine in 1997, a new kit had been introduced. Unusually, this kit was predominantly yellow, with a large red star motif across the chest and back. This strip did not last long, however, as the following season another strip appeared. This was again all-red, with yellow trim, and a predominant yellow "V" shape across the front and back of the shirt. This was the last kit that Melchester have been seen to play in. Away strips were not seen very often in the ROTR comic, but three main designs were used, particularly in the 1980s - a plain blue shirt with white shorts and red socks, a yellow shirt with a red stripe running down its side with yellow shorts with a red line running down its other side and an all-white kit that also sometimes employed red socks. After 1992, Rovers away kits would generally be all-white with some combination of yellow and red trim, and in the Match of the Day strips the same design as the home kit, in white and red, was used. As in real football, shirt sponsorship logos were non existent prior to the 1980s, and when eventually introduced to the strip, their use was intermittent. The first genuine commercial logo, that of Gola appeared on the new kit in 1981 but disappeared the subsequent year. The 1986 kit first appeared with Nike branding, but again this would be removed after one season. The shirts were blank for a while, but in the last couple of years saw the comic's publishers Panini and Fleetway used. When the striped kit was introduced in 1992, meanwhile, it featured Sega as the sponsors. This deal only lasted for a season, however, and for the last season portrayed by the weekly comic TSB appeared on the shirts. This deal carried over to the monthly comic, after which for a short time the shirts were again sponsorless, before a deal with Subbuteo saw that brand appear for the final few issues. The predominantly yellow kit introduced in Match of the Day magazine saw MotD itself as the sponsor, only to be replaced by McDonald's after only two episodes. This latter instance marked perhaps the first time Melchester's shirts made use of appropriate corporate colours! Honours Note that all records are fictional, and only date as far as 2000, the last completed season of the comic strip. 1967, 1971, 1975, 1985 Opponents and rivalries Although throughout Roy Race's playing career there was never a definitive list published of who the other teams in the First Division were, the majority of sides Rovers played against were familiar names who they opposed regularly in later years. These included: Blackport, Burndean, Carford City, Castlemere, Danefield, Deans Park, Eastoke, Gatesfield, Holverton, Kelburn, Kingsbay, Melborough, North Vale, Oldfield, Portdean, Redstoke, Stambridge City, Tynecaster, Walford Rovers (who Roy managed in 1983) and Weston Villa (also known as Western Villa). There were also several lower league sides who Rovers met in cup football and their occasional stints outside the top-flight, as well as foreign teams in European matches. For much of the story's history, Rovers' traditional local rivals were Melborough (sometimes shortened to Melboro). For decades, Melchester held the upper hand over their cross-city neighbours, but in later years Melborough became a major force and were in a higher division than Rovers in the late 1990s. Melborough often had outspoken managers, most notably Andy Jackson and Ralph Gordon (who made an ill-fated and unpopular switch to Rovers in 1992), to help intensify the rivalries. The monthly comic (1993-95) changed the sides Rovers played, basing them on real-life clubs (Toxteth being Liverpool; Prestwich North End replacing Manchester United etc). The comic featured Melchester City as ambitious Football League newcomers who believed they could ultimately compete with Rovers. However, they did not reappear in any future Roy of the Rovers storylines, and nor did the other sides Rovers faced in this period. Notable players The Melchester squad of 1986/87, including Blackie Gray and Roy Race, second and third from the left respectively in the front row Roy Race (1996 - ) Other clubs Due to the popularity of the Roy of the Rovers strip, a number of amateur football clubs have chosen to name themselves after Melchester Rovers in recent years. Examples include a team in New York City composed of Americans and British citizens living in New York, and a club playing out of Rozelle, Sydney, Australia comprising British, Irish and Australian players. It is also a popular name for fantasy football teams. There is a successful football team in San Francisco, CA, USA called Melchester Rovers , founded in 1997, composed largely of Irish and American citizens. In Dunedin, New Zealand, there are over 25 junior and senior teams making up a club called Melchester Rovers . See also Tiger (comic) Notes ^ Up until 1992, the top division of English football was the Football League First Division ; since then, it has been the FA Premier League . References	Roy Race
Fused glass powder is called what?	Roy of the Rovers « England Memories January 12, 2016 This month in 1978 Wembley was packed as an England side featuring Trevor Francis and Malcolm Macdonald thrashed the Netherlands 5-1. Remember it? Well unless you read the comic Roy of the Rovers then the answer would be no. In a break from our usual nostalgic recollections of how England fared in real-life, we delve into the world of fiction and look back at when the legendary Roy Race was in charge of his country for one match… Between 1954 and 1993 millions of football fans enjoyed following the fortunes of star footballer Roy Race in his Roy of the Rovers storyline (originally in Tiger, later graduating to his own comic). Although the vast majority of his adventures concerned his club Melchester Rovers – and briefly Walford Rovers – there would occasionally be a chance to follow Roy in action for England. The most memorable such instance came in January 1978, Roy taking temporary charge of the national team after the manager was injured in a car crash. As at Melchester, he was to be player-manager. The 13-man squad Roy picked would have been familiar to regular comic readers, given that eight of the players selected came from Melchester Rovers and featured regularly in Roy of the Rovers. Johnny Dexter was lead character in The Hard Man in Roy of the Rovers while Nipper Lawrence and Mike Bateson were from the Nipper storyline which appeared in sister title Tiger and Scorcher. At least Roy stopped short of calling up the eternally 12-year-old Billy Dane of Billy’s Boots fame! And there were two other players selected who were of particular interest… When two worlds collide The vast majority of the time, Roy existed in a clearly fictional world which comprised of make-believe people and teams. But there were occasions when this wasn’t totally the case and in his England squad were Birmingham City forward Trevor Francis and Arsenal striker Malcolm ‘Supermac’ Macdonald – the latter having not played for England since 1976. Other real-life stars such as Kevin Keegan were nowhere to be seen. But there was a good reason why Francis and Macdonald were named in the side – they each had a column in Tiger and Scorcher. If you took their selections literally then everyone was now living in the same universe, in which Arsenal co-existed alongside Melchester Rovers and where Trevor Francis could appear with Roy Race. Sir Alf Ramsey becomes caretaker manager of Melchester Rovers in 1982. And the willingness to mix the two worlds would continue in the coming years. Sir Alf Ramsey took over as Melchester Rovers caretaker manager in 1982 after Roy was shot; Bobby Robson featured in the storyline as he considered whether to select Roy for his England squad in the mid-1980s; cricketer Geoffrey Boycott became Melchester chairman during the same period and then came the infamous decision to have Spandau Ballet’s Martin Kemp and Steve Norman in the Melchester side along with the retired duo of Emlyn Hughes and Bob Wilson (the latter having last played professionally 11 years earlier!). It didn’t sit comfortably with loyal fans of the comic, including Frank Skinner . Later there would be characters – albeit under different names – who couldn’t have been more obviously based on Jimmy Greaves and Paul Gascoigne. It all made a mockery of the small print that all characters appearing in the storylines were fictional and any resemblance to real people was coincidental. Meanwhile, Mr Squeaky Clean met Mr Squeaky Clean as Roy and Gary Lineker struck up a friendship that led to them releasing a single together . But going back to 1978, was the average schoolboy reader bothered about having real stars joining the storyline regulars to play for England? Probably not. They no doubt just wished that things could work the other way round and Roy could play for England in real-life! Roy becomes the national hero The choice of the Netherlands as England’s opponents was probably not coincidental. They had won acclaim in real-life with their run to the 1974 World Cup final and in 1977 had looked a class above in winning 2-0 at Wembley in a friendly. This would effectively be a rematch, although unlike with England the Dutch side would be totally fictional – as Roy was reunited with an old “chum” in Dutch captain Johan Seegrun. Soon ‘Supermac’ would break the deadlock as England gloriously went on to win 5-1. Fans depicted watching the match at Wembley or on TV were shown looking delighted with the result, including one armchair viewer who – having earlier been castigated by his wife for criticising Roy’s decision to pick himself – was declaring the new manager had done the country proud. The night really had been ‘Roy of the Rovers stuff’. Malcolm Macdonald sends England on their way to a 5-1 win. Club over country for Roy There then followed a tug of love as Roy considered whether to become full-time manager of England or remain at Melchester. Club would ultimately win over country in the battle for Roy’s heart. He later played a couple of times for England under Bobby Robson in the mid-1980s. That proved to be the end of his full international career, although he would spend the summer of 1992 leading the England B team to success in a mini-tournament as player-manager. It has to be said that, given how prolific and skilled Roy was, he made a surprisingly low number of appearances in an England shirt during his 39-year playing career (during which he aged remarkably well!). There are probably three reasons for this. Firstly, the title of the storyline was Roy of the Rovers and therefore his club endeavours were always intended as the main focus. Secondly, constantly switching between what Roy did for Melchester and England would have disrupted the flow of the story. And thirdly, a fair proportion of readers were not English. Whereas everybody would get behind Roy when he donned the Rovers shirt, those from other parts of the UK or overseas may have not felt the same desire to see him firing them in for England. Roy Race teams up with Gary Lineker in 1989. Roy’s playing career ended with a helicopter crash in 1993, the underlying reason being falling sales of his weekly comic. Revivals of the storyline – with son Rocky now playing up front for Rovers – in a new monthly Roy of the Rovers comic and the magazines Shoot! and in Match of the Day all proved fairly short-lived, with the last official new storylines appearing on the shelves as far back as 2001. But those who have missed their regular ROTR fix can enjoy regular adventures at at ‘Storky Knight’s’ website containing fresh storylines, including some set in past seasons. Looking at the site, the newest story sees Melchester managed by Johan Seegrun – the Dutch captain during that 5-1 defeat by Roy Race’s England in 1978. In a hectic era when he got married, became a father to twins, suffered the most unlikely of relegations and was almost killed after being shot, Racey’s time in charge of his country stood out as another memorable moment for Roy of the Rovers.	i don't know
Which black, igneous rock was used by the Mayans to make their sword blades?	Obsidian in The Maya World Obsidian in The Maya World Obsidian Clovis style Point from Puerta Parada, Guatemala Highlands ca 8,000 BC Obsidian is a naturally formed volcanic glass that was an important part of the material culture of the Olmec and Maya since the Pre-Classic. Like other volcanic glasses, obsidian is a lava that has cooled too quickly for the contained minerals to crystallize. In chemical composition it is rich in silica and similar to granite. Obsidian was a highly integrated part of daily and ritual life, and its widespread and varied use may be a significant contributor to Mesoamerica's lack of metallurgy. Lithic and contextual analysis of obsidian, including source studies, are important components of archaeological studies of Maya sites and inform scholars on economy, technological organization, long-distance trade , ritual organization , and socio-cultural structure. The first sings of human occupation in Guatemala dated from Ca 10,000 BC and are obsidian tools and weapons, both in the "Clovis" (mainly North America) and "Fishtail" (mainly South America) Styles. The first flat blades struck from a core were flat and not particularly useful. Later blades were struck along previous blade scars, producing a blade with a triangular cross-section, something archaeologists call a backed or prismatic blade which has greater strength than a flat blade. It was this prism-like blade that was widely used by the Maya as a cutting tool. Bifacial Prismatic Obsidian in Los Encuentros , Jalapa, Source discovered recently No Maya site is without obsidian, named TAJ in Maya, and Chay Abaj in K'iche'. It was an item that had common Warfare and Art uses as well as ritual use . Obsidian, opposite to Jade , was available to all households and was found in hunting, agriculture , and many other everyday situations. Examples of obsidian tools are knives, lance and dart points, prismatic blades sometimes used for woodworking or shaving, bone working tools, bifacial, retouched flakes, and spearheads for warfare . Blades have been found in situ with rabbit, rodent, and mollusk remains, indicating its use in butchery. Carved obsidian vase Serpent with snakes emerging from its head Although the three major obsidian sources of the Maya are located in the Maya Highlands , most trade models proposed so far for obsidian distribution in the lowlands do not consider the sociopolitical and historical factors that affected highland polities, and hence, long-distance trade systems. One approach to this broad question is to study and compare the major trade routes between the highlands and the Petï¿½n Lowlands , i.e., the Alta Verapaz (land) route and the Motagua-Caribean (sea) route, from geographic, sociopolitical, and historical points of view. Cores were made from obsidian cobbles found in stream beds adjacent to glass producing volcanoes. Oblong or football shaped cobbles were struck in a way to produce a flat surface at one end. This flat area, or striking platform, was then chipped away along the outer edge using a deer antler and a small hammer stone. The larger blades could then be further reduced by pressure flaking to make projectile points or ornaments. Widely used throughout the western hemisphere and the rest of the world as well) obsidian blades, when freshly struck from the core represent the sharpest cutting edge known, several times sharper than a surgical steel scalpel. In fact obsidian blades are currently in use in some U.S. hospitals for heart bypass surgery. It seems that they cut cleaner, thereby promoting more rapid healing with less scar tissue. Needless to say, obsidian blades constitute a considerable hazard to the unwary archaeologist who chooses to sift through soil in Maya sites with unprotected hands. Even leather gloves are no guarantee against serious cuts. El Chayal obsidian featured the greatest variety of visual characteristics differing in both texture and color. The most common variety is smoky grey, translucent obsidian with grey or black bands, but it also can appear with red banding, as opaque gray, as nearly transparent, or with a combination of these characteristics. A small quantity can feature small black specks or inclusions, which makes it difficult to differentiate from San Martï¿½n Jilotepeque. However, San Martï¿½n Jilotepeque often has a bluish-black hue that is rarely found at El Chayal. Ixtepeque obsidian can resemble the transparent variety of El Chayal, but it has a brownish, ï¿½bottle glassï¿½ color that does not occur at other sources. Ixtepeque obsidian also is extremely fine and has a glass-like quality. La Blanca , Preclassic Celt, Pacific Lowlands Available data on the social structure and culture history of Naranjo and Kaminaljuyï¿½ -prominent center located close to the obsidian sources-- and Guaytï¿½n , Vega del Cobï¿½n and Quiriguï¿½ that dominated the Motagua route, as well as of Verapaz centers, are tentatively reexamined and reevaluated in the context of the highland-lowland Classic obsidian trade. This allows us to assess the effective supremacy of the Motagua-Caribe route over the Alta Verapaz route, at least during the Pre and Classic period when Kaminaljuyï¿½ , Guaytï¿½n , Vega del Cobï¿½n and then Quiriguï¿½ , may have controlled long-distance obsidian trade . It appears that sociopolitical and historical factors resulted in a degree of instability in the Classic trade systems, as both routes competed for larger quantities of obsidian to be extracted, processed, and transported through systems that differed in time and space. Against such a complex background, quantitative data on obsidian distribution in either the lowlands or the highlands will have limited predictive potential unless more precision is attained in the control of chronological and functional contexts of obsidian samples when they are analyzed for source provenience. Such a goal requires that specific data-recovery strategies be implemented, which should give priority to sociopolitical and historical factors and include both Maya Highland and Lowland sub areas. As an example, one of the largest workshops of Obsidian, its located in the pacific piedmont of Guatemala in El Baï¿½l Cotzumalguapa , Obsidian from El Chayal, and San Martï¿½n Jilotepeque were its main sources, although Ixtepeque and San Bartolomï¿½ Milpas Altas also have been documented, the obsidian arrived in prismatic and macro cores arrived and then were reduced and transformed into macro blades, and these in turn were transformed into knives and projectile points. On the other hand, fine blades were obtained from the prismatic cores through the pressure technique. These cores were exhausted to the extreme, and subsequently used as a different type of tool, like scrapers, for example. Meanwhile, others were reduced through the bipolar percussion technique to obtain flakes, and something similar likely happened with the macro blade cores. The production of artifacts was aimed at manufacturing two major products: prismatic blades and projectile points. Both technological types required specialized skills and a centralized productive organization. The major purpose of this production was serving the local and probably the regional demand of cutting tools, throwing weapons with a cutting point, and instruments for scraping, polishing and perforating, all of which could be a part of household maintenance activities. Mesoamerican Commerce Routes and goods production, from the Pre Classic to the Post Classic Obsidian was also used in graves, at sacrifices, and in art . Some non-utilitarian forms are miniature human effigies, ear spools and labrets with gold and turquoise workings, carved animal figurines, beads, vases, and masks. Obsidian is frequently seen in the form of ritual blood-letting devices as well as buried in elite tombs and special deposits or caches. Debitage is found in many of these tombs in addition to evidence of obsidian use in temple dedications, or offerings. For example, flakes have been found in association with stela offerings and related to specific gods at the Maya site of Tikal . Lancet and prismatic blades are also found in frequent association with self-sacrifice, and in "private ceremonies" in Caves . Obsidian was a highly integrated part of Mayan daily and ritual life. This widespread and varied use may be a significant contributor to this culture's lack of metallurgy. The use of pecking, grinding, and carving techniques may also be employed to produce figurines, jewelry, eccentrics, or other types of objects. Prismatic blade production, a technique employing a pressure flaking-like technique that removed blades from a polyhedral core, was ubiquitous throughout Mesoamerica. The dancing figures carry what seem to be tri-bladed obsidian knives The main sources of the Olmec and Maya obsidian are located in the Guatemala Highlands . El Chayal, Ixtepeque, and San Martin Jilotepeque are the most well-known of the Guatemalan obsidian sources and the most commonly exploited in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Located in Central and Eastern Highlands of Guatemala, these materials are found as far north as the Yucatï¿½n Peninsula, moving via a well developed and important long-distance trade network that linked much of the Maya area. Newer and tentative additions to the Guatemalan source area Jalapa and Sansare. However, the El Chayal area is often seen as subsuming these two into one large source area. Although there are some pieces that came from distant sources such as Pachuca, and the Guatemala Obsidian have been found in Teotihuacï¿½n and vice versa. One of a series of small carved obsidian vases filled with red oxides, A Common Art form Generally, obsidian came into the Maya area from Naranjo up to 400 AD and then Kaminaljuyï¿½ via larger central places, such as, Chocolï¿½ , El Baï¿½l and Takalik Abaj , in the Pacific Piedmont, Tikal , Wakï¿½' , Uaxactï¿½n , and Piedras Negras . Obsidian artifacts and tools were then redistributed to smaller and potentially dependent centers and communities. This is indicated by a lack of production debitage, including polyhedral cores, decortical flakes, and large percussion flakes, among rural occupations. Obsidian was generally transported, where applicable, along coastal trade routes. Of primary importance is the circum-peninsular trade route that linked the southeast Maya area to the Gulf coast. Examples of evidence of this include the higher quantities of obsidian found among coastal sites, such as small island occupations off the coast of Belize and Yucatan, then at sites located in-land. In the large blades typical from Kaminal Juyï¿½ two alternative technologies could have been employed: the use of indirect percussion to shape large blades, and/or the use of lever assisted pressure to remove large blades using the chest crutch, as had been employed in the Old World.	Obsidian
Which shell-fish soup originated in the north-east of America?	Obsidian: Igneous Rock - Pictures, Uses, Properties Obsidian What is Obsidian, How Does it Form, and What is it Used For? Obsidian: The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. The curved semi-concentric ridges are breakage marks associated with obsidian's conchoidal fracture. The rock has very sharp edges. What is Obsidian? Obsidian is an igneous rock that forms when molten rock material cools so rapidly that atoms are unable to arrange themselves into a crystalline structure. It is an amorphous material known as a " mineraloid ." The result is a volcanic glass with a smooth uniform texture that breaks with a conchoidal fracture (see photo). Where Does Obsidian Form? Obsidian is usually an extrusive rock - one that solidifies above Earth's surface. However, it can form in a variety of cooling environments: along the edges of a lava flow (extrusive) along the edges of a volcanic dome (extrusive) around the edges of a sill or a dike (intrusive) where lava contacts water (extrusive) where lava cools while airborne (extrusive) Types of Obsidian: The specimens shown above are from Glass Butte rockhounding site in central Oregon. It shows the diversity of obsidian types that can be found in a small geographic area. Clockwise from upper left are: double flow obsidian, rainbow obsidian, black obsidian, pumpkin obsidian, mahogany obsidian, gold sheen obsidian, and the piece in the center is gold sheen. The nice photo above is from the Glass Butte Rockhounding Site page on the Deschutes National Forest website . Mahogany obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "mahogany obsidian." Image © iStockphoto / Arpad Benedek. What Color is Obsidian? Rainbow Obsidian: A baroque cabochon of iridescent "rainbow obsidian." Black is the most common color of obsidian. However, it can also be brown, tan, or green. Rarely, obsidian can be blue, red, orange, or yellow. The colors are thought to be caused mainly by trace elements or inclusions. Occasionally two colors of obsidian will be swirled together in a single specimen. The most common color combination is black and brown obsidian swirled together - that's called "mahogany obsidian" (see photo). As a "glass," obsidian is chemically unstable. With the passage of time, some obsidian begins to crystallize. This process does not happen at a uniform rate throughout the rock. Instead it begins at various locations within the rock. At these locations, the crystallization process forms radial clusters of white or gray cristobalite crystals within the obsidian. When cut and polished, these specimens are referred to as "snowflake obsidian" (see photos). Rarely, obsidian has an iridescent or metallic "sheen" caused by light reflecting from minute inclusions of mineral crystals, rock debris, or gas. These colored specimens are known as "rainbow obsidian," "golden obsidian," or "silver obsidian," depending upon the color of the sheen or iridescence. These specimens are very desirable for the manufacture of jewelry. Snowflake obsidian: A tumble-polished specimen of "snowflake obsidian." Image © iStockphoto / Martin Novak. What is the Composition of Obsidian? Most obsidians have a composition similar to rhyolite and granite . Granites and rhyolites can form from the same magma as obsidian and are often geographically associated with the obsidian. Rarely, volcanic glasses are found with a composition similar to basalt and gabbro . These glassy rocks are named "tachylyte." Are There Other Glassy Igneous Rocks? Pumice , scoria , and tachylyte are other volcanic glasses formed by rapid cooling. Pumice and scoria differ from obsidian by having abundant vesicles - cavities in the rock produced when gas bubbles were trapped in a solidifying melt. Tachylyte differs in composition - it has a composition similar to basalt and gabbro. Obsidian outcrop: Obsidian along the edge of a lava flow in central Oregon. Image © iStockphoto / Phil Augustavo. Obsidian knife blade: A knife blade manufactured from mahogany obsidian. The craftsman who made this blade had a very high skill level and was able to produce a serrated edge. Image © iStockphoto / Al Braunworth. Occurrence of Obsidian Obsidian is found in many locations worldwide. It is confined to areas of geologically recent volcanic activity. Obsidian older than a few million years is rare because the glassy rock is rapidly destroyed or altered by weathering, heat, or other processes. Significant deposits of obsidian are found in Argentina, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Russia, United States, and many other locations. In the United States it is not found east of the Mississippi River, as there is no geologically recent volcanic activity there. In the western US it is found at many locations in Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. Most obsidian used in the jewelry trade is produced in the United States. Obsidian spear point: A spear point fashioned from opaque black obsidian. Image © iStockphoto / Charles Butzin. Rock & Mineral Kits: Get a rock, mineral, or fossil kit to learn more about Earth materials. The best way to learn about rocks is to have specimens available for testing and examination. Uses of Obsidian as a Cutting Tool The conchoidal fracture of obsidian causes it to break into pieces with curved surfaces. This type of fracturing can produce rock fragments with very sharp edges. These sharp fragments may have prompted the first use of obsidian by people. The first use of obsidian by people probably occurred when a sharp piece of obsidian was used as a cutting tool. People then discovered how to skillfully break the obsidian to produce cutting tools in a variety of shapes. Obsidian was used to make knives, arrowheads, spear points, scrapers, and many other weapons and tools. Once these discoveries were made, obsidian quickly became the raw material of preference for producing almost any sharp object. The easy-to-recognize rock became one of the first targets of organized "mining." It is probably a safe bet that all natural obsidian outcrops that are known today were discovered and utilized by ancient people. Apache tears: "Apache Tears" is a name used for small obsidian nodules of about one inch or less that can be found in volcanic areas of the southwestern United States. Their name comes from a Native American legend. During a battle between Apaches and the U.S. Cavalry in 1870, the outnumbered Apaches, facing defeat, rode their horses over a cliff rather than allow themselves to be killed by their enemy. Upon hearing the story of the battle, the tears of their family members turned to stone when they hit the ground. Those stones are now found as the black obsidian nodules. People who do rock tumbling often polish Apache Tears. They are difficult to polish because the obsidian chips and bruises easily. Success occurs when they are cushioned during the tumbling with smaller pieces of rough or small ceramic media. Stone Age Manufacturing and Trade The manufacture of obsidian tools by humans dates back to the Stone Age. At some locations, tons of obsidian flakes reveal the presence of ancient "factories." Some of these sites have enough waste debris to suggest that many people labored there for decades producing a variety of obsidian objects. Making arrowheads, spear points, knife blades, and scrapers from obsidian, chert , or flint might have been the world's first "manufacturing industry." Obsidian was so valued for these uses that ancient people mined, transported, and traded obsidian and obsidian objects over distances of up to a thousand miles. Archaeologists have been able to document the geography of this trade by matching the characteristics of obsidian in outcrops with the characteristics of obsidian in cutting tools. A study done by the Idaho National Laboratory used composition studies by X-ray fluorescence to identify the source outcrops of obsidian artifacts and map their use across the western United States. Obsidian in Modern Surgery Although using a rock as a cutting tool might sound like "stone age equipment," obsidian continues to play an important role in modern surgery. Obsidian can be used to produce a cutting edge that is thinner and sharper than the best surgical steel. Today, thin blades of obsidian are placed in surgical scalpels used for some of the most precise surgery. In controlled studies, the performance of obsidian blades was equal to or superior to the performance of surgical steel. Obsidian jewelry: Mahogany obsidian and snowflake obsidian cabochons set in sterling silver pendants. Obsidian for opal triplets: A thin piece of obsidian is often used as a "backing" material for opal doublets and triplets. The black obsidian adds stability to the opal and provides a dark background color that contrasts with the opal's fire. Uses of Obsidian in Jewelry Obsidian is a popular gemstone . It is often cut into beads and cabochons or used to manufacture tumbled stones. Obsidian is sometimes faceted and polished into highly reflective beads. Some transparent specimens are faceted to produce interesting gems. The use of obsidian in jewelry can be limited by its durability. It has a hardness of about 5.5 which makes it easy to scratch. It also lacks toughness and is easily broken or chipped upon impact. These durability concerns make obsidian an inappropriate stone for rings and bracelets. It is best suited for use in low-impact pieces such as earrings, brooches, and pendants. Obsidian is also used in making opal doublets and opal triplets . Thin slices or chips of opal are glued to a thin slice of obsidian to make a composite stone. The black obsidian provides an inexpensive and color-contrasting background that makes opal's colorful fire much more obvious. It also adds mass and stability to the opal that facilitates cutting it into a gem. Other Uses of Obsidian Freshly broken pieces of obsidian have a very high luster. Ancient people noticed that they could see a reflection in obsidian and used it as a mirror. Later, pieces of obsidian were ground flat and highly polished to improve their reflective abilities. Obsidian's hardness of 5.5 makes it relatively easy to carve. Artists have used obsidian to make masks, small sculptures, and figurines for thousands of years.	i don't know
The most eastern part of Massachussetts is called what?	Massachusetts Indian Tribes - Access Genealogy Massachusetts Indian Tribes Updated: January 13, 2015 \| Massachusetts Genealogy , Native American \| 2 \| Mahican . The Mahican extended over most of Berkshire County, where they were represented mainly by the Housatonic or Stockbridge Indians. (See New York .) Massachuset . Meaning “at the range of hills,” by which is meant the hills of Milton. Connections. The Massachuset belonged to the Algonquian linguistic stock, their tongue being an n-dialect, and formed one group with the Narraganset , Niantic ( East and West ), and Wampanoag , and probably the Nauset . Location. In the region of Massachusetts Bay between Salem on the north and Marshfield and Brockton on the south. Later they claimed lands beyond Brockton as far as the Great Cedar Swamp, territories formerly under the control of the Wampanoag. Subdivisions Johnson (1881) says that there were “three kingdoms or sagamoreships having under them seven dukedoms or petty sagamores.” Some of these undoubtedly correspond to the divisions recently worked out by Speck (1928) by means of provincial documents. He identifies six main divisions, two of them further subdivided, all called by the names of their chiefs, as follows: (1) Band of Chickataubut (including the later bands of Wampatuck and some other of his heirs and a district and band earlier controlled by Obatinnewat or Obtakiest), all of the Massachuset territory south of Charles River and west of the neighborhood of Ponkapog Pond. (2) Band of Nanepashemet, all the Massachuset territory north of Charles River. Nanepashemet’s domain was afterward divided among his three sons: Winnepurkit, owning about Deer Island and in Boston Harbor Wonohaquaham, owning about Chelsea and Saugus Montowampate, owning about Lynn and Marblehead. (3) Band of Manatahqua, about Nabant and Swampscott. (4) Band of Cato, a tract 5 miles square east of Concord River. (5) Band of Nahaton, around Natick. (6) Band of Cutshamakin, Cutshamequin, or Kutchamakin, about Dorchester, Sudbury, and Milton. Villages Cowate, “Praying Indiana,” at the Falls of Charles River. Magaehnak, probably “Praying Indians,” 6 miles from Sudbury. Massachuset, location uncertain. Nahapassumkeck, in the northern part of Plymouth County, probably on the coast. Natick, “Praying Indians,” near the present Natick. Neponset, on Neponset River about Stoughton. Nonantum, on Nonantum hill, in Newton. Pequimmit, “Praying Indians,” near Stoughton. Pocapawmet, on the south shore of Massachusetts Bay. Punkapog, “Praying Indians,” near Stoughton. Sagoquas, south of Cohasset. Seccasaw, in the northern part of Plymouth County. Titicut, “Praying Indians,” possibly Wampanoag, in Middleborough town. Topeent, on the north coast of Plymouth County. Totant, at or near Boston. Totheet, on the north coast of Plymouth County. Wessagusset, near Weymouth. Winnisimmet, at Chelsea. Wonasquam, near Annisquam, Essex County, perhaps a later outvillage. History . The Massachuset were visited by several voyagers, beginning at least as far back as the time of John Cabot but were first particularly noted by Captain John Smith, who coasted their territory in 1614. In 1617 they were much reduced by a pestilence and about the same time they were depleted by wars with their northeastern neighbors. The Puritans settled in their country in 1629, and mission work was soon begun among them, and was pursued with particular zeal by John Eliot. The converts were gathered into separate villages, where they gradually declined in numbers and presently disappeared as distinct bodies, though a few descendants of the Punkapog town people are still living in Canton, Mattapan, and Mansfield. Population. The number of Massachuset is estimated by Mooney (1928) to have been 3,000 in 1600. In 1631 it was reduced to about 500, and soon considerably below that figure by smallpox. Connection in which they have become noted. The Massachuset gave their name to Massachusetts Bay and through that to the present Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Massachuset are also noted as the tribe in which the famous apostle to the Indians, John Eliot, labored, through whom a large part of them were gathered into villages of “Praying Indians.” The “Eliot Bible” and other works by him have preserved a knowledge of the Massachuset language to our own day. Crispus Attucks , who was killed in the Boston massacre and is generally regarded as the first victim of the American Revolution, was of mixed Negro-Massachuset ancestry. The marriage of Winnepurkit, a Massachuset chief whose lands were about Boston Harbor, to the daughter of Passaconaway, chief sachem of the Pennacook, was made by Whittier the subject of a poem, “The Bridal of Pennacook.” Nauset . Meaning unknown. Also called: Cape Indians from their situation. Connections. See under discussions of the Massachuset. Location. All of Cape Cod except the extreme western end. Subdivisions Speck (1928) has identified the following: Iyanough, Wiananno, or Hyannis (centering about Barnstable); Manomoy, or Monomoy (about Chatham); Nauset (from Eastham to Truro). Villages Aquetnet, at Skauton Neck, Sandwich, Barnstable County. Ashimut or Ashimuit, at a large spring near the junction of Falmouth, Mashpee, and Sandwich Townships, Barnstable County. Coatuit, near Osterville, Barnstable County. Codtaumut or Cataumut, in Mashpee Township. Cummaquid, at Cummaquid Harbor. Mashpee, on the coast of Mashpee Township. Mattakees or Mattakeset, in Barnstable and Yarmouth Townships. Meeshawn, in Provincetown or Truro Township. Nauset, near Eastham. Nemskaket, on or near Nemskaket Creek. Nobsqussit or Nobscusset, near Dennis. Pamet, near Truro. Pispogutt or Pispogutt, in the western part of Barnstable County, near Buzzards Bay. Poponesset, near Poponesset Bay. Potanumaquut, on Pleasant Bay near Harwich. Punonaknit, at Billingsgate near Wellfleet. Satuit, on Cotuit River near Mashpee. Sawkatuket or Satucket in Brewster or Harwich. Skauton, near Sandwich, probably on Buzzards Bay. Sokones or Succonesset, near Falmouth. Wakoquet, or Waquoit, near Waquoit or Weequakit, in Barnatable Township. Wessquobs or Weesquobs, near Pocasset. Many of these contained Wampanoag Indians and some Indians of other tribes. History. From the exposed position of the Nauset on Cape Cod their territory came under the observation of many of the earliest explorers, but actual contact with the people was not so simple a matter. In 1606 Champlain had an encounter with them. In 1614. Hunt carried off 7 Nauset Indians and 20 Patuxet of the Wampanoag tribe whom he sold into slavery. They seem to have escaped the great an England pestilence of 1617. Although they behaved in a hostile manner toward the Pilgrims at their first landing in 1620, they soon became firm friends and even rendered some assistance against King Phillip (1675-76). Most of them had been Christianized before this time and collected into churches. In 1710 many died of fever, but the number of Indians in Nauset territory was increased by additions from other tribes driven from their proper territories, so that the population of the principal Indian settlement at Mashpee has not fallen below 200 down to the present day, though a great deal of mixture with other races has taken place. Population. The number of the Nauset was estimated by Mooney (1928) at 1,200 in 1600. In 1621 they were believed to number 500; in 1674, 462 were reported in the various inhabited centers on Cape Cod, containing Nauset, Wampanoag, and other Indians. In 1698, 515 Indians were reported from Mashpee, mainly Nauset and Wampanoag. In 1767, 292 were reported at the same place and the number has varied between 200 and 300 down to 1930. The United States Census of 1910 reported 206 Indians of this band, all but 5 in Massachusetts. Speck (1928) estimates that there were 230 in 1920, all of whom were mixed-bloods. The census of 1930 returned only 38 Indians from Barnstable County and 54 from Massachusetts, but it may be incomplete. Connection in which they have become noted. As already remarked, it was in the Nauset territory and in considerable measure through their blood that the Massachusetts aborigines maintained their existence longest. Nauset Beach, Nauset Harbor, and Nauset Light perpetuate the name. Nipmuc . From Nipmaug, “fresh water fishing place.” Connections. The Nipmuc belonged to the Algonquian linguistic family, their language being an l-dialect. Their nearest relatives were the other tribes of Massachusetts and the tribes of Rhode Island, Connecticut, and the Hudson River Valley. Location. The Nipmuc occupied the central plateau of Massachusetts, particularly the southern part of Worcester County, but they extended into northern Rhode Island and Connecticut. (See also Connecticut and Rhode Island .) Subdivisions and Villages Attawaugan, near Attawaugan in the town of Killingly, Conn. Chabanakongkomun, near Dudley. Coweset, in northern Rhode Island west of Blackstone River. Hassanamesit, at Grafton. Manchaug, near Oxford. Manexit, near Thompson, Conn. Mashapaug, at Mashapaug Pond in the town of Union, Conn. Medfield, at Medfield, native name unknown. Menemesseg, near New Braintree. Nashobah, near Magog Pond, in Littleton. Nichewaug, about Nichewaug, near Petersham. Okommakamesit, near Marlborough. Pakachoog, near Worcester, probably in Millbury. Quabaug, near Brookfield. Quadick, near the present Quadick Reservoir, Thompson County, Conn. Quantisset, on Thompson Hill, near Thompson, Conn. Quinebaug, on Quinebaug River near Quinebaug Station, town of Thompson, Conn. Quinetusset, near Thompson in northeast corner of Connecticut. Segunesit, in northeastern Connecticut. Tatumasket, west of Mendon, in the southern part of Worcester County. Wabaquasset, about 6 miles from Quinebaug River, south of Woodstock, Conn., sometimes regarded as an independent tribe. Wacuntug, on the west side of Blackstone River, near Uxbridge. Wenimesset, at New Braintree. History. There was no coherence among the people bearing the name of Nipmuc and some of them were from time to time attached to the more powerful tribes in their neighborhood, such as the Massachuset, Wampanoag, Narraganset, and Mohegan. The Whites first met them after Plymouth and the Massachusetts Bay were settled. In 1674 there were seven villages of Christian Indians among the Nipmuc but in 1675 practically all took part with King Philip against the colonists and at its close fled to Canada or to the tribes on Hudson River. Population. Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 500 independent Nipmuc in 1600. If we consider as Nipmuc the Indians returned from Worcester County, Mass., and Windham and Tolland Counties, Conn., in 1910, there were then 81. Pennacook . The following bands of Pennacook lived in the north eastern part of Massachusetts: Agawam, Nashua, Naumkeag, Pentucket, Wachuset, Wamesit, and Weshacum. (See New Hampshire .) Pocomtuc . Meaning unknown. Connections.-The Pocomtuc belonged to the Algonquian linguistic family, and spoke an r-dialect, their nearest relatives probably being the Wappinger. Location. The Pocomtuc home was in the present counties of Frank in, Hampshire, and Hampden, Mass., and in the neighboring parts of Connecticut and Vermont. Subdivisions and Villages Agawam, about Springfield, their principal village of the same name being on Long Hill. Mayawaug, near W. Suffield, town of Suffield, Conn. Nameroke, in the town of Enfield, east of Thompsonville, Conn. Nonotue, a division and village about Northampton. Pocomtuc, a division in Deerfield River Valley and the adjacent parts of the Connecticut River Valley, the principal town of the same name being near Deerfield. (See also Vermont.) Scitico, near the place of that name in the eastern part of the town of Enfield, Conn. Squawkeag, on both sides of Connecticut River in the northern part of Franklin County, their principal village, of the same name, being near Northfield. History. The fort of the Pocomtuc proper, on Fort Hill near Deerfield, was destroyed by the Mohawk in 1666. The Pocomtuc combined with the Narraganset and Tunxis in attacks on the Mohegan chief, Uncas , and later joined the hostile Indians under King Philip. At the close of the war they fled to Scaticook on the Hudson, where some of them remained until 1754, going then to St. Francis, Canada. Population. Mooney (1928) estimates that there were 1,200 Pocomtuc in 1600. If we count as Pocomtuc the Indians returned from Hampden and Hampshire Counties in 1910, there were then 23 left, but they may have been of quite other origin. Wampanoag . The name has the same meaning as Abnaki, “eastern people.” Also called: Massasoits, from the name of their famous chief. Philip’s Indians, from King Philip. Connections. The Wampanoag belonged to the Algonquian linguistic stock, speaking an n-dialect like the neighboring Massachuset, Narranganset , Niantic ( East and West ), and the Nauset . Location. The Wampanoag occupied Rhode Island east of Narragansett Bay; Bristol County, Mass.; the southern part of Plymouth County, below Marshfield and Brockton; and the extreme western part of Barnstable. The Indians of Martha’s Vineyard should also be added to them, and it will be convenient to treat under the same head those of Nantucket and the Saconnet, or Sakonnet, of Sakonnet Point, R. I., whose connection was more remote. They controlled Rhode Island in Narragansett Bay until the Narraganset tribe conquered it from them. (See also Rhode Island .) Subdivisions Speck (1928) gives the following mainland subdivisions: (1) Band of Massasoit, in a territory called Sowwams on the east side of Narragansett Bay; the western part of Bristol County, Mass.; all of Bristol County, R. I.; and the eastern part of Providence County, R. I. (2) Band of Annawon, about Squannaconk swamps in Rehoboth Township. (3) Band of Weetamoe, a chieftainess, their territory being called Pocasset, in southeastern Rhode Island, about Tiverton and adjacent parts of Bristol County, Mass. (4) Band of Corbitant or Caunbatant, about Swansea. (5) Band of Tispaquin or Tuspaquin, lands called Assawampset, about Assawampset Pond. (6) Band of Tyasks or Tyashk, about Rochester and Acushnet. (7) Band of Totoson, in a territory centering about Mattapoisett and Rochester. (8) Band of Coneconam or Cawnacome, in a territory known as Manomet, extending from Manomet to Woods Hole. (9) Band of Piowant or Piant, between Assonet Bay and Taunton River. There were several vacant tracts not occupied by any of the above. In 1861 there were bands of Wampanoag at Herring Pond, Dartmouth, Mamatakesett pond, Tumpum Pond, and Watuppa Pond. Speck (1928) gives the following bands on Martha’s Vineyard, but the classification applies to a time when Indians from various parts of the mainland had begun to settle there: (1) Band of Nohtooksaet who came from Massachusetts Bay, about Gay Head. (2) Band of Mankutquet (including the bands of Wannamanhut who came from near Boston (Christian town) and Toohtoowee, on the north shore of Chilmark), in the western part of Martha’s Vineyard excluding the preceding. (3) Band of Tewanticut (including the bands of Cheesehahchamuk, about Homes’ Hole; Wampamag, of Sanchakankachet; and Tom Tyler, about Edgartown), in the eastern section of Martha’s Vineyard. (4) Band of Pahkepunnasso, on the island of Chappaquiddick. There were two bands on Nantucket, the names of which are unknown, and we must also add the Sakonnet, on Sakonnet Point, R. I., and the Indians of the Elizabeth Islands. Villages Podpis, a district and probably village. Quays, a district and probably village. Sasacacheh, a district and probably village. Shaukimmo, a district and probably village, south of Nantucket Harbor Siasconsit, a district and probably village, including the site of the present Siasconset. Squam, a district and probably village. Talhanio, location uncertain. Tetaukimmo, a district and probably village. Toikiming, location uncertain. History. With many older writers on the Norse voyages to America, Mount Hope Bay, in the territory of the Wampanoag, was a favorite site for the supposed Icelandic colony (ca. 1000-1010), but the theory is now less popular. In 1602 Gosnold touched at Martha’s Vineyard and was kindly treated by the natives. Soon after the Pilgrims had established themselves at Plymouth in 1620 they made a treaty of friendship with the Wampanoag head chief, Massasoit, who played a great part in the early history of the colony. He died in 1662 and was succeeded by two sons in succession, the second of whom, Metacomet or Metacom, is the King Philip of history. Observing the steady influx of White colonists into Indian lands, King Philip organized a native confederacy against them and a bloody war followed (1675-76), in which King Philip was killed and the power of the tribes of southern New England finally destroyed. The Wampanoag survivors settled with the Sakonnet, who had remained neutral, and formed towns with the Nauset in the western part of Barnstable County. In 1763 they suffered severely from an epidemic, but a number of bands have preserved their autonomy, in a much mixed condition, to the present day. The Indians of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket, like the Sakonnet, had refused to join the confederacy and consequently maintained their numbers relatively intact for a longer period. They continued to decline, however, and in 1764 two, thirds of the Nantucket Indians were destroyed by a fever. Two of three mixed-bloods were left in 1809, and in 1855 Abram Quary, the last of these, died. The Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, on the other hand, received considerable accessions from the mainland and have maintained themselves down to our day though, like the mainland Indians, much mixed with other tribes and other races. Population. Of Wampanoag proper Mooney (1928) estimated that there were 2,400 in 1600. They probably suffered severely in the epidemic of 1617, but in 1630 they are said to have had about 30 villages. In 1700 the Sakonnet Indians, including most of the Wampanoag remnants, were estimated at 400. In 1861 a partial census gives 258, and we may suppose that the total was about 300. Martha’s Vineyard: The estimates of the Indian population of Martha’s Vineyard vary greatly. Mooney (1928) estimated the number of Indians at 1,500 in 1600, perhaps taken from an estimate of 1642, which gives the same figure, while a later writer places their number as “not less than 3,000” (Hare, 1932, p. 44). An estimate made in 1698 gave 1,000. In 1764, 313 were returned; in 1807, 360, only about 40 of whom were full-bloods. In 1861, 393 were returned, but in 1910 only 147. Nantucket: Mooney estimates the Indian population of Nantucket to have been 1,500 in 1600 and Mayhew (Speck, 1928) gives the same number in 1642. Hare (1932, p. 44) also estimates the Indian population to have been 1,500. In 1763 there were 358; in 1790, 20; in 1809, 2 or 3. An informant of Dr. Speck gives the total number of Indians in Barnstable, Plymouth, and Bristol Counties in 1928 as 450. Connection in which they have become noted. The Wampanoag made their mark in history chiefly through the activities of their chiefs, Massasoit and King Philip . One of the two largest bodies of Indians in southern New England to maintain their identity, down to the present day were the Wampanoag of Martha’s Vineyard. Additional Massachusetts Indian Resources	Cape Cod
In 1962 who became Margot Fonteyn's dance partner?	Boston travel guide - Wikitravel Discussion on defining district borders for Boston is in progress. If you know the city pretty well, please share your opinion on the talk page . For other places with the same name, see Boston (disambiguation) . Boston is a huge city with several district articles containing sightseeing, restaurant, nightlife and accommodation listings — have a look at each of them. Boston is the largest city in New England , the capital of the state of Massachusetts , and one of the most historic, wealthy and influential cities in the United States of America . Its plethora of museums, historical sights, and wealth of live performances, all explain why the city gets 16.3 million visitors a year, making it one of the ten most popular tourist locations in the country. Although not technically in Boston, the neighboring cities of Cambridge and Brookline are functionally integrated with Boston by mass transit and effectively a part of the city. Cambridge, just across the Charles River, is home to Harvard, MIT, local galleries, restaurants, and bars and is an essential addition to any visit to Boston. Brookline is nearly surrounded by Boston and has its own array of restaurants and shopping. Boston's Back Bay along the Charles River. Shot from Longfellow Bridge. Neighborhood nicknames are in (parentheses). South End Just south of Back Bay, has Victorian brownstones and a Bohemian atmosphere. Large gay population. Boston is a city of diverse neighborhoods, many of which were originally towns in their own right before being annexed to the city. This contributes to a strong pride within the neighborhoods of Boston, and many people will often tell you they are from "JP" (Jamaica Plain), "Dot" (Dorchester), "Southie" (South Boston), or "Eastie" (East Boston), rather than that they are from Boston. Alternatively, people from the suburbs will tell you they are from Boston when in fact they live in one of the nearby (or even outlying) suburbs. If in doubt, you can look for "Resident Parking Only" street signs, which will identify what neighborhood you are in. Another consequence of this expansion is that the neighborhoods, in addition to their cultural identities, also retained most of their street names, regardless of whether or not Boston -or another absorbed town- already had a street with the same name. According to a survey by The Boston Globe, there are at least 200 street names that are duplicated in one or more neighborhoods in Boston. For instance, Washington Street in Downtown Boston, is different from Washington Street in Dorchester and another Washington Street in Jamaica Plain. This can play havoc with web-based mapping and direction services. The skyline of Boston's Financial District Be aware that geographic references in district names tend to mean little. For example, South Boston is different from the South End, which is actually west of South Boston and north of Dorchester and Roxbury districts. Some other confusing notables: East Boston and Charlestown are further north than the North End. The West End is in the northern part of town (bordering the North End and Charles River). Among Boston's many neighborhoods, the historic areas of Back Bay , Beacon Hill , Chinatown , Downtown , Fenway-Kenmore , the Financial District , Government Center, the North End , and the South End comprise the area considered "Boston Proper." It is here where most of the buildings that make up the city's skyline are located. The Back Bay is one of the few neighborhoods with streets organized on a grid. It is so named because it used to be mud flats on the river, until the city filled in the bay in a land-making project ending in 1862. It is now one of the higher-rent neighborhoods in the city. The north-south streets crossing the axis of Back Bay are organized alphabetically. Starting from the east, at the Public Garden, and heading west, they are: Arlington, Berkeley, Clarendon, Dartmouth, Exeter, Fairfield, Gloucester (pronounced 'gloster'), and Hereford. After Hereford Street is Massachusetts Avenue, more commonly known as Mass. Ave., and then Charlesgate, which marks the western boundary of Back Bay. The alphabetical street names continue a little way into the Fenway neighborhood on the other side of Charlesgate, with Ipswich, Jersey, and Kilmarnock, but the streets are no longer arranged in a grid. There are also several "districts" you might hear mentioned. "Districts" are generally areas of common interest located within a larger neighborhood: Leather District (sub-neighborhood of Chinatown) SoWa District (south of Washington, South End) Theatre District (south of Chinatown) Waterfront District (South Boston) Ladder District (Realtor phrase for Downtown Crossing) We've grouped the largely unremarkable West End into Downtown; it's between Beacon Hill and the Charles River, and includes the high-rise neighborhood spanning from Charles/MGH to North Station. 4.2 Check Boston's 7 day forecast at NOAA New England is unpredictable and becomes very cold in the winter and is prone to mild bouts of humidity in the summer. The vast majority of tourism in Boston takes place in the summer, from late May through late September, when the weather is ideal and the most attractions are open. Boston summers are quite comfortable, with sunshine 60-65% of the time and and highs in the mid 70s to low 80s F (mid to upper 20s C). When the heat does start, there are some beaches within the city, and many beaches outside of it, for swimming. The Standells classic "Dirty Water" doesn't apply any more as the water is safe to swim in thanks to the Boston Harbor Cleanup project. Beware that no matter how hot it is outside, the ocean water will not be warm. Early and late summer tends to be nice, but this varies by year. In that time, the temperature will be perfect, and there will be no humidity. The city does have unpredictable stretches of heat between late June and early August when low 90s and high humidity are expected. All public transit options, including cabs, buses, and the subway system (called the "T") are air-conditioned. Boston's fall foliage is at or near its peak beauty in mid-October, which also normally offers the advantage of many crisp sunny day (outside the city itself, peak foliage timing depends on how far north or south you venture from Boston.) If you visit during the less busy wintertime, the Atlantic Ocean has a large moderating effect on temperatures. The average low in January is 22F/-5C, so as long as you dress appropriately, you should be fine. History[ edit ] Massachusetts' first governor, John Winthrop, famously called Boston a "shining city on the hill," a reference to Jerusalem and a declaration of the original settlers' intent to build a utopian Christian colony. From the very beginning, the people who lived there declared their home to be one of the most important cities in the world. Considering that the American Revolution and modern democracy got their start thanks to Bostonians, and that Winthrop’s quote is still used in modern political speech, one could argue that they were right! The father of American jurist Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. (Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes) once called the Boston statehouse "the hub of the solar system," but common usage has expanded to the now-current Hub of the Universe. This half-serious term is all you need to know to understand Boston's complicated self-image. Vastly important in American history, and for centuries the seat of the USA's social elite, Boston lost prominence in the early twentieth century, largely to the cities of New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Over the past two decades, Boston has regained political, cultural, and economic importance. Paul Revere House In 1629, English Reverend William Blackstone was the first English immigrant to arrive in the city. A year later, John Winthrop and the Massachusetts Bay Colony had followed. The Massachusetts Bay Colony were Puritan religious dissidents who had fled England to find freedom in the New World. At the time the city was called Shawmut, a name coined by Native American settlers, however now a new settlement, Winthrop had decided to rename the city Boston after his hometown in England. Because of its easily-defended harbor and the fact that it is the closest port to Europe it rapidly assumed a leading role in the fledging New England region, with a booming economy based on trade with the Caribbean and Europe. The devastating Fire of 1760 destroyed much of the town, but within a few years the city had bounced back. Boston was also a city of great intellectual potential. Many statesmen had emerged in Boston along with prestigious Schools such as Harvard and the first public school in America, Boston Latin. With the founding of these schools as well as the first printing press in New England, Boston was becoming more of a colonial society. Houses in the Back Bay Bostonians were the instigators of the independence movement in the 18th century and the city was the center of America's revolutionary activity during the Colonial period. Several of the first Revolutionary War skirmishes were fought there, including the Boston Massacre, The Boston Tea Party, and the battles of Lexington and Concord -which were fought nearby. Boston's direct involvement in the Revolution ended after the Battle of Bunker Hill and, soon afterwards, the ending of the Siege of Boston by George Washington. For some time afterwards the city's political leaders continued to have a leading role in developing of the new country's system of government. The residents' ardent support of independence earned the city the nickname The Cradle of Liberty. Throughout the 19th century, Boston continued to grow rapidly, assimilating outlying towns into the metropolitan core. Its importance in American culture was inestimable, and its economic and literary elite, the so-called Boston Brahmins assumed the mantle of aristocracy in the United States. Their patronage of the arts and progressive social ideals was unprecedented in the New World, and often conflicted with the city's Puritan foundations. They helped drive unprecedented scientific, educational and social change that would soon sweep the country. The Abolitionist movement, anesthesia and the telephone are a few examples of this. At the same time, the city's working class swelled with immigrants from Europe. The huge Irish influx made Boston one of the most important Irish cities in the world, in or out of Ireland. Gradually the Irish laborer population climbed into city's upper class, evidenced no better than by the continued importance of the Kennedy family in national politics. Copps Hill From the early twentieth century until the 1970s, Boston's importance on the national stage waned. Cities in what was once the frontier, like Chicago , San Francisco , and later Los Angeles , shifted the nation's center of gravity away from liberty's cradle. In the past two decades, Boston's importance and influence has increased, due to growth in higher education, health care, high technology, and financial services. It remains America's higher educational center; during the school year, one in five Bostonians are university students. There are more college students per square foot in Boston than any other city in the Western Hemisphere. Boston's nicknames include "Beantown", "The Hub" (shortened from Oliver Wendell Holmes' phrase 'The Hub of the Universe'), "The City of Higher Learning" (due to the plethora of universities and colleges in the Boston area) and - particularly in the 19th century - "The Athens of America," on account of its great cultural and intellectual influence. If you don't want to stand out as a tourist, don't refer to Boston by any of these nicknames. Locals generally don't use any of them, except the heavy use of "Hub" in journalism (Boston takes up more headline space). Visitor information[ edit ] The Greater Boston Convention & Visitors Bureau maintains two visitor centers: Boston Common Visitor Information Center, 148 Tremont St (at Winter; T: Park Street), ☎ +1 617 536-4100 (toll free: +1 888 733-2678, [email protected] ), [1] . M-Sa 8:30AM-5PM, Su 10AM-6PM. edit Shops at Prudential Visitor Information Center, 800 Boylston St (Center Court; T: Prudential or Back Bay), ☎ +1 617 536-4100 (toll free: +1 888 733-2678, [email protected] ), [2] . 9AM-5PM daily. edit The National Park Service also maintains two visitor centers as many of the historic sites in Boston are considered part of the Boston National Historical Park: Downtown Visitor Center, 15 State St (behind the Old State House between Devonshire and Washington; T: State Street), ☎ +1 617 242-5642, [3] . 9AM-5PM daily. edit Charlestown Navy Yard Visitor Center, Navy Yard Pier 1 (next to the USS Constitution), ☎ +1 617 242-5601, [4] . 9AM-5PM daily (until 6PM in July and August). edit Aeromexico , Aer Lingus , Air France , Alitalia , British Airways , Cathay Pacific , Copa Airlines , El Al , Emirates , Hainan Airlines , Iberia , Icelandair , Jetblue , Japan Airlines , Lufthansa , Norwegian Air Shuttle , Porter Airlines , Qatar Airways , SATA International , Southwest , Swiss , TACV , Turkish Airlines , Virgin Atlantic , WOW Air Boston Logan International Airport[ edit ] Boston Logan International Airport , +1 800-23-LOGAN (56426), ( IATA : BOS) is the main gateway to Boston and New England. It is in East Boston, 3 miles from downtown. Free buses operate to all terminals and connect the airport with the MBTA Blue Line Airport Station. Terminals A, B, and C are mainly domestic; Terminal E is international and Southwest/AirTran. There is no Terminal D. Public Airport Transportation The MBTA Blue Line Subway and the Silver Line Bus go to Logan. The Silver Line is a low-floor articulated bus that stops at each terminal every 10 to 15 minutes, from 6AM to 12:45AM every day (5:35AM start M-Sa). From the airport, the bus travels along the South Boston waterfront and terminates at South Station. Convenient transfers are available to the Red Line, south-side commuter rail trains, and southwesterly Amtrak trains. The Silver Line is free FROM Logan and allows free transfer to the Red Line at South Station. For inbound Red Line service with lots of luggage, you may want to use the elevator to the right as you exit the Silver Line bus. There is no escalator down. To get to/from the Blue Line Airport station from the airport itself, you need to take a free Massport shuttle (check the signs outside the terminals to see which ones to take). Tickets are $2.50: tickets can be purchased using the machines at the station. The last Blue Line train leaves Airport station shortly after about 12:30AM. To connect to the Red Line, use the Silver Line instead. Private Airport Transportation Taxis are more expensive than in many other cities. Fortunately, the airport is very near the city so the fare is not extremely expensive, if your driver is honest. It would be about $25 for fares to Boston, and less if you are staying downtown in the financial district. If you're not driving or being picked up, you'll need to take a taxi if you are at the airport when the T is not running. A number of travelers have reported taxi drivers taking longer routes on purpose, falsely claiming a $40 flat fare to downtown Boston (there are no flat fares from the airport -- insist on the meter), or falsely claiming the often more-direct Sumner Tunnel to be closed and taking the much longer Williams Tunnel route instead. You should research your route and inform your driver what route you want to go, or look up the traffic conditions on your smartphone if possible, to avoid being cheated. Note that a $7.50 origination surcharge from the airport is lawful and permissible (including tolls). Other shuttle services that go to the airport include: Airporter, Phone: +1 781-899-6161, toll free: +1 877-899-6161 [email protected] [5] . Between Logan and the suburbs, door to door. Airport Limos Axis Coach, LLC [www.axiscoachusa.com] is a great choice for travel to and from Logan airport or Manchester airport. They have reasonable rates from $79 one way. They are also a good choice for nights out and their knowledgeable chauffeurs also double as tour-guides. They show you the local flavor of Boston. If you're driving to Logan from the north, take the Callahan Tunnel; from the south or the west, take the Ted Williams Tunnel. Routes are well marked, and there is no toll in this direction. Driving from the airport to downtown Boston or to points north, including Interstate 93 northbound, take the Sumner Tunnel; for points south and west, including Interstate 93 southbound and Interstate 90, take the Ted Williams Tunnel. There is a $3.50 toll for either tunnel. Routes are well marked, but the airport road system is complex. Read the signs carefully and be sure you're in the correct lane, or you may be forced to swerve across several lanes of traffic to catch an unexpected off-ramp. Other Airports[ edit ] If your final destination is a point outside of Boston, you may be better off flying into Manchester-Boston Regional Airport ( IATA : MHT) [6] (50 miles north of Boston) or T.F. Green Airport ( IATA : PVD) [7] (60 miles south of Boston). Public transportation from these airports to Boston is infrequent, so if your final destination is Boston, renting a car is the best option. General Aviation traffic is mostly served by Hanscom Field ( ICAO : KBED) off Route 128/I-95 near Bedford , Lexington and Burlington , northwest of Boston. By train[ edit ] Amtrak, +1 800 872-7245, [8] , the national passenger rail service, serves Boston. Boston has three intercity rail stations, which serve both Amtrak and MBTA commuter rail trains. South Station [9] : Trains coming from west and south of Boston terminate here. Connections with the MBTA's Red Line and all branches of the Silver Line except the SL5. Back Bay: Many trains coming from west and south of Boston stop here and then continue to South Station. This station is convenient to the Back Bay neighborhood, and is served by the MBTA's Orange Line. North Station: Trains from north of Boston (Amtrak Downeaster) terminate here. This station is located underneath the TD Garden sports arena, and is served by the MBTA's Orange and Green Lines. The following Amtrak routes serve Boston: Acela Express runs daily high-speed service between Washington, D.C. , Baltimore , Philadelphia , New York , and Boston. Downeaster [10] runs daily from Brunswick, Maine to Boston. Note that this is the only Amtrak route to terminate at North Station. Lake Shore Limited runs daily from Chicago to Boston. The trip is about 21 hours, so bring a book! Northeast Regional runs daily from Virginia up to Boston. Follows roughly the same route at the Acela Express, but with more local stops. There is no direct train service between Canada and Boston. The Amtrak schedule is arranged such that transfers are impractical, especially going from Canada to Boston. You can do it if you're willing to stay overnight in New York City, Albany, Syracuse, or Rochester, but you'll pay for two trips. The local regional rail system is the MBTA Commuter Rail [11] . If you are coming from Providence , the Commuter Rail is cheaper ($10 versus betweem $15 and $40) and more frequent than Amtrak. Remember, the North-South rule applies to which station you use. Below is a list of routes and the stations they terminate at. Fairmount Line, Readville to South Station via Uphams Corner. Fitchburg Line, Fitchburg to North Station via Leominster, Shirley, Ayer, Littleton, Acton, Concord, Lincoln, Weston, Waltham, Belmont, and Cambridge. Framingham/Worcester Line, Worcester to South Station via Grafton, Westborough, Southborough, Ashland, Framingham, Natick, Wellesley, Newton, and Back Bay. Franklin Line, Franklin to South Station via Norfolk, Walpole, Norwood, Westwood, Dedham, Readville, Hyde Park, and Back Bay. Greenbush Line, Scituate to South Station via Cohasset, Hingham, Weymouth, and Quincy. Haverhill Line, Haverhill to North Station via Lawrence, Andover, Wilmington, Reading, Melrose, and Malden. Kingston/Plymouth Line, Kingston or Plymouth to South Station via Halifax, Hanson, Whitman, Abington, Weymouth, Braintree, and Quincy. Lowell Line, Lowell to North Station via Billerica, Wilmington, Woburn, Winchester, and Medford. Middleborough/Lakeville Line, Middleborough to South Station via Bridgewater, Brockton, Holbrook, Randolph, Braintree, and Quincy. Needham Line, Needham to South Station via West Roxbury, Forest Hills, Hyde Park, and Back Bay. Newburyport/Rockport Line, Newburyport or Rockport to North Station via Rowley, Gloucester, Ipswich, Manchester, Hamilton, Wenham, Beverly, Salem, Swampscott, Lynn, and Chelsea. Providence/Stoughton Line, North Kingstown (RI) or Stoughton to South Station via Warwick (RI), Providence (RI), Attleboro, Mansfield, Sharon, Canton, Westwood, Hyde Park, and Back Bay. Arriving by train has the advantage of putting you within easy reach of most downtown destinations by public transit. Remember, Boston is NOT a city for cars! By bus[ edit ] Most bus companies serve BOTH Logan Airport and the Boston South Station (which is also the Amtrak Station except the Downeaster Line @ 700 Atlantic Ave) [12] . Other companies may only serve one or the other or elsewhere in the city. Check the below links. Boston Deluxe, 175 Huntington Ave, ☎ +1 917-662-7552, [13] . Connecting Boston with New York and Hartford . edit C&J, ☎ +1 603 430-1100 (toll free: +1 800 258-7111), [14] . Goes to Tewksbury & Newbury in Massachusetts and Portsmouth, Dover, and Durnham in New Hampshire from Boston South Station & Logan Airport edit Concord Coach Lines, 7 Langdon St.; Concord, NH 03301, ☎ +1 603 228-3300 (toll free: 1-800-639-3317), [15] . Goes up to New Hampshire & Maine on multiple routes from Boston Logan Airport and South Station (700 Atlantic Ave) edit Fung Wah Bus Transportation, 700 Atlantic Ave (South Station Bus Terminal), ☎ +1 617-338-8308 ( [email protected] ), [16] . Connecting Boston with New York 's Chinatown (139 Canal St). edit WARNING: FUNG WAH BUS HAS SUSPENDED ALL BUS SERVICE UNTIL FURTHER NOTICE BY THE ORDER OF THE US DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION. PLEASE SEEK OTHER ALTERNATIVES. Greyhound Bus Lines, 700 Atlantic Ave (South Station Bus Terminal), ☎ +1 617-526-1800, [17] . edit LimoLiner, ☎ +1 309-502-6411, [18] . A luxury bus transportation offering professionals business services between New York City and Boston. edit Lucky Star Bus, 700 Atlantic Ave (South Station Bus Terminal), ☎ +1 617-734-1268, [19] . Between Boston's South Station and New York's Chinatown. edit Peter Pan Bus Lines, 700 Atlantic Ave (South Station Bus Terminal), ☎ +1 800-343-9999, [20] . edit Plymoth & Brockton, 8 Industrial Park Rd; Plymouth, MA 02360-4828, ☎ +1 508 746-0378, [21] . goes around the Cape Code to Rockland, Plymouth, Sygamore, Barnstable, & Hyannis from Boston South Station, Park Square (Stuarte & Chales), & Logan Airport. edit megabus.com, 700 Atlantic Ave (South Station Bus Terminal), ☎ +1 877 462-6342, [22] . Connecting Boston with New York City , Philadelphia , Baltimore , Burlington VT , Hartford , New Haven and Washington, D.C. Double Deck Coaches with WiFi, Restrooms, Power Outlets and seats starting at $1 edit BoltBus, 700 Atlantic Ave (South Station Bus Terminal), [23] . Connecting Boston with New York City, Newark, and Philadelphia. Buses also have free Wi-Fi and power outlets at every seat. fares start at $1 when reserved far in advance. edit World Wide Bus, 11 Cambridgepark West, Cambridge (Alewife Station), [24] . Connecting Cambridge (Alewife Station) and Newton (Riverside Station) with New York City edit Yo! Bus, 700 Atlantic Ave (South Station Bus Terminal), [25] . Runs buses from Boston South Station to New York City. Buses also have free Wi-Fi and power outlets at every seat. Fares start at $12.. edit Greyhound and Peter Pan Bus serve many cities from South Station but are generally much more expensive than the so-called Chinatown buses, with Greyhound and PPB averaging $30 to the Port Authority bus terminal in midtown Manhattan (New York City). However, eSaver fares available online make the Greyhound fare between Boston & NYC as low as $15 each way. The Chinatown buses, along with low-fare competitors Megabus and BoltBus, specialize exclusively in nonstop express service between Boston's South Station and various points in NYC from Chinatown to midtown Manhattan. Some Chinatown buses average $12.50 one way. BoltBus and Megabus also include free WiFi aboard most buses to New York City. By car[ edit ] If you are driving in, you may seriously want to consider dropping your car at a lot and taking the "T" in. If you're heading downtown for the touristy sites, you will consider having a car a curse rather than a blessing. Parking at MBTA commuter rail and terminal subway locations is usually cheaper than parking in the city. In particular, the Riverside (Grove Street) stop at the end of the Green D line is right off I-95, and is $6 to park ALL DAY. Commuter rail stations are even cheaper. See the Public Transit section in the "Get around" section below. Boston has two major highways entering it, I-93 and I-90 (the Massachusetts Turnpike, or "Mass Pike", or "Pike"; locals do not usually call it "I-90", though they will know what you are refering to). I-93 enters the city from the north and the south; the section running from Boston southward is referred to as the "Southeast Expressway" but the northern section is just "93 North." The Pike enters Boston from the west. The Mass Pike is a toll road - expect to pay $1.25 to enter the city via the Pike, in addition to the tolls charged when arriving at the I-90 / I-95 interchange in Weston, just outside the city (variable based on distance travelled, max price is $3.85 if you drive all the way from the automatic ticket machines near the New York border). Also, if you enter The Pike in East Boston (at Logan Airport) the toll is $3.50. There are minor roads, of course, that enter Boston as well, including Route 9 (Old Worcester Turnpike), Route 2, and US 1. Another major highway, I-95 (also known as Route 128) encircles the Boston area. There are many car rental places around Boston, including Zipcar, an hourly car rental service. If you don't plan to do much driving, this may be an economical alternative to owning a car. If you want to use Zipcar, you should try signing up in advance (students of universities in Boston may be able to get a discount). Rental fees and taxes differ between Boston and Cambridge, but the rental agencies at Logan Airport (in East Boston) are still usually less expensive and have a greater fleet of cars available. In addition to the Massachusetts Turnpike (I-90), the Sumner Tunnel is a toll road (coming from the airport only), along with the Ted Williams Tunnel (from airport only), and the Tobin Bridge (southbound/from the North Shore only). If driving on a major highway during rush hour, do not be surprised to see cars driving in the breakdown lane on the shoulder. This is permitted in certain areas, at certain times, as indicated by signs along the road. As a general rule, especially as a tourist unfamiliar with the city, alternatives are favored over driving - even when just getting in or out of the city. Boston is one of the densest major cities in the U.S. - perfect for walking, biking, or using the collection of mass transit systems known as the T. Driving can be confusing and dangerous with numerous one way streets, narrow roads, and continuous road construction. Driving conditions have improved after the completion of the infamous Big Dig (responsible for routing I-93 under the city), but it is still not recommended to those unfamiliar with the area. By boat[ edit ] Black Falcon Cruise Terminal, One Black Falcon Ave, Phone: +1 617-330-1500 [26] . The port of Boston ia a popular port of call with over 100 cruise-ship calls annually and also serves as home port for several cruise ships . The MBTA Silver Line SL2 bus service stops at the “Dry Dock Avenue” bus stop, one block from the Black Falcon Cruise Terminal, renovated in 2010 and located across from the Design Center. Get around[ edit ] Navigating the streets of Boston is difficult if you are not familiar with the area. While other American cities have their streets laid out in a grid ( New York , Chicago , Indianapolis , Philadelphia , Phoenix ), or along a river, lake, or other geographical feature ( New Orleans , Cleveland ), the modern streets of Boston are a twisty and seemingly incomprehensible maze. Boston in the 1600s was a narrow peninsula surrounded by farmland and distant settlements. Landfill, urban expansion, waves of radical economic change, and new technologies have seen sensible street patterns added on to and collide in less sensible ways. Due to dense development, the older street patterns have largely remained in place without being adapted to their modern surroundings. In this way, Boston is more similar to old European cities than most typical large American cities that were geometrically planned, expanded into unsettled land, or were mainly settled in the late 20th century. Driving[ edit ] Driving is to be avoided if possible, due to traffic congestion, poor parking options, high driving-associated costs, the complexity of navigation, notoriously aggressive drivers, difficult-to-follow city rules and signage, and police that will gladly write you a ticket for even the most minor traffic violations. As an alternative (in fair weather), walking is usually preferable in terms of ease, cost, and comfort. Boston is known as an excellent walking city, since it is clean, historic, and generally-safe. It also has excellent public transportation [28] available in the metropolitan area and suburbs, to complement foot travel. Most tourist attractions are readily accessible by foot from the "subway" (the inter-connected, color-coded subway/trolley and hybrid-electric bus lines of the MBTA). Transfers between lines at connecting stations within the "subway" system are free. Bay Village Boston Signage is generally poor, and the names of major streets are usually unmarked when crossing minor streets. There are many one-way streets, which may be difficult to identify when turning. Street names are duplicated in different neighborhoods (due to municipal consolidations in the 1800s and early 1900s). Even Bostonians who lived there all their life can easily get lost. Navigating from "square" to "square" (major intersections but rarely actually square or really any consistent shape) is one navigational technique. Some parts of the city are difficult to reach from other nearby parts, prompting the local expression, "Ya cain't get theyah from hee-ah!" ("You can't get there from here!") Avoid driving at morning or evening rush hour; highways and streets can become quite congested. Peak times vary, depending on relative distance from downtown. Public transit also becomes very crowded during rush hour, and just before and after major sporting events and public celebrations. Baseball games, other major sporting events, and graduations may also cause significant driving congestion. Walkable Boston If you do choose to drive, be prepared to avoid double-parked vehicles or poorly parked vehicles blocking lanes, and be wary of lanes which may suddenly become parking lanes or shift or disappear entirely as you cross intersections. "Left lane must turn" and other traffic directions are often written only on the road itself and therefore may be routinely blocked from sight by other vehicles in heavy traffic, thus last-second lane changes are unavoidable without foreknowledge of the roads. Such changes may be the cause of anger or disputes, so it may be good to wave or request a lane change politely. When changing lanes, be wary of pedestrians and cyclists, as well as other drivers, since they may cross, split lanes, or even run lights unexpectedly. Massachusetts law requires vehicles to yield to pedestrians, whether or not they're crossing legally. Bicycles are treated as vehicles, and may occupy an entire lane if there is no bike lane. As in any city, be prepared to stop when following a taxi driver, and look for pedestrians to anticipate taxi behavior: taxis will not only stop at fares but also stop at nothing to get to them first. When stopping yourself, use your hazards to clearly indicate that you are stopping as a courtesy to other drivers, many of whom are young students and may be inexperienced with city driving themselves. In terms of the law: if you encounter a rotary, remember that Massachusetts state law gives the right of way to traffic in a rotary, also known as a roundabout in other parts in the world. Irish Famine Memorial Do not pass stopped trolleys on the right; do not try to squeeze past a bus without changing lanes entirely to avoid sharing their lane (you should not pass any vehicle while sharing a lane and buses have large blind spots); and be wary that the law may require you to come to a complete stop and wait for the pedestrian to finish crossing entirely. Be careful also not to pass a yellow school bus with red flashing lights as passing before or after may still draw you a citation (this rule may be ignored, even by police, if due caution is observed by the driver, but those who ignore it may still draw a serious citation). Finally, since you may cross train tracks in Boston, be aware that they may be particularly slippery and icy, possibly dragging you off course as you cross them if you do not grip the steering wheel firmly. The only toll road in the area is the Massachusetts Turnpike (Interstate 90), with various prices depending on entrance and exit points. Other tolls include the Ted Williams and Sumner Tunnels, each of which charges $3.50 when coming back from Logan Airport into downtown. The Tobin Bridge on Route 1 headed southbound toward downtown charges $3. Have cash on hand for these roads as checks and credit card are not accepted there. FastLane and E-Z Pass are also accepted. Parking[ edit ] Parking can be expensive, up to $40/day downtown on a weekday, though $20 and $7 deals can be found if you are willing to walk. Most cheap or free street parking is permitted as resident only and requires a special sticker, or is metered and has a 2-hour time limit. Parallel parking is a necessary skill for street parking. Believe it or not, you can park in a space that is only a few inches larger than your car, if you don't mind scrapes on your bumpers and take advantages of the bounciness of cars' suspensions. Garages are located at Quincy Market, the Aquarium, the new State Street Financial Center, the Theater District and the Boston Common . There are three levels of parking under the Common. The garage is very clean and its central location makes it a good starting point for a day trip in the city. To get in and out of the garage, there are four pavilions on the Common; each has stairs and an elevator. Once out of the garage, the Park Street and Boylston Street subway stops are only a two or three minute walk away. As a rule, if you think you may be illegally parked, you probably are. Read the street signs very carefully. Watch for street cleaning, resident-only parking zones, and commercial parking zones - all of which will vary depending on the day and time. Parking meters are enforced heavily throughout the city. Meters in different parts of the city will turn off at different times (ie. 8PM downtown or 6PM in many other neighborhoods). A broken meter entitles you to the posted time limit without having to pay. Public transit[ edit ] The rapid transit lines of the MBTA system. (Bus, commuter rail, and boat not shown.) Public transit in Boston is convenient and relatively inexpensive, and can take you directly to almost everything. A single public transit agency serves the Boston Metro area, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority ("MBTA", or "the T" for short). The MBTA is the fourth-largest transit system in the U.S. For complete schedules, maps, and other information, see their official website at [29] . It is important to note that "Inbound" means toward Park Street or State and "Outbound" means away from Park Street or State. After decades of using tokens for fare payment, the entire MBTA system was converted in 2007 to an electronic CharlieCard and CharlieTicket system. Dispensing machines at all stations accept cash (max. 20 dollars bills), credit cards, and debit cards (but not foreign credit/debit cards). If you go straight to a dispensing machine, you'll get a paper CharlieTicket with magnetic stripe. If you have time, first ask an attendant at any underground station for a plastic CharlieCard, which is a contactless "smart card". The Card is free and will give you a discount on all subway and bus fares, and it's the only way to get free transfers to and from buses. If you think you'll be boarding the T many times you may wish to purchase a day or week LinkPass (Sold at standard machines for $12.00 and $19.00, respectively). Note that these do not allow rapid repeated use at the same station, for a group, for instance. In general, a CharlieCard should be considered a must for its convenience (you can leave it in your wallet), decreased fares, and free or discounted transfers. Most passes can be loaded onto a CharlieCard. [30] Bicycles are sometimes welcome on the MBTA. Bikes are allowed on the Blue, Red, and Orange subway lines except at peak hours, but are not allowed on the Green and Silver lines. Bikes are always allowed on MBTA buses that are equipped with bike racks. The MBTA is currently installing bike racks on many bus routes - check the MBTA website for the latest updates. Bikes are allowed on MBTA boats and ferries at any time. On commuter rail trains, they are allowed anytime except weekday rush hours, as noted on individual train line schedules. The T consists of several components: subway, bus, water shuttles, and commuter rail. Full-color system maps are available at major stations; you may need to ask an agent if you would like one. They are extremely useful for locals and travelers getting a bit off the beaten track, because they show all bus, rapid transit, commuter rail, and boat lines. Most of the T maps you will see only show the rapid transit lines, which are identified by color. If you have a color printer, you can even make one yourself by printing the PDF version online. (Front [31] , back [32] .) Subway (or "the T")[ edit ] The subway is composed of four color-coded rail lines, the Red Line, Orange Line, Green Line, and Blue Line. Short of particular non-touristy spots in the suburbs, the subway can get you anywhere. Transit buffs take note: the Boston Subway is the oldest in America; the first segment opened on what is now the Green Line between Park Street and Boylston Street. This segment opened on September 1st, 1897. Photography of the MBTA is allowed now, until recently a photo permit was required. However there is the occasional employee who still did not get the memo. The Green Line splits into four branches going west that are known as the B, C, D and E lines (from north to south). Going west on the Green Line, the E line branches off at Copley Square station while the other three split at Kenmore Square station. Just after the lines split, these lines all run above ground and become "streetcar" lines. The B branch is a service to Boston College via Commonwealth Avenue (locally referred to and sometimes marked as Comm Ave). It services Boston College and Boston University along with the neighborhoods of Allston and Brighton. Many of the stops are dangerously close to the road; some are just painted yellow lines in the middle of Comm Ave and the right of way. Its long distance and frequent grade crossings cause dispatchers to express trains frequently. Make sure to press the stop tape to request a stop as many drivers won't automatically stop unless they are requested past Boston University or even past Kenmore. The C branch is a service to Cleveland Circle via Beacon Street. This line is primarily in Brookline, MA. Its right-of-way is mainly surrounded by local businesses and residential structures. It should be noted a few reasonable accommodations can be found along this line which may be an alternative to expensive downtown hotels. The D branch is a service to Riverside Station, an inter-model station in Newton, MA, via the Highland Branch, a former Boston and Albany railroad right-of-way from the 1800s that was converted in 1959. The right of way is completely grade-separated (meaning it does not intersect or run along streets), which makes transportation faster with stops being farther apart. The E branch is a service to VA Medical Center and Heath Street, via Huntington Avenue. This line services The Prudential Center and Boston's Symphony Hall. Many universities exist along this right of way along with research centers and the world famous Longwood Medical Area, which is a commercial and education complex offering some of the most advanced health care in the world. The Museum of Fine Arts Boston is accessible via the Museum of Fine Arts stop, which is sometimes announced as MFA or Museum on the trolley. The last few miles of the E branch run directly in the street so be mindful of traffic when boarding and leaving the trollies. The letters are not assigned to coincide with any particular reference to the route of the branch. It is labeled A-E (A since disbanded, now the 57 bus) from north to south. The Cleveland Circle (C), Reservoir (D), and Chestnut Hill Ave (B) stops are all within walking distance and provide a convenient spot to switch between the lines; however, a second fare is required. The Red Line splits in two directions going south that are known as the Braintree and Ashmont branches, the latter of which connects to a streetcar line to Mattapan. Going south, the Red Line splits at JFK/UMass station. The Orange Line, the eldest of the heavy rail rapid transit lines in Boston, is service from Malden, MA to Jamaica Plain. It services the City of Malden, Charlestown, Bunker Hill Community College, North Station, the Haymarket area, the Financial District, Downtown Crossing, New England Medical Center, Roxbury, and Jamaica Plain. This line has seen the most changes over the years as it once was the "el" over Washington Street and into Charlestown so if you have not been in town for 30-40 years you will notice dramatic changes in the route. The Blue Line, named as such because it crosses under the Boston Harbor and goes to Revere Beach, is a mostly a former narrow gauge railroad line converted to rapid transit. It services East Boston, the Airport, and Revere, with the Revere Beach stop a block from the beach. While the MBTA refers to the Silver Line as a rapid transit line (BRT or Bus Rapid Transit) route (it appears on subway maps), most Bostonians consider it part of the bus system. The Silver Line Waterfront is in fact a great way to get to the Seaport District or the Airport with a free transfer from South Station. The Dudley branch can be ignored for tourism purposes. When Bostonians say that they use the T, they're almost always referring to the subway, though the other modes of mass transit (bus, commuter rail, etc.) are still technically part of the T. The subway system is slightly confusing in that directions are often marked "inbound" and "outbound", rather than with a destination. "Inbound" means "into the center of Boston", where all four lines converge at four stops: State (Blue and Orange), Park Street (Red and Green), Government Center (Blue and Green), and Downtown Crossing (Orange and Red). "Outbound" means "away from the center of Boston". Once one is in the center, signs generally give the direction ("eastbound") or the last stop on the line in that direction ("Alewife"). All trains are signed with the last stop in the direction they are headed, and this is the best way to know if you are going in the right direction. Note that most Green Line trains do not go all the way to the end of the line at Lechmere; most turn around either at North Station or Government Center. If you are traveling farther than Government Center, your best bet is to get on the first train that comes, and then wait at the stop where you are forced to leave the train for the next Lechmere or North Station train. (Depending where you are, Lechmere trains might not stop there.) Only trains coming from the E Branch will proceed to Lechmere, unless otherwise noted. Subway and light rail service generally does not run between 12 AM and 5AM. (The same goes for the commuter rail lines - usually midnight or before.) Each line (Green, Blue, etc.) has a "last train" time, starting at one end of the line and going to the other. Check the schedule in advance if you are going to be out late. Sometimes the last train is delayed due to passenger load or the need to wait for the last connection from another line, so you might get lucky if you are running late. Check with a T employee near the fare gates to see if you've missed the last train or not. A general rule of thumb is to be in the station by midnight to safely catch the last train. A consequence of this is that taxis can be extremely difficult to hail after 2AM when most of the bars close, especially in touristy areas such as Fanueil. Note: the MBTA extended its hours to 2:30 on Friday and Saturday nights on a trial basis as of March 2014. As of 2015, this trial period has ended, and last trains depart at Midnight every day of the week (however some trains may still be caught 15 minutes or so after Midnight). See the MBTA site for details. Unlimited-ride subway and bus passes are available from the T. If you're going to be riding a lot around town, these are worth investigating. See the link [33] for complete fare information on passes. Buy a 1 day LinkPass for $12 or a 7 day LinkPass for $21.25. The 7-Day LinkPass is valid for 7 days from the date and time of purchase. The LinkPass gives you unlimited travel on Subway, Local Bus, Inner Harbor Ferry, and Commuter Rail Zone 1A. (Note that Commuter Rail and boats do not accept CharlieCards, so you must use a CharlieTicket for these services.) The cost of a one-way ride on the MBTA Subway is $2.00 plus FREE subway and local bus transfers (if done on a CharlieCard), or $2.50 if done on a Charlie Ticket or paying by cash. This will get you to most destinations. Parking at the Alewife station on the Red line is ample but will cost you $7 no matter when you come and go (for each 24 hour period). Riverside Station just off I-95 has plentiful parking for $5.75 all day. Additional suburban parking is available in Quincy, Braintree, and many Commuter Rail stops. By bus[ edit ] Regular bus service (the vast majority of buses) is usually slower than rapid transit, but is also cheaper and may take you closer to your final destination. Express buses are faster, more expensive, and travel longer distances. CharlieCard users get free transfers and pay $1.50 for regular bus, $3.50 for Inner Express, and $5 for Outer Express (check the schedule to know which line is which). Charlie Ticket or cash customers pay $2.00 for regular bus, $4.50 for Inner Express, and $6.50 for Outer Express, with no free transfers. Note that the Silver Line bus rapid transit line is split into discontinuous segments. Routes SL1 and SL2, departing from South Station, are considered part of the subway system (though their vehicles are dual-mode electric/diesel buses) and have free underground transfers to the Red Line. Routes SL4 and SL5 are considered part of the bus system, and have the lower local bus fare fare. Although Route SL4 also stops at South Station, it stops outside the station complex, and transfers between SL4 and the other Silver Line routes or the Red Line are only free with a CharlieCard. Water shuttle[ edit ] The MBTA runs a number of water shuttles [34] , but the most useful for tourists is the shuttle from Long Wharf to Navy Yard [35] , which costs $3.00. This provides a convenient connection between the USS Constitution Museum and the area around Faneuil Hall and the New England Aquarium. There's also a shuttle from Long Wharf to Logan Airport, but it runs relatively infrequently, so the Blue Line is your best bet for getting between these two destinations. There are also non-MBTA public ferries available from several ports, notably the Aquarium and Long Wharf, and a water taxi service on the waterfront. Commuter rail[ edit ] Commuter rail [36] in Boston is primarily used for traveling to towns outside of the city. Due to its limited frequency compared to the subway, it is not generally recommended for travel within the city itself. An exception is travel between Back Bay Station and South Station, which is served by 5 commuter rail branches on weekdays and is free one way. Commuter rail fares range from $2.10-$11.50 one way, although any ticket to or from the city is at least $4.25. Tickets can be bought on board trains, but at a slight surcharge. Passengers can ride for free from Back Bay to South Station, but must buy a ticket for $1.70 to travel from South Station to Back Bay. Trains heading north of the city leave from North Station, while those heading south or west leave from South Station. Both stations have connections to the subway: North Station is on the Green and Orange Lines, and South Station is on the Red and Silver Lines. The two stations are not directly connected: you cannot board a train north of the city and take it to a point south of the city. Such a journey will require a subway ride in-between train trips to make the connection. Taxi[ edit ] Your current alternative to late-night public transit is a taxi. Taxis can be hailed at any significant street corner, such as Kenmore Square or Copley Square. Expect to spend at least $5 and possibly up to $30 in the immediate surroundings (this includes the initial fare, a small tip for the driver, small one-way streets, bad traffic, construction, tolls for bridges, tolls for tunnels, tolls for the Mass Pike, and any wait time). To get further out of Boston, expect to spend much more (for example, from the airport to Wellesley , a Boston suburb, would be around $80, which includes the actual driving and tolls along the way). Fun fact, as of summer 2009, Boston has the most expensive taxis of any major American city. On foot[ edit ] Boston's downtown core is compact and easily walkable. Most tourist attractions can be visited on foot, although some neighborhoods require rail and/or bus connections. Take note that while jaywalking is technically illegal, the fine is $1 and tickets haven't been issued for decades. However, if you cross against signals just remember to watch out for stray bikes, cars, and some unusual traffic patterns you won't be used to. The climate is cold from December to April, and the city is the windiest in America. Snow can also be an obstacle. If it's late at night, or you feel you cannot deal with the cost of a taxi or the wait involved with the MBTA, then Boston is a relatively small, relatively safe city and walking is an option. Just remember to use the same sense you would in any other city. If you want to explore Boston by foot, you can find many 2 miles self guided and free treks on Urban Trekking Boston , complete with photos and maps to use on your phone, or to print beforehand By bicycle[ edit ] Many Boston residents use bicycling as their primary mode of transit all year round, and Boston's small size and relative flatness make biking an appealing way to get around. Boston lacks many amenities for bicyclists, however, as the roads are covered with potholes and frequently absent of designated bicycle lanes or bicycle racks, so visitors wishing to travel by bicycle should have excellent urban riding skills prior to renting a bicycle. Cambridge tends to have more bicycle lanes and racks, though many streets still lack them. Riding on the sidewalk is frowned upon in the city of Cambridge and Boston, and being well-lit in the evenings is important both for following regulations and for being safe. Recent efforts by Mayor Thomas Menino promise increased city investment in bicycling as a viable mode of transportation, and the mayor himself has taken up biking around town. Biking in Boston A central transit for bikers in Boston is the Southwest Corridor Bike Path, a major park/bike way placed along a route once slated for a major freeway system. This runs parallel to the T's Orange Line and connects Forest Hills to the Back Bay. This is an excellent means of transit if you intend on staying in Jamaica Plain. On July 28, 2011, Boston launched New Balance Hubway a bike sharing system that now has 140 stations and 1300 bicycles. The cost is $6/day, $12/3 day pass, and $85 for a yearly membership. For this fare, you can make unlimited use of bikes during the period, while sticking to a maximum of 30 minutes per trip. So you take a bike and park it somewhere (else) within 30 minutes. Repeat this procedure as often as you want! 1 Hour of continuous use costs $2 extra per time of use. Boston Bicycle (Cambridge Bicycle), 259 Mass, Ave., Cambridge MA, ☎ +1 617-236-0752, [37] . $30/day. edit Urban AdvenTours, 103 Atlantic Ave, ☎ +1 617-670-0637, [38] . Offers guided bicycle tours for various skill levels. Also provides bike rentals and bike deliveries. $35/day. edit Hubway, ☎ +1 855-448-2929, [39] . Offers use of bikes from 130 kiosks around the city. edit See[ edit ][ add listing ] There are several visitor pass programs that offer discounted or free admission to a number of the sites listed below, among them the Go Boston Card [40] and the Boston CityPASS [41] . Depending on the length of your stay and what you want to see, either program could potentially save you quite a bit of money. Museums[ edit ] Boston Museum of Fine Arts Boston Children's Museum, 300 Congress St, 10AM-5PM daily (F until 9PM), +1 617-426-7336 [42] . $12, Ages 2-15 $12, Age 1 free. Boston Athenæum, 10½ Beacon Street, Mon-Thur 9AM-8PM , Fri 9AM-5:30PM, Sat 9AM-4PM, Sun 12PM-4PM, +1 617-720-0270 [43] . The first floor is FREE and open to the public. Admission to the gallery is a suggested $5 donation. Admittance to the remaining floors is limited to members. Free and open to the public docent-led tours are held each Tuesday and Thursday at 3pm. Advance registration is required. The Boston Athenæum is a private membership Library, museum, and civic forum. Membership is open to all who apply. Museum of Fine Arts, 465 Huntington Ave. (Museum of Fine Arts station, Green Line, E Train), +1 617 267-9300, [44] . ($25, Free for ages 7-17 after 3PM weekdays, all weekend, and public school holidays; otherwise admission for youths is $10). Boston's largest and most comprehensive art museum, and also one of the pricier museums in the US. Currently undergoing an expansion project, it is also known for its impressive assortment of French Impressionist paintings, with the largest collection of Monet paintings outside of Paris; it also has the largest collection of Japanese art outside of Japan (there is also a branch of the museum in Nagoya, Japan), an extraordinary collection of Egyptian, ancient Greek, and Roman art, one of the most comprehensive collections of American art, and one of the largest and finest print collections in the United States. This Museum may be one of the best art museums in the entire country. If you’re visiting Boston and looking for a great place to bring the family the Museum of Fine Arts is a great place to go. The museum is full of great paintings and artifacts. Some of the more popular exhibits include the Egyptian exhibit that is home to multiple mummies, beautiful tombs and coffins. The paintings in the Museum are also very impressive and many of any the paintings portray famous historical American heroes like George Washington, Samuel Adams, Paul Revere and much more. The Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments, 1 Oxford St., Cambridge , +1 617-495-2779, [45] . T stop: Red Line to "Harvard Square". M-R 11AM-4PM, F 11AM-3PM. Free and open to the public (despite at least one Web page that can be misread to indicate that it is by appointment only). Closed on University Holidays. Has over 20,000 objects dating from 1400 to present day. Harvard Art Museum, 32 Quincy St, Cambridge, (Harvard Square Station, Red Line), +1 617-495-9400. T-Sa 10AM-5PM. $9, $6 students. Harvard Museum of Natural History, 26 Oxford St, Cambridge, +1 617-495-3045 [46] . T stop: Red Line to "Harvard Square". 9AM-5PM daily. As of Sept. 1, 2012: $12, students $10. Its amazing "Glass Flowers" collection has been a major tourist attraction for nearly 100 years. Institute of Contemporary Art, 100 Northern Ave (Courthouse Station, Silver Line), +1 617 478-3100 [47] . The much-anticipated new building designed by starchitects Diller+Scofidio, the ICA is on Fan Pier on the South Boston Waterfront. Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, 280 The Fenway (MFA Station, Green E Line), +1 617-566-1401 [48] . Tu-Su 11AM-5PM. The villa-turned-museum of an eccentric Bostonian, the Gardner features an eclectic collection of European objects, beautiful floral displays, and was the site of a spectacular painting heist in 1990. $15, Students $5, Free on your birthday or if you're named "Isabella". MIT Museum, 265 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, (Red Line to either "Central Square Station" or "Kendall Square/MIT"), +1 617-253-5927 [49] 10AM-5PM, closed major holidays. The MIT Museum is a place that explores invention, ideas, and innovation. Home to renowned collections in science and technology, holography, architecture and design, nautical engineering and history, the Museum features changing and ongoing exhibitions, unique hands-on activities, and engaging public programs. Jellyfish, New England Aquarium Museum of Science, Science Park (Science Park Station, Lechmere-bound Green Line trains). +1 617-723-2500 [50] . 9AM-5PM daily (Summer until 7PM). $21 plus a la carte menu of attractions. New England Aquarium, Central Wharf (Blue Line to Aquarium), +1 617-973-5200 [51] . M-F 9AM-5PM, Sa Su 9AM-6PM. Home of what was until recently the world's largest fish tank, according to the Guinness Book of World Records. Great fun for kids of all ages. Whale watching tours available, too. $20.95, Students $18.95, Senior 60+ $18.95, Ages 3-11 $12.95. Mapparium, 175 Huntington Ave (Green Line to the Prudential, Symphony, or Hynes/ICA stop), +1 888-222-3711 [52] . The Mary Baker Eddy Library at the world headquarters of the Christian Science Church houses a three story globe room where visitors can view a stained-glass map of the world from inside the center. Tu-Su 10AM-4PM. The $6 admission covers most of the museum and library. Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge (Red Line to "Harvard Square"), +1 617-496-1027 [53] . Daily 9AM-5PM. One of the oldest museums in the world devoted to anthropology and houses one of the most comprehensive records of human cultural history in the Western Hemisphere. Semitic Museum, 6 Divinity Ave, Cambridge (T stop: Red Line to "Harvard Square"), +1 617-495-4631 [54] . M-F 10AM-4PM, Su 1PM-4PM. See a collection of over 40,000 artifacts from the Near East across multiple ancient civilizations. USS Constitution Museum, Charlestown Navy Yard, +1 617-426-1812 [55] . Apr-Oct Tu-Su 10AM-6PM, Nov-Mar Th-Su 10AM-3:50PM. Tour famous Old Ironsides, enjoy all-ages hands-on exhibits on sailing skills and crafts. Freewill donation. Warren Anatomical Museum, 10 Shattuck St, (T stop: "Brigham Circle" on Green E line), +1 617-432-6196, [56] See an extensive collection of distinct and pathological examples in anatomy including the actual skull of Phineas Gage. M-F 9AM-5PM, except Harvard University holidays. Galleries[ edit ] Panopticon Gallery, Inside the Hotel Commonwealth 502c Commonwealth Ave, (T stop: Green Line to "Kenmore Square"), +1 617-267-8929 [57] . M-F 10AM-6PM, Sa 11 AM-5PM. Founded in 1971, Panopticon Gallery is one of the oldest galleries in the United States dedicated solely to photography. The gallery specializes in 20th Century American Photography and emerging contemporary photography. Axelle Fine Arts Galerie, 91 Newbury St, (T stop: Green Line to "Arlington St."), +1 617-450-0700 [58] . Everyday 10AM-6PM. First established in Soho, New York, it offers the best selection of contemporary European painters to its clients. Axelle Fine Arts Galerie has an ever-evolving selection of new, museum-quality paintings and is the exclusive representative of artists such as Patrick Pietropoli, Goxwa, Albert Hadjiganev, Jivko, Philippe Jacquet, Fabienne Delacroix, André Bourrié, Jean-Daniel Bouvard, Laurent Dauptain, Philippe Vasseur, Michel Delacroix, Brian Stephens and Hollis Dunlap. Events[ edit ] March: St. Patrick's Day, [59] . March 17th is not celebrated officially as St. Patrick's Day, but rather as Evacuation Day, a local holiday marking the expulsion of British troops from the city on 17 March 1776. But Boston has one of the highest Irish populations outside of Ireland, and Irish pride reigns on this day. Don't forget to wear green, drink a beer, and buy something that says "Kiss Me I'm Irish!" (regardless of your ethnicity). If possible, catch the local band Dropkick Murphys (you know, the people behind "Shipping Up To Boston") at their infamous St. Patrick's Day show. Third Monday in April: Patriot's Day/Boston Marathon [60] . The oldest marathon in the world, the race started in 1897 and is always run on the holiday that commemorates Paul Revere's ride in 1775 and the ensuing battles at Lexington and Concord (suburbs of Boston) that started the Revolution. The race runs from Hopkinton to the finish line in Copley Square. The halfway point is the wealthy suburb of Wellesley , where students from Wellesley College (America's leading institute for all-women's education) form the "Scream Tunnel" to cheer on runners (who are in turn encouraged to "Kiss a Wellesley Girl for good luck!"). Parts of Commonwealth Avenue outbound from there and surrounding streets are closed for the race. Elsewhere, Paul Revere's ride and the battles are re-enacted each year in front of thousands of people. Arrive early to get a good spot. Finally, the Red Sox always have a home game on this date, which starts at 11AM to accommodate the crowds who watch the Marathon as it goes by Fenway Park. This is the only Major League baseball game that starts before noon local time during the season. Other than St. Patrick's/Evacuation Day this is the only time that you will find huge crowds at bars early in the morning. June: Boston Pride [61] The second-largest event in the city after the Fourth of July. Boston's LBGT community - and everyone else - comes out for a fabulous parade from Copley Square, through the South End, to Boston Common. Many other social events are scheduled around this weekend. The Fourth of July: Independence Day [62] . A host of events occur throughout the day that culminate with the Boston Pops concert on the Esplanade along the Charles river - the oldest and largest public celebration of the Fourth in the country. The concerts were started in 1929 by conductor Arthur Fiedler and were enhanced with fireworks by philanthropist David Mugar during the bicentennial celebrations in 1976. Sometimes sparsely attended in the beginning, it is televised nationally and has become the country's premier 4th of July event with hundreds of thousands squeezing along both sides of the Charles each year. This event also holds the world record for the largest crowd to ever attend a classical concert. Seats closest to the stage go to folks who show up before dawn to wait in line but there are speakers and huge TV screens posted all along the river so everybody can see the show. Parts of Storrow Drive in Boston, Memorial Drive in Cambridge, and Massachusetts Avenue on and near the Mass. Ave. bridge are closed due to extremely heavy pedestrian traffic. Note that the roads and public transit are heavily congested after the fireworks display. There are other celebrations during the day, starting with a flag-raising ceremony at City hall at 9AM. This is followed by a parade to the Granary Burial Ground which is led by the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company, Boston's militia, which is the 3rd-oldest military unit in the world. Honors are given at the graves of each of the signers of the Declaration of Independence who are interred there, as well as the victims of the Boston Massacre and Peter Faneuil. The parade then moves on to the Old State House where the Declaration is read in its entirety from the main balcony (which overlooks the site of the Massacre) to the crowd, just as it has been every year since 1776. Late August: The Feast of St. Anthony. The biggest of several Feasts in the North End. This one includes lots of food vendors, games, music, and a parade on Hanover Street and environs. October: The Head of the Charles Regatta. Over 8,000 rowers from around the globe compete in this regatta, one of the world's largest two-day rowing events. It often attracts up to 300,000 spectators along the banks of the Charles River. 31 December/1 January: First Night [63] . Boston's New Year's Eve celebration, it is the oldest public New Year's Eve party in America and has been copied by cities all around the world. It is a city-wide, family-friendly arts and culture festival which starts in the late morning with child-centric events and continues with dozens of music, dance, poetry and other exhibitions through midnight, culminating in fireworks on the waterfront. Dress warmly. Do[ edit ][ add listing ] A good resource for daily and nightly event listings of all sizes and interests can be found by picking up a free Weekly Dig or The Phoenix newspaper from one of the many free newspaper vending boxes located at most major busy intersections. Additionally, there are several free mobile applications like Hoppit and Nara to find great local restaurants, bars, and coffee shops. Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Phone: +1 617-524-1718 [64] . T stop: Orange Line or Needham commuter rail to "Forest Hills" (last stop on the Orange Line). Come see the oldest public arboretum in North America and one of the world's leading centers for the study of plants. A park with beautiful landscaping and specimens. Acorn Street Boston Harbor Islands State Park, Phone: +1 617-727-5290 [65] . Take a Ferry (Long Wharf: Blue line to Aquarium), Phone: +1 617-223-8666 [66] ) out to Georges Island and tour Fort Warren. See why Boston was the most defensible city in the New World. Shuttles leave from there to other islands in Boston Harbor--insect repellent is recommended. Ranger-led activities, events, narrations, or just swim, picnic, camp or fish. This is a hidden jewel that is off the beaten path. Plan to bring sunscreen, water, and a snack. Also note that depending on conditions in the harbor the return schedule can be delayed. If you're tight on time, err on the side of an earlier ferry to ensure arrival. Newbury Street [67] Eight blocks of high-end boutiques, hair salons, and galleries. Makes for a fabulous day of shopping and dining. The shops and restaurants tend to be expensive, but one needn't spend money to enjoy the area; one of Newbury's main attractions is simply people-watching. College students, urban professionals, tourists, and street performers all mix here. Newbury Street is accessible on the Green Line from the Arlington, Copley, and Hynes stations. Boston Common and Public Garden. A must-see for all visitors during the warmer months. The oldest public park in America. Ride the famous Swan Boats, walk across the world's shortest suspension bridge and generally enjoy the park with its shady trees, fountains, statues, sidewalk vendors, and greenery. Visit the "Cheers" bar across Beacon St, but be forewarned: only tourists go here. A great starting point for visitors interested in local historical sights, or on your way to Downtown Crossing or the Back Bay. Very nice foliage in the fall. The area east of Charles St is the Common, which is more open and less manicured. The area west of Charles St. is the Public Garden, which consists of many walking paths amid an impressive variety of well-maintained folliage. Accessible on the Green Line from Park Street, Boylston and Arlington stations, on the Red Line from Park Street station, and a short walk from any other downtown station. Community Boating. For kids between ages 10 and 18, membership is only $1 for the entire summer. Membership includes all sorts of sailing lessons (sailing, windsurfing, kayaking, etc.) along with other benefits. Each class takes a couple of days. 2-day membership is $100; 60-day membership is $159. Accessible on the Red Line from Charles/MGH station. The Freedom Trail Freedom Trail. [68] A 2.5 mi (4 km) walking tour of 16 historic sites that begins at Boston Common, goes through downtown Boston, the North End and Charlestown, ending at the USS Constitution. Sites include the old State House, Faneuil Hall, Paul Revere's House, and the Old North Church. The Freedom Trail connects to the Boston Harbor Walk. The Freedom Trail is marked by a line of red paint or red brick in the sidewalk. The beginning of the trail is accessible on the Green Line or the Red Line from Park St station. However, all the lines are convenient at various points along the way, via several downtown stations. Faneuil Hall [69] and Quincy Market, downtown Boston. Faneuil Hall and Quincy Market, two of Boston's oldest marketplaces, contain a great set of mainly tourist-oriented shops and eateries. Since Faneuil Hall Marketplace is private property, the street performers must audition and thus are consistently entertaining. Faneuil Hall also has a historic meeting hall in its upper levels, and is just down the street from the Old State House. Quincy Market has a number of food stalls from local (delectable) providers - coffee, pastries, candy, popcorn, sushi, Italian, lobster and lobster rolls, Chinese, sandwiches, etc. No farmers' market, all food is prepared. Great place to eat a wide variety of foods for cheap, especially with kids. Tables available in covered outdoor area immediately outside. Accessible on the Blue Line at State St., Government Center, and Aquarium stations, on the Orange Line at State St. station, and on the Green Line at Government Center station. Faneuil Hall Copley Square. Take a Duck Tour, +1 617-267-DUCK [70] , enjoy the fountains, visit the top of the nearby Prudential building, see the Boston Public Library, visit the beautiful Trinity Church, or go shopping along Newbury Street. Accessible on the Green Line at Copley station, or on the Orange Line at Back Bay station. Boston Symphony Orchestra. Symphony Hall, Symphony Hall, 301 Massachusetts Av, [71] . During the fall, winter and spring, the world-renowned Boston Symphony Orchestra performs classical music. Tickets are available online or in the box office; they can be pricey at $29-$115. For a cheaper alternative, Tuesday and Thursday concerts have rush tickets (last-minute availability, no seat choice) which are sold starting at 5PM on the day of the concert for $9; Friday concerts start rush ticket availability at 10AM. Be sure to line up in advance for rush tickets. Weekend concerts do not sell rush tickets. Boston Pops Orchestra. Symphony Hall, 301 Massachusetts Av, +1 617-266-1492, [email protected]. During the summer, the Pops perform programs of both classical and popular music, consistently pleasing audiences. Tickets can be had inexpensively and can be purchased either online or in the box office. Accessible on the E branch of the Green Line at Symphony station. New England Conservatory. This world-famous top-notch music school and also right around the corner from the Boston Symphony, is often overlooked by tourists in Boston but well-known among local musicians. Their performances, recitals, and chamber group concerts are usually free and unticketed. See the calendar at [72] for more information. Theater District. Washington St, Tremont St. Broadway is the undisputed center of the theater world, but Boston's Theater District is where most Broadway shows will preview and is usually the first stop on a show's touring run. Resident shows also run. Bicycling. 20 Park Plaza (Suite 528), +1 617-542-2453. The Minuteman Bikeway is one of the most heavily used rail trails in the United States. This eleven mile paved path is popular with walkers, cyclists, and in-line skaters. The route closely follows that taken at the beginning of the Revolutionary War. Accessible on the Red Line at Davis and Alewife stations. Swan Boat, Boston Public Garden Prudential Center Skywalk Observatory. Prudential Center, +1 617-859-0648. Tickets: Adults $11, Seniors $9, Children under 12 $7.50, Student with college ID $9, Military with DoD ID Free. Look around Boston from the second tallest skyscraper. Open daily. Winter (Nov thru Feb) 10AM-8PM; Summer (Mar thru Oct) 10AM-10PM. Sam Adams Brewery Tour. Phone +1 617-368-5080, 30 Germania St. (Orange line to "Stonybrook"). Take a tour of the Sam Adams brewery located in Jamaica Plain. Free samples of beer at the end. Harpoon Brewery Tour Phone +1 888-HARPOON. (Silver line Waterfront, fourth stop from South Station) Free sampling after tour. Mystery Cafe, Boston, ☎ 781-784-7496, [73] . Dinner. America's Original Murder Mystery Dinner Theater. Its doors opened in 1987 to a packed house in Cambridge, MA and have been selling out the house ever since! It is a great combination of mystery, music, audience participation, food and fun. Different shows and locations for a memorable evening in Boston. $150. edit The Mary Baker Eddy Library-Mapparium, 200 Massachusetts Avenue Boston, MA 02115, ☎ 1-617-450-7000, [74] . 10 am to 4 pm Tuesday-Sunday. Since 1935, more than 10 million people have traversed the thirty-foot glass bridge that spans the Mapparium, taking visitors to a unique spot: the middle of the world. This world-famous, three-story, painted-glass globe is one of the key attractions at the Library. General Admission - $6.00. edit Dinner Detective Murder Mystery Show, 30 Washington St, ☎ 866-496-0535, [75] . America's Largest Interactive Murder Mystery Dinner Show. Includes a gourmet four-course meal. edit The Murder Mystery Company in Boston, 120 Quarry Street, [76] . Join the Experts in Mystery Entertainment for an exciting night out in Boston that is full of intrigue, deception, and delicious food! edit Sports[ edit ] Boston is a sports town, and its professional teams are much-loved. These include the Red Sox (baseball), Celtics (basketball), Bruins (hockey), New England Patriots (football), and New England Revolution (soccer). Another professional team, the Boston Breakers (women's soccer), is less well established. Fenway Park, home of the Boston Red Sox Fenway Park, 4 Yawkey Way. The home of the Boston Red Sox [77] . The oldest baseball stadium still in use by the major leagues, this brick and stone structure is named after and located in the Fenway neighborhood of Boston, which itself takes its name from the fens, or marshes along the nearby Muddy River. Accessible on the B, C, and D branches of the Green Line at Kenmore station, or on the D branch of the Green Line at Fenway station. Visitors arriving via the T will need to walk a short distance from the station to the ballpark, but the crowds on a game day will serve to lead the way. Its worth taking the T to the game because parking is very limited (and expensive) and you get to experience the excitment of a crowded train car full of fans heading to the game. Yawkey Way is now closed off during games, and those in the stadium can walk outside to enjoy the additional refreshment stands and open area, and then return to the game. With sold-out crowds every game, getting tickets can be difficult. Street resellers will offer tickets outside the stadium, and those will get progressively cheaper as the game goes on. Buying tickets on the street bears a risk of fraud, but most of the tickets are real. More cautious visitors can take a worthwhile Fenway Park tour on non-game days or game days (leaves from the souvenir store on Yawkey Way). Gillette Stadium [78] . The home of the New England Patriots football team [79] and the New England Revolution soccer team [80] is in the town of Foxborough , about 25 miles southwest of Boston. The Revolution play from spring to fall, and the Patriots from fall through winter. Patriots games are always sold out and getting tickets will probably be impossible. Revolution tickets will be easier to come by. Starting in 2012, Gillette Stadium will also become the football home of the UMass Minutemen [81] —the team of the University of Massachusetts Amherst —as they make their move to the top tier of NCAA college football. TD Garden [82] , Causeway St. The home of the Boston Celtics basketball team [83] and Boston Bruins hockey team [84] . The site was previously occupied by the Boston Garden, a smaller venue, and the existing structure was previously called the FleetCenter and later the TD Banknorth Garden. The arena may be called by any of these names, or simply The Garden. Accessible on the Green Line or Orange Line at North Station, which is underneath the Garden.The TD Banknorth Garden is home to two of Boston’s most historic sports team the Boston Celtics and the 2011 Stanley Cup Champions the Boston Bruins. If you’re a sports buff visiting Boston and one of these two teams is playing it is a must that you stop by a catch a game. Whether your sitting up high or down low finding a bad seat in the Garden is pretty hard for any sport even in last row you will still be able to see an exciting game in a very exciting atmosphere where history is made. Another notable annual sports event is the Beanpot college hockey tournament [85] , held on the first two Mondays of February and featuring the men's teams of Boston College (see below), Boston University, Harvard University, and Northeastern University. Boston College Eagles [86] , Brighton/Newton Border in the neighborhood of Chestnut Hill. The teams representing Boston College compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) in most sports alongside 11 other schools along the East Coast. The ice hockey teams for both men and women compete in Hockey East. The football team plays in the 45,000-seat Alumni Stadium. The basketball and hockey teams play in the adjacent Conte Forum (known as Kelley Rink for hockey games), which seats between 8 and 9 thousand fans. College hockey is very popular in New England, and in recent years BC has had one of the best programs in the nation. See also the hockey programs of Boston University and Northeastern University in the city proper, and rival schools in the suburbs and neighboring states. Harvard Stadium, 95 N. Harvard St., Allston. Home to the Harvard Crimson (Harvard University) football team since 1903, it is also home to the area's newest professional team, the Boston Breakers of Women's Professional Soccer. The Breakers, like the Revolution, play from spring to fall. Learn[ edit ] The Greater Boston area has some 65 accredited institutions of higher learning, including many world-renowned colleges, universities, conservatories, and seminaries. The metro Boston area has something of around 250,000 students living in the area at any given time. In Boston: Buy[ edit ][ add listing ] The biggest shopping areas in the inner Metro are the Back Bay and Downtown Crossing. In addition, there are two large malls in and near the center of the city. The Cambridgeside Galleria.This boilerplate shopping mall includes department stores, the Apple Store, a Best Buy, clothing stores, bookstores, a food court, and a Cheesecake Factory restaurant, all at mainstream retail prices. Accessible on the Green Line at Lechmere station, or the Red Line at Kendall/MIT station via a free shuttle van ("The Wave"). Copley Place and Prudential Center. These malls are connected via pedestrian walkway over Huntington Av. They house department stores, clothing stores, bookstores, upscale shopping, a food court, many restaurants, and connect to several large hotels. Accessible on the Green Line at Copley, Hynes/ICA, and Prudential stations, and on the Orange Line at Back Bay station. `Visitors and locals alike use the mall to go between the South End and Newbury/Boylston Street areas, either to take advantage of the air conditioning during the summer or the warmth during the winter. More local color can be experienced outdoors at any of several popular commercial areas: Newbury Street. This shopping street runs the length of the Back Bay neighborhood. Often called "the Rodeo Drive of the East," Newbury St is a wonderfully dense avenue colored by historic brownstones and lots of shops and restaurants. Extremely expensive near Boston Common, but gradually becoming more affordable as you move toward Massachusetts Avenue. One block north from Boylston St, which is similar but less so. Vehicular traffic can be very slow on Newbury St itself; take parallel streets unless you have time to see the sights from your car. Accessible on the Green Line from Arlington, Copley, and Hynes stations. Downtown Crossing(or "DTX"), Washington St. at Winter St. area. This shopping district is in Downtown Boston, just steps from Boston Common. The building, which once housed the now-closed Filene's Department store, was knocked down and there were plans for a 38-story tower which was to include a hotel and condos to be built. However, the development has since stalled due to financial problems of the developer. To date there has been no date for redevelopment set, so the location is now most infamous as the "Filenes Basement Hole." The rest of Downtown Crossing features large Macy's, music stores, souvenirs, general retail, and lots of street vendors and quick food. Accessible on the Red and Orange Lines at Downtown Crossing station, and with a brief walk, from the Red and Green Lines at Park St. station. Be advised: During weekdays this area is a very popular hangout for inner-city youth. Harvard Square. This historic and always-active square is located across the river in the city of Cambridge . Take a tour of Harvard University and the Yard, visit the historic cemetery, shop around. Several excellent bookstores, with plenty of restaurants and cafes to sit down and read a novel. See the famous chess tables outside Au Bon Pain where a scene in Good Will Hunting was filmed. Walk past the offices of Dewey, Cheatem & Howe, and say hello to the punks. Take a short walk down to the scenic Charles River. Street musicians often play near the famous Out of Town News. For a good burger, stop in a Bartley's, a Harvard landmark. For a fantastic margarita and cheap Mexican food, be sure to hit up the Border Cafe. The nonprofit Brattle theater shows classic and independent films. Accessible on the Red Line at Harvard station. Coolidge Corner, Harvard St. at Beacon St, Brookline. This shopping area is in the neighboring town of Brookline . A little less urban, more like your local village shops and restaurants. The Coolidge Corner Theater is known for showing interesting independent and art house films. Beacon Street has interesting shops along much of its length, generally concentrated near areas such as St. Mary's, Washington Sq., etc. One can also walk north from Coolidge Corner along Harvard St. (which becomes Harvard Av.) towards Allston-Brighton (and the B branch of the Green Line) for additional shopping and dining. Accessible on the C branch of the Green Line at the Coolidge Corner stop. Charles St.From Beacon St. to Cambridge St. One of the more quaint shopping neighborhoods in Boston, starting just north of Boston Common. The mix of shops lends itself to window-shopping as well as ticking items off a shopping list. Multiple options for lunch or coffee make this a pleasant place to stroll for a couple hours. Accessible from the Charles St./Mass. General Hospital station on the Red Line. Eat[ edit ][ add listing ] Boston is a huge city , so all individual listings should be moved to the appropriate district articles , and this section should contain a brief overview. Please help to move listings if you are familiar with this city. Boston has excellent seafood from the nearby New England coast. Local specialties include baked beans, cod, and clam chowder. For dessert you'll have no trouble finding good ice cream. Boston (and New England as a whole) are one of the top per-capita ice cream consuming regions. A variety of excellent ethnic restaurants can be found in neighborhoods such as the North End, Chinatown, Allston, or Coolidge Corner. The real "Cheers" The best sit-down restaurants can be quite crowded in the evenings on weekends. Unless you have a reservation, be prepared to wait anywhere from a few minutes to an hour, depending on how refined your tastes are. Famous Union Oyster House Boston The North End is full of Italian eateries, and it's certain that you'll find something here to your liking. Take the Green or Orange Lines to the Haymarket station, cross the Greenway park(what used to be Interstate 93 pre-Big Dig), and then follow the signs to Hanover Street, the main commercial thoroughfare. Most of the good restaurants are on this street or on side streets. If you visit the North End on the weekend in the summer you may encounter one of many saint's festivals. Streets are closed off and there are music, food, and parades of the saint's statues. The Bull & Finch Pub in Beacon Hill was the inspiration for the hit television show "Cheers." Very pricey for bar fare, but an essential part of the Boston tourist experience. The Beacon Street address is the original and does not look much like the set of the show. There is another Cheers at Faneuil Hall which is more of a replica of the TV set. If you ask a local for directions to Cheers, you may be directed to Faneuil Hall. The Beacon Street bar is referred to by its original name. Both locations are very touristy complete with souvenir shops. Legal Sea Foods is a Boston original - well, technically Cambridge, since it started as a fish market in Inman Square, Cambridge. Legal Seafood is known for its New England Clam Chowder. Expect to pay between $25-30/person at dinner at one of their multiple locations. Despite having a huge student population, the political clout of residential neighborhood associations who value late-night peace and quiet has historically kept Boston from offering many options for late-night dining. Most restaurants close by 10 or 11pm, even in college neighborhoods such as Allston and Brookline. Bars stay open till 2am for drinking but their kitchens usually close at midnight or earlier. Exceptions are found in Chinatown, where several eateries serve their full menu till 2AM or later, and in the South End, where dining until midnight is possible even early in the week. If you're planning a long night, though, it's probably best to plan ahead and buy some snacks in advance. Boston also has a thriving food truck scene. The best way to find the food trucks and figure out where the are is your iPhone or Android . Drink[ edit ][ add listing ] Boston has a thriving nightlife and is known to be a 'drinking' town. There are many venues that cater to college students, businesspeople, sports fanatics, and many others. Bar Hopping is very easy and commonly done. In case you plan on taking the bus or the T back to your house or hotel be aware that the public transit system shuts down before 1am during the week and shortly after 2am on Fridays and Saturdays. If you want to go out and have people under 21 with you, you're going to have trouble finding a place that will let your group in; most clubs in and around town are 21+. During the day many bars pubs and bars serve food and therefore there is no age limit. With a large Irish population, Boston has a number of very good Irish pubs. Irish pubs offer great food and drink and often live music in the evening. Many tourists look for an authentic "Boston Irish Pub". A good rule of thumb is if the establishment has a neon shamrock in the window, it is not an authentic Irish pub. For nightlife and club listings look for "Stuff @ Night" or "The Weekly Dig" in the free boxes on the street. The annual "Best of Boston" issue of the free Improper Bostonian is always a good bet for finding the kind of establishment that you are in the mood for. Places densest in bars include: Canal Street (just south of TD BankNorth Garden) Boylston Street Nightclubs[ edit ] There are multiple nightclubs and lounges near the Theatre District, Chinatown, in the Faneuil Hall area as well as in Cambridge. More nightclubs can be found in the district articles. Dive Bars[ edit ] There are many dive bars in Boston. If you are in the North End or near the Banknorth Garden, go to Sullivan's Tap. Ask for the Brubaker - a $2 beer in a recycled bottle (sadly, Brubaker's is no longer manufactured, try a Naragansett tall boy for $3). ESPN's Sports Guy, Bill Simmons, rated it "The most depressing bar in Boston." In Davis Square, Somerville you can find Sligo's Pub, a similar hole in the wall serving cheap beer in plastic cups. The Cantab Lounge near the Central Square subway station in Cambridge features local music. If you're off the beaten path in the neighborhoods outside downtown (Dorchester, South Boston, East Boston, Hyde Park, etc.) in search of some real Bostonians, look for any tavern with a cheesy old lamp light out front. Be ready for an in-depth conversation about the "Red Sawx" or the Bruins back when Bobby Orr played. Breweries[ edit ] Samuel Adams Brewery in Jamaica Plain and Harpoon Brewery in South Boston both offer tours and tastings. Trillium Brewing Co. is an acclaimed craft brewery, and a short walk from Harpoon, but be aware that they do not offer tastings on site. Many other small-scale craft breweries can be found in Greater Boston cities such as Everett, Chelsea, and Somerville. Several operators run tours by vehicle between local breweries so that you may sample without the need to drive under the influence. Coffee[ edit ] You should be able to stand on any corner in the city and see at least two Dunkin' Donuts stores. The commercials should really be "Boston runs on Dunkin." Every Bostonian knows that "Dunks" is for coffee, not donuts - trust us. Dunkins is very popular, but coffee aficionados will consider it little more than coffee flavored sugar water, and will want to look elsewhere. Quality and service at a Dunkin' Donuts is really hit or miss depending on the location. Au Bon Pain's 200 stores began in Boston and are also common. Starbucks are, of course, plentiful. Boston does, however, have some outstanding independent coffee shops as well, including the Boston Common Coffee Co. with multiple locations including one near Boston Common. Coffee shops offering finer quality coffee that is third wave and often single origin are plentiful in Boston. Stay safe[ edit ] Crime and other hazards in Boston are low for a major American city. Some neighborhoods (especially Roxbury, Mattapan, and Dorchester) are more dangerous than average, and extra care should be taken there. It is even better to avoid walking in these areas at night if possible. Still, the biggest threats for tourists in Boston are mostly pickpockets. Dangers related to alcohol consumption are not uncommon, such as fights and drunk driving. Be especially careful when there is a Red Sox and New York Yankees baseball game in progress. Wearing Yankees gear in any part of town (even if you're not from NY), especially in the Fenway area, is invitation to be verbally harassed by the locals. Although generally harmless and in good fun, it is not unheard of for these encounters to escalate into physical altercations, especially when there is excess alcohol consumption involved. It usually takes two people to start a fight, in these cases. Just walk away. The safest places to have a night on the town in Boston are definitely Boylston Street in the Back Bay, around the Prudential Center area, Beacon Hill, the South End and Faneuil Hall. There are plenty of bars, pubs, clubs, and restaurants that cater to the college, professional, and upscale crowd, greatly reducing the likelihood of crime. Boston's subway system, the MBTA, is generally safe compared to other major cities, but remember that it starts shutting down not long after midnight. Green Line trains and the northern half of the Red Line are mostly used by college students and young professionals moving to and from the immediate suburbs. Caution is still advisable late at night, especially when leaving the station or the train. If there is an emergency, dial 911, a free call, from any telephone for police, medical, and fire services. Contact[ edit ] Greater Boston uses 10-digit dialing. This means you need to include the area code whenever you are making a call. The standard area code is 617, but some phone numbers, especially cell phones, use the new 857 overlay. Get out[ edit ] Boston makes an excellent starting point for any tour of New England . Take a ferry from the harbor in the summer or one of several daily Cape Air flights from Logan year-round to Provincetown (also known as P-town) to see some of the best entertainment and fun on Cape Cod . Take a ferry from June to October 31st and visit the World Wide Capitol of Haloween in the Historic Sea Port of Salem (Massachusetts) . The Salem Ferry is a 92 Foot High Speed Catermaran that travels at 32 knots. The MBTA offers train service from Boston´s North Station 12 Months a Year along with bus service from Haymarket. Also on Cape Cod, Hyannis offers great beaches during the summer and plenty of food and nightlife year round, and is also the departure point for ferries to Nantucket . About a 90 minute drive each way, although plan extra time to account for bridge traffic on summer weekends. Hourly bus service is available 6am-Midnight from South Station to Hyannis on Plymouth & Brockton. Drive south or take the $11.50 commuter rail (Providence/ Stoughton Line [136] ) or $17 express Amtrak to Providence , Rhode Island , which is home to its own share of art and culture, excellent Italian food, and a charming downtown area. A popular road trip is "Boston to the Bronx". The Drive is approximately 3.5 hours along US-20 or I-95. Minimum suggested time for the return trip is 2 days. New York City can also be reached by frequent bus service from South Station on Greyhound, Peter Pan, Megabus, BoltBus, Yo! Bus, Lucky Star. Walkup fares usually $15-$25 each way, less if you book a week or two in advance or take one of the Chinatown lines. (Note that Fung Wah busses, which developed an extremely poor safety record, was permanently ordered shut down by the Commonwealth and the federal government early in 2013.) Amtrak's North East Corridor also serves New York, but expect to pay $60-$100 each way, more if you take the high speed Acela Express. Drive south to Falmouth and Woods Hole and take the ferry to Martha's Vineyard for a peaceful, scenic time on this small, charming island. Also take a road trip to the North Shore , New Hampshire Seacoast and Southern Maine . All are easily accessible by car, and less than a 90 minute drive without the awful Cape Cod traffic in the summer months. Many destinations along the North Shore, including Rockport and Manchester-by-the-Sea are reachable by the Rockport commuter rail [137] Drive northwest on Route 2 or take the Fitchburg commuter rail [138] to historic Concord , where you can visit Minuteman National Historic Park, the site of the battles of Concord and Lexington; the homes of the authors Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorn, or Louisa May Alcott; or Walden Pond, made famous by Henry David Thoreau in his book "Walden; or, Life in the Woods". Take a day trip north to the town of Salem , the home of the infamous Salem witch trials. Wrentham Village premium outlets. While not in Boston, a shopping trip to Boston by an international tourist is not complete without a visit to Wrentham Village. Its location off I-495, exit 15 makes it under an hour from Boston and most hotels will arrange transport. Wrentham’s stores range from the finest designer fashions and jewelry to home furnishings, housewares and electronics. You'll find all the big brands such as Hugo Boss, Adidas, Nike, DKNY, Burberry, Gap, Guess, Ann Taylor, Tommy Hilfiger, Ralph Lauren, Levi’s, Liz Claiborne, Swarovski, Royal Doulton, Calvin Klein, Benetton, Waterford Crystal, Williams-Sonoma and much much more. Routes through Boston	i don't know
A popular cookery program of the 1990's took its name from the bingo call for which number?	100 TV shows that defined the decade - Telegraph 100 TV shows that defined the decade West Wing, Planet Earth, the Doctor and The Office – plus a big dose of reality. The West Wing, one of the dramas Lovefilm's UK viewers will be able to stream following its Warner Bros deal Photo: AP By Telegraph writers 100 books that defined the noughties The two most important television trends of the past 10 years couldn’t be more different. In America, the decade has proved a golden age for drama. Bold, brilliant series such as The West Wing, The Sopranos and The Wire have brought novelistic storytelling and Hollywood production values to the small screen. These groundbreaking, “high-end” dramas were watched in a new way, too: downloaded from the internet, or bought as a DVD box-set, they were viewed “on demand” and helped turn television into an increasingly solitary pastime. At the other end of the subtlety spectrum came the rise of the TV talent contest. Ratings juggernauts such as Strictly Come Dancing and The X Factor may be brash, gaudy and formulaic, but they also revived the idea of television as a communal experience by corralling the nation together at set times each week to thump their sofas in excitement, embarrassment or infuriation, and then trade opinions via the internet and, increasingly, Twitter. However, in terms of provoking a reaction, it was impossible to ignore Big Brother. The daddy of reality TV series became synonymous with one of the decade’s defining themes – the pursuit of celebrity for its own sake – and managed to inspire outrage even among those who never watched it, which is one of the reasons we have placed it at the top of this list. Do you agree? Share your view in the comments box at the bottom. Related Articles The best of the decade’s “extreme” series aimed at the armchair adventurer. 96) Marion & Geoff Rob Brydon’s tragicomic cabbie comedy revived the Alan Bennett-style TV monologue. 95) Deal or No Deal Channel 4, 2005-present, dvd n/a An exciting first: a game show that gripped despite making no sense at all. 94) Shameless Channel 4, 2004-present, £89.99 (BS) Paul Abbott’s chaotic council estate comedy drama found warmth and wit in supposedly “broken Britain”. 93) Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps BBC Three, 2001-present, £19.56 The biggest TV mystery of the century: how has this awful sitcom made it to eight series? 92) The Hills MTV, 2006-present, £16.62 A sensation in the United States, this glossy fly-on-the-wall doc took reality television to bizarre new levels of manipulation. 91) RI:SE Channel 4, 2002-3, dvd n/a Succeeded The Big Breakfast. Bombed. Spelled the end of early morning entertainment. 90) Castaway 2000 BBC One, 2000-1, dvd n/a The BBC’s take on Big Brother lost half its eight million viewers during the series but gave birth to Ben Fogle . 89) In the Night Garden CBeebies, 2007-present, £20.54 A calmer, cuter Teletubbies for today that encourages toddlers to go to sleep (rather than romp around shrieking). 88) Prime Suspect: The Final Act ITV1, 2006, £8.80 The heartbreaking, vodka-soaked swansong of DCI Jane Tennison , one of television’s pioneering female leads. 87) The Alan Clark Diaries BBC Four, 2004, £16.62 John Hurt was hilarious as the irascible rutting rogue. We never looked at Thatcher’s ankles the same way again. 86) Harry Hill’s TV Burp ITV1, 2001-present, £20.54 The playful television review was an unlikely primetime hit, and won the cult comic a Bafta. 85) Time Team This revived interest in archaeology and nearly replaced “Baldrick” on Tony Robinson ’s business card. 84) Boy A Channel 4, 2007, dvd n/a Andrew Garfield was superb as a freed child killer in this C4 drama that trumped the BBC. 83) Stephen Fry in America BBC One, 2008, £29.35 As Michael Palin was to the last decade, the avuncular and ubiquitous Fry was to this. 82) Live 8 BBC One, 2008, dvd n/a This investigation into dog-breeding led to the BBC pulling its coverage of Crufts. 80) My Beautiful Son ITV, 2001, dvd n/a Julie Walters was heartbreaking as a mother reunited with her son. ITV no longer make one-offs like this. 79) Party Animals BBC Two, 2007, dvd n/a A Parliamentary showcase for the coming generation of British actors, including Matt Smith, the new Doctor Who. 78) SpongeBob SquarePants So popular it attracted voice cameos from stars such as Johnny Depp and David Bowie. 77) Blue Peter BBC One, throughout, dvd n/a The nation’s favourite kids’ show turned 50, but also fuelled the fakery-in-TV row. 76) Malcolm & Barbara: Love’s Farewell/Right to Die? ITV1, 2007/Sky, 2008 , dvd n/a The first of these seemed to show a man die but didn’t (cue scandal); the second, in a TV first, actually did (cue outrage). 75) Bloody Sunday Channel 4, 2002, £8.80 Proof that realistic drama (here, by Bourne director Paul Greengrass) can make a 30-year-old story news again. 74) Mad Men AMC, 2007-present, £39.14 (bs) Stylish US drama about the macho world of advertising in the Sixties that reminded us how times have changed. 73) My Family BBC One, 2000-present, £39.14 (BS) In a decade of controversial comedy, millions loved this cosy alternative – as did Robert Lindsay’s accountant. 72) The Way We Live Now BBC One, 2001, £24.45 Inspired – and presciently timed – adaptation of Trollope’s take on the perils of capitalism. 71) The Osbournes 70) Gavin & Stacey BBC Three, 2007-present, £37.18 (BS) This cuddly sitcom depicting the mundanity of the suburbs and making James Corden the toast of British comedy. 69) Countryfile BBC One, 1988-present, dvd n/a As green and countryside affairs took centre stage, the revamped rural magazine was rightly promoted to primetime. 68) Hannah Montana Disney Channel, 2006-present, £12.72 Never has a TV child star been milked so profitably as Miley Cyrus . (She’s done OK, too, making $25m in 2008.) 67) Death of a President More4, 2006, £6.84 Launching More4, this docu-style drama imagined George W Bush’s assassination. 66) BBC 10 O’Clock News BBC One, 2000-present, dvd n/a ITV rues moving News at Ten – the BBC now wins the ratings almost every night. 65) Extras BBC Two, 2005-7, £39.14 (BS) Ricky Gervais ’s savvy sitcom about wannabe actors, for which celebrities queued up to spoof themselves in cameos. 64) Spooks BBC One, 2002-present, £15.65 The MI5 drama demonstrated we could do slick, big-budget action (almost) as well as the US. 63) Coast BBC Two, 2005-present, £56.70 (BS) The best of the many factual series this decade that fused geography with social history. 62) Bremner, Bird & Fortune Channel 4, 1999-present, dvd n/a Impressionist Rory Bremner reinvented himself as a smart political satirist. 61) Criminal Justice BBC One, 2008/9, £20.54/£19.56 A compelling legal thriller given added suspense by the fact it aired five nights in a row (a growing trend for drama). 60) The Kumars at No 42 BBC Two, 2001-06, dvd n/a An all-Asian troupe having a primetime comedy chat show (and No?1 single)? Would never have happened 20 years ago. 59) The Deal Channel 4, 2003, dvd n/a Michael Sheen’s uncanny turn as Tony Blair (repeated in The Queen) set him up to play David Frost and Brian Clough. 58) Skins The first credible “Generation Y” drama – even though its characters were impossibly hip and hedonistic. 57) The Blue Planet Another magisterial outing for Sir David Attenborough and the BBC’s peerless Natural History Unit. 56) South Park Still bitingly funny, the adult cartoon took a no-holds-barred approach to its satire. 55) 100 Greatest Britons BBC Two, 2002, dvd n/a BBC Two’s poll gave history new life on TV. Winston Churchill won, by the way. 54) Outnumbered Superb improvised family comedy – and expletive-free. 53) Jerry Springer: the Opera BBC Two, 2005, £19.56 This musical comedy about Christ got more complaints (47,000) than any show ever… before it had even aired. 52) Restoration BBC One, 2003-6, dvd n/a Griff Rhys Jones asked viewers to decide which British building most deserved a Lottery-funded makeover. Nice idea and oh-so public servicey. 51) Wife Swap Channel 4, 2003-9, dvd n/a The revelatory reality series forced viewers to re-examine their own relationships. 50) House Fox, 2004-present, £89.99 Lovable Hugh Laurie shot to US mega-stardom as the mardy medic and started an exodus of Brit actors across the Atlantic. 49) Springwatch BBC Two, 2005-present, dvd n/a This, and its mellow fruitful cousin Autumnwatch, are now biannual television fixtures. 48) I Love… BBC Two, 2000-1, dvd n/a Talking head, clip, repeat. TV list shows are a simple – but watchable – way to fill airtime. The knowing time-travel drama started a fond reappraisal of the very politically incorrect Seventies. 46) MasterChef BBC Two, revived 2005, dvd n/a This decade Britons have gorged on cookery shows such as this – yet cooked less. 45) How We Built Britain BBC One, 2007, £19.56 Exemplary instance of our new enthusiasm for buildings and design. 44) Soccer Saturday Sky Sports, 1992-present, dvd n/a Who knew that watching Jeff Stelling and co describe live football matches would be so addictive? 43) 24 Kiefer Sutherland’s suspenseful thriller brought Hollywood stars, stunts and budgets to the small screen. 42) The South Bank Show ITV, 1978-2009, dvd n/a As the decade draws to a close, so does the longest-running arts series in Britain. 41) Curb Your Enthusiasm HBO, 2000-present, £79.99 (bs) Larry David’s dark sitcom tackled one of the decade’s thorniest themes: the giving and taking of offence. 40) The Lie of the Land Channel 4, 2007, dvd n/a In the decade when fox hunting was banned, Molly Dineen’s film took a timely (and fond) view of rural issues. 39) QI BBC Four, 2003-present, £19.56 Never before had a panel game this bookish achieved such mainstream success . The spin-offs include a QI café. 38) Footballers’ Wives The mock-Tudor mansion melodrama was Dallas for the Noughties. 37) Have I Got News for You BBC One, 2002, dvd n/a The show in which satire ate itself, when Angus Deayton, after a humiliating tabloid exposé, became the butt of all the jokes. He was then fired. 36) Lost ABC, 2004-present, £185 (bs) US television spent vast sums on “high-end” drama. Lost’s pilot cost $14? million – and influenced a generation of high-concept series including this year’s FlashForward. 35) Richard & Judy Channel 4, 2001-8, dvd n/a Their Book Club made television’s foremost daytime duo even more influential – until the You Say, We Pay phone-in scandal. 34) Weakest Link BBC Two, 2000-present, dvd n/a Queen of Mean, Anne Robinson became the first game-show host to actively mock contestants. 33) Da Ali G Show Channel 4, 2000, 2003, £7.82 This was the moment Sacha Baron Cohen entered the global consciousness as Ali G; Borat and Bruno were to follow. 32) CSI CBS, 2000-present, £39.14/£56.75 The original glossy forensic drama – and, along with its two spin-offs, the world’s biggest television franchise. Nobody this famous had ever before given a film crew such access – or such quotes. 30) Jamie’s School Dinners Channel 4, 2005, £15.65 Jamie Oliver switched from chummy chef to strident anti-child-obesity campaigner. 29) Location, Location, Location Channel 4, 2001-present, dvd n/a Cemented our obsession with dream homes, as house prices soared (for a bit). 28) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart Comedy Central, 1999-, dvd n/a Under President Bush, the talk show became the US’s strongest voice of dissent. 27) Britain’s Got Talent ITV1, 2007-present, dvd n/a Only in the era of YouTube could a Scottish spinster become a worldwide star thanks to a single audition clip. 26) Who Do You Think You Are? BBC One, 2004-present, £49.99 (bs) Celebrity genealogy show inspired viewers to research their own family trees. 25) Top Gear New Labour spin – specifically Alastair Campbell – is savaged in Armando Iannucci’s coruscating farce. 18) The Fallen BBC Two, 2008, dvd n/a A tribute to every one of the 298 British servicemen and women who had died in Afghanistan and Iraq. 17) Little Britain BBC Three, 2003-6, £10.76 (BS) Lucas, Walliams and a dozen catchphrases shot to fame. 16) Sex and the City HBO, 1998-2004, £69.99 (BS) No drama had had female leads like these: sexually frank, witty, independent (although they still wanted a husband). 15) The Power of Nightmares BBC Two, 2004, dvd n/a Adam Curtis’s films showed how Blair used the threat of terrorism to cow the electorate. BBC One, 2004-present, dvd n/a Inspired a British ballroom renaissance, and became the world’s top reality TV format. 13) The Wire HBO, 2002-8, £125 (BS) Although ratings weren’t high, it proved television could match the scope and subtlety of a literary novel. Surprisingly, though, it never won an Emmy. Looks a lot like Pop Idol – but, crucially, Simon Cowell is now pulling all the strings. 11) 9/11 The decade’s most shattering news event created television footage we’ll never forget. 10) Bleak House BBC One, 2005, £14.67 The BBC proved that classy costume drama could be a ratings winner by producing a soap-operatic take on Dickens’s masterpiece that was shown in bite-sized half-hour chunks after EastEnders. It also won five Baftas. 9) The Apprentice BBC Two, 2005-present, £19.56 (BS) Started as a typically Beeb-ish, earnest take on reality television watched by three million on BBC Two. Five series later, it attracted three times that on BBC One. Alan Sugar was transformed from Eighties throwback into fluffy mascot for British business.	88
American films use which fictional area code in telephone numbers?	100 TV shows that defined the decade - Telegraph 100 TV shows that defined the decade West Wing, Planet Earth, the Doctor and The Office – plus a big dose of reality. The West Wing, one of the dramas Lovefilm's UK viewers will be able to stream following its Warner Bros deal Photo: AP By Telegraph writers 100 books that defined the noughties The two most important television trends of the past 10 years couldn’t be more different. In America, the decade has proved a golden age for drama. Bold, brilliant series such as The West Wing, The Sopranos and The Wire have brought novelistic storytelling and Hollywood production values to the small screen. These groundbreaking, “high-end” dramas were watched in a new way, too: downloaded from the internet, or bought as a DVD box-set, they were viewed “on demand” and helped turn television into an increasingly solitary pastime. At the other end of the subtlety spectrum came the rise of the TV talent contest. Ratings juggernauts such as Strictly Come Dancing and The X Factor may be brash, gaudy and formulaic, but they also revived the idea of television as a communal experience by corralling the nation together at set times each week to thump their sofas in excitement, embarrassment or infuriation, and then trade opinions via the internet and, increasingly, Twitter. However, in terms of provoking a reaction, it was impossible to ignore Big Brother. The daddy of reality TV series became synonymous with one of the decade’s defining themes – the pursuit of celebrity for its own sake – and managed to inspire outrage even among those who never watched it, which is one of the reasons we have placed it at the top of this list. Do you agree? Share your view in the comments box at the bottom. Related Articles The best of the decade’s “extreme” series aimed at the armchair adventurer. 96) Marion & Geoff Rob Brydon’s tragicomic cabbie comedy revived the Alan Bennett-style TV monologue. 95) Deal or No Deal Channel 4, 2005-present, dvd n/a An exciting first: a game show that gripped despite making no sense at all. 94) Shameless Channel 4, 2004-present, £89.99 (BS) Paul Abbott’s chaotic council estate comedy drama found warmth and wit in supposedly “broken Britain”. 93) Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps BBC Three, 2001-present, £19.56 The biggest TV mystery of the century: how has this awful sitcom made it to eight series? 92) The Hills MTV, 2006-present, £16.62 A sensation in the United States, this glossy fly-on-the-wall doc took reality television to bizarre new levels of manipulation. 91) RI:SE Channel 4, 2002-3, dvd n/a Succeeded The Big Breakfast. Bombed. Spelled the end of early morning entertainment. 90) Castaway 2000 BBC One, 2000-1, dvd n/a The BBC’s take on Big Brother lost half its eight million viewers during the series but gave birth to Ben Fogle . 89) In the Night Garden CBeebies, 2007-present, £20.54 A calmer, cuter Teletubbies for today that encourages toddlers to go to sleep (rather than romp around shrieking). 88) Prime Suspect: The Final Act ITV1, 2006, £8.80 The heartbreaking, vodka-soaked swansong of DCI Jane Tennison , one of television’s pioneering female leads. 87) The Alan Clark Diaries BBC Four, 2004, £16.62 John Hurt was hilarious as the irascible rutting rogue. We never looked at Thatcher’s ankles the same way again. 86) Harry Hill’s TV Burp ITV1, 2001-present, £20.54 The playful television review was an unlikely primetime hit, and won the cult comic a Bafta. 85) Time Team This revived interest in archaeology and nearly replaced “Baldrick” on Tony Robinson ’s business card. 84) Boy A Channel 4, 2007, dvd n/a Andrew Garfield was superb as a freed child killer in this C4 drama that trumped the BBC. 83) Stephen Fry in America BBC One, 2008, £29.35 As Michael Palin was to the last decade, the avuncular and ubiquitous Fry was to this. 82) Live 8 BBC One, 2008, dvd n/a This investigation into dog-breeding led to the BBC pulling its coverage of Crufts. 80) My Beautiful Son ITV, 2001, dvd n/a Julie Walters was heartbreaking as a mother reunited with her son. ITV no longer make one-offs like this. 79) Party Animals BBC Two, 2007, dvd n/a A Parliamentary showcase for the coming generation of British actors, including Matt Smith, the new Doctor Who. 78) SpongeBob SquarePants So popular it attracted voice cameos from stars such as Johnny Depp and David Bowie. 77) Blue Peter BBC One, throughout, dvd n/a The nation’s favourite kids’ show turned 50, but also fuelled the fakery-in-TV row. 76) Malcolm & Barbara: Love’s Farewell/Right to Die? ITV1, 2007/Sky, 2008 , dvd n/a The first of these seemed to show a man die but didn’t (cue scandal); the second, in a TV first, actually did (cue outrage). 75) Bloody Sunday Channel 4, 2002, £8.80 Proof that realistic drama (here, by Bourne director Paul Greengrass) can make a 30-year-old story news again. 74) Mad Men AMC, 2007-present, £39.14 (bs) Stylish US drama about the macho world of advertising in the Sixties that reminded us how times have changed. 73) My Family BBC One, 2000-present, £39.14 (BS) In a decade of controversial comedy, millions loved this cosy alternative – as did Robert Lindsay’s accountant. 72) The Way We Live Now BBC One, 2001, £24.45 Inspired – and presciently timed – adaptation of Trollope’s take on the perils of capitalism. 71) The Osbournes 70) Gavin & Stacey BBC Three, 2007-present, £37.18 (BS) This cuddly sitcom depicting the mundanity of the suburbs and making James Corden the toast of British comedy. 69) Countryfile BBC One, 1988-present, dvd n/a As green and countryside affairs took centre stage, the revamped rural magazine was rightly promoted to primetime. 68) Hannah Montana Disney Channel, 2006-present, £12.72 Never has a TV child star been milked so profitably as Miley Cyrus . (She’s done OK, too, making $25m in 2008.) 67) Death of a President More4, 2006, £6.84 Launching More4, this docu-style drama imagined George W Bush’s assassination. 66) BBC 10 O’Clock News BBC One, 2000-present, dvd n/a ITV rues moving News at Ten – the BBC now wins the ratings almost every night. 65) Extras BBC Two, 2005-7, £39.14 (BS) Ricky Gervais ’s savvy sitcom about wannabe actors, for which celebrities queued up to spoof themselves in cameos. 64) Spooks BBC One, 2002-present, £15.65 The MI5 drama demonstrated we could do slick, big-budget action (almost) as well as the US. 63) Coast BBC Two, 2005-present, £56.70 (BS) The best of the many factual series this decade that fused geography with social history. 62) Bremner, Bird & Fortune Channel 4, 1999-present, dvd n/a Impressionist Rory Bremner reinvented himself as a smart political satirist. 61) Criminal Justice BBC One, 2008/9, £20.54/£19.56 A compelling legal thriller given added suspense by the fact it aired five nights in a row (a growing trend for drama). 60) The Kumars at No 42 BBC Two, 2001-06, dvd n/a An all-Asian troupe having a primetime comedy chat show (and No?1 single)? Would never have happened 20 years ago. 59) The Deal Channel 4, 2003, dvd n/a Michael Sheen’s uncanny turn as Tony Blair (repeated in The Queen) set him up to play David Frost and Brian Clough. 58) Skins The first credible “Generation Y” drama – even though its characters were impossibly hip and hedonistic. 57) The Blue Planet Another magisterial outing for Sir David Attenborough and the BBC’s peerless Natural History Unit. 56) South Park Still bitingly funny, the adult cartoon took a no-holds-barred approach to its satire. 55) 100 Greatest Britons BBC Two, 2002, dvd n/a BBC Two’s poll gave history new life on TV. Winston Churchill won, by the way. 54) Outnumbered Superb improvised family comedy – and expletive-free. 53) Jerry Springer: the Opera BBC Two, 2005, £19.56 This musical comedy about Christ got more complaints (47,000) than any show ever… before it had even aired. 52) Restoration BBC One, 2003-6, dvd n/a Griff Rhys Jones asked viewers to decide which British building most deserved a Lottery-funded makeover. Nice idea and oh-so public servicey. 51) Wife Swap Channel 4, 2003-9, dvd n/a The revelatory reality series forced viewers to re-examine their own relationships. 50) House Fox, 2004-present, £89.99 Lovable Hugh Laurie shot to US mega-stardom as the mardy medic and started an exodus of Brit actors across the Atlantic. 49) Springwatch BBC Two, 2005-present, dvd n/a This, and its mellow fruitful cousin Autumnwatch, are now biannual television fixtures. 48) I Love… BBC Two, 2000-1, dvd n/a Talking head, clip, repeat. TV list shows are a simple – but watchable – way to fill airtime. The knowing time-travel drama started a fond reappraisal of the very politically incorrect Seventies. 46) MasterChef BBC Two, revived 2005, dvd n/a This decade Britons have gorged on cookery shows such as this – yet cooked less. 45) How We Built Britain BBC One, 2007, £19.56 Exemplary instance of our new enthusiasm for buildings and design. 44) Soccer Saturday Sky Sports, 1992-present, dvd n/a Who knew that watching Jeff Stelling and co describe live football matches would be so addictive? 43) 24 Kiefer Sutherland’s suspenseful thriller brought Hollywood stars, stunts and budgets to the small screen. 42) The South Bank Show ITV, 1978-2009, dvd n/a As the decade draws to a close, so does the longest-running arts series in Britain. 41) Curb Your Enthusiasm HBO, 2000-present, £79.99 (bs) Larry David’s dark sitcom tackled one of the decade’s thorniest themes: the giving and taking of offence. 40) The Lie of the Land Channel 4, 2007, dvd n/a In the decade when fox hunting was banned, Molly Dineen’s film took a timely (and fond) view of rural issues. 39) QI BBC Four, 2003-present, £19.56 Never before had a panel game this bookish achieved such mainstream success . The spin-offs include a QI café. 38) Footballers’ Wives The mock-Tudor mansion melodrama was Dallas for the Noughties. 37) Have I Got News for You BBC One, 2002, dvd n/a The show in which satire ate itself, when Angus Deayton, after a humiliating tabloid exposé, became the butt of all the jokes. He was then fired. 36) Lost ABC, 2004-present, £185 (bs) US television spent vast sums on “high-end” drama. Lost’s pilot cost $14? million – and influenced a generation of high-concept series including this year’s FlashForward. 35) Richard & Judy Channel 4, 2001-8, dvd n/a Their Book Club made television’s foremost daytime duo even more influential – until the You Say, We Pay phone-in scandal. 34) Weakest Link BBC Two, 2000-present, dvd n/a Queen of Mean, Anne Robinson became the first game-show host to actively mock contestants. 33) Da Ali G Show Channel 4, 2000, 2003, £7.82 This was the moment Sacha Baron Cohen entered the global consciousness as Ali G; Borat and Bruno were to follow. 32) CSI CBS, 2000-present, £39.14/£56.75 The original glossy forensic drama – and, along with its two spin-offs, the world’s biggest television franchise. Nobody this famous had ever before given a film crew such access – or such quotes. 30) Jamie’s School Dinners Channel 4, 2005, £15.65 Jamie Oliver switched from chummy chef to strident anti-child-obesity campaigner. 29) Location, Location, Location Channel 4, 2001-present, dvd n/a Cemented our obsession with dream homes, as house prices soared (for a bit). 28) The Daily Show with Jon Stewart Comedy Central, 1999-, dvd n/a Under President Bush, the talk show became the US’s strongest voice of dissent. 27) Britain’s Got Talent ITV1, 2007-present, dvd n/a Only in the era of YouTube could a Scottish spinster become a worldwide star thanks to a single audition clip. 26) Who Do You Think You Are? BBC One, 2004-present, £49.99 (bs) Celebrity genealogy show inspired viewers to research their own family trees. 25) Top Gear New Labour spin – specifically Alastair Campbell – is savaged in Armando Iannucci’s coruscating farce. 18) The Fallen BBC Two, 2008, dvd n/a A tribute to every one of the 298 British servicemen and women who had died in Afghanistan and Iraq. 17) Little Britain BBC Three, 2003-6, £10.76 (BS) Lucas, Walliams and a dozen catchphrases shot to fame. 16) Sex and the City HBO, 1998-2004, £69.99 (BS) No drama had had female leads like these: sexually frank, witty, independent (although they still wanted a husband). 15) The Power of Nightmares BBC Two, 2004, dvd n/a Adam Curtis’s films showed how Blair used the threat of terrorism to cow the electorate. BBC One, 2004-present, dvd n/a Inspired a British ballroom renaissance, and became the world’s top reality TV format. 13) The Wire HBO, 2002-8, £125 (BS) Although ratings weren’t high, it proved television could match the scope and subtlety of a literary novel. Surprisingly, though, it never won an Emmy. Looks a lot like Pop Idol – but, crucially, Simon Cowell is now pulling all the strings. 11) 9/11 The decade’s most shattering news event created television footage we’ll never forget. 10) Bleak House BBC One, 2005, £14.67 The BBC proved that classy costume drama could be a ratings winner by producing a soap-operatic take on Dickens’s masterpiece that was shown in bite-sized half-hour chunks after EastEnders. It also won five Baftas. 9) The Apprentice BBC Two, 2005-present, £19.56 (BS) Started as a typically Beeb-ish, earnest take on reality television watched by three million on BBC Two. Five series later, it attracted three times that on BBC One. Alan Sugar was transformed from Eighties throwback into fluffy mascot for British business.	i don't know
Development of which aero-engine sent Rolls-Royce into receivership in 1971?	BBC NEWS \| Business \| Profile: Rolls-Royce 1907: 'Silver Ghost' car launched 1914: Company designs its first aero engine 1940: Merlin engine powers Spitfire and Hurricane fighter planes 1971: Goes into receivership and is nationalised; aerospace and motor car businesses separated 1987: Rolls-Royce plc privatised The aerospace and motor car sides of Rolls-Royce were split in 1971, and Rolls-Royce is now one of the world's leading engine makers for both civil and military aircraft. Its engines are used in both Boeing and Airbus passenger aircraft, and military planes such as the Harrier and Tornado are also powered by Rolls-Royce. The company also supplies marine power systems for both commercial and naval ships, and makes gas turbines for use in power generation. Civil aerospace While the defence, marine and energy divisions have been relatively unaffected since the 11 September attacks, the civil aerospace business - which accounts for 54% of turnover - has suffered. Rolls-Royce said that sales at its civil aerospace business in 2002 are likely to be down by about a quarter on this year's performance. As a result the company is to cut 5,000 jobs from its worldwide workforce of 43,000 - with 3,800 of the posts going in the UK. If there is any consolation for Rolls-Royce it is that its rivals in the aero-engine business have also been having problems. Its US competitors General Electric and Pratt & Whitney have both been shedding jobs as the world's airlines cut back on costs and new orders. The Rolls-Royce Trent 800 engine powers the Boeing 777 One thing that could help protect Rolls in the short run is the money it makes from the contracts it has to repair and maintain the engines it has already sold. This aftercare business is usually more lucrative than selling the actual engines. Rolls-Royce has taken an aggressive approach to engine pricing as it looked to increase market share. But Sandy Morris, aerospace and defence analyst at ABN Amro, says it is "pretty clear" that demand for new planes will fall, which is bound to have an impact in the long run on the aftercare business. Overall, Mr Morris says he has "respect for Rolls-Royce for its technology and for the market share it has taken from its competitors." But he adds "as an investment proposition it has not quite proven itself". The battle for market share does not appear to have done its shareholders any favours, with the company's share price now lower than the 170p level at which it floated in 1987. Starter motor It is all a far cry from when Henry Royce set up his own electrical and mechanical business in 1884. Mr Royce built his first car in 1904, and that year also met Charles Rolls, a car dealer. The two struck up a deal whereby Royce made a range of cars to be sold exclusively through Rolls' showroom. The cars were labelled 'Rolls-Royce' - and so a legend was born. In 1906 the Rolls-Royce company was formed and the Silver Ghost model was launched, soon to be described as "the best car in the world". Taking flight At the outbreak of World War One, Royce laid down the foundations of the modern company when he designed his first aero-engine. The Harrier jump-jet is powered by Rolls-Royce engines Engine development continued during the 20s and 30s, and when Word War Two broke out the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine powered the Spitfire and Hurricane fighter planes. In the post-war period the UK aeroengine industry gradually consolidated through a series of mergers until in 1966 Rolls-Royce became the UK's main player after it merged with its only domestic rival Bristol Siddeley. Back down to earth In the 1960s it also began developing its RB211 engine, but spiralling costs in this project brought the company to its knees. Despite cash injections from the Conservative government of Edward Heath the company went into receivership in February 1971, and was eventually nationalised In 1987 Rolls-Royce was floated again as part of the Thatcher government's privatisation programme. What about the cars? After being split off from the aero-engine business in 1971, Rolls-Royce and Bentley motor cars continued as an independent company until it was taken over by the defence and engineering group Vickers in 1980. Rolls-Royce motor cars: now in German hands It stayed under Vickers' ownership until 1998, when it was sold to the German car maker Volkswagen. But Volkswagen's rival BMW holds the rights to the name and the marque, having bought the rights for �40m from Rolls-Royce plc in the same year. BMW is now set to manufacturing Rolls-Royce cars in 2003, leaving Volkswagen with the sister Bentley brand at the original factory in Crewe. See also:	Rolls-Royce RB211
James Bond, 007, had four colleagues: 006, 008, 009 and which other?	Rolls-Royce - Graces Guide Grace's Guide British Industrial History Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 121,948 pages of information and 183,434 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them. Rolls-Royce 1922.Rear Axle of 20-H.P. Rolls Royce Chassis. 1922.20 H.P. Rolls Royce Engine. 1922.20 H.P.Rolls Royce Chassis. Rolls-Royce 1935 20/25. Reg: CLE919. September 1937. 1953. East Kilbride Works for Avon production. 1953. Engine test bed. 1959. Armoured Car on 'Rolls-Royce' Silver Ghost Chassis. 1958. of Derby and later of Crewe, manufactured cars and aero-engines. See also - Diesel Engines 1906 March 15th. The company was registered to take over the manufacture of the Rolls-Royce motor car from Royce Ltd [1] including the Cooke Street works. 1906 December. New shares issued of £200,000 to increase the capital with a view of enlarging the works, and to acquire the business of C. S. Rolls and Co . [2] [3] Directors: Herbert Scott becomes a director later 1908 July 9th. The company moved from Manchester to a new factory at Nightingale Road, Derby designed by Royce. The factory was built by Andrew Handyside and Co 1910 Claremont is Chairman, Briggs and Scott are re-elected as directors. [4] 1910 April. C. S. Rolls resigned his position of Technical Managing Director of Rolls-Royce in order to concentrate on his aviation interests [5] ; he became an adviser to Rolls-Royce 1910 After the death of Rolls in a flying accident, his shares were acquired by the future Lord Beaverbrook, who held them for a few years but did not gain control of.the company [6] 1911 Formed Automobiles Rolls-Royce (France) Limited. [7] c1918 Arthur Wormald is MD of the Derby works. A. J. Rowledge is Chief Assistant Engineer. 1919 Established a factory in America 1919 The design team was headed by Timothy B. Barrington with A. G. Elliott and Bernard Day assisting. R. C. Hall looked after metellurgy. 1921 The company opened a second factory in Springfield, Massachusetts. 1926 Mr Basil Johnson was appointed managing director in place of the late Claude Johnson . [8] 1931 Aqcuired Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd through the British Equitable Central Trust. 1933 Manufacturers of aero engines. Works: Nightingale Lane, Derby. Head Office: 14-15 Conduit Street, London W.1. 1934 See Rolls-Royce: 1934 Review WWII Opened a new factory at Hillington near Glasgow to make components for aero-engines and eventually complete engines, supplementing production at Derby and Crewe. As well as producing key aero-engines such as the Merlin , Rolls-Royce took over production of the Whittle jet engine from Rover. 1956 Acquired Sentinel for its factory and production capacity [9] 1961 Parent of 13 subsidiaries. Group employs 44,000 persons. Manufacturers of motor car, aero engines, petrol and oil engines, rocket motors and nuclear propulsion. Specialists in designing, developing and procuring of nuclear compartments for naval vessels. [10] 1968 Queen's Award to Industry for Export Achievement. [11] 1971 Financial problems caused largely by development of the new RB 211 turbofan engine led — after several cash subsidies — to the company being nationalised by the Heath government in 1971. (Delay in production of the RB211 engine has been blamed for the failure of the technically advanced Lockheed TriStar, which was beaten to launch by its chief competitor, the Douglas DC-10.) 1971 The receiver created a new company, Rolls-Royce Motors , to contain the profitable parts of the company including the car manufacturing division, the marine and industrial diesel engines, military vehicle operations and rights to the Wankel engine. The new company included the coach building businesses of H. J. Mulliner , Park Ward and Bentley Motors (1931) [12] . The gas turbine businesses were put into a new company Rolls-Royce (1971) Ltd [13] 1972 A new company, Bristol Composite Materials , was established to acquire Rolls Royce (Composite Materials) and the carbon-fibre producer Hyfil from the receiver [14] 1973 Having failed to attract sufficiently high offers in the sale by tender, the automobile business was spun off as a public company, Rolls-Royce Motors Ltd [15] . The main business of aircraft and marine engines remained in public ownership until 1987, when it was privatised as Rolls-Royce plc , one of many privatisations of the Thatcher government. 1981 Rolls-Royce Motors closed the specialist engine division at Crewe with the loss of 50 jobs. Manufacture for military applications continued with commercial side of operation handled from Shrewsbury. [16] 1982 Rolls-Royce gave up its 50 % holding in Trackpower Transmissions. [17] 1999 Acquired Vickers for its marine businesses and sold Vickers Defence Systems to Alvis in 2002 2014 May. Sold its energy gas turbine and compressor business to Siemens for £785 million. 2014 June. Announced the merger of two wholly owned subsidiaries, Aero Engine Controls (AEC) and Optimized Systems and Solutions (OSyS), to form a new business, Rolls-Royce Controls and Data Services which would continue to operate as part of the Rolls-Royce Group 2015 Employ 15,690 engineers and 23,200 total in UK. Employ approx 50,500 worldwide. [18] Locations ↑ The Stock Exchange Year Book 1908 ↑ The Times, Monday, Dec 17, 1906 ↑ The Times, Saturday, Jan 15, 1910 ↑ The Times, Jul 13, 1910 ↑ Wikipedia ↑ The Times, Wednesday, May 31, 1911 ↑ The Engineer 1926/04/30	i don't know
What did Dirty Harry say was the most powerful handgun in the world?	Dirty Harry (1971) - Quotes - IMDb Dirty Harry (1971) Quotes Showing all 31 items Harry Callahan : Uh uh. I know what you're thinking. "Did he fire six shots or only five?" Well to tell you the truth in all this excitement I kinda lost track myself. But being this is a .44 Magnum, the most powerful handgun in the world and would blow your head clean off, you've gotta ask yourself one question: "Do I feel lucky?" Well, do ya, punk? Share this: Facebook \| Twitter \| Permalink Hide options The Mayor : Callahan... I don't want any more trouble like you had last year in the Fillmore district. You understand? That's my policy. Harry Callahan : Yeah, well, when an adult male is chasing a female with intent to commit rape, I shoot the bastard - that's my policy. The Mayor : Intent? How'd you establish that? Harry Callahan : When a naked man is chasing a woman through a dark alley with a butcher knife and a hard on, I figure he isn't out collecting for the Red Cross. [leaves] Chief : [introducing Harry to the mayor] Mr. Mayor, Inspector Callahan The Mayor : All right. Let's have it. Harry Callahan : Have what? The Mayor : You report. What have you been doing? Harry Callahan : Well, for the past three-quarters of an hour, I've been sitting on my ass waiting on you. [after a battered crook has accused Harry of beating him] Chief : Have you been following that man? Harry Callahan : Yeah, I've been following him on my own time. And anybody can tell I didn't do that to him. Doctor : Sure, Harry. We can save the leg. [takes out some scissors] Harry Callahan : What are you going to do with those? Doctor : Going to cut your pants off. Harry Callahan : No. I'll take them off. Share this: Facebook \| Twitter \| Permalink Hide options Gonzales : There is one question, Inspector Callahan: Why do they call you "Dirty Harry"? De Georgio : Ah that's one thing about our Harry, doesn't play any favorites! Harry hates everybody: Limeys, Micks, Hebes, Fat Dagos, Niggers, Honkies, Chinks, you name it. Gonzales : How does he feel about Mexicans? [Harry is getting a dressing-down for his most recent arrest] District Attorney Rothko : You're lucky I'm not indicting you for assault with intent to commit murder. Harry Callahan : What? District Attorney Rothko : Where the hell does it say that you've got a right to kick down doors, torture suspects, deny medical attention and legal counsel? Where have you been? Does Escobedo ring a bell? Miranda? I mean, you must have heard of the Fourth Amendment. What I'm saying is that man had rights. Harry Callahan : Well, I'm all broken up about that man's rights. De Georgio : You need any help, Harry? Harry Callahan : Go on out and get some air, fatso! [turns to killer] The Killer : [pleading] Please! No more! I'm hurt! Can't you see I'm hurt? You shot me! Please, don't, don't! Let me have a doctor, let-let me have a doctor. Please, get me the doctor! Don't kill me! Harry Callahan : The girl, where is she? The Killer : [crying with reason] You tried to kill me! Harry Callahan : If I tried that, your head would be splattered all over this field. [demanding] Harry Callahan : Now, where's the girl? The Killer : [almost crying] I want a lawyer. Harry Callahan : [angered] I said, where's the girl? The Killer : [cries] I have the rights to a lawyer. Harry Callahan : [raises his voice] Where's the girl? The Killer : I have the rights to a lawyer! [Harry looks at Scorpio's wound on his leg] [Harry begins begins to slowly push his shoe on the wound] The Killer : I have right to a lawYEEER! [Scorpio begins to scream in pain as the camera zooms out] Share this: Facebook \| Twitter \| Permalink Hide options Suicide Jumper : [Harry is being lifted by a crane to try to talk down a suicide jumper standing on the edge of a building] Don't you try to get me! Harry Callahan : [chuckles] Not me, no. You're the one who wants to get yourself killed. Not me. That always happens with you men, you know? At the last minute, you wanna grab on to something or take somebody with you, but down you go. Not me, brother. Suicide Jumper : Aren't you gonna try to grab me? Harry Callahan : A friend of mine was up about 20 floors with a jumper a few years ago. The jumper grabbed him, they went off, 20 floors down. Just mashed 'em all to bits. You couldn't tell which legs were which, you couldn't tell which arms were which, it was a terrible mess. And I'll tell ya, I almost threw up myself. I'd just like your name and address, that's all. The Killer : [Scorpio has jacked and the unaware kids are singing with him] Row, row, row your boat/gently down the stream/merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily... Bus Kid: Where are we going? The Killer : What? What did you say? Bus Kid: Where are we going? The Killer : We're going to the ice-cream factory and see how ice-cream's made. Now anybody who doesn't wanna go can get off right here. Bus Kid: I wanna go home to my mommy. The Killer : [slaps the kid] Stupid kid! Come on sing everyone! Sing or I'll go home and kill all your mommies, sing, sing! The Killer : [kids reluctantly sing with Scorpio] ... gently down the stream/merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily,/ life is quite a dream!	.44 Magnum
Alan Partridge drove from national to local broadcasting down which road?	Kid reviews for Dirty Harry \| Common Sense Media Teen, 17 years old Written by davyborn October 3, 2011 age 18+ Gritty classic has lot's of sex and violence Dirty Harry is a very, very gritty cop classic that is not even appropriate for most teens, because of the fact that there is some very graphic violence including numerous bloody gunfights, lot's and lot's of graphic nudity including many fully nude shots of a thirteen year old girl (which may severely shock some f the more modern day viewers), some occasional casual drinking, and some strong profanity including lot's of racial slurs and at least 1 F-word. So, yes, it is a great movie, but is it for kids? Absolutely not. What other families should know Too much violence Teen, 17 years old Written by HALO13 November 13, 2014 age 16+ Do I Feel Lucky? Dirty Harry is a classic 1970's cop film with Clint Eastwood which depicts Harry Callahan a Good but Dirty cop who uses any means to bring down a criminal, even if it means breaking rules. Dirty Harry is a R rated film and It should be, Unlike the Spaghetti Westerns this brings more of a darker and violent side of Clint Eastwood with people being shot by a 44 magnum and some nudity in the film, which may be too much for young viewers. I would say most people of today can handle it. What other families should know Great messages Kid, 11 years old February 16, 2016 age 13+ Very,Very good police classic I've actually watched the whole series common sense is going a little over protective with this but I can see why. My uncle who actually is a cop recommended this to me back in the third grade which this movie was the first rated R movie I saw. This movie is not seriously bad but what you do need to know is that yes, there is lots of cussing,sex and violence but your kid(s) should be able to handle this as a very mature 9 year old but if your children have played rated M games ( not call of duty. games like GTA,JC3,RE4, or any horror games) your children can handle this this is a very enjoyable movie though thanks for reading my review! :) What other families should know Too much violence	i don't know
Whiff-Whaff and Gossima lost out as brand names to which rival, according to Boris Johnson?	LEO MCKINSTRY: The VERY bizarre origins of ping pong \| Daily Mail Online Boris Johnson, Britain's leading municipal comedian, was in typically rollicking form at the ceremony to mark the handover of the Olympics from Beijing to London. Even the normally dour Gordon Brown could not suppress a laugh during Boris's hilariously unconventional performance. After trumpeting Britain's role in the development of most of the world's top sports, Boris launched into a brief but colourful history of the sport of table tennis, known to its Victorian pioneers by the name of whiff-whaff. A young woman enjoying a game of ping pong in the 1950s 'There I think you have the essential difference between us and the rest of the world,' he continued, warming to his theme. 'The French looked at a dining table and saw an opportunity to have dinner. 'We looked at a dining table and saw an opportunity to play whiff-whaff.' This is the reason, claimed Boris, that Britain has such a rich sporting heritage. 'Ping pong is coming home,' he concluded (this being the Victorians' other favoured name for their invention). Boris may have given the funniest performance of the Beijing Games, but there was a large element of truth in his words. For, like so many competitive sports, table tennis - or whiff-whaff, as Boris preferred to call it - was indeed a British invention. As with so many other games, its exact origins are obscure, but it seems likely that the first forms of indoor tennis were played in the 1870s and 1880s by Army officers in India and South Africa. Boris Johnson spoke about Britain's involvement in the development of most of the world's top sports in the Beijing Olympics handover ceremony Mimicking the outdoor version of the sport, they used lids of cigar boxes as bats and rounded corks from wine bottles as balls, while a row of books placed in the middle of a table formed a net. As the officers returned home from the far-flung corners of the Empire this improvised activity soon became a popular after-dinner parlour game. It acquired the name of ping pong or whiff-whaff from the noise that the primitive bats made in hitting the makeshift ball against the table. Victorian entrepreneurs, never slow to see a business opportunity, were soon trying to exploit its popularity. One of the first was the maker of sports equipment John Jacques, who in 1891 launched a version called Gossima which featured drum-type paddles, a wrapped cork ball and a net a foot high. So successful was Jacques's Gossima game that it went on sale at Hamley's, the world's most famous toy store. Flushed with his triumph, John Jacques decided to patent the name ping pong in 1901. At the same time he sold the U.S. rights to the Parker Brothers, famous board game manufacturers, who spread the game's popularity on the other side of the Atlantic. It was also at the start of the 20th century that two other vital innovations significantly improved the quality of ping pong. The first came from engineer James Gibb. A whiff-whaff enthusiast, Gibb came across some novelty celluloid balls during a trip to America in 1901. Instantly, he knew they would be perfect for ping pong. The other big change was the introduction of the modern bat. This was the brainchild of another British pioneer, E.C. Goode, who decided to fix a rubber sheet to the wooden blade, thereby allowing spin to be put on the ball. Thanks to Britain's lead, enthusiasm spread across the globe. Western settlement brought the sport to China, and British salesmen got the Japanese playing. The citizens of Vienna and Budapest showed a particular keenness, though not everyone gave it the same warm reception. Tsarist Russia banned ping pong under the dogmatic belief that it was bad for players' eyesight. Within Britain, the Ping Pong Association was founded in 1902 - England cricketing legend Jack Hobbs was an early practitioner, bringing the same skill to the table that he displayed at the batting crease. But then, in the run-up to World War I, the sport's popularity went into reverse. One problem was the cost of the equipment, with manufacturers preferring to make their profit by marketing the game as middle-class entertainment rather than a mass activity. But an even bigger difficulty was the name ping pong which, as Boris Johnson inadvertently revealed, meant that the sport was not taken seriously in Europe. The title was just too frivolous for a manly pursuit. But all that began to change in the 1920s, when the more impressive game of table tennis began to take over. In 1922, the Table Tennis Association was founded, soon eclipsing the Ping Pong Association, while international competition was encouraged by the creation of the International Table Tennis Federation in 1926. The driving force behind this revival was - inevitably - another Briton, Ivor Montagu. A die-hard communist from a wealthy family, Montagu is such an idiosyncratic figure that he makes Boris Johnson look positively ordinary. The son of the second Lord Swaythling, a leading banker, the Hon. Ivor Montagu was educated at Westminster and King's College, Cambridge, but preferred campaigning for the victory of the proletariat to revelling in luxury. So he became a filmmaker for the Soviets, as well as writing for the Daily Worker and working with the young Alfred Hitchcock on such classics as The 39 Steps. In London he ran an open house for Russian visitors with his wife Eileen - who was known universally as Hell, though this sobriquet was an affectionate shortening of her name rather than any reference to social malignancy. Away from the cinema and politics, he was a champion table tennis player and it was through his inspirational leadership that table tennis was turned into a successful international sport. Table tennis, in its competitive form, kept that fine old British pattern of invention followed by failure. Predictably, the winner of the first World Championships in 1927 was not a Briton but a Hungarian, Dr Roland Jacobi. Only Fred Perry, our last male winner at Wimbledon, flew the singles flag by winning in 1921, but it has been a sorry story since then. Thankfully, Britain has a fine tradition of sporting innovation beyond the confines of the whiff-whaff court. The tale of William Webb Ellis, picking up the ball at Rugby School and so starting a whole new sport, is well known. Equally famous is the role of the Marquess of Queensberry in codifying the rules of boxing to turn it from the dubious activity of prizefighting into a well-run sport. The central part of Britons in establishing organised golf, football and cricket is just as renowned. But other, less celebrated, games are also British in origin, such as badminton, named after the Duke of Beaufort's residence in Gloucester, where a version of the game was first developed in the mid-Victorian age. It has been suggested the shuttlecock in badminton was created when corks were used as a receptacle for holding writing feathers and then it turned out that these objects were perfect for knocking around a high-ceilinged room. Similarly, hockey was first taken up in English public schools in the early 19th century, while snooker was invented by the British Army - snooker being a slang term for an inexperienced soldier. The oddly compelling winter sport of curling, which looks like a cross between housework and ice hockey, began in 16th-century Scotland, where games with stones and brooms were played on frozen lochs. The first references to darts appeared in the mid-19th century - though one mid-Victorian form of the sport could be somewhat terrifying since it involved blowing a dart at a board with a pipe. One player made the tragic error of sucking rather than blowing. The arrow disappeared down his throat and he died a few days later. Fortunately, that won't be an experience repeated by the likes of Phil 'The Power' Taylor. So Boris was right. When it comes to invention we have led the world in all sports great and small. And if Beijing is anything to go by, we even seem to be moving in the right direction when it comes to performance.	Table tennis
Christopher Marlowe was murdered 'while playing at tables'. What is 'tables' now called?	RICHARD KAY: How Ronnie Corbett's wife blasted Ed Balls at glamorous awards do \| Daily Mail Online How Ronnie Corbett's wife blasted Ed Balls at glamorous awards do comments When diminutive Ronnie Corbett’s formidable wife Anne Hart spotted Labour’s Ed Balls across a glittering ballroom, it was like a red rag to a bull. Anne, wed to Ronnie for 48 years, made a beeline for Balls to berate him over Labour’s support for what she calls ‘pure robbery’ — the 40 per cent inheritance tax. And in front of guests including Carol Vorderman, Tess Daly and pop songbird Pixie Lott at a Grosvenor House Hotel awards do, she tore into the Shadow Chancellor. 'Red rag to a bull': Anne Hart (pictured here with husband Ronnie Corbett) tore into Ed Balls She tells me: ‘I wanted to make it clear that inheritance tax is like the Sheriff of Nottingham. It steals the savings of hardworking people. ‘Everyone assumes because Ronnie has earned large sums during his career, that we must be rolling in money. But that isn’t the case. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share ‘We’re like everyone else. We’ve had to support our children and our four grandchildren who are the love of our lives and, God knows, what little money we have salvaged in savings, we want to leave to them.’ Berated: Shadow Chancellor Ed Balls was buttonholed by Anne Hart who berated him about inheritance tax Anne, 80, continues: ‘We’ve already paid thousands and thousands in tax over the years but unlike big business, we have never cheated on our tax returns. ‘But as the law stands, when we die a huge chunk goes straight to the Chancellor of the Exchequer. It’s totally unfair. ‘Ronnie has worked so hard all his life and he has paid more than his fair share, plus he has given people all this wonderful entertainment.’ Anne tells me she first sat next to Balls two years ago at a dinner and had given him her phone number so she could discuss her campaign to end inheritance tax. But he failed to call her. She says: ‘So I asked: “Why didn’t you call me last time?” ‘When Ronnie came into the business he had very little. His family had to send him food parcels because they thought he would starve. ‘He didn’t make what people think he made from shows like The Two Ronnies. And what we have managed to put aside, we want to be able to leave to our girls. It’s only fair.’ What was Balls’s reaction? ‘He was very charming and listened very attentively and asked me to put it all on paper for him,’ Anne says. ‘Which is exactly what I’ve done!’ Photographer Mario Testino, whose pictures of Prince Charles and Prince William hang in the National Portrait Gallery, is disappointed not to have been chosen to record today’s royal christening. ‘I know it’s just one of those things where Prince William wanted a change, but I can’t pretend I’m not a little bit sad,’ says Mario, 58, a favourite of the late Princess of Wales and the man who took William and Kate’s engagement photos. Curiously, the snapper picked to do the honours — Oxford-educated Jason Bell — had never met William and Kate before the recent selection process. Joan's golden Bond girl secret Joan Collins: The glamourpuss was asked to be in Bond film She’s written her memoirs at least four times, but tireless glamourpuss Joan Collins, who was 80 in May, always manages to keep back a secret or two. This time, five-times married Joan has omitted the story of how she missed out on a role that could have changed her life. ‘I was asked to do the Shirley Eaton part in the Sean Connery Bond film Goldfinger — the classic role in which she is naked and sprayed from head to foot in gold paint,’ Joan tells me at a celeb-studded champagne party to launch her latest autobiography, Passion For Life. ‘It’s an amazing image and an amazing film but I turned it down. I was pregnant at the time with my son Sacha. ‘Who knows? It could have altered the direction of my whole career and I sometimes wonder what would have happened if I had done it,’ she muses at Mayfair’s Club No. 41, where guests fighting to be photographed with La Collins included Graham Norton, Tracey Emin, Elaine Paige and U.S. designer and film-maker Tom Ford. ‘I have never talked about it before and it’s not in my new book because I didn’t want to be bitchy to Shirley,’ she adds with a Dynasty-style stare. Bon viveur and publisher Anthony Osmond Evans couldn’t quite believe it when he arrived at the Ananda Spa, a former Indian palace high in the Himalayas, and found himself face to face with chatshow billionaire Oprah Winfrey. ‘We were both wearing white wraps waiting for our treatments,’ says former ad man Evans, 70, who now publishes photographic books. ‘She was the only other person there so I thought it was polite to say hello.’ When they bumped into each other again Anthony tells me he plucked up courage to invite her out. ‘I’m in New York next month and I asked if she would join me at the Met for Tosca.’ She declined but Oprah, who was without partner Stedman Graham, was more interested when Evans, a member of the New York-based Explorers Club, invited her to their annual dinner at the Waldorf in February. The delicacies on the menu may, however, put an end to their burgeoning friendship. They include bears’ testicles and scorpion. Romance: Strictly Come Dancing judge Craig Revel Horwood Craig's in a twirl over new love If Craig Revel Horwood’s put-downs on Strictly Come Dancing are a little less catty than usual, it must be because there’s a new rumba partner in his life — dishy entertainer Damon Scott. Aussie-born Horwood, 48, is so thrilled with the man he describes as ‘my gorgeous new boyfriend’ that he has even given him a tour backstage of the BBC show to meet the stars. As I revealed, Craig, who is 14 years older than Damon, parted company with his previous love of five years, Harley Street pharmacist Grant MacPherson, 33, in 2011. But now he is ready to reveal his new romance, gushing: ‘He’s 6ft 4in, so for once I’m the shorter one in the relationship and he’s just divine. I’m also teaching him how to dance.’ He has even posted a photograph of them together for his regular column in WOMAN magazine, announcing: ‘He is a puppeteer. You might recognise him as The Monkey Man from Britain’s Got Talent a few years ago.’ The former queen of daytime TV Dianne Nelmes — she created This Morning and made stars of Richard Madeley and Judy Finnigan — is using her talents in a somewhat less glamorous environment: Wandsworth nick. She has become a visitor at the London prison and advises inmates how to stay on the straight and narrow after release. ‘I hope I can help by giving them guidelines of what would-be employers want from them and simple stuff such as the need for good time- keeping,’ she says. ‘When they get outside it is hard to adjust.’ But could there be a TV show in all this? London Mayor Boris Johnson takes exception to claims he’s backed out of taking on Pippa Middleton at ping pong after she challenged him to a match. Pippa, who played at junior national level, opened hostilities in April, writing: ‘I’m told the Johnsons are almost as competitive as the Middletons. So I’d like to lay down a challenge.’ Riled by suggestions he had ducked the contest, Boris, a fan of ‘whiff-whaff’, insists: ‘I am not going to be told I am wimping out.We have offered dates; she has chickened!’	i don't know
A castrated chicken is called what?	Why Castrate a Rooster: There Is A Reason, Find Out Here Why Castrate a Rooster You ask why you would castrate a rooster? Castrating a rooster sounds like an unusual practice if you're not used to keeping chickens, but it used to be extremely common. Once it has been castrated, the rooster is referred to as a capon, and becomes more docile and much fatter, making it a better bird for eating. Capons are still available in poultry markets, but they're fairly hard to find. The flesh tastes much better, and is preferred by people who really love chickens. Caponization is done when the rooster is quite young. It causes the capon not to develop the traits we commonly associate with roosters. The comb and wattles stay small, leaving the capon with a smaller head than most roosters. The back and tail feathers are also somewhat shorter. The effects of caponization also show up in behavior. The capon loses its aggression, and can be kept in groups, or even with hens. There's no danger of these animals fighting amongst themselves and causing injury. The energy the rooster would have expended in defending its territory against real and imagined threats is turned to becoming bigger and fatter. Roasted capons are high in fat, juicy and moist, and easily basted in their own juices. This is why they're so prized as meat chickens. However, they're not as common anymore, since the advent of breeds raised specifically for meat. It's important to keep this in mind. If you breed your own chickens, you'll quickly discover that you have more roosters than you need. Most farmers simply slaughter their roosters at a young age and eat them, but some choose to caponize, instead. Keep in mind that this is much more difficult than castrating a mammal, since birds carry their testes inside the body cavity, and that it may be illegal where you live. Check local animal welfare laws before you try to castrate a rooster. Any variety of chicken can be caponized, with most birds being castrated between two and four weeks of age. Before the procedure, the bird may be dosed with antibiotics, and it will be taken off food and water for up to twenty-four hours before the surgery. The bird will weigh about a pound at this point, and will then be raised to be anywhere from six to eleven pounds before it's killed. No farmer should think about trying to castrate a rooster until they have lots of experience slaughtering their own chickens. Then, practice by performing the procedure on dead birds so that you'll be able to do the job quickly, easily, and without harm. When you move to live birds, do it with young cockerels you're already planning to slaughter. This will allow you to quickly dispatch the rooster if you make an error. If you leave behind any tissue, the bird might not be a full capon. If you make a bigger error, it could be in a lot of pain and will need to be killed right away. It's easier to find the testes in an older bird. You'll need to use a professional caponizing kit, and make sure you're working on a clean area with disinfected tools. A small incision is made between the two lowest ribs, and the testicles removed. The incision isn't sewn up, and should heal on its own. When caponized by someone who knows what they're doing, the bird appears to feel little pain and returns to normal quickly. It is possible to castrate a rooster quickly and effectively, but make sure you know what you're doing first!	Capon
In which capital of the British Isles would you find the Royal Canal?	The Livestock Conservancy Cattle domesticated mammals of the genus Bos. Bull is an in-tact male bovine. Bull calf is a male calf. Calf is a young bovine. This term is used from the time of birth up until about 6 to 10 months of age when the animal is weaned. Cow is a female bovine that has had a calf. (This term may also be used for other species) Heifer is a female bovine that has not had a calf. Heifer calf is a female calf. Steer is a castrated male bovine or can be a future ox that is less than 4 years old. Ox is castrated bull that has been trained to work and is at least 4 years of age. Oxen is the plural of ox. Goat the domesticated form of capra hircus. Buck is a male goat over 1 year of age. Buckling is a young male goat less than a year old. Doe is a female goat over 1 year of age. Doeling is a young female goat less than a year old. Flock is a group of goats. (The term may be used in reference to other livestock.) Kid is a baby goat of either sex. Wether is a castrated male goat (or sheep). Horse is a domesticated large single hoofed mammal (Equus caballus) with a short-haired coat, a long mane, and a long tail used for riding, pulling, or carrying loads. Colt is a male horse under 3 years of age. Filly is a female horse under 3 years of age. Foal is a young equine under 1 year of age. Gelding is a castrated male horse. Mare is a female horse after her 4th birthday. Stallion is an intact male horse. Rabbit is a mammal of the family Leporidae or the domesticated Old World species Oryctolagus cuniculus. Buck is a male rabbit. Doe is a female rabbit. Fryer or “young rabbit” is a rabbit that is 2 months old and weighs 3 ¾ lbs to 4 ½ lbs. Kit is a baby rabbit. Rabbitry is where owners keep their herd of rabbits in separate cages. Stewer or “mature rabbit” is a rabbit 3 months of age or older averaging 6 pounds or more. Warren is where owners keep their herd of rabbits as a group in a large cage or enclosure. Sheep the domesticated species ovis aries. Ewe is a female sheep at least 1 year of age. Ewe lamb is a female sheep under 1 year of age. Flock is a group of sheep. (The term may be used in reference to other livestock.) Lamb is a young sheep. When referring to meat, lamb is meat from a sheep that is 12-14 months old or less. Lambkin or lambling is a newly born lamb. Ram is an in-tact male sheep that is at least one year of age. Ram lamb is a male sheep that is under 1 year of age. Sheep is a mature ovine at least one year of age and may also refer to the ovine species. Wether is a castrated male sheep (or goat). Swine are even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including pigs, hogs, and boars. Barrow is a castrated (before sexual maturity) male swine. Boar is an adult male swine. Gilt is a female swine that has not given birth. Drove is a group of swine. Feeder pig is a young pig, most often between 40-70lbs that is produced by one farmer and sold to another for growing out to market weight. Hog is a mature swine with an adult weight above 150 pounds. Lard types of pig were developed to have large deposits of fat that could be more easily butchered from the animal in large chunks. This makes rendering easier and results in less loss of good meat. Market hog is a hog that weighs from 220-260 pounds and is 5-7 months of age when it is sent to market. Meat types of pig (also known as Bacon types) were developed to have more lean meat with moderate marbling of fat. Pig is a young swine that is not sexually mature or a mature swine with an adult weight under 150 pounds. Piglet or baby pig refers to a young pig in its first 14-21 days of life and is still nursing. Shoat is a young hog (not sexually mature) that has been weaned and is ready for market weighing 150-260 pounds Sow is an adult female swine. Stag is a castrated (after sexual maturity) male swine. Poultry are domesticated birds that are kept for meat or eggs including birds of the order Galliformes: chicken, turkey, natatorial (swimming) birds: duck and goose. Flock is a group comprised of one species of poultry. Trio is typically a group of poultry with one male and two females Chicken is a common domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus). Broiler is a meat chicken processed at the age of 7-12 weeks when it reaches 2 ½ to 3 ½ pounds live weight. Fryer is a meat chicken usually marketed at 12-20 weeks. Capon are male chickens that have been castrated and they are harvested at 4-8 months old. They weigh 5-9 pounds and produce more white meat and have higher fat content than other chickens. Chick is a newly hatched or a very young chicken. Cock is a male chicken at least one year of age or older. Cockerel is a male chicken less than one year old. Cornish game hens are a cross between a Cornish and Plymouth Rock chicken (although originally they were pure Cornish), 4-5 weeks old, weighing about 2 pounds. They may be of either sex. Hen is a female chicken at least one year of age. Poussin or “spring chicken” is a young chicken, 3-4 weeks old, weighing about 1 pound that is prepared as a single serving. Pullet is a female chicken less than one year of age. A pullet is, in industry, a young female that has yet to start laying eggs Roasters are chickens that are 6-12 months of age weighing 4-7 pounds. Rooster is a male chicken over one year of age. Stewing fowl is a mature male or female chicken over one year of age. Ducks are any wild or domesticated swimming birds of the family Anatidae, typically having a broad, flat bill, short legs, and webbed feet. Drake is an adult male duck. Duck can refer to a female of the duck family. Ducklings are baby ducks. Old drake is a male duck over 1 year of age. Old duck is a female duck over 1 year of age. Young drake is a male duck under 1 year of age. Young duck is a female duck under 1 year of age. Geese are wild or domesticated water birds of the family Anatidae and of the genera Anser and Branta that typically have a shorter neck than a swan and a shorter, more pointed bill than a duck. Gander is a male goose over 1 year of age. (Also referred to as old gander.) Goose is the singular of geese or a female goose. Gosling is a young goose up until feathers have replaced all of their down. Old goose is a female goose over 1 year of age. Young gander is a male goose under 1 year of age. Young goose is a female goose under 1 year of age. Turkey is a large North American bird (Meleagris gallopavo) that is widely domesticated for food and comes in many varieties. Hen is a female turkey over one year of age. Old hen is a female turkey over one year of age. Old tom is a male turkey over 1 year of age. Poult is a young domestic (not wild) turkey. Tom is a male turkey. Young hen is a female turkey under 1 year of age. Young tom is a male turkey under 1 year of age.	i don't know
Which canal links the Grand Union Canal to the Limehouse Cut in London?	Canal & River Explorers - london London's canals and rivers Our guided walks at Limehouse, Brentford and Enfield are well established and have been awarded the Learning Outside the Classroom Quality Badge. You will compare the nearest river with the canal, find out how a lock works, learn about the local history and spot the surprisingly wide variety of waterbirds. During most of our walks children have spotter books to complete. More about London's canals and rivers Our Explorers team love researching and planning walks in new locations so we can also lead walks in Southall, Hackney, Waltham Forest and Broxbourne. There’s always a fascinating local story to tell so please contact us if you would like a guided walk near your school. If you are concerned about safety – don’t worry – our volunteers are always willing to give a water assembly in your school and we always teach the children how to be safe near water before we set off. All our guided walks and talks in London are free of charge! The Grand Union Canal at Brentford Outreach in your school A visit to your local canal or river in London is an ideal topic for delivering the new National Curriculum requirements for geography fieldwork and a local area history study. Before your guided walk our volunteers will visit your class to give an illustrated talk about your local river or canal. Each talk lasts about an hour and can be adapted for Key Stage 1 or 2. All about the River Lea This talk traces how the river has been used over the past 1000 years from Viking invaders to its role in the Olympic Park. Is it a river or a canal? Is it spelt Lea or Lee? Why is the river important for fishing, cucumbers and guns? Children will have lots of archive pictures to look at, some objects relating to life on the canal to handle (no guns!) and some costumes to wear. All about the Grand Union Canal This talk looks at the importance of the Grand Union canal as a major trade route from London to the Midlands. When and how was it built? What cargoes were carried? How long is it? What jobs would children have done on the canal? Children will have lots of archive pictures to look at, some objects relating to life on the canal to handle and some costumes to wear. All about the Limehouse Cut This talk looks at why the Limehouse Cut was built. Where is it and why is it called a cut? What’s the link to Eastenders? What is a ropewalk? What would Limehouse Basin have looked like in the past? Children will have lots of archive pictures to look at, some objects relating to life on the canal to handle and some costumes to wear. All about the Regent’s Canal This talk is about the Regent’s Canal which was built to link the River Thames at Limehouse to the Grand Union Canal in Paddington . Why was it built? What cargoes were carried on the canal? What is its link to Norway and ice? What happened after the railways were built? Children will have lots of archive pictures to look at, some objects relating to life on the canal to handle and some costumes to wear. The River Lea at Enfield Limehouse Basin	Regent
The Royal Military Canal separates which area from the rest of England?	Grand Union Canal \| Canal & River Trust Find events and activities within miles of There's plenty to see along the Grand Union Canal. From the vibrant heart of London, it leads you out into the rolling Chiltern Hills, through rural Northamptonshire and Warwickshire and into the Birmingham suburbs. The canal’s striking historic features include the dramatic span of the Iron Trunk Aqueduct and the steeply climbing Hatton Lock Flight , set in charming Warwickshire countryside. Take a walk and marvel at the engineering. The Canal Museum at Stoke Bruerne gives a fascinating glimpse into this waterway’s past. Find stoppages, restrictions and other navigational advice for this waterway . Family days out and scenic walks The Grand Union Canal is bursting with bustling locks, peaceful walks, areas of living history and wildlife. We've put together some free guides to the best family days out in your area. Download your free guides The history The word Union offers a clue to the heritage of this canal. The Grand Union Canal was never constructed as an entity, but is the result of amalgamations between 1894 and 1929 of several independent waterways — the oldest being the navigations around the River Soar in Leicestershire, the longest the Grand Junction Canal from Braunston to the River Thames. The term ‘Grand Union’ is now generally taken to mean the canal from the Thames at Brentford to the junction with the Digbeth Branch in Birmingham. Grand Junction Canal The Grand Junction Canal was built to improve the communications between Birmingham and the Midlands and London. It received its Act in 1793 and was fully opened in 1805. Its major engineering works were the two long tunnels at Blisworth and Braunston, and the long and deep cutting at Tring summit. Branches were added: to Paddington (opened 1801), Buckingham (1801), Northampton (1815) and Aylesbury (1815. The canal to Newport Pagnell (opened 1817) was built by a separate company. The Slough Branch was one of the last canals to be built (1882). Although the Grand Junction was built as a broad canal and could take boats 14ft wide, at its northern end it joined the narrow Oxford Canal and the canals which continued the line to Birmingham were also narrow. In practice, therefore, it was generally used only by narrow boats, except at the London end. The canal had water supply problems, especially for the summit between Marsworth and Tring. A navigable feeder was made to Wendover (1797) and several reservoirs with pumping engines built near the junction. Over the years, back-pumping was introduced at many of the locks. The advent of the railways forced the waterways to adapt in order to survive. The duplication of locks at Stoke Bruerne and the ascent of the northern slope of the Chilterns is an early example of attempts to speed up traffic on the Grand Junction. Despite reductions in tolls because of railway competition, the canal stayed profitable. North of Napton Junction This section was built by two separate companies, the Warwick & Napton Canal and the Warwick & Birmingham Canal. Both were designed for narrow boats and were completed in 1800. They shared many committee members and worked closely together, enjoying a profit until railway competition arrived in 1838. The weight of freight carried dropped by nearly a third in a few years, then stayed reasonably steady for several decades. However, tolls were greatly reduced, and receipts in the 1860s were less than a third of what they had been in the 1830s. Amalgamation In 1894 the Grand Junction bought the canals which now comprise the ‘Leicester Line’, then in 1929 the Regent’s, Grand Junction and the two Warwick Canals merged and were renamed as the ‘Grand Union Canal’. The new company embarked on a large-scale modernisation programme, largely financed by government loans, with the aim of enabling broad-beamed boats to work between London and Birmingham. Long lengths were dredged and strengthened with concrete bank protection. Bridges were widened or replaced, and the narrow locks between Braunston and Birmingham were replaced with broad locks (the remains of most of the old locks can be seen alongside their larger replacements). The canal company also embarked on an programme of building a large fleet of narrow boats but it struggled to find crews to man them. The ambitious scheme was completed in 1937 but much of the canal remained too shallow for broad boats to pass each other, and of course broad boats could not pass in the tunnels. However, narrow boats could now easily and quickly work in pairs. Traffic increased in the short term, but after the war the long-term downwards trend was relentless as canalside factories ceased using coal as a fuel or obtained it from other sources. The Grand Union today Today, the Grand Union Canal is alive with pleasure boats, walkers, cyclists and day trippers. As well as the impressive mainline, many smaller branches make great diversions if you have time to explore. The longest of these is the Leicester Line . Others include the Aylesbury Arm, Market Harborough Arm and Northampton Arm. The Paddington Arm runs through a lively and attractive area of West London, full of bars, restaurants, shops, Middle Eastern cafes, juice bars and a terraced canalside seating area at Sheldon Square. The Slough Arm is an unexpectedly green and rural bit of canal, passing through the pretty town of Iver. It is a great place to escape the crowds on the nearby London waterways.	i don't know
The Soviets invaded which Baltic country in November 1939?	World War II -- Finland Winter War World War II Finland: The Winter War (November 1939-March 1940) Figure 1.--This Finnish mother and child are evacuees from the massive Soviet Army invading their small country. Here they have just arrived at a govrnment evacuee camp and have been given name tags. The prss caption read, "Somewnere in Finland: The distress of the Russ-Finish war and the hardship it is working on the people is registered on the face of this peasant mother from Lapland shown on arrival at a Finnish evacuee camp with her child. Note the picturesque attire of the woman and child and the name tag each is wearing. Most homesteads in the far northenr regions hav been evcuated away from the Russian invaders. This picture arrived by clipper today. The photograph was dated January 19, 1940. It was the Soviet Union not Germany that first struck after the invasion of Poland. Finland is located on the far northern perifery of Europe. Rarely has Finland played a significant role in European history. For a few months, however, it was the Finns who galantly resisted totalitarian resistance. The first effective resistance after a decade of totalitarian successes. Only 2 months after seizing eastern Poland, the Soviet Union invaded Finland (November 30, 1939). This was the beginning of what became known as the Winter War. Stalin's goals are unclear. The Soviets claomed they wanted a security belt to the west. This may have been the first step in regaining old Tsarist borders using the samectactics persued against the Baltic Republics. Finland after Poland was the next step in that process. Soviet planes and naval vessels bombarded Finish cities. The international community was apauled. Roosevelt called it the "rape of Finland". [Freidel, p. 324.] Former Ameican President Herbert Hoover, who had organized American relief efforts for Belgium during World War I, headed voluntary war relief for the Finns. (The President hoped that Hoover would work with Mrs. Roosevelt to assist with Government sponsored civilian war relief for the Allies. Such was Hoover animosity toward Roosevelt, however, that he refused. If he had agreed, he suely would have eventually headed American World War II relief efforts. [Freidel, p.325.] The outnummered and out-gunned Finns inflicted enormous losses on the Red Army, but the weight iof Soviet power eventually forced the Finns back. The Finns and Soviets eventually reached a peace agreement (March 1940). Given the scale of the Soviet victory, historians have decribed the terms of the peace settlement as 'moderate', but Stalin's calculations are still debated. The Soviets got the security belt they wanted around Lenningrad. The Soviet invasion of Finland had significant repercussions. The Allies for a time considered actively aiding Finland, but the Germans offensives in the West soon made that impossible. The Red Army energed victorious from the Winter War (1939-40), but at considerable cost. The poor performance of the Red Army in Finland was a factor in Hitler's decission to attack the Soviet Union before Britain had been defeated. Karelia The border area between southern Finland and the Soviet Union is Karelia. It is the area between the White Sea and the Gulf of Finland. It is an extensive area which includes the two largest lakes in Europe, Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega. What is often referred to as the Karelian Isthmus is located between the Baltic Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga. To the south is Ingria, the land of the closely related Ingrian people. The traditional western boundary was the Neva river itself but was eventually shifted northward into the Karelian isthmus to follow the Sestra River which since Napoleonic times was the Russo-Finnish border.The River Svir on the other side of Lake Lagoda completed the souther border of Karelia. Lake Saimaa marked the Western border while Lake Onega and the White Sea mark the Eastern border. The land to the north was occupied by nomadic Samis (Lapps), but unlike the south there were no natural border onky trackless woods (taiga) and tundra. Karelia became the primary bone of comtention between Finland an the Soviet Union during World War II. This clash was not new. Russian Novograd and the Swedes fought over the area during the medieval era. It was the border area between Swedish controled Finland and the Tsarist Empire. The issue was settled for a time by the Great Northern War in which Russia seized Finland. With Finland part of the Tsarist Empire, Karelia became a dead issue. This changed after the Russian Revolution when Finland managed to achieve its independence and Karelia again became an international border area. Finland had almost all of Karelia and it included because of its southern location, a substantial part of the best aricultural land in Finlnd. Soviet-Finnish Negotiations (Spring 1938-Summer 1939) As Hitler chieve one success after another, Stalin became increasingly concerned about Hitler's intensions and the failure of the allies to confront him. Finnland had been a part of the Tsarist Empire and Stalin was interested inacyiring territory lost by Russia at the end of the war. It is not ckear what his long term intenions were, but he was especially interested in strebgening Soviet defenses. Finnland with a populatio of only 3.5 million people was not a threat in itself. Finnish territory include land located very near Leningrad which if occupied by the Germans would make the city diffucult to defend. The Soviets initiated talks with the Finns to acquire teritory thought to be esentialy to defending the city (Spring 1938). This was at the same time that Hitler seized Austria. Nothing was accomplishd. The Finns were not peepared to hand over territory and did not think that the sovietswould launch an invsion to seize it. The Finns assured the Soviets that they woukd never allow the Germans to violate their neutrality. TheSiviets rejected this as insuffucent. The Soviets wanted more than guarantees. They wanted territory and basing rights. In addition to territory north of Lnningrad, they wanted a base on the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland to prevent hostile (meaning Germn) naval forces from entering the Gulf of Finland leading to Lenningrad. The Finns were convinced that Stalin had more in mind and fiving into these demands would only lead to additional more unreasonable demands. Given what happened in the Baltic, they may have been right. NAZI-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 23, 1939) NAZI Foreign Minister Ribbentrop and newly appointed Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs Molotov on August 23, 1939, signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. At the time of the signing, British and French delegations were in Moscow trying to reach an understanding with Stalin. Hewas convinced, however, that they were tring to draw him into a war with Hitler. The two countries which until that time had been bitter foes, pledged not attack each other. Any problems developing between the two countries were to be delt with amicably. It was last for 10 years. The Pact shocked the world and the purpose was immedietly apparent. It meant that Germany could attack Poland without fear of Soviet intervention. Thus after defeating Poland, Germany did not have to fear a full-scale European war on two fronts. What was not known at the time was that there was a secret protocol to the pact which in effect divided Eastern Europe betwen the two countries. This protocol was discoered after the end of the World War II in 1945. The Soviets continued to deny this protocol until 1989. The NAZIs 8 days after signing the Pact invade Poland on September 1, 1939, launching World War II. Although the Soviet's did not enter the War against Britain and France, the Soviets were virtual NAZI allies as they provided large quantaies of strategic materials, especially oil. Communist parties in Britainand France opposedthe war effort. The Communst Party in America opposed President Roosevelt's efforts to expand defense spending and assist Britain and France NAZI Invasion of Poland (Sptember 1, 1939) The NAZIs 8 days after signing the Pact invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, launching World War II. Britain and France declared war September 3. The Germans more than any other military, correctly assessed the lessons of World War II. The War in Europe began on September 1, 1939 when the German blitzkrieg smashed Poland in only a few weeks. The Panzers crossed the Polish frontier on September 1 along with a devestating strike by the Luftwaffe. The Polish Army and Air Force was shattered. Britain and France declared war September 3. Within 6 days Cracow, the center of Polish nationhood, fell. Pincer movements began on September 9 to encirle the major remaining Polish forces. Once certain of Polish defeat, Stalin ordered the Red Army to attack from the East. German and Russian forces met at Brest-Litovsk on September 18. Warsaw fell a few days later after a ruthless bombing assault. The Blitzkrieg tactics that were to prove so devestaing in the West during 1940 were all on display in 1939. Neither the British or French showed much attention, abscribing Polish defeat to military incompetance. The French had promissed the Poles an offensive in the West. It never came. [Fest, pp. 602-603.] Poland's fate was sealed on September 17, when the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. Soviet Invasion of Poland (September 17, 1939) Once certain of Polish defeat, Stalin ordered the Red Army to attack from the East. Poland's fate was sealed on September 17, when the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. Already shattered by the NAZI invasion, the Polish Army offered little resistance to the Soviets. German and Russian forces met at Brest-Litovsk on September 18. Polish soldiers were internened in camps by the Soviets. Soviet actions in eastern Poland were extremely brutal. An estimated 0.1 million Poles were killed by the Soviets (1939-41). The most publicized killings were the Polish officers shot by the NKVD in the Katyn Forrest, but this was only a part of the wide spread executions of Poles by the Soviets. Some estimates suggest that 2.0 million Poles were deported to Siberia and other areas in the Soviet Union. Soviet Goals Soviet goals and by this we mean, Stalin's goals, are not known. Here only Stalin knows what his goals were in Filand. Presumably he told Molotov. Neither have left a historical record of what their goals were. The damands they made on Finland were to create a security zone to better protect Lenningrad. It is unclear just who the Soviets were concerned about. At the time the Soviets were a NAZI ally. Thus one might think that the security zone was aimed at the Allies. But the Allies had not way of opening aar against the oviets. Perhaps Stalin was thining about the NAZIs even at this stage of the War. There was no indication in 1939 of a diplomatic or military reltionship between Finland and NAZI Germany. Unlike many European countrids, there was mno appreciazble Fascost movemdent in Finland. If this was Stalin's concern, the Soviet invasion simply drove the Finns into the hands of the NAZIS. It is unclear if the Soviet demands were the limits to the Soviet goals or what seems more likely, the first step in the process they would persue in the Baltic states of actually taking over the country. Once the War began the Soviets sought to replace the Finnish government with a pro-Soviet puppet regime--the "Terijoki government". Soviet Demands The Soviet Government presented demands to the Finnish Government. The Soviets wanted Finnish territory along the south-eastern border with the Soviet Union. The Soviets justified the demand as necessary to build a security belt to the west. Finland was the next step in that process. Lenningrad was only 20 miles from the Finish border. The Soviets wanted to push the border 16 more miles into Finish terrirory. The Finnish Governments rejected to Soviet demands as "unthinkable". Soviet Attack (November 30, 1939) It was the Soviet Union not Germany that first struck after the invasion of Poland. Only 2 months after seizing eastern Poland, the Soviet Union invaded Finland, launching the Winter War (November 30, 1939). Soviets estimates were that they would smash the small Finnish Army in 10 days. The fact that they attacked furing tha late-Fll and the bulk of the war was fiught in the Winter shows how confident Red Army commandders were if vittory. The Soviet attacks began at 06.50 AM without any formal declaration of war. The Red Army crossed the border with a force outnumbering the Finns 4 to 1 in men and 200 to 1 in ttanks. [Edwards] The Red Air Force and Navy bombarded Finish cities. The air attacks seem to have been terror raids rather than attacks on military targets. It is unclear why this was. Many Red Air Force commanders were arrested in the Purges. Thus may reflect a lack of competence. Air warfare was very new. Commanders mat have thought that air attacks on cities would convince the Finns to comply with the Soviet demands. Soviet Pupet Government Stalin at the same time the Red army invaded established a puppet government for a new Finnish Democratic Republic. It was headed by the Finnish communist Otto Wille Kuusinen. It became known as the Terijoki Government because the village of Terijoki was the first place the Red Army occupied or 'liberated' in Soviet terms. [Chubaryan and Shukman, p. xxi.] Marxiest ideology led the soviets to believe that the Finnish working class would rally to the advance of the Red Army. This did nit occur and Stalin with no fanfare dropped the idea. The Finnish working class remaimed loyal to the legitately elected Government. [Trotter, p.61.] Finnish Forces The Finns were totally unprepared for a war. Finland was amall country nor did it have the resources to build a substantial military as was the case of the Soviet Union. The Finns were poorly equipped and after the initial fighting found themselves desperatly short of munitions. The small Finnish Army and volunteers while lsacking virtually everything in terms of military rquipmebt, however, devised a strategy to stop the huge, but poorly trained Red Army. The highly motivated and well-led Finninsh soldiers was an importantv factor in the War. Red Army Purges Most historians believe that Stalin's purge of the Red Army was a major factor in he poor Red army performance in the Wintr war. The professional core of the Red Army was consumed by Stalin's purges. Stalin had carried out a massibe purge of the Red Army just 2 -years before laubching the Red Army. The purge included perhaps 80 percent of the experienced commnders. This surely had a major impact on the Red Army's performance in Finland. [Edwards] The same was true of the other branches, including the Red Air Force and the Red Navy. This was one element in Stalin's Great Terror . Soviet Air Raids Finland had a very small air force when Stalin launched the Winter war and only minimal air defenses. Helsinki was protected by the 1st Anti Aircraft Regiment. They had four heavy anti-aircraft batteries of three to four guns each, one light AA battery and one AA machine gun company. Other cities had minimal air defenses. They Finns faced the largest air force in the world the Soviet or Air Force (VVS). Air wafare was still relatively new. War plans were still largely theoretical. Many Red air Force commanders were coinsumed in Stalin's purges. But even had this not happed, there was no well thoughout Soviet plan as to how to effectively use its air superiority. The Soviet air attacks were mostly conducted by the long-range bombing and reconnaissance group of the Soviet Air Force (VVS), the Aviatsiya Dalnego Deystviya (ADD). This group was under the direct ontrol of the Soviet High Command (Strvka). The Soviet bomber fleet was diverse, in part because Stalin wa obssed with building a massive force and unwilling to retire obsolete types. Three hours after the Red Army attacked along the Finnish border, Red Air Force planes bombed Helsinki. The most intensive bombing raids of the War occurred long the first few days. we are not sure why. One would have expected Soviet air attacks to hve intensifed as the ground war faltered. The Soviets bombed Helsinki only eight times during the Winter War, dropping a mere 350 bombs on the city. Some 97 people were killed and 260 injured. Some 55 buildings were destroyed. In World War II terms this was miniscule. Civilans in other cities were more affected. The Red Air Force carried out 2,075 bombing raids on 516 localities. Nearly 1,000 Finnish civilians were killed. The city of Viipuri, a priority Soviet target , was esentially leveled, hit by nearly 12,000 bombs. The small Finnish Air Force was largely committed to protecting Finnish cities and could not support the Army. The Finns could not stop the Soviet bombers, but did inflict losses. They are believed to have shot down 240 Red Air Force planes. [Trotter, pp. 187-93.] The Soviet air offensive was basically ineffective despite thecsize of the Red ir Firce. Unlike the Luftwaffe, the Red air Force was not skilled at close air force. It was used as more of a strategic bomber force. The trouble with this was thatFinnland was not a highly undustrilized country and there were few targts of importance. The rail system was the main Soviet target. The Soviet pilots went after small village depots of limited importance. They cut the rail lines repeatly, but the damage was easily repaired. Finns would have the trains running again in a a few hours. The Soviet bombings like the land invasion led to sharp ctiticm abroad. President Roosevelt asked the Soviets to refrain from bombing Finnish cities. Soviet Fireign Minister Molotov replied that "Soviet aircraft have not been bombing cities, but airfields, you can't see that from 8,000 kilometers away in America." International Condemnation Unlike Poland, however, Finland was not cut off from the outsude world. These air attacks and the land invasion were followed in detil by the international press and the Soviet Union was widely condenned. Germany had receivd the bulk of the onus for the early invasion of Poland, even though the Soviet Union had invaded from the East. This time the spot light was on Soviet agression. Soviet Attack Stalls Soviet troops at first advanced with some success, except in Karelia where there was a well organized defensive system. This became known as the "Mannerheim line". After the initial success, the Soviet offensive stalled. The Soviets used World War I tactics of frontal attacks on fixed defenses. Red Army tactics were often just massed frontal attacks on prepared positions. Whole battaloins were desimated. The Red Army was defeated in major engagements such as the Battle of Suomussalmi. The Soviets in the north advanced primarily on the roads. There were very few roads and the ones that existed were poorly developed. This left the Soviet columns exposed. The Finns effectively developed small-unit tactics. Ski troops in white camouflage proved highly effetive in hitting Soviet supply lines and dark-uniformed Red army soldiers huddled around camp fires. Field kitchens were another favorite target. [Edwards] Moving on skis in the back country the Finns were able to encircle and cut off Soviet units. Generally these were small units, but whole divisions were eventually surrounded and destroyed. The Soviet 44th infabtry Division (25,000 men) was virtually destroyed by an attacking Finnish force 0f 6,300 men. [Edwards] This was an important source of equipment as the Finns began the War with a small, poorly equipped army. Evacuations Finland carried out a series of evacuations during World War II beginning with the Soviet invsion launching the Winter War. The Finns evacuated the population away from the front lines early in the War. They also evcuated children from the cities to Scandinavin countries (Sweden, Norway and Denmark). Here the fear was both air raids as well as the danger that the whole country would be overrun by the Soviet colosus. As the Soviet weight of numbers began to overwealm the Finnish defenders, more evacuations followed. The Soviets escalated their teritorial demands presenting the Finnish delegtion at Moscow with substantial new demands. Once the Moscoe Peace Treaty was finally signed ending the war (March 1940), the Finns began evacuating the territory to be turned over to the Soviets. This was whole families. They were not mandatory evacuations. But few Finns wanted to remain in Soviet territory even though it meant leaving land tended by families for centuries. Many were urprised because the Soviets escalated the territirial demands during the neogitaions. The Finns in Karelia took what they could carry and their livestock and headed for what was to become the new Finnish border with only few days notice. They were allowed to keep their posswssions undr the terms of the treaty, but the builfings and machinery had to be left intact. This was no small matter for the Finns. Some 410,000 Finns streamed out of Karelia, over 10 percent of the country's population. This did not end the evacuations. There would also be evacuations associated with the Continuation War. Allied Assistance Finland is located on the far northern perifery of Europe. Rarely has Finland played a significant role in European history. For a few months, however, it was the Finns who galantly resisted totalitarian resistance. The first effective resistance after a decade of totalitarian successes. The Finns fought the Red Army while the Allies offered only moral support. The Allies (Britain and France) at the time were at war with Germany. Even so, the Allies for a time considered actively aiding Finland. Reaching Finland was, however, virtually impossivle. Finish ports were on the Baltic. The Germans controlled the Baltic. Allied convoys would also face Red Army and Navy attacks. Part of the reason for the planned Allied operation in Norway was to open supply lines to Finland. The negotiated peace and the NAZI attacks in Norway (April 1940) and the West (May 1940) made such aid moot. American War Relief President Roosevelt called the Soviet invasion the "rape of Finland". [Freidel, p. 324.] Former Ameican President Herbert Hoover, who had organized American relief efforts for Belgium during World War I, headed voluntary war relief for the Finns. (The President hoped that Hoover would work with Mrs. Roosevelt to work on Government sponsored civilian war relief for the Allies. Such was Hoover animosity toward Roosevelt that he refused. If he had agreed, he suely would haave eventually headed American World War II relief efforts. [Freidel, p.325.] Renewed Soviet Attacks Stlalin after the reverses in Finland appointed new commanders. Marshall Timichenko was put in chrge of the offensive. Timichenko during the Great Patriotic War was go prove one of the more competent Red Army Commanders. Red Army losses were heavy, but the Soviets could replace those losses. The Red Army adjusted tactics. And against the much smaller Finnish Army were able to make considerable progress, albeit at considerable cost. It was the vast disparity in military force, however, that decided the issue. The Soviets had the advantage of strong artillery support. The Soviets gradually ground down Finnish resistance. The Soviets not only had a massive air force and army, but were well equipped with artillery and armor. The Finns had very limited equipment and could not import the needed equipment. The Finns soon ran low on both munitions and men to sustain the front. Soviet tactics were simple and increasingly effective. Advances were preceeded by powerful artillery bombardments. The red Army had a string artiller component, the Finns next to nothing. The Artillery pinding was followed by massed frontal assaults, using tanks and infantry. The Finns were gradually worn down by the continuing attacks, In addition they had to deal with aerial bombardments, the frigid weath, and theeir in bility to reinforce and adquately supply the soldiers at the front. The Soviets breeched the Mannerheim Line, the main Finnish defence line on the Karelian isthmus (February 11, 1940). The Finns had to fall back to secondary defence lines. A series of Finnish retreats followed. The Finnish Army was on he brink of cllapse (early-March 1940). Peace Treaty: The Peace of Moscow (March 13, 1940) The intense military phase of the Winter War ended with major Soviet advances (late-February 1940). Fighting dragged on at a low-level while the two countries conducted peace negotiations. Finnish forces were able to hold the front, but it was obvious that it was just a matter of time before the Soviets with their vast military capacity achieved a complete victory. Also the Finnish Government saw that foreign aid was not arriving. It is unclear why Stalin did not pursue the war to total victory. One factor may have been the huge losses sustained by the Red Army. The tarnashing of the Soviet image in the world press may have been a factor. We suspect that NAZI diplomats may have also intervened, but Hitler until he had succeeded in the West, did not want trouble with Stalin. Here we do not yet have details. We do know that Hitler was disturbed about the Soviet invasion. The two countries agreed to a cease fire (Match 13, 1940). The Soviets received very substantial concessions from the Finns. The Soviets obtained their security belt and more. The terms have been described as "remarkably moderate terms". [Hart] The territorial concessions focused on positions helpful in defending Leningrad in any future war. [Axell, p. 55.] On the whole, however, the Winter War had been embarassment to the Soviets. One Red Army General commented that just enough ground was won 'to bury our dead'. But this meant only that the Soviets did not occupy the entire country, as they had dome their share of Poland. Finland ceded substantial territories, land along the southeastern border approximately to the line drawn by the Peace of Uusikaupunki in 1721. This included Finland's second-largest city, Viipuri; the islands in the Gulf of Finland (the object of the 1938-39 negotiations), land in the Salla sector in northeastern Finland (near the Murmansk Railroad), Finland's portion of the Rybachiy Peninsula in the Petsamo area, and the naval base at Hanko on the Gulf of Finland for which the Soviets were given 30 year lease. This amounted to 10 percent of Finnish territory, including some of the country's most productive farmland. More importantly over 10 percent of Finland's population lived in the ceeded territories. The Treaty provided time for the population to move out of the territory to be turned over to the Soviets. Nearly all of the residents, about 0.4 million Finns, moved out of the ceded territory back to Finland leaving behind their homes, shops, and farms rather than live under Soviet rule. It is unclear to what extent this represented an historic fear of the Russians or fear of Soviet Communism. Finland managed, however, to salvage its independence. Historians debate why Stalin did not continue the War to its completion, the conquest of Finland. One historian writes, "Stalin was anxious to settle with Finland so he could turn his attention to Poland and the Baltic countries, which the Red Army would soon occupy and the NKVD would 'pacify' using terror, deportations, and executions." [Fischer] POWs Historians have debated the Soviet Union's relatively correct behavior in Finland to the massive attrocities underway in Finland. A factor here is that the Soviets never occupied areas with large civilian population. Funnish civiliand fled the territory transferred to the Soviets. The treatment of POWs seensxti have been relatively correct. There was an exchange of POWs. The principal attrocity committed as a result of the War occured after the peace settlement. Soviets POWs repatriated by the Finns were encarcerated in NKVD prison camps. About 5,000 of these men then disappeared. It is believed that the NKVD executed them. Consequences The Soviet invasion of Finland had significant repercussions. The Red Army energed victorious from the Winter War (1939-40), but at considerable cost. The Soviets at the time minimized the losses. Soviet estimates released during the Khrushev thaw estimated that as many as 1 million Red Army soldiers were killed. Some observers contend that sounds unrealistically high. We know that Red Army losses were very large. The precise number may never be known. Historians contend that the poor performance of the Red Army in Finland was a factor in Hitler's decission to attack the Soviet Union before Britain had been defeated. Of course Hitler's war aims from the beginning was on the East. The poor performance of the Red Army in the Winter War may have enduced him to minimize the dangers. [Edwards] The precise importance of the Winter War in Hitler's thinking will probably never be known. Another impact was on the battle readiness of the Red Army. The Winter War meant that some Red Army units had battle experiene. This is another factor that is difficult to assess, but There is no doubt that the War and subsequent demands on Finland pushed the Finn's into the aems of the NAZIs, giving them a valuably ally in Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union. On the other hand, had it not been for the Winter War, the Red Army may have been even less prepared than proved to be the case when the NAZIs attacked (June 1941). On the other hand, the Soviet losses in the Winter War had been very sizeable. Soviet Aggressions The Soviet attack on Finland was followed by a series of other aggressions. Although it is the NAZI aggressions that are most commonly addressed in World War II histories, the Soviet Union compiled nearly as long a list of aggressions as the NAZIs. Operating within secret protocols to the Non-agression Pact, Hitler and Stalin were in fact close partners in the waging of aggressive war. The Great Patriotic War fought against the NAZIs after the 1941 German invsion came to be an icon in Soviet history. Left unsaid was the fact that Hitler and Stalin were partners in the virtul partition of Europe. The Continuation War (1941-44) The NAZI's launched Operation Barbarossa (June 22, 1941). Finland joined the Germans only 3 days later (June 25). Actually the Finns claim that the Soviets initiated hostilities with air attacks on Finnish cities. Prime minister Rangell then declared in a sppech to Parliament that Finland was at war with Soviet Union. I'm not sure if any historian has fully accessed the motives of the Finnish Government. Surely the desire to recover the lost territory was the primary factor. There may have been other factors such as the view at the time that the Stalin and the Skviet Union was a mortal threat to Finnland. Finland joined the Germans as a co-beligerent but not an ally or member of the Axis. The Finns refer to this as the Coninuation War. The Finnish Army innitiated an offensive om the cease-fire line (June 30). The Finns refused, however, to go significantly beyond the lost territory, much to Hitler's despleasure. This was a major reason that the NAZIs failed to capture Lenningrad. Sources Axell, Albert. Stalin's War Through the Eyes of His Commanders (London: Arms and Armour, 1997). Bayer, James and Orvik, Nils. The Scandinavian Flank as History, 1939-1940 (Kingston Ont: Queen's University, 1984). Chubaryan, Alexander O. and Harold Shukman. Stalin and the Sovietï¿½Finnish war 1939ï¿½40 (London: Frank Cass. 2002). Edwards, Robert. The Winter War: Russia's Invasion of Finland, 1939-40 (2008). Fischer. Benjamin B. "The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field". Fridel, Frank. Franklin D. Roosevelt: Rendezuous with Destiny (Little Brown: Boston, 1990), 710p. Hart, Liddell. Trotter, William R. The Winter war: The Russoï¿½Finno War of 1939ï¿½40 (London: 1991). The Trotter book was first published in the United states as A Frozen Hell: The Russoï¿½Finnish Winter War of 1939ï¿½40.	Finland
Where did world's largest tank engagement begin in July 1943?	World War II - The Baltic states and the Russo-Finnish War, 1939-40 \| 1939-1945 \| Britannica.com Sir Winston Churchill Profiting quickly from its understanding with Germany, the U.S.S.R. on October 10, 1939, constrained Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania to admit Soviet garrisons onto their territories. Approached with similar demands, Finland refused to comply, even though the U.S.S.R. offered territorial compensation elsewhere for the cessions that it was requiring for its own strategic reasons. Finland’s armed forces amounted to about 200,000 troops in 10 divisions. The Soviets eventually brought about 70 divisions (about 1,000,000 men) to bear in their attack on Finland, along with about 1,000 tanks. Soviet troops attacked Finland on November 30, 1939. “Helsinki Bombed,” newsreel showing the Russian bombing of the capital of Finland, 1939. Stock footage courtesy The WPA Film Library The invaders succeeded in isolating the little Arctic port of Petsamo in the far north but were ignominiously repulsed on all of the fronts chosen for their advance. On the Karelian Isthmus , the massive reinforced-concrete fortifications of Finland’s Mannerheim Line blocked the Soviet forces’ direct land route from Leningrad into Finland. The Soviet planners had grossly underestimated the Finns’ national will to resist and the natural obstacles constituted by the terrain’s numerous lakes and forests. The western powers exulted overtly over the humiliation of the Soviet Union. One important effect of Finland’s early successes was to reinforce the tendency of both Hitler and the western democracies to underestimate the Soviet military capabilities. But in the meantime, the Soviet strategists digested their hard-learned military lessons. On February 1, 1940, the Red Army launched 14 divisions into a major assault on the Mannerheim Line. The offensive’s weight was concentrated along a 10-mile sector of the line near Summa, which was pounded by a tremendous artillery bombardment. As the fortifications were pulverized, tanks and sledge-carried infantry advanced to occupy the ground while the Soviet Air Force broke up attempted Finnish counterattacks. After little more than a fortnight of this methodical process, a breach was made through the whole depth of the Mannerheim Line. Once the Soviets had forced a passage on the Karelian Isthmus, Finland’s eventual collapse was certain. On March 6 Finland sued for peace, and a week later the Soviet terms were accepted: the Finns had to cede the entire Karelian Isthmus, Viipuri, and their part of the Rybachy Peninsula to the Soviets. The Finns had suffered about 70,000 casualties in the campaign, the Soviets more than 200,000. The war in the west, September 1939–June 1940 Similar Topics Crusades During their campaign in Poland, the Germans kept only 23 divisions in the west to guard their frontier against the French, who had nearly five times as many divisions mobilized. The French commander in chief, General Maurice-Gustave Gamelin , proposed an advance against Germany through neutral Belgium and the Netherlands in order to have room to exercise his ponderous military machine. He was overruled, however, and French assaults on the 100-mile stretch of available front along the Franco-German frontier had barely dented the German defenses when the collapse of Poland prompted the recall of Gamelin’s advanced divisions to defensive positions in the Maginot Line . From October 1939 to March 1940, successive plans were developed for counteraction in the event of a German offensive through Belgium—all of them based on the assumption that the Germans would come across the plain north of Namur , not across the hilly and wooded Ardennes . The Germans would indeed have taken the route foreseen by the French if Hitler’s desire for an offensive in November 1939 had not been frustrated, on the one hand, by bad weather and, on the other, by the hesitations of his generals; but in March 1940 the bold suggestion of General Erich von Manstein that an offensive through the Ardennes should, in fact, be practicable for tank forces was adopted by Hitler, despite orthodox military opinion. Newsreel showing French troops passing the winter on the front lines of World War II, 1940. Stock footage courtesy The WPA Film Library Britannica Stories Big Radio Burst from Tiny Galaxy Meanwhile, Hitler’s immediate outlook had been changed by considerations about Scandinavia. Originally he had intended to respect Norway’s neutrality. Then rumours leaked out, prematurely, of British designs on Norway —as, in fact, Winston Churchill , first lord of the Admiralty, was arguing that mines should be laid in Norwegian waters to stop the export of Swedish iron ore from Gällivare to Germany through Norway’s rail terminus and port of Narvik . The British Cabinet, in response to Churchill, authorized at least the preparation of a plan for a landing at Narvik; and in mid-December 1939 a Norwegian politician, Vidkun Quisling , leader of a pro- Nazi party , was introduced to Hitler. On January 27, 1940, Hitler ordered plans for an invasion of Norway, for use if he could no longer respect Norway’s neutrality. World War II: Fact or Fiction? After France’s failure to interrupt the German conquest of Poland, the western powers and the Germans were so inactive with regard to land operations that journalists began to speak derisively, over the next six months, of the “ phony war .” At sea, however, the period was somewhat more eventful. German U-boats sank the British aircraft carrier Courageous (September 17) and the battleship Royal Oak (October 14). The U-boats’ main warfare, however, was against merchant shipping: they sank more than 110 vessels in the first four months of the war. Both the Germans and the British, meanwhile, were engaged in extensive mine laying. In surface warfare at sea, the British were on the whole more fortunate than the Germans. A German pocket battleship in the Atlantic, the Admiral Graf Spee sank nine ships before coming to a tragic end: having sustained and inflicted damage in an engagement with three British cruisers off the Río de la Plata on Dec. 13, 1939, she made off to Montevideo and obtained leave to spend four days there for repairs; the British mustered reinforcements for the two cruisers still capable of action after the engagement, namely the Ajax and the Achilles, and brought the Cumberland to the scene in time; but, on December 17, when the Graf Spee put to sea again, her crew scuttled her a little way out of the harbour before the fight could be resumed. The invasion of Norway World War II - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) Some 20 years after the end of World War I, lingering disputes erupted in an even larger and bloodier conflict-World War II. The war began in Europe in 1939, but by its end in 1945 it had involved nearly every part of the world. The opposing sides were the Axis powers-consisting mainly of Germany, Italy, and Japan-and the Allies-primarily France, Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and, to a lesser extent, China. Estimates of the number of casualties vary widely, but by any measure the war’s human cost was enormous-35 million to 60 million deaths, with millions more wounded or left homeless. (For a chronology of events for World War II, see World War II Chronology.) Article Contributors	i don't know
The Arabic phrase 'As-salamu alaykum' is abbreviated to which word?	What is the abbreviation for As-salamu alaykum? We've got 1 shorthand for As-salamu alaykum » What is the abbreviation for As-salamu alaykum? Looking for the shorthand of As-salamu alaykum? This page is about the various possible meanings of the acronym, abbreviation, shorthand or slang term: As-salamu alaykum. Filter by: Couldn't find the full form or full meaning of As-salamu alaykum? Maybe you were looking for one of these abbreviations: Discuss these As-salamu alaykum abbreviations with the community: Know what is As-salamu alaykum ? Got another good explanation for As-salamu alaykum ? Don't keep it to yourself! Add it HERE! Still can't find the acronym definition you were looking for? Use our Power Search technology to look for more unique definitions from across the web! Search the web	Salaam
Which Hawaiian word has come to mean both hello and goodbye?	Learn Islamic Phrase - As-SalamuAlaykum (Peace be unto you) - YouTube Learn Islamic Phrase - As-SalamuAlaykum (Peace be unto you) Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Aug 16, 2010 The term As-Salāmu `Alaykum varies slightly in pronunciation from country to country, but always remains universally intelligible.Many muslims today omit the initial 'As' and pronounce the word as "Salaamu `Alaykum". In many parts of the world, indeed in most of the non-Arabic speaking countries the greeting is pronounced As-Salāmu `Alaykum or in a similar variation. This is especially common in Africa, the South Asia, South East Asia and in Eastern Europe. Amongst various Arabic speaking countries there is also a varied pronunciation. Join our Group in facebook : "The Reminder"	i don't know
Which Hebrew word is often used to mean both hello and goodbye?	BBC - Languages - Hebrew - A Guide to Hebrew - 10 facts about the Hebrew language A Guide to Hebrew A Guide to Hebrew - 10 facts about the Hebrew language Check the Hebrew-only version 1. Where is Hebrew spoken? Hebrew is one of the official languages of the State of Israel, as well as Arabic. Hebrew is spoken in Israel and in many Jewish communities around the world, and you are likely to find Hebrew speakers where there are large Jewish communities, for example in the USA (where there are more than 5 millions Jews), France (approximately 490,000 Jews) and Canada (approximately 375,000 Jews). The Hebrew language found in the Bible (with the other language found in the Bible being Aramaic) is considered Classical or Biblical Hebrew עברית קלאסית [ivrit klasit]. This language evolved towards the end of the 19th century, into a language used for daily life - Modern Hebrew עברית מודרנית [ivrit modernit]. It is this Modern Hebrew that is now spoken around the world, while Classical Hebrew is still used for prayer. 2. What you already know about Hebrew There are many names which come from the Bible and are widely used as English names, such as Adam אדם, Benjamin חלטורה [chaltoora] – a sideline, moonlighting, shoddy work or low quality performance; פלקט [plakat] - a placard. 3. How hard is it to learn Hebrew? It could be difficult to learn the Hebrew alphabet, which contains 22 characters. Unlike in most European languages, words are written from right to left. As with most Semitic languages, there are certain sounds that will be new and difficult to pronounce. These are mostly created at the back of the throat. For example, in the word חבר [chaver], friend the sound of the first syllable 'cha' is a very similar sound to the one uttered for the 'ch' in the word ‘loch’ in Scotland. The pronunciation of the R sound in Hebrew is a guttural sound, much like in French. The Hebrew version of the famous “The rain in Spain”, ברד ירד בדרום ספרד [Barad yarad bidrom sfarad], literally Hail fell in southern Spain, is a good example for practising this sound. Verbs take a different form depending on whether the subject of the sentence is male or female. For example, a man would say אני לא מבין [Ani lo mevin], I don’t understand, whilst a woman אני לא מבינה [Ani lo mevina], which is the feminine form of the same sentence. 4. The most difficult words and tongue twisters שרה שרה שיר שמח A snake bit a snake אנחנו לא מהממהרים אנחנו מהממהרות [Anachnu lo mehamemaharim, anachnu mehamemaharot] We are not from the group of rushing men, we are from the group of rushing women. 5. Know any good Hebrew jokes? Hebrew jokes are found on a variety of subjects. There are self-deprecating jokes that will play up to Jewish stereotypes and there are political jokes that will make fun of political leaders in Israel. In addition, you will find the broad range of in-laws, wives, and region-specific jokes, with Israelis often the punch line of these. Some jokes are also a bit silly or based on play on words: איש אחד חלם בלילה שהוא מת. הוא קם בבוקר וראה שזו אמת. [Ish echad chalam balaila shehoo met. Hoo kam baboker veraa shezo ehmet.] A man dreamt that he was dead, only to wake up in the morning to find out that it is true. In Hebrew, the masculine singular form of 'dead', מת [met] rhymes with 'truth', אמת [ehmet], giving rise to this surreal play on words. איש אחד שאל את נהג האוטובוס אם הוא יכול לעלות לאוטובוס עם כלבו. הנהג ענה שאסור מותר אך מותר אסור. [Ish echad shaal et nehag haotoboos im hoo yachol laalot laotoboos im kalbo. Hanehag ana sheasoor mootar ach mootar asoor.] A man asked a bus driver whether he can board the bus with his dog. The driver replied: "Chained is allowed, unchained is prohibited." In Hebrew, 'chained' and 'prohibited' are the same word: אסור [asoor]. The same is for 'allowed' and 'unchained': מותר [moosar]. ישראלי נכנס למסעדה בניו יורק ומזמין עוף. המלצר אומר שאין יותר עוף בתפריט ועל כך עונה הישראלי שהוא יודע את זה. [Israeli nichnas lemisaada benew York oomazmin off. Hameltsar omer "Chicken is off" veal kach oneh haisraeli shehoo yodeaa et ze.] An Israeli tourist walks into a New York restaurant and orders a chicken dish. "The chicken is off", says the waiter. "I know", replies the tourist. The punchline to this joke is due to a play on words: in Hebrew, עוף [off] means 'chicken'. מה אמר טרזן כשראה פילים רצים במורד הגבעה? הנה פילים רצים במורד הגבעה. מה אמר טרזן כשראה פילים במשקפי שמש רצים במורד הגבעה? שום דבר, הוא לא הכיר אותם. [Ma amar Tarzan keshera’aa pilim ratsim bemorad hagivaa? -Hineh pilim ratsim bemorad hagivaa. Ma amar Tarzan keshera’aa pilim bemishkefei shemesh ratsim bemorad hagiva’aa? -Shoom davar, hu lo hikir otam.] What did Tarzan say when he saw elephants running down the hill? - Here are elephants running down the hill. What did he say when he saw elephants wearing sunglasses running down the hill? - Not much, he could not recognise them. 6. If I learn Hebrew, will it help me with any other languages? Hebrew shares similarities with other Semitic languages, such as Aramaic and Arabic. You will find similarities with the vocabulary, especially with regards to numbers. For example, אחד [ehad] in Hebrew and واحد [wahad] in Arabic both mean one. Similarily, עולם [olam], means world, the same as the Arabic عـالـم [alam]. In Hebrew, peace is שלום [shalom], whilst in Arabic سلام‎ [salam]. However, even if there are similarities in the way in which the two languages sound, they use two completely different alphabets. 7. What not to say and do As with most languages, embarrassment is most often found in mispronunciation. If you tell someone you are wearing khaki trousers אני לובש מכנסי חאקי [Ani lovesh michnesei khaki] they may well think you have soiled yourself, as khaki means faeces in Hebrew, though in Hebrew the word is pronounced with the 'ch' sound mentioned above. The English word 'me' sounds like the Hebrew מי, which actually means 'who'. If you point at yourself and repeat "me" over and over, a Hebrew speaker might think you're having an identity crisis! Just like in any other places of worship, remember to wear appropriate clothes when visiting a synagogue or mosque. As a general rule, cover your arms and legs. In a synagogue, men should always cover their head. The traditional cap worn by men in a synagogue is called כיפה [kippah]. If you meet an Orthodox Jewish man or woman and you are a member of the opposite sex, do not try to shake hands with him/her, as according to their beliefs a man and a woman should not touch each other unless they're married. 8. Famous quotations Theodor Hertzl, the man who pioneered the movement towards a Jewish state in 19th century, said אין דבר העומד בפני הרצון [Ein davar ha’omed bifnei haratson] meaning There is nothing that stands in the way of your will, a Hebrew variant of the classic, "Where there is a will, there is a way". Rabbi Hillel, renowned within Judaism as a sage and scholar who lived in Jerusalem in the 1st century, also gave a Hebrew account of the well known as "What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow": מה ששנוא עליך אל תעשה לחברך [Ma shesanoo aleicha al ta’aseh lechavercha]. While Shakespeare may have made popular the phrase "All’s Well That Ends Well", this proverb can also be found in the תלמודTalmud (a central text of the oral Jewish law) in the Hebrew form of סוף טוב – הכל טוב [Sof tov – hakol tov]. Literally: "When the end is good, it is all good". 9. First written records One of the earliest records of written Hebrew dates between 1200BC and 587BC and consists of 20 of the books included in the Bible. After this period and up to 70AD, there was a large literary output which included the writings of the Dead Sea Scrolls. 10. How to be polite and show respect The well known word שלום [shalom], meaning peace, is used as both hello and goodbye in conversation. In Hebrew, there is no way to say ‘I would like’. Therefore, when asking for things, you use the verb to want, רוצה [rotseh], with the word please, בבקשה [bevakasha].	Shalom
What was the title of Stevie Wonder's 1977 tribute to Duke Ellington?	Urban Dictionary: Shalom 1. Used as a traditional Jewish greeting or farewell. 2. Peace 3. A name, which usually belongs to a particular type of person. You will find that Shaloms are generally tall. They often do not show their emotions easily, but when you look deeper you will see they have great depth. Although they aren't always introverts, it is common for them to be more quiet and withdrawn. They are often found to have a very sweet caring side, and easily make people feel loved. They often end up acting as a sibling to those around them. They are known for being sweet and caring friends who are generally very patience with the people they love. Although they do get upset, they generally do a good job of controlling their temper. They tend to be very logical and excellent in debates. It is common for them to show a great love for music. Shaloms generally make great friends, and if you find yourself blessed with one you should hold on to them. Shalom to you my brother! Shalom to death. (peace to death) Hebrew greeting commonly used by Israelis , Jews and Zionists alike. Means "hello" and is used when meeting and parting . The common response to "Shalom" is "Shalom shalom". There are also 2 other greetings with the word "Shalom": • "Shalom aleichem" שלום עליכם - Peace be upon you • "Shabbat shalom" שבת שלום - Peaceful Shabbat ( Sabbath ) However, to Palestinians , Arabs and those who support Palestine and/or hate Israel , the word is interpreted differently as such people determine that the Israelis , whether civilians or soldiers, are all terrorists . They usually interpret "Shalom" as a fake greeting of peace as bloodshed is still happening despite the peaceful greetings from Israelis , Jews and/or Zionists . Note: Greeting "Shalom" to others does not mean you're a Jew or only a Jew can greet "Shalom". In the case of both parties knowing the greeting A: Shalom! In the case of one party not understanding the word of greeting C: Shalom! D: What did you say? C: I said "Shalom!", it's a greeting in Hebrew and if you want to respond, you can say "Shalom shalom!". D: Oh, shalom shalom! Political misunderstanding of the greeting E: Shalom! F: What did you say? E: Shalom!	i don't know
Darts had their last Top Ten hit in 1979 with which song?	Sometime Lately \| The Darts Lyrics, Song Meanings, Videos, Full Albums & Bios Sometime Lately / The Darts Video The Darts Darts were a nine-piece British doo-wop revival band that achieved chart success in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The popular London-based band had a number of UK top 20 hits including three successive Number twos with revivals of early U.S. rock and roll and R&B songs. Founded in 1976, by Den Hegarty along with Griff Fender, Rita Ray and Horatio Hornblower, all former members of the band Rocky Sharpe and the Razors. Joining the band was Thump Thompson, George Currie and John Dummer, all ex members of the John Dummer's Blues Band. The line-up was completed by Hammy Howell and ex Mickey Jupp singer Bob Fish. They built up a large following playing clubs and universities, although their break came after they appeared on the Charlie Gillet's show on BBC Radio London in October 1976. This secured the band a recording contract with Magnet Records, where they were teamed up with record producer Tommy Boyce who had previously produced The Monkees. Covering 1950s rock and roll hits they scored their first UK hit in December 1977 with a medley of "Daddy Cool" (originally a U.S. 1957 hit for The Rays) and Little Richard's 1957 hit "The Girl Can't Help It". More cover versions followed in 1978 with "Come Back My Love" (originally recorded by U.S. R&B group The Wrens in 1955), "The Boy from New York City" (originally a U.S. hit for The Ad Libs in 1965). Their next single of 1978 was an original song "It's Raining" written by band member Griff Fender (real name Ian Collier). All three of the aforementioned hits reached number 2 in the UK Singles Chart[1] and sold a combined total of 1.25 million copies.[citation needed] Following "It's Raining" in September 1978, Hegarty left the band to tend to his terminally ill father, and he was replaced by Kenny Andrews. Their final hit of 1978 was "Don't Let It Fade Away" (written by George Currie). "Get It" (written by Horatio Hornblower, under his real name Nigel Trubridge), followed in early 1979 and they also covered Gene Chandler's U.S. 1962 hit "Duke of Earl", produced by former Wizzard frontman Roy Wood. This was their last UK Top 10 hit, their only other sizeable hit coming in 1980 with a cover of The Four Seasons "Let's Hang On!". During the year, the line-up changed with Currie, Fish and Dummer leaving the band. Duncan Kerr (guitar) and Keith Gotheridge (drums), both formerly with Plummet Airlines joined,[2] and ex-Mud guitarist Rob Davis briefly joined the band, before moving into songwriting and production work. By the end of 1980 their hits had dried up and in 1983 they began to do theatre work appearing in the theatre production of Yakety Yak. In 1981, Hegarty became a television presenter, most notably on children's programme, Tiswas. In 1985 Fender and Ray managed and produced the UK a cappella girl group The Mint Juleps who scored two minor chart entries with "Only Love Can Break Your Heart" (originally by Neil Young) in 1986 and "Every Kinda People" (originally by Robert Palmer) in 1987. The band is still in the Top 500 selling list according to the Guinness Book of British Hit Singles. https://sonichits.com/video/The_Darts/Sometime_Lately Length: PT2M43S Lyrics: Sometime Lately	Duke of Earl
Which trio had their first No 1 album with 'Duke' in 1980?	The Darts - News, Photos, Videos, Bio. Free music downloads at MP3.com http://ad.doubleclick.net/N8264/adj/aw-mp3/artist/overview;ar=thedarts;ar=flyingsaucers;ar=thedooleys;ar=rockysharpethereplays;ar=shakinstevensandthesunsets;ar=chasanddaveandfriends;ar=theboppers;ar=johnnymaestrothecrests;ar=hankmizell;ar=theroyaljokers;ar=thescarlets;tag=rockandroll;tag=doowop;tag=rockabilly;tag=surf;tag=oldies;tag=rocknroll;tag=surfrock;tag=rocknroll;tag=russianrock;tag=drag;loc=top;tile=1;dcopt=ist;sz=728x90,970x66,970x250,880x150; The Darts Genres: Rock and Roll , doo wop , rockabilly , Surf , oldies Biography Darts were a nine-piece British doo-wop revival band that achieved chart success in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The popular London-based band had a number of UK top 20 hits including three successive Number twos with revivals of early U.S. rock and roll and R&B songs. Read More... Founded in 1976, by Den Hegarty along with Griff Fender, Rita Ray and Horatio Hornblower, all former members of the band Rocky Sharpe and the Razors. Joining the band was Thump Thompson, George Currie and John Dummer, all ex members of the John Dummer's Blues Band. The line-up was completed by Hammy Howell and ex Mickey Jupp singer Bob Fish. They built up a large following playing clubs and universities, although their break came after they appeared on the Charlie Gillet's show on BBC Radio London in October 1976. This secured the band a recording contract with Magnet Records, where they were teamed up with record producer Tommy Boyce who had previously produced The Monkees. Covering 1950s rock and roll hits they scored their first UK hit in December 1977 with a medley of "Daddy Cool" (originally a U.S. 1957 hit for The Rays) and Little Richard's 1957 hit "The Girl Can't Help It". More cover versions followed in 1978 with "Come Back My Love" (originally recorded by U.S. R&B group The Wrens in 1955), "The Boy from New York City" (originally a U.S. hit for The Ad Libs in 1965). Their next single of 1978 was an original song "It's Raining" written by band member Griff Fender (real name Ian Collier). All three of the aforementioned hits reached number 2 in the UK Singles Chart[1] and sold a combined total of 1.25 million copies.[citation needed] Following "It's Raining" in September 1978, Hegarty left the band to tend to his terminally ill father, and he was replaced by Kenny Andrews. Their final hit of 1978 was "Don't Let It Fade Away" (written by George Currie). "Get It" (written by Horatio Hornblower, under his real name Nigel Trubridge), followed in early 1979 and they also covered Gene Chandler's U.S. 1962 hit "Duke of Earl", produced by former Wizzard frontman Roy Wood. This was their last UK Top 10 hit, their only other sizeable hit coming in 1980 with a cover of The Four Seasons "Let's Hang On!". During the year, the line-up changed with Currie, Fish and Dummer leaving the band. Duncan Kerr (guitar) and Keith Gotheridge (drums), both formerly with Plummet Airlines joined,[2] and ex-Mud guitarist Rob Davis briefly joined the band, before moving into songwriting and production work. By the end of 1980 their hits had dried up and in 1983 they began to do theatre work appearing in the theatre production of Yakety Yak. In 1981, Hegarty became a television presenter, most notably on children's programme, Tiswas. In 1985 Fender and Ray managed and produced the UK a cappella girl group The Mint Juleps who scored two minor chart entries with "Only Love Can Break Your Heart" (originally by Neil Young) in 1986 and "Every Kinda People" (originally by Robert Palmer) in 1987. The band is still in the Top 500 selling list according to the Guinness Book of British Hit Singles. Read more on Last.fm . User-contributed text is available under the Creative Commons By-SA License; additional terms may apply. Top Songs	i don't know
Which region of France was renamed after the apple brandy distilled there?	Home - Calvados Online Calvados Online, the premier source for calvados. Calvados Online is proud to offer you only the finest calvados from Normandy, meticulously selected from amongst the dozens of calvados brands available in France. Most widely exported calvados is of bulk commercial quality, pleasant enough, but only a pale shadow of what the drink can be: a rich amber nectar, with heady aromas of baked apples, toffee and brioche, and a taste that combines the mouth-watering freshness of a crisp apple with the mellowness of an old brandy. The best calvados is made by a handful of dedicated small family producers, using apples from ancient trees and production methods unchanged from their fathers and grandfathers before them. This is the type of calvados you’ll find on Calvados Online. We live in Normandy, and even more importantly, our office is right in the middle of the apple growing heartland where the finest calvados is produced - so we know exactly where to find the very best bottlings, some of which are ONLY available in the region. Calvados, the fine spirit of Normandy... Calvados is an apple brandy distilled from cider made from specially grown cider-apples, of which there are over 100 varieties divided in 4 categories: sweet, bitter-sweet, bitter and acidulous. Apples are harvested by hand and pressed into a juice that is fermented into cider. The cider is then distilled into a colourless eau-de-vie. After years aging in oak casks, the eau-de-vie gets its typical colour, aroma and character, and can be called a "calvados". There are 3 appellations - AOC - for calvados (or calva as we say here): Calvados. Minimum 20% of local apples varieties. Minimum 2 years of aging. No method of distillation imposed but the most common equipment used is the single-column alembic. Calvados Pays d'Auge. Produced in the Pays d'Auge area only (where our office is btw). Minimum 2 years of aging in oak barrels. Double distillation in an alembic à repasse. Calvados Domfrontais. Minimum 30% of pears. Minimum 3 years of aging in oak barrels. Single distillation in a single-column alembic. But there is also a fourth category of calvados: the farm-made calvados, the secret one, the artisanal one that nobody can talk about in public. Email us for more details. All bottles and antiques are shipped in secured boxes, no risk of breakage. WE UNCONDITIONALLY GUARANTEE EVERY DELIVERY. In the very unlikely event that a bottle gets lost, we will replace it immediately or refund your money in full. We take credit cards, debit cards and bank transfers. We can also take payments over phone, email or fax thanks to our virtual terminal secured and managed by PayPal. See all details after validating your shopping cart.	Calvados
Which brand of whisky shares its name with a ship and a Scottish shirt?	Brandy: A Beginner's Guide - Eater Brandy: A Beginner's Guide The Chanticleer brandy cocktail adapted by David Wondrich using 1840 Original Formula. Courtesy of Pierre Ferrand Cognac Think that all brandy is Cognac? Or that all brandy is French, made from grapes and sipped from snifters? Far from it. According to the latest statistics from DISCUS (the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States), in 2013 there were 11.1 million 9-liter cases of brandy sold in the United States, up 15 percent from 2002, with the super premium category leading the charge, up 54.3 percent. That's more brandy sold annually than gin, at 10 million cases, and Scotch, at 9.43 million cases. Yet, for so many drinkers, brandy simply equates to Hennessy or Remy Martin. "The only times I really hear brandy referenced, it's the most generic, cliché image of a stuffy old white man in a smoking jacket with a snifter by a fireplace drinking some unpronounceable French brandy," says Chad Robinson, an all-around brandy enthusiast, and brand ambassador for Catoctin Creek, a Virginia distillery which produces a range of brandies, in addition to whiskey and gin. Yes, brandy can be enjoyed in that form and fashion. But no, that's not all there is to it. Brandies From Around the World Brandy de Jerez is a Spanish brandy made in the Jerez region of Andalusia. Calvados hails from France, however it's an apple brandy and must come from the Normandy region. Grappa is an Italian pomace brandy, made from the pomace leftover after winemaking. Ouzo, from Greece, is also made from pomace, however it's flavored with anise and potentially other herbs, so is not technically a brandy. Palinka is a Hungarian fruit brandy which dates back to the 14th century. Palenka, meanwhile, comes from the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Pisco is a Peruvian brandy, although Chile makes it too under different classifications and the two nations battle over the term. As opposed to Cognac, with mandatory oak barrel aging, Peruvian pisco cannot be aged in wood. Rakia is a Balkan fruit brandy, but it's not to be confused with Raki, a Turkish anise-flavored spirit distilled from grape pomace à la Ouzo. Schnapps is a broad classification of fruit brandies from Germany. What is Brandy? Brandy, by definition, refers to a spirit which has been distilled from wine, or another fermented fruit juice. It can be aged, as is required for Cognacs, or it can be unaged, and it can come from anywhere in the world. What is Cognac? "Cognac is to brandy what Champagne is to sparkling wine," explains Alexandre Gabriel, proprietor of Pierre Ferrand Cognac. It simply means that the particular brandy known as Cognac is, "made in a specific region of France following specific rules to guarantee its quality." The Cognac region is in western France, north of Bordeaux, with one border on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. Beyond Champagne to sparkling wine, there's another easy comparison as well. "I frequently have to explain to people the difference between bourbon and whiskey, namely that bourbon is a type of whiskey ," says Robinson. "I similarly try to explain to folks that Cognac is a type of brandy." Within Cognac, there's a broad range of styles, as there is within any other category of spirit, such as bourbon . For instance, half a dozen different sub-regions exist within Cognac, noted as offering different taste characteristics and overall quality levels. "Cognac is to brandy what Champagne is to sparkling wine." "The Grande Champagne de Cognac is a very special and small area in the heart of the Cognac region," explains Gabriel. "Most Cognac houses have a Grande Champagne edition that is usually their most prestigious." Cognac must be made from a specific selection of grapes, double distilled in copper alembic stills and aged for a minimum of two years in French Limousin oak . Cognac is most often blended, utilizing grapes from different regions, as well as barrels of different ages. There's also a hierarchy of quality for Cognac, including: V.S., "Very Special" or "Three Star" Cognac, in which the youngest brandy is at least two years. V.S.O.P., "Very Special Old Pale" or "Reserve," with a minimum age of four years. X.O., "Extra Old" or "Napoleon," with a minimum age of six years, set to change to a minimum of 10 years in 2016. Hors d'Age is used to indicate even older and more premium releases. Prior to time spent in those oak barrels, as is required for Cognac, a spirit made in the same fashion anywhere in the world is known as an eau de vie, referring to a clear brandy. Meanwhile "fruit brandy" can be used to refer to brandy made from any fruit besides grapes. The Jackson Punch, adapted by David Wondrich from an 1863 recipe by Jerry Thomas. Photo courtesy of Pierre Ferrand Cognac. Cognac must be made from a specific selection of grapes, double distilled in copper alembic stills and aged for a minimum of two years in French Limousine oak. Back to Cognac, all Cognac does not need to be sipped neat. Of course, traditional libations such as the Sidecar and Vieux Carré are made with Cognac, so the spirit's cocktail heritage is strong. Those looking to try a style of Cognac (young and lively, but still with dark, rich flavors and a higher proof) that would have been originally used in those drinks and other classic cocktails should look to Pierre Ferrand's 1840 Original Formula—a super unique and relatively new bottle that has won several notable awards. The spirit's final blend is based upon a surviving bottle of Pinet-Castillon Cognac from the year 1840, which Gabriel and his team, including cocktail historian David Wondrich, sampled and evaluated. Armagnac Armagnac, an aged French brandy hailing from a region south of Cognac, has started to gain traction stateside as an often more affordable Cognac alternative. Three sub-regions exist within Armagnac and, as opposed to Cognac's double alembic still distillation, brandy production in the area typically involves a single distillation using column stills. Armagnac's spirit classification system is similar to Cognac's. Here though, V.S.O.P. indicates a minimum age of five years, rather than four, X.O. is stays put at six years, and Hors d'Age indicates a minimum of 10 years. Catoctin Creek's 1757 Virginia Brandy. Photo courtesy of Firefly Imageworks. American Brandy Spin a globe and randomly pick a country and it's likely that a distinctive brandy is produced there. That includes the United States, with applejack, which is distilled from hard apple cider, otherwise known as fermented apple juice. Apples and apple cider were both used for brandy production in America dating back to the colonial period. "Those trees good ol' Johnny Appleseed were planting weren't to keep the doctor away," jokes Robinson, "he was making cider and applejack!" Today, a broad range of brandy is produced from coast to coast. That includes the aforementioned Catoctin Creek, which makes 1757 Virginia Brandy, Pearousia, a pear brandy, and several other fruit brandies. "Other small American producers like Osocalis and Germain Robin, they're putting the same kind of effort, love and energy into making outstanding American brandies," notes Robinson, also citing Copper & Kings as another American brandy producer worth checking out.	i don't know
Manchester Trousers are made of Manchester cloth, which is another name for what?	Cord - definition of cord by The Free Dictionary Cord - definition of cord by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/cord (kôrd) n. 1. A slender length of flexible material usually made of twisted strands or fibers and used to bind, tie, connect, or support. See Usage Note at chord 1. 2. An insulated flexible electric wire fitted with a plug or plugs. 3. A hangman's rope. 4. An influence, feeling, or force that binds or restrains; a bond or tie. 5. also chord Anatomy A long ropelike structure, such as a nerve or tendon: a spinal cord. 6. a. A raised rib on the surface of cloth. b. A fabric or cloth with such ribs. 7. cords Pants made of corduroy. 8. A unit of quantity for cut fuel wood, equal to a stack measuring 4 × 4 × 8 feet or 128 cubic feet (3.62 cubic meters). tr.v. cord·ed, cord·ing, cords 1. To fasten or bind with a cord: corded the stack of old newspapers and placed them in the recycling bin. 2. To furnish with a cord. 3. To pile (wood) in cords. [Middle English, from Old French corde, from Latin chorda, from Greek khordē; see gherə- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.] cord′er n. n 1. (Textiles) string or thin rope made of several twisted strands 2. (Textiles) a length of woven or twisted strands of silk, etc, sewn on clothing or used as a belt 3. (Textiles) a ribbed fabric, esp corduroy 4. any influence that binds or restrains 5. (Electrical Engineering) US and Canadian a flexible insulated electric cable, used esp to connect appliances to mains. Also called (in Britain and certain other countries): flex 6. (Anatomy) anatomy any part resembling a string or rope: the spinal cord. 7. (Units) a unit of volume for measuring cut wood, equal to 128 cubic feet vb (tr) 8. to bind or furnish with a cord or cords 9. (Forestry) to stack (wood) in cords [C13: from Old French corde, from Latin chorda cord, from Greek khordē; see chord1] ˈcorder n 1. a string or thin rope made of several strands braided, twisted, or woven together. 2. a small, flexible, insulated electrical cable. 3. a ribbed fabric, esp. corduroy. 4. a cordlike rib on the surface of cloth. 5. cords, clothing, as trousers, of corded fabric, esp. corduroy. 6. any influence that binds or restrains. 7. a cordlike structure: the spinal cord. 8. a unit of volume used chiefly for fuel wood, now generally equal to 128 cubic feet (3.6 cubic meters), usu. specified as 8 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 4 ft. high (2.4 m x 1.2 m x 1.2 m). Abbr.: cd , cd. v.t. 9. to bind or fasten with a cord or cords. 10. to pile or stack up (wood) in cords. 11. to furnish with a cord. [1250–1300; Middle English < Anglo-French, Old French corde < Latin chorda < Greek chordḗ gut; confused in part of its history with chord 1] cord′er, n. cord - An amount of wood containing 128 cubic feet (4x4x8 feet); the name comes from the old practice of measuring a stack of firewood with a cord of a certain length. To cord is to stack or put up wood in cords. See also related terms for measuring . cord , chord - Cord comes from Greek khorde, "gut, string of a musical instrument," and chord is a refashioning of cord. See also related terms for musical instrument . Cord a string composed of strands which are woven or twisted together, a central idea or link that strings things together; a measure of cut wood, stone, or rock. Examples: cords of discipline, 1883; of friendship, 1535; of poorness, 1382; of rock, 1882; of stone, 1703; of wood, 1616. These words are both pronounced /kɔːd/. 1. 'chord' A chord is a number of musical notes played or sung together to produce a pleasant sound. He played some random chords. 2. 'cord' Cord is strong, thick string. A cord is a piece of this string. She tied a cord around her box. A cord is also a length of wire covered with plastic which connects a piece of electrical equipment to an electricity supply. cord I will have been cording you will have been cording he/she/it will have been cording we will have been cording you will have been cording they will have been cording Past Perfect Continuous they would have corded cord 1. A ceremonial cord made from silk, other natural material or nylon, used by some modern witches. 2. A unit of dry volume, especially used for timber. Equal to 128 ft3. Cord 1. A measure of volume used primarily to measure the quantity of firewood. Legally, a cord is a stack eight feet long by four feet high by four feet deep. However, a cord was often considered to be a stack eight feet long, four feet high, and as deep as the length of the sticks of firewood, although that is a dictionary definition of a Rick . A Cord-foot is oneeighth cord or a stack four feet high, four feet long, and one foot deep. Often, even if the wood was not intended for sale, it would be initially stacked and measured as it was cut in order to judge when there was enough to last the winter. 2. A front-wheel drive automobile made from 1929–1937 by the Auburn Automobile Company of Auburn, Indiana. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. cord - a line made of twisted fibers or threads; "the bundle was tied with a cord" agal - a cord (usually of goat's hair) that Arabs (especially Bedouins) wind around their heads to hold down the kaffiyeh apron string - (usually used in the plural) a cord used to tie an apron at the waist bowstring - the string of an archer's bow catgut , gut - a strong cord made from the intestines of sheep and used in surgery chenille , chenille cord - a soft tufted cord used in embroidery clews - the cords used to suspend a hammock clothesline - a cord on which clothes are hung to dry fishing line - a length of cord to which the leader and float and sinker and hook are attached lace , lacing - a cord that is drawn through eyelets or around hooks in order to draw together two edges (as of a shoe or garment) laniard , lanyard - a cord worn around the neck to hold a knife or whistle laniard , lanyard - a cord with an attached hook that is used to fire certain types of cannon line - something (as a cord or rope) that is long and thin and flexible; "a washing line" log line - a knotted cord that runs out from a reel to a piece of wood that is attached to it piping - a thin strip of covered cord used to edge hems plumb line , perpendicular - a cord from which a metal weight is suspended pointing directly to the earth's center of gravity; used to determine the vertical from a given point ripcord - a cord that is pulled to open a parachute from its pack during a descent ripcord - a cord that is pulled to open the gasbag of a balloon wide enough to release gas and so causes the balloon to descend sash cord , sash line - a strong cord connecting a sash weight to a sliding sash slack - a cord or rope or cable that is hanging loosely; "he took up the slack" static line - a cord used instead of a ripcord to open a parachute; the cord is attached at one end to the aircraft and temporarily attached to the pack of a parachute at the other; it opens the parachute after the jumper is clear of the plane string , twine - a lightweight cord string - a tightly stretched cord of wire or gut, which makes sound when plucked, struck, or bowed thread , yarn - a fine cord of twisted fibers (of cotton or silk or wool or nylon etc.) used in sewing and weaving tie - a cord (or string or ribbon or wire etc.) with which something is tied; "he needed a tie for the packages" whipcord - closely twisted hard cord used for the lashes of whips wick , taper - a loosely woven cord (in a candle or oil lamp) that draws fuel by capillary action up into the flame wick - any piece of cord that conveys liquid by capillary action; "the physician put a wick in the wound to drain it" 2. cord - a unit of amount of wood cut for burning; 128 cubic feet	Corduroy
Which peninsula marks the southern end of the Gulf of Mexico?	Cord - definition of cord by The Free Dictionary Cord - definition of cord by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/cord (kôrd) n. 1. A slender length of flexible material usually made of twisted strands or fibers and used to bind, tie, connect, or support. See Usage Note at chord 1. 2. An insulated flexible electric wire fitted with a plug or plugs. 3. A hangman's rope. 4. An influence, feeling, or force that binds or restrains; a bond or tie. 5. also chord Anatomy A long ropelike structure, such as a nerve or tendon: a spinal cord. 6. a. A raised rib on the surface of cloth. b. A fabric or cloth with such ribs. 7. cords Pants made of corduroy. 8. A unit of quantity for cut fuel wood, equal to a stack measuring 4 × 4 × 8 feet or 128 cubic feet (3.62 cubic meters). tr.v. cord·ed, cord·ing, cords 1. To fasten or bind with a cord: corded the stack of old newspapers and placed them in the recycling bin. 2. To furnish with a cord. 3. To pile (wood) in cords. [Middle English, from Old French corde, from Latin chorda, from Greek khordē; see gherə- in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.] cord′er n. n 1. (Textiles) string or thin rope made of several twisted strands 2. (Textiles) a length of woven or twisted strands of silk, etc, sewn on clothing or used as a belt 3. (Textiles) a ribbed fabric, esp corduroy 4. any influence that binds or restrains 5. (Electrical Engineering) US and Canadian a flexible insulated electric cable, used esp to connect appliances to mains. Also called (in Britain and certain other countries): flex 6. (Anatomy) anatomy any part resembling a string or rope: the spinal cord. 7. (Units) a unit of volume for measuring cut wood, equal to 128 cubic feet vb (tr) 8. to bind or furnish with a cord or cords 9. (Forestry) to stack (wood) in cords [C13: from Old French corde, from Latin chorda cord, from Greek khordē; see chord1] ˈcorder n 1. a string or thin rope made of several strands braided, twisted, or woven together. 2. a small, flexible, insulated electrical cable. 3. a ribbed fabric, esp. corduroy. 4. a cordlike rib on the surface of cloth. 5. cords, clothing, as trousers, of corded fabric, esp. corduroy. 6. any influence that binds or restrains. 7. a cordlike structure: the spinal cord. 8. a unit of volume used chiefly for fuel wood, now generally equal to 128 cubic feet (3.6 cubic meters), usu. specified as 8 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 4 ft. high (2.4 m x 1.2 m x 1.2 m). Abbr.: cd , cd. v.t. 9. to bind or fasten with a cord or cords. 10. to pile or stack up (wood) in cords. 11. to furnish with a cord. [1250–1300; Middle English < Anglo-French, Old French corde < Latin chorda < Greek chordḗ gut; confused in part of its history with chord 1] cord′er, n. cord - An amount of wood containing 128 cubic feet (4x4x8 feet); the name comes from the old practice of measuring a stack of firewood with a cord of a certain length. To cord is to stack or put up wood in cords. See also related terms for measuring . cord , chord - Cord comes from Greek khorde, "gut, string of a musical instrument," and chord is a refashioning of cord. See also related terms for musical instrument . Cord a string composed of strands which are woven or twisted together, a central idea or link that strings things together; a measure of cut wood, stone, or rock. Examples: cords of discipline, 1883; of friendship, 1535; of poorness, 1382; of rock, 1882; of stone, 1703; of wood, 1616. These words are both pronounced /kɔːd/. 1. 'chord' A chord is a number of musical notes played or sung together to produce a pleasant sound. He played some random chords. 2. 'cord' Cord is strong, thick string. A cord is a piece of this string. She tied a cord around her box. A cord is also a length of wire covered with plastic which connects a piece of electrical equipment to an electricity supply. cord I will have been cording you will have been cording he/she/it will have been cording we will have been cording you will have been cording they will have been cording Past Perfect Continuous they would have corded cord 1. A ceremonial cord made from silk, other natural material or nylon, used by some modern witches. 2. A unit of dry volume, especially used for timber. Equal to 128 ft3. Cord 1. A measure of volume used primarily to measure the quantity of firewood. Legally, a cord is a stack eight feet long by four feet high by four feet deep. However, a cord was often considered to be a stack eight feet long, four feet high, and as deep as the length of the sticks of firewood, although that is a dictionary definition of a Rick . A Cord-foot is oneeighth cord or a stack four feet high, four feet long, and one foot deep. Often, even if the wood was not intended for sale, it would be initially stacked and measured as it was cut in order to judge when there was enough to last the winter. 2. A front-wheel drive automobile made from 1929–1937 by the Auburn Automobile Company of Auburn, Indiana. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. cord - a line made of twisted fibers or threads; "the bundle was tied with a cord" agal - a cord (usually of goat's hair) that Arabs (especially Bedouins) wind around their heads to hold down the kaffiyeh apron string - (usually used in the plural) a cord used to tie an apron at the waist bowstring - the string of an archer's bow catgut , gut - a strong cord made from the intestines of sheep and used in surgery chenille , chenille cord - a soft tufted cord used in embroidery clews - the cords used to suspend a hammock clothesline - a cord on which clothes are hung to dry fishing line - a length of cord to which the leader and float and sinker and hook are attached lace , lacing - a cord that is drawn through eyelets or around hooks in order to draw together two edges (as of a shoe or garment) laniard , lanyard - a cord worn around the neck to hold a knife or whistle laniard , lanyard - a cord with an attached hook that is used to fire certain types of cannon line - something (as a cord or rope) that is long and thin and flexible; "a washing line" log line - a knotted cord that runs out from a reel to a piece of wood that is attached to it piping - a thin strip of covered cord used to edge hems plumb line , perpendicular - a cord from which a metal weight is suspended pointing directly to the earth's center of gravity; used to determine the vertical from a given point ripcord - a cord that is pulled to open a parachute from its pack during a descent ripcord - a cord that is pulled to open the gasbag of a balloon wide enough to release gas and so causes the balloon to descend sash cord , sash line - a strong cord connecting a sash weight to a sliding sash slack - a cord or rope or cable that is hanging loosely; "he took up the slack" static line - a cord used instead of a ripcord to open a parachute; the cord is attached at one end to the aircraft and temporarily attached to the pack of a parachute at the other; it opens the parachute after the jumper is clear of the plane string , twine - a lightweight cord string - a tightly stretched cord of wire or gut, which makes sound when plucked, struck, or bowed thread , yarn - a fine cord of twisted fibers (of cotton or silk or wool or nylon etc.) used in sewing and weaving tie - a cord (or string or ribbon or wire etc.) with which something is tied; "he needed a tie for the packages" whipcord - closely twisted hard cord used for the lashes of whips wick , taper - a loosely woven cord (in a candle or oil lamp) that draws fuel by capillary action up into the flame wick - any piece of cord that conveys liquid by capillary action; "the physician put a wick in the wound to drain it" 2. cord - a unit of amount of wood cut for burning; 128 cubic feet	i don't know
The Mississippi enters the sea in which state of the USA?	Mississippi River - Encyclopedia of Arkansas Home / Browse / Mississippi River Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the largest and most important river in North America. This great river, often referred to as the “Mighty Mississippi,” originates as a small brook flowing out of Lake Itasca in Minnesota and, 2,340 miles later, empties into the Gulf of Mexico. It is truly one of the nation’s most important assets. Covering forty-one percent of the forty-eight contiguous United States, its watershed stretches across the heart of the nation. This vast river system, which includes several large tributaries, drains 1,260,000 square miles, making it the largest drainage basin in terms of area in North America and the third largest in the world. Significance to Arkansas The Mississippi River is a dominant physical feature of many states in the middle United States, including Arkansas. It flows along almost the entire eastern border of Arkansas. The river created what is often referred to as the “ Delta ” of eastern Arkansas, which is part of the nation’s largest alluvial plain. This vast and vital habitat supports a wide variety of flora, fauna, and aquatic species. The alluvial plain has remnant wetlands and several large oxbow lakes including Lake Chicot , Arkansas’s largest natural lake. The river’s impact on human history is evidenced in historic river ports such as Osceola (Mississippi County) and Helena (Phillips County) . The Delta Cultural Center in Helena explores the Mississippi’s natural and historical legacies and its influence on regional culture, especially blues music. The alluvial plain in Arkansas has some of the richest and most productive agricultural land in the nation. Arkansas is the leading rice producer in the United States and ranks high in the production of cotton and soybeans. Eastern Arkansas is also part of the Mississippi Flyway and provides important waterfowl habitat for a large number of birds , including a wide variety of ducks. Stuttgart (Arkansas County) , for example, located near the confluence of the Arkansas, White , and Mississippi rivers, is known as the “Duck and Rice Capital of the World.” Physical Characteristics Of all the processes functioning to alter the surface of the earth, none is more important than the work of streams. This was the case with the Mississippi River Valley more than 8,000 years ago when glacial meltwater carved channels through the glacial debris. These channels served as the flow-path for the Mississippi River and its tributaries. This large watershed has been divided into several smaller basins for convenience of study. The Upper Mississippi Basin, for example, extends from its point of origin at Lake Itasca to the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers at Cairo, Illinois. The Missouri River is the largest tributary in the upper basin and furnishes approximately fifteen percent of the total discharge and constitutes more than forty percent of the Mississippi system drainage area. The Lower Mississippi Valley extends from the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers at Cairo to the mouth of the Mississippi River in the Gulf of Mexico. The watersheds of the Arkansas, Red , and White rivers are among the most important tributaries of the lower basin. The Arkansas River , at 1,469 miles in length, is one of the most significant tributaries of the entire Mississippi River drainage network and is particularly important to Arkansas. This relatively large river flows east-southeast across the entire state. It enters Arkansas at Fort Smith (Sebastian County) and passes through Little Rock (Pulaski County) , Pine Bluff (Jefferson County) , and other cities before terminating at its confluence with the Mississippi River east of Dumas (Desha County) . The lower Mississippi River meanders in great loops across a broad alluvial plain (also known as the Mississippi River Delta). It is a classic example of a stream in equilibrium, in which stream erosion and deposition have combined to produce a gradient that allows the stream to carry a sediment load that is in balance with the load that is delivered to the stream by its tributaries. As with all graded streams, the Mississippi River walks a fine line between temporarily picking up sediment load and then depositing it again. Natural levees, built up from sediment carried and deposited in times of flood, border the river for much of its length. Sediment has also been deposited on the riverbed. As a result, the surface of the river is above that of the surrounding plain in some places. The flow (discharge) of the river is usually greatest in the spring, when heavy rainfall and melting snow fill the watersheds of the tributaries, especially the Missouri and Ohio. This increase in flow frequently causes the river to overflow its banks and levees and inundate the adjacent floodplain. Arkansas has experienced numerous disastrous floods . One of the worst was the Flood of 1927 . It covered much of the eastern third of the state, killed almost 100 people, and left thousands homeless. This disastrous flood prompted the construction of dams on the upper Mississippi and its tributaries to regulate flow. In addition, more than 1,600 miles of levees were built below Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to help contain the swollen river. Floodways were established to divert water at critical points, cutoffs were constructed to eliminate some of the more dangerous winding channels, and improvements were made to the main channel to increase the river’s flood-carrying capacity. Despite these efforts, the river continues to experience problems with flooding. Very serious floods occurred in 1973, during the summer of 1993, and as recently as the spring of 2008. It is important to note that flooding along a large river like the Mississippi cannot be eliminated. At best, one can limit its effects and try to protect the most valued land. Historical and Economic Significance Several Native American groups lived along the banks of the Mississippi River, including the Quapaw in what is now eastern Arkansas. They exchanged goods, fished, farmed the fertile floodplains, and gave the river its name. The Ojibway Indians of northern Minnesota called it “Messipi” or “Big River,” and it was also known as the “mee-zee-see-bee” or “Father of Waters” in the Algonquian language. Some of the first Europeans to travel on the river were Spanish explorers such as Hernando de Soto in 1541, and French Jesuit missionaries and explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette in 1673. The French were the first Europeans to establish settlements in the valley. They founded New Orleans, Louisiana; St. Louis, Missouri; and several other sites in the early eighteenth century, including Arkansas Post . Navigation became a very important activity on the river during the early 1800s when steamboats were used to usher in the era of powered shipping. It soon became cheaper to ship cargo by river through New Orleans than to ship goods by land over the Appalachian Mountains. The golden era of steamboats on the Mississippi continued until the 1870s, when railroads began to surpass the river as the major commercial transportation mode for the central United States. After an extended lull in the use of the river, barge traffic began to increase in the early twentieth century. Waterborne commerce on the Mississippi rose substantially with the shipment of such products as grains, coal and coke, petroleum products, sand and gravel, and more. Dredging and other channel improvements made the river navigable as far north as St. Paul and Minneapolis in Minnesota. St. Paul became an important grain-shipping port. St. Louis, located at the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, is known as the “Gateway to the West.” It grew as a port linking the Mississippi with the Great Plains. Along the lower reaches of the river, oceangoing vessel navigation is possible as far upstream as Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Consequently, New Orleans and Baton Rouge have become vital ports as well as major cities along the river. For additional information: Cech, Thomas V. Principles of Water Resources: History, Development, Management, and Policy. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005. Corbet, John. Physical Geography Manual. 6th ed. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 2006. Mississippi River and Tributaries Project. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. http://www.mvd.usace.army.mil/About/MississippiRiverCommission(MRC)/MississippiRiverTributariesProject(MRT).aspx (accessed May 10, 2013). Morris, Christopher. The Big Muddy:An Environmental History of the Mississippi and Its Peoples, from Hernando de Soto to Hurricane Katrina. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. “The Natural Environment: The Delta and Its Resources.” National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/history/delta/volume2/natural.htm (accessed October 20, 2008). Schneider, Paul. Old Man River: The Mississippi River in North American History. New York: Henry Holt, 2013.	Louisiana
Which radio programme used 'Calling All Workers' as its theme tune?	Mississippi River Facts - Mississippi National River & Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service) Mississippi River Facts Mississippi River Overview The Mississippi River is one of the world’s major river systems in size, habitat diversity and biological productivity. It is the second longest river in North America, flowing 2,350 miles from its source at Lake Itasca through the center of the continental United States to the Gulf of Mexico. The Missouri River, a tributary of the Mississippi River, is about 100 miles longer. Some describe the Mississippi River as being the third longest river system in the world, if the length of Missouri and Ohio Rivers are added to the Mississippi's main stem. When compared to other world rivers, the Mississippi-Missouri River combination ranks fourth in length (3,710 miles/5,970km) following the Nile (4,160 miles/6,693km), the Amazon (4,000 miles/6,436km), and the Yangtze Rivers (3,964 miles/6,378km). The reported length of a river may increase or decrease as deposition or erosion occurs at its delta, or as meanders are created or cutoff. As a result, different lengths may be reported depending upon the year or measurement method. Length For reasons mentioned above there are competing claims as to the Mississippi's length. The staff of Itasca State Park at the Mississippi's headwaters say the main stem of the river is 2,552 miles long. The US Geologic Survey has published a number of 2,300 miles, the EPA says it is 2,320 miles long, and the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area suggests the river's length is 2,350 miles. Width At Lake Itasca, the river is between 20 and 30 feet wide, the narrowest stretch for its entire length. The widest part of the Mississippi can be found at Lake Winnibigoshish near Bena, MN, where it is wider than 11 miles. The widest navigable section in the shipping channel of the Mississippi is Lake Pepin, where it is approximately 2 miles wide. Speed At the headwaters of the Mississippi, the average surface speed of the water is about 1.2 miles per hour - roughly one-third as fast as people walk. At New Orleans the river flows 3 miles per hour on average. Mississippi River Watershed The Mississippi River watershed is the fourth largest in the world, extending from the Allegheny Mountains in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. The watershed includes all or parts of 31 states and 2 Canadian Provinces. The watershed measures approximately 1.2 million square miles, covering about 40% of the lower 48 states. Water Supply Communities up and down the river use the Mississippi to obtain freshwater and to discharge their industrial and municipal waste. We don't have good figures on water use for the whole Mississippi River Basin, but we have some clues. A January 2000 study published by the Upper Mississippi River Conservation Committee states that close to 15 million people rely on the Mississippi River or its tributaries in just the upper half of the basin (from Cairo, IL to Minneapolis, MN). A frequently cited figure of 18 million people using the Mississippi River Watershed for water supply comes from a 1982 study by the Upper Mississippi River Basin Committee. The Environmental Protection Agency simply says that more than 50 cities rely on the Mississippi for daily water supply. Commerce Agriculture has been the dominant land use for nearly 200 years in the Mississippi basin, and has altered the hydrologic cycle and energy budget of the region. The agricultural products and the huge agribusiness industry that has developed in the basin produce 92% of the nation's agricultural exports, 78% of the world's exports in feed grains and soybeans, and most of the livestock and hogs produced nationally. Sixty percent of all grain exported from the US is shipped on the Mississippi River through the Port of New Orleans and the Port of South Louisiana. In measure of tonnage, the largest port district in the world is located along the Mississippi River delta in Louisiana. The Port of South Louisiana is one of the largest volume ports in the United States. Representing 500 million tons of shipped goods per year (according to the Port of New Orleans ), the Mississippi River barge port system is significant to national trade. Shipping at the lower end of the Mississippi is focused on petroleum and petroleum products, iron and steel, grain, rubber, paper, wood, coffee, coal, chemicals, and edible oils. Background Information To move goods up and down the Mississippi, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers maintains a 9-foot shipping channel from Baton Rouge, LA to Minneapolis, MN. From Baton Rouge past New Orleans to Head of Passes, a 45 foot channel is maintained to allow ocean-going vessels access to ports between New Orleans and Baton Rouge. Volume At Lake Itasca, the average flow rate is 6 cubic feet per second. At Upper St. Anthony Falls, the northern most Lock and Dam, the average flow rate is 12,000 cubic feet per second or 89,869 gallons per second. At New Orleans, the average flow rate is 600,000 cubic feet per second. Background Information There are 7.489 gallons of water in a cubic foot. One cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. A 48 foot semi-truck trailer is a 3,600 cubic foot container. At Lake Itasca, it would take 10 minutes for one semi-trailer of water to flow out of the lake into the Mississippi. At St. Anthony Falls, the equivalent of 3 semi-trailers full of water go over the falls every second. At New Orleans, the equivalent of 166 semi-trailers of water flow past Algiers Point each second. Wildlife	i don't know
Which British designer allegedly invented both the miniskirt and later hot pants?	Fashion Revolution: A History of the Miniskirt Fashion Revolution A History of the Miniskirt The 1960s was a politically charged decade of revolution and change. Apollo 11 became the first capsule to land on the moon, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became law, Vietnam was raging, Beatlemania was sweeping the world, birth control pills hit the market, and a new cult of youth, known as “Youthquake,” had radically taken over many areas of life. In the midst of these dramatic political and cultural changes emerged one of the most enduring and controversial icons of the era: the miniskirt (or mini skirt). Existing, surprisingly, since ancient times, this small and sexy piece of fabric has embodied some of the most fascinating paradoxes of our times as it suggests both empowerment and vulnerability, independence and a desire to please, an attempt to cover and to reveal, maturity and playfulness, and liberation and exploitation. Simultaneously condemned and loved, the miniskirt exploded into the political landscape and had women (and men) suddenly paying attention to what had been hidden years before—a woman’s legs. In the Beginning Was . . . the Miniskirt High in the mountains in some of Europe’s oldest villages, archaeologists have recently unearthed ancient figurines dating between 5400-4700 B.C. What is remarkable about the figurines is not only their age, but also that the female figurines appear to be beautifully dressed in miniskirts not unlike the fashionable miniskirts of the 1960s, prompting some scholars to speculate that miniskirts were common in the earliest of civilizations (Derbyshire 2007). Interestingly, these figurines are not the only evidence of “ancient miniskirts. For example, an ancient Egyptian fresco shows a female acrobatic dancer wearing a “mini skirt” seemingly made out of cotton that shows off both her hips and her legs (Gandolfi 1989). Early Twentieth-Century Skirts and Sowing the Seeds of Change While the miniskirt may have existed as long as civilization has, it is probably only recently that it has evoked powerful political and cultural implications. In the mid 1800s, women in Europe and America were generally believed to be the weaker and more vulnerable sex. Politics, business, and physical activity could be dangerous for women, and tight corsets with long, restrictive skirts generally reflected these beliefs (Weaver 2003). Like the miniskirt, the 1920s flapper conveyed an impression of a “new“ woman After WWI, however, advances in women’s emancipation and post-war escapism led to the “flapper” style, an androgynous style with hemlines up to a woman’s knee. After dropping to a more sober calf length during the early 1930s, hemlines rose to just below the knee during WWII, partly due to mandatory fabric rationing during the war (Lehnert 2000). After the end of wartime restrictions on cloth, women were ready for elegance and femininity, and the fashion industry promoted the “New Look” epitomized by Christian Dior. The New Look was mature and sophisticated, with an exaggerated hourglass figure and long, lavish hemlines (Steele 1997). While the New Look reflected the “best years of our life” consumerism that followed WWII, the “teddy boys” and beatniks of the Beat generation were already sowing the seeds of discontent in 1950s materialism—a discontent that would find its full voice in the 1960s and dramatically change hemlines forever (Reilly 2003). The 1960s and the Politics of the Miniskirt Teenagers Create Their Own Political (and Fashion) Space Before the 1960s, young women had been expected to dress in the style of their mothers, which was usually loosely based on Parisian couture. For example, as late as 1962, a Sears catalog portrayed mothers and daughters as “patchwork pals” who were overjoyed that they are wearing identical dresses. Looking back on the late 1950s, the English designer Sally Tuffin remarked, “There weren’t any clothes for young people at all. One just looked like their mother” (Steele 1997). However, by the 1960s, youth protests and demands for individual expression revealed that young adults were gaining a self-conscious awareness of themselves as a distinct and unified group that was able to respond to political events in ways that were different from their parents (Cawthorne 1999). Youngsters felt they no longer needed to follow the rules of bourgeois morality and manners, which they saw as hypocritical and based on double standards. As this young political entity gained a voice, they created a space for a new and distinctive fashion that embodied their own political views—not their parents’. The Miniskirt as an Expression and Tool of 1960s Feminism Growing awareness of feminism also paved the way for a different fashion for women. For example, in 1963, American Betty Friedman published The Feminine Mystique which deconstructed the myth of the happy housewife and expressed the desire of women to explore other roles. In addition, the 1960s saw a dramatic increase in women attending universities and entering the workforce, especially with the advent of the “temp agency” which allowed greater flexibility in when and where a woman wanted to work. This decade also saw laws passed that helped protect and empower both married and divorced women (Diamond and Diamond 2006). Perhaps most important was the advent of the birth control pill, which removed fears of pregnancy and helped usher in the sexual revolution (Cawthorne 1999). The image of a woman was beginning to dramatically shift from being a wife and mother to a young, single, carefree girl proud of her sexuality and confident with her power. The miniskirt would express—and serve as a tool for—this growing woman’s movement. A New Class of Young Consumerism The young generation was indeed growing up rebellious and articulate—and with more money than they’ve ever had before. Young people suddenly became a powerful class of consumers who demanded a fashion that matched the spirit of youth. Consequently, the whole structure of the fashion system was challenged from the youth in the streets as the prestige of “couture” came under attack or, worse, seemed irrelevant (Cawthorne 1999). Upstart designers and boutiques began to cater to a new youth market that could now buy what they wanted—and to older women who began to scramble to look like their daughters. “The Mother of the Miniskirt” : Mary Quant Mary Quant helped launch the mini skirt revolution in the 1960s When a young upstart British designer named Mary Quant opened her boutique Bazaar in 1955 on King’s Road (a mod and rocker hangout), she was poised to spearhead a fashion revolution. Without any real training in fashion, but with a finger on the pulse of everyday fashion of the street, she represented a distinctive breakaway in fashion. She began to sell clothes that reflected the ideas of the day’s youth and that had nothing to do with established Paris fashion houses (Lehnert 2000). When she raised the hemline of her skirts in 1965 to several inches above the knee, the iconic miniskirt was born. Named after her favorite car, the Mini, the miniskirt was an instant success and epitomized the spirit of London in the mid-60s: free, energetic, youthful, revolutionary, and unconventional (Diamond and Diamond 2006). “The Lord of the Miniskirt” : André Courrèges Quant probably deserves primary but not exclusive credit for the miniskirt. One French designer also caught the spirit of the era and did for France what Quant did for England (and America)—André Courrèges. Though he began to experiment with hemlines as early as 1961, Courrèges showcased his futuristic, space-age minimalistic dresses which scandalously fell above the knee in late 1964. Like Quant, Courrèges shocked the fashion world. Unlike Quant, he tended to design his skirts with more sophistication and maturity, which, in turn, helped make the miniskirt acceptable to French haute couture (Cawthorne 1999). While Courrèges would later claim that he invented the miniskirt, Quant dismissed his claim, saying “It wasn’t me or Courrèges who invented the miniskirt anyway—it was the girls in the street who did it.” Though the debates between Quant and Courrèges can be amusing and many scholars tend to “skirt” the issue, both Quant and Courrèges appropriated the trends of earlier fashion houses and both took advantage of the greater social changes that were occurring around them. Regardless of who really “invented” the miniskirt, both Quant and Courrèges deserve credit for revolutionizing and enriching the fashion world with their daring hemlines (Diamond and Diamond 2006). The Mini Goes International Quant’s influential position in the heart of “Swinging London,” Courrèges’ influential position in the more sophisticated Parisian fashion world, and the mini’s easily washable fabric that busy teenage girls were apt to buy helped the miniskirt become a major international trend. The miniskirt’s international acceptance was also boosted when Jean Shrimpton, a popular model, unwittingly caused an international stir in late 1965 when she wore a miniskirt with no stockings, hat, or gloves at the Melbourne Cup Carnival in Australia (Steele 1997). The classic photo of that day showed a dramatic contrast: behind the young, carefree, and beautiful Shrimpton was a group of disapproving middle-aged women dressed in their very proper twin sets and pearls. Shrimpton’s apparent disregard for the bland status quo made a trend-setting fashion statement around the world (in non-communistic and non-Muslim countries, at least). Accessorizing the Miniskirt It wasn’t just moral outrage that followed the miniskirt, but also fashionable accessories. Accessories included zip-up knee high boots made of stretch vinyl (“kinky” or Courrèges’ “go-go” boots). Tights and pantyhose replaced awkward nylon stockings and became fashion statements in their own right. Actually, tights and pantyhose are what really made the miniskirt possible because they liberated the woman from garter belts and from trying to keep the lines on old-fashioned stockings straight (Olsen 1999). By the late 1960s, miniskirts were being made of see-through fabrics and other loose crotchet materials—which, in turn, made underwear an important new accessory in fashion as well. The “Lolita Look” Twiggy is an iconic “dolly bird“ and the face of the “Swinging 1960s“ Ironically, the full sexuality of the miniskirt during the 1960s also played on a “school-girl” image, and London became recognized as catering almost exclusively to young girls between the ages of 15 and 20. The models on all the popular catwalks and fashion magazines were typically skinny and androgynous, with an almost prepubescent figure. Even Mary Quant’s husband and partner, Alexander Plunket-Greene, told Rolling Stone in 1987 that “at the time, there was a slightly sort of pedophile thing about it” (Cawthorne 1999). Indeed, the “Lolita look” was everywhere, and the fashionable woman of the 1950s, “all high-heeled and rock-hard tits,” was replaced by a London girl with a childish shape and a “great deal of long legs” (Cawthorne 1999). The most famous model of the era was seventeen-year-old Twiggy (Leslie Hornby), who had a short boyish hairstyle, pale lips, and skinny figure (she was 5′ 7″ and weighed 99 pounds). Even though the miniskirt initially was an expression of individuality, women and girls alike copied Twiggy’s Vidal Sassoon geometric bob and her heavily mascaraed eyelashes in an attempt to achieve her “doe-eyed” little girl look. When young girls mimicked Twiggy’s fashionably gawky “broken limb” look, they were said to resemble little shop dolls or mannequins (White and Griffiths 2000). Not surprising, dieting fads and eating disorders skyrocketed during this decade (Lehnert 2000). Decline of the Mini in the Late 1960s The miniskirt of the “swinging 60s” lasted until the end of the decade. Throughout, fashion designers created some new and extreme variations in order to keep the excitement alive. For example, Paco Rabanne launched his plastic chain-mail miniskirt in 1966 and then the throw-away minidress. Despite this creativity, the mini eventually fell out of fashion when disillusionment about Vietnam became more widespread and the future looked less positive. With increasingly political despondency, fashion became a little more nostalgic and hemlines fell back down to the ankle in 1969 in a style called the “maxi,” which was the longest hemline since 1914 (Cawthorne 1999). In addition, while the miniskirt initially was seen as liberating women, the development of terms such as “dolly birds” tended to objectify women, and feminists realized that the miniskirt had great potential to be more exploitive than liberating (Reilly 2003). With the feminist movement in full swing by the early 1970s, minis (whose hemlines had nowhere to go but down, anyway) fell into disfavor. The Late 1970s Punk Revival of the Mini While the miniskirt fell out of fashion in the early 1970s, the punk movement at the end of the decade helped revive the miniskirt, thanks in part to female rock stars such as Debbie Harry (Blondie) who were fond of wearing miniskirts on stage. The punks were motivated by anti-fashion and tried to avoid mainstream trends, which were considered bourgeois, bland, and over-indulgent. Influenced by punk designers such as Vivienne Westwood and Malcolm McLaren, whose shop SEX sold the fashion, the mini was reincarnated in black leather and PVC. The mini was also now often worn with ripped fishnet tights and took on a slightly “trashy” overtone that reflected the “whatever” attitude (Cawthorne 1999). In an ironic twist of fashion, once the punk look was picked up by designers, the punk movement’s anti-establishment edge became mainstream itself. 1980s and 1990s: The Corporate Miniskirt The miniskirt was part of the power suit trend in the 1980s and early 1990s The 1980s and early 1990s heralded a return to a more womanly figure in contrast to the adolescent androgyny of the 1960s. Rather than disappearing, however, the miniskirt was incorporated into the new, big-shouldered, “power” business suit for women, either in traditional pinstripes or jewel-colored wools (Cawthorne 1999). Popular characters in TV sitcoms such as Carrie in Sex in the City and Heather Locklear in Melrose Place helped the miniskirt appear sexy—and smart (Diamond and Diamond 2006). Miniskirts were no longer considered appropriate only for teenagers, but they also became a power statement for sophisticated, long-legged, thirty-something career women who were in total control of their single life. Mini Skirts around the World For the most part, the miniskirt has been accepted in the Western world; however, not all countries and cultures embraced the short skirt. Inmany African countries, the miniskirt was seen not only as a corrupting influence of the West but alsoof the modern world. For example, in Tanzania in 1968, at least one barmaid was stoned by a mob that supposedly disapproved of the shortness and tight fit of her miniskirt (Ross 2008), and politicians argued that the spread of AIDS would be halted if women would stop wearing miniskirts (“It’s in Our Hands”). And just this year, a strict Muslim father hired hitmen to kill his 21-year-old daughter because she refused to stop wearing miniskirts. After he paid the gangsters the equivalent of about $3,000, they kidnapped and shot her in the head on the outskirts of St. Petersburg, Russia (“Daughter Killed”). Twenty-first Century Miniskirts While the miniskirt has been met with disapproval and even violence, the tiny skirt shows no signs of disappearing. On the contrary, the miniskirt is still heavily featured on Western catwalks and in fashion magazines—and it is often shorter than ever. The phone company Samsung even introduced a new cell phone in 2008 called the “Miniskirt Season 2” which, while looking nothing like a miniskirt, is targeted toward women who like to “Talk, Play, Love” (Evans 2008). The miniskirt—variously known as the “micro-mini,” “pelmet,” or “bondage” skirt—continues to occupy a fascinating and paradoxical space in the fashion world as it teasingly attempts to cover and reveal at the same time. In all of its contradictions and reinventions, the miniskirt still provokes, challenges, and demands attention from both men and women alike. -- Posted May 25, 2009 Lehnert, Gertrude. 2000. A History of Fashion in the 20th Century. Cologne, Germany: Konemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. Olsen, James Stuart. 1999. Historical Dictionary of the 1960s. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press Group. Reilly, Edward J. 2003. The 1960s. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press Group. Ross, Robert. 2008. Clothing: A Global History. Boston, MA: Polity. Steele, Valerie. 1997. Fifty Years of Fashion: New Look to Now. New Haven, CT: Yale University. Weaver, Janice. 2003. From Head to Toe: Bound Feet, Bathing Suits, and Other Bizarre and Beautiful Things. Toronto, Canada: Tundra Books. White, Nicola and Ian Griffiths. 2000. The Fashion Business. Oxford, UK: Berg Publishers.	Mary Quant
Which model controversially wore a mini-dress to the Melbourne races in October 1965?	History of Shorts History of Shorts Updated on November 19, 2012 History of Shorts First, a definition. Shorts are a bifurcated garment worn by men and women and boys and girls that begin at the waist and end at or above the knee. Wait a moment! Bifurcated? That sounds almost obscene. Here is a more simple definition. Shorts are a shortened version of long pants. That’s it. So who invented them? Well, first we have to look at who invented clothing. Long ago and far away in the Land of Eden, Adam and Eve were chatting in the Garden. Adam said, ‘Eve, you look mahvelous. What is that you’re wearing?’ Eve replied, ‘This old thing ? I’ve had this fig leaf forever. I have to find something new to wear.’ So she collected a bunch of reeds and fashioned a skirt which later became very popular in Hawaii. Eve looked so fetching that may have been when all that begetting began. You know, Cain, Abel, etc., etc. Although I prefer that explanation, there is an alternative version of when clothing evolved. Let’s look at our ancestors after the Ice Age about 170,000 years ago. In the beginning they ran around wearing nothing but lots of coarse, shaggy hair. Grogg - Self portrait Lice - the first fashionistas Then Grogg – remember him from the ‘World’s Oldest Interviewer ’ and ‘ Speech Writer ’ – discovered that the furry skin of the mammoth made a warm, comfortable covering. In time, these greasy, smelly skins evolved into more practical clothing like shirts and pants and shorts. How do I know it was about 170,000 years ago? Thank you for asking. A new study, published in the Molecular Biology and Evolution journal, explains that the evidence comes from parasites – lice, to be exact. Scientists, using DNA sequencing, tracked when head lice evolved into clothing/body lice and that occurred around 170,000 years ago. So lice have been with us since clothing was invented. FYI: Fully developed lice are grayish white, have 6 legs, and are the size of a sesame seed. Boy in 1890s wearing knee pants U.S. schoolboys wearing knickerbockers (1900s) Well-dressed golfer wearing knickers Model wearing shorts in 1931 Sears catalog British army officers in uniform What has this got to do with the history of shorts? Let me explain: Back in the days of the1890s, It all started with short knee pants. Young boys in America wore these shorts Purchased by mamas and papas and aunts. Then later during the 1900s, Knickerbockers was what we called boys’ shorts. They covered the knee worn with long stockings, Most boys wore them for school and for sports. Soon Americans shortened that name, And promptly called them knickers. Guess how British folks responded to this? With derision, laughs, snorts and snickers. FYI: Knickers are the British equivalent of women’s underpants. Even today some grown men endorse The wearing of knickers on the golf course. Let’s fast forward to the 1930s When women displayed their proclivity, To wear shorts like their children did For casual and athletic activity. Shorts were worn by our brave service men In tropical climes during World War Two. It then became commonplace for those shorts To be worn everywhere by men … and women, too. FYI: “Before the first World War women were arrested for smoking cigarettes in public, for using profanity, for appearing on beaches without stockings, for driving automobiles without a man beside them, and for wearing outlandish attire – for example, shorts.” – Geoffrey Perrett Flying soccer player wearing baggies Men wearing Bermuda shorts in Bermuda How many types of shorts are there? Let me count the ways. Loose-fitting, baggy shorts that reach the knees Were once standard for English soccer guys. From ‘70 to ‘90 shorts were short But now baggies worldwide are on the rise. FYI:The West Bromwich Albion FC soccer team is nicknamed the Baggies because their team used to wear very baggy shorts. Bermuda shorts with blazer and tie Are popular with men in Bermuda. This style works well for men who are fit But not so much for guys built like Buddha. Colorful board shorts or 'jams' Just kidding, John Board shorts are beachwear for surfboard dudes, They are swim trunks reaching below the knee. The board name comes from surfers’ surfboards, Since the ‘80s we call them ‘jams,’ you see. Boxer shorts are male underwear, Short versions are called boxer briefs. The very tight-fit spandex type Are ‘bun huggers,’ Oh my, good grief! Catherine Bach and Jessica Simpson Shorts with high heels can be glamorous. Want to create your own Cut-offs? Cut the legs off your worn jeans today. They are popular since the ‘70s Although not hemmed and allowed to fray. Daisy Dukes are very short cut-offs From the ‘Dukes of Hazzard’ TV show. Catherine Bach wore them on television, Jessica Simpson, on film not long ago. FYI: The cut-offs known as 'Daisy Dukes' refer to that character in the TV show, ‘The Dukes of Hazzard,’ played by actress, Catherine Bach(1979-1985). Actress Jessica Simpson played Daisy Dukes in the film, 'The Dukes of Hazzard' (2005). The Royal Teens singing 'Short Shorts' (1957) Bike shorts with or without bike Raquel Welch in hot pants (1967) Three of the guys didn't get the email about wearing high socks with their lederhosen. Young men wearing cargo shorts I went to buy camouflage shorts and couldn't find any! Long bike shorts of spandex or nylon Are created to be super skin tight. They are supposed to relieve chafing But with that fit, chafing they might incite. For myself, I think I would choose Bike shorts that are a little more loose. Hot pants are also known as 'short shorts' With inseam length of two inches or less. Mary Quant designed them in the ‘60s, And launched them in London to great success. Lederhosen are well-known German shorts Worn with high socks in any weather. What are they made of you might ask? I thought you knew. They’re made of leather. Cargo shorts have more than 4 pockets Stitched to the outside with turn-down flaps. With all that extra room to stow your stuff, You can carry your baseball caps, several maps, assorted traps,	i don't know
Which Chancellor of the Exchequer introduced old age pensions and national insurance?	David Lloyd George - definition of David Lloyd George by The Free Dictionary David Lloyd George - definition of David Lloyd George by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/David+Lloyd+George Also found in: Acronyms , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Related to David Lloyd George: Georges Clemenceau Lloyd George , David First Earl of Dwyfor. 1863-1945. British politician who, as chancellor of the exchequer (1908-1915) and prime minister (1916-1922), introduced many social reforms, including a national health insurance program. Lloyd George (lɔɪd) n (Biography) David, 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor. 1863–1945, British Liberal statesman: prime minister (1916–22). As chancellor of the exchequer (1908–15) he introduced old age pensions (1908), a radical budget (1909), and an insurance scheme (1911) Lloyd` George′ n. David, 1st Earl of Dwy•for (ˈdu vɔr) 1863–1945, British prime minister 1916–22.	David Lloyd George
Who said 'There is no finer investment than putting milk in babies'?	Lloyd George, David - definition of Lloyd George, David in English \| Oxford Dictionaries Definition of Lloyd George, David in English: Lloyd George, David proper noun 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor (1863–1945), British statesman; prime minister 1916–22. His coalition government was threatened by economic problems and trouble in Ireland. He resigned when the Conservatives withdrew their support in 1922. Word of the Day Which of the following is a type of wild cat? lox Which of the following is a type of wild cat? quoll Which of the following is a type of wild cat? toddy cat Which of the following is a type of wild cat? eyra Which of the following is a type of wild cat? snow leopard Which of the following is a type of wild cat? bobcat Which of the following is a type of wild cat? tigon Which of the following is a type of wild cat? polecat Which of the following is a type of wild cat? Amur lion Which of the following is a type of wild cat? jungle cat You scored /10 practise again? Retry	i don't know
Which country adopted an all green flag in November 1977?	flag of Libya \| Britannica.com Flag of Libya national flag consisting of three unequal horizontal stripes of (top to bottom) red, black, and green, with a white crescent and star centred on the larger black stripe. It has a width-to-length ratio of 1 to 2. Related Topics flag of Canada Under Italian colonial rule from 1911 until 1942, Libya had no flag of its own. Subsequently, under British and French administration, only the Union Jack and the French Tricolor were flown. Nevertheless, the Sanūsiyyah (Sennusiya), a powerful Islamic sect, had long displayed flags of black with inscriptions from the Qurʾān. In 1947 the Sanūsī leader became the king of Cyrenaica , which, with Tripolitania and Fezzan , became the United Kingdom of Libya. Cyrenaica’s black flag with a white star and crescent was not acceptable as a national flag for all of Libya; consequently, green and red horizontal stripes were added to represent Tripolitania and Fezzan, respectively, when the Libyan flag was established in 1949. No change was introduced at independence on December 24, 1951, but in 1969 the monarchy was overthrown by Col. Muammar al-Qaddafi . He adopted a flag of red-white-black horizontal stripes in imitation of the Arab Liberation Flag that had been flown unofficially in neighbouring Egypt (the Arab Liberation Flag also influenced the design of the current national flag of Egypt ). The Arab Liberation Flag, flown in Egypt from 1952 (the year the Egyptian monarchy was overthrown) … Qaddafi broke diplomatic relations with Egypt when its president, Anwar el-Sādāt , went to Israel to broker a peace agreement. The national flag of Libya was changed at that time to reflect Libyan revulsion at Sādāt’s break with the anti-Israel front of Arab states. In its place Qaddafi established a plain green flag in November 1977, symbolic of the “Green Revolution” that he promised would bring a new life for the people. Under the Roman Empire, Libya had been an area of rich farmland, but increasing desertification had impoverished the land. Qaddafi sought to find adequate water supplies and other resources that would make Libya green again. Green was also considered symbolic of Islam . Following the overthrow of Qaddafi in 2011, the 1949 flag was reinstated on August 3 as Libya’s national flag. National flag of Libya (1977–2011).	Libya
In which year did Apollo 8 become the first manned mission to orbit the moon?	15 of the World's Strangest Flags (swaziland flag, funny flags) - ODDEE 15 of the World's Strangest Flags 10/12/2009 1 Fryslan (Netherlands) Someone from Fryslan in the Netherlands must love Frogger. Or Chinese fortune cookies. Either way, they made this flag odd and ugly enough to be our first on the list. ( Source ) 2 Guam Guam's flag is just horrible, it looks as if they've just bought a T-shirt from the nearest souvenir shop and put it on a flag pole. Even if this was the case, we have a hard time believing that they couldn't find a better T-shirt. ( Source ) 3 Benin This was the flag of the Benin Empire, that was situated in modern Nigeria. A pre-colonial African state, it lasted from 1440 to 1897. ( Source ) 4 Swaziland Swaziland's flag. The colors go well together and the design is interesting; unfortunately, this is not a kitchen towel. While we're sure the shield and spears are traditional and part of Swaziland's culture, having weapons in your flag just sends the wrong message, not to mention the poor school children in Swaziland. Trying to make an accurate drawing of this flag for independence day must be a nightmare. ( Source ) 5 Isle of Man The flag of the Isle of Man shows a triskelion, the Three Legs of Man emblem, in the centre of a red flag. The three legs are joined at the thigh and bent at the knee. In order to have the toes pointing clockwise on both sides of the flag, a two-sided emblem is used. ( Source ) 6 Antwerp (Belgium) One of the worst flags in the world comes from the state of Antwerp in Belgium. It's a chess set on acid. The flag is made of 24 square pieces, in 4 rows and 6 columns. The pieces in the upper right and lower left corners of the flag are white, the neighbouring pieces are blue, yellow, red and white, respectively. ( Source ) 7 Mozambique The hoe and the book in Mozambique's flag convey the best characteristics a nation wants in its people. But, an AK-47?! ( Source ) 8 Kyrgyzstan... Is that a tennis ball on this flag? 9 Bhutan's flag wins the award for the most bad-ass ever. 10 Northern Marianas Islands' flag appears to have been created from clip art. ( Source ) 11 U.S. Virgin Islands Another unspeakably horrible flag from a U.S. territory, the U.S. Virgin Islands. They actually have to use it. ( Source ) 12 Central African Republic The Central African Republic's flag has managed to make an incredibly busy flag with just five straight lines, and one lonely star. While this flag looks horrible enough as it is, if it is seen waving in the wind, it actually induces seizures. ( Source ) 13 Lombardy (Italy) Lombardy in Italy must have invented the game of Jacks, mustn't it? Not much else can explain this flag, that is simple to point of boredom, but still includes a slightly nauseous shade of green. ( Source ) 14 Nepal Nepal is the only country in the world that doesn't have a rectangular flag; Nepalese flag is shaped like two overlapping triangles. ( Source ) 15 Libya Libya's flag, adopted on an uninspired night of 1977, consists of a simple green field with no other characteristics. It is the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details. ( Source ) From the Web	i don't know
Where is Britain's National Space Centre?	National Space Centre on AboutBritain.com You are here: Attractions -> Things to Do in Leicestershire -> National Space Centre National Space Centre The award winning National Space Centre is the UK's largest attraction dedicated to space. From the minute you catch sight of the Space Centre's futuristic Rocket Tower, you'll be treated to hours of breathtaking discovery and interactive fun. Home to the UK's largest 360° planetarium, the National Space Centre is a hands-on, interactive journey through six stunning galleries, amazing rocket tower, and S.I.M ride that offers an experience that is out of this world. The National Space Centre hosts many exciting events throughout the year. See our website for full calendar of events. Visiting the centre also allows you to make your ticket valid for a whole year allowing you come back again and again at no extra cost. General Information: Allow half a day for visit Baby changing facilities No Dogs except Guide Dogs Offers Corporate Facilities Refreshments ie Tea, Coffee, Light snack Events timetable (see website)	Leicester
Iago in Shakespeare’s Othello uses what term for sheep mating?	National Space Centre hotels, Leicester, United Kingdom: Leicester Hotel Guide National Space Centre Hotels Please correct the errors below Destination Search 400 airlines and 321,000 hotels worldwide. Secure incredible value with Expedia’s Price Guarantee No Expedia cancellation fee to change or cancel almost any hotel reservation. Enter your dates to see prices Please enter valid dates. See all 88 Hotels near National Space Centre Get 200 Nectar points when you book your hotel Simply enter your Nectar card number when prompted. Your points will be credited 30 days after you return from your trip. St. George's Way, Leicester LE1 1PL 3.0 out of 5.0 3.8 out of 5 (382 reviews) Located in the heart of Leicester, this hotel is within a 15-minute walk of Curve Theatre and New Walk Museum. Leicester … £42 23-25 Loughborough Road, Leicester LE4 5LJ 3.0 out of 5.0 Situated in Leicester, this hotel is within 2 mi (3 km) of Leicester Abbey, Highcross Shopping Centre, and Leicester Cathedra … £55 Mercure Leicester The Grand Hotel Granby Street, Leicester LE1 6ES 4.0 out of 5.0 3.7 out of 5 (314 reviews) Located in the heart of Leicester, this hotel is within a 10-minute walk of The Little Theatre, New Walk Museum, and Leiceste … £63 Holiday Inn Express Leicester - City Filbert Way, Raw Dykes Road, Leicester LE2 7FL 3.0 out of 5.0 3.9 out of 5 (434 reviews) Located in the heart of Leicester, this hotel is within 1 mi (2 km) of Walkers Stadium, Jewry Wall, and New Walk Museum. … £59 175 Hinckley Road, Leicester LE3 0TF 2.5 out of 5.0 Situated in Leicester, this guesthouse is within 1 mi (2 km) of Great Hall, Jewry Wall, and Leicester Cathedral. Highcross … £46 Knighton Road, Leicester LE2 3UF 3.0 out of 5.0 4.3 out of 5 (164 reviews) Situated in Leicester, this hotel is 0.7 mi (1.2 km) from Victoria Park and within 3 mi (5 km) of New Walk Museum and … £74 Days Inn Leicester Forest East Hinckley Road, Leicester LE3 3GB 3.0 out of 5.0 3.8 out of 5 (266 reviews) Situated in Leicester, this hotel is within 9 mi (15 km) of Castle Hill Country Park, Jewry Wall, and Leicester Cathedral. … £40 46 Bushloe End, Wigston LE18 2BA 4.0 out of 5.0 3.9 out of 5 (63 reviews) Situated in the suburbs, this inn is within 3 mi (5 km) of Leicester Racecourse, Mecca Bingo Leicester, and Grace Road. … £70 The Park, Nuneaton CV13 OLP 4.0 out of 5.0 3.2 out of 5 (446 reviews) Located in Market Bosworth, this spa hotel is 1.3 mi (2 km) from Bosworth Water Trust and 2.8 mi (4.4 km) from Bosworth … £39 11 Sparrow Hill, Loughborough LE11 1BT 3.5 out of 5.0 4.4 out of 5 (53 reviews) Situated in Loughborough, this hotel is within 1 mi (2 km) of Loughborough Town Hall and Loughborough University. John Taylor … £80 Grace Road Hotels Pocket Guide: Leicester National Space Centre Hotels One of Britain 's most visited tourist attractions, the National Space Centre in Leicester offers a world-class exhibition on the history of astronomy and space science. It's conveniently located close to numerous stylish hotels and bed and breakfast establishments, and easily accessible from the rest of the country via bus, rail and the M6. What to See and Do at the National Space Centre Officially 15 years old by 2016, this state-of-the-art-venue has many superb interactive exhibits and is perhaps best known for its pioneering Sir Patrick Moore Planetarium. It was opened in 2012 by Sir Patrick Moore, the globally renowned astronomer who wrote dozens of books on the subject and served as the president of the British Astronomical Association. Stargazers looking for a stylish hotel with immaculate accommodation nearby have a great selection, including the elegant three star Belmont Hotel on De Montfort Square. Housed in a grand Georgian building, it offers 24-hour room service and is within walking distance of the University of Leicester and De Montfort University. Other Attractions near the National Space Centre Spend some time at the historic Wygston's Chantry House and the Skeffington House, which form the Newarke Houses Museum and contain an interesting exhibition on the city's historic development and its role in the First World War. Leicester is also home to a Guildhall, which has been the focal point of the city for hundreds of years and also has an exhibition gallery illustrating the city's historic development. Other place's worth visiting near the National Space Centre include the Abbey Pumping Museum industrial heritage attraction, the King Power Stadium headquarters of Leicester City Football Club, and the 830-acre Bradgate Park near the outskirts of the city. A Great Choice of Hotels in Leicester For your benefit, most hotels near the National Space Centre are equipped with WiFi, and some also provide this service free of charge. You'll also enjoy comfortable, elegantly designed furnishings and spacious bedding, and many hotels offer free parking and in-room tea and coffee-making facilities. More deluxe hotels also provide excellent business facilities and spacious conference venues that are suitable for various corporate functions and other private events. false	i don't know
In which Japanese form of Buddhism is meditation most important?	3 Forms of Buddhism 3 Forms of Buddhism Many forms of Buddhism are actually practiced around the world. Buddhists don’t all follow the same teachings and the same texts. The core principles stay the same but different important aspects are observed in each type. Each form is also subdivided into schools . Map Of Buddhism in the World Theravada Buddhism is also known as the doctrine of the elders, Southern Buddhism or Ancient Teaching. The main text used by this school is the Pali Canon. The main area of influence includes the following countries: Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Burma (Myanmar). They have about 100 million followers and are gaining ground in Singapore, Vietnam and the Western world. This form of Buddhism is characterized by its orthodoxy. They are considered to be the closest to the teaching of Buddha and the text they use- the Pali Canon- is the oldest surviving Buddhist text. Their beliefs are that each individual can attain enlightenment by himself and the best way to do this is by joining the monastic way of life as it allows for an ideal setting to dedicate one’s life to the Dharma. Lay people have a role to play also and it is partly comprised of Merit Making actions including: offering food and other basic necessities to monks making donations to temples and monasteries burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha chanting verses from the Pali Canon act as trustees or custodians for their temples taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks Monks gain merit by practicing mindfulness, meditation, and chanting. In the Pali Sutra, the Buddha instructs the followers to follow concentration as it is a tool he used to attain nirvana. Thus, the Theravada Buddhist practice these form of meditation: Anapanasati (Green and white on the map) (Green and white on the map) Mahāyāna is also called the Great Vehicle, Bodhisattvayāna or the Bodhisattva Vehicle. It is the larger of the two major traditions of Buddhism existing today, the other being that of the Theravāda school. It is also the origin of the Vajrayana form. It is mostly popular in China, Japan , Korea, Vietnam, and Mongolia and spread very widely in the west. Major traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhism today include Zen (Chán), Pure Land, Tiantai,(Tendai in Japan) Nichiren , and Esoteric Buddhism (Shingon, Tibetan Buddhism (although we further separate them below)). The beliefs: Mahayana Buddhism prones liberation of suffering for all sentient beings. Where Theravada focuses on individual enlightenment, Mahayana preaches that Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are here to help us attain collective illumination. Thus they believe in supernatural bodhisattvas who devote themselves to the perfections, ultimate knowledge, and the liberation of all sentient beings. The Buddha is seen as the ultimate, highest being, present in all times, in all beings, and in all places, and the bodhisattvas come to represent the universal ideal of altruistic excellence. It is difficult to talk about an unified canon for the Mahayana tradition as it is often assimilated by local beliefs and traditions. In Japan, it has incorporated some local Shinto beliefs and some Shamanism. Thus, when observed under this angle, it becomes incorrect to refer Buddhism as a non-religion in the Mahayana tradition because of the gods that were later added and all the powers attributed to the different Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Vajrayana is in fact part of the Mahayana school but because its emphasis on tantrism, it is often cited as a different school. It is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Lamaism, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle. It is mostly active in Tibet and Japan , and in China, to some extent. Vajrayana is a school of esoteric knowledge, secret rituals, mudras and mantras. It teaches that in order to access esoteric knowledge, the practitioner requires initiation from a skilled spiritual teacher or guru. Rituals are an important part of the Vajrayana Buddhism. They substitute meditation as they are focused and with purpose. Esoteric Buddhism is often associated with magic as many of their rituals entail working with the supernatural, manipulating the laws of nature with the help of the entities of the Buddhist pantheon . In this form of Buddhism, like in Mahayana, the ultimate goal of the practitioner is to become a Buddha. Vajrayana teaches that the Vajrayana techniques provide an accelerated path to Buddhahood. But, Reginald Ray writes that “If these techniques are not practiced properly, practitioners may harm themselves physically and mentally. In order to avoid these dangers, the practice is kept “secret” outside the teacher/student relationship. Secrecy and the commitment of the student to the vajra guru are aspects of the samaya , or “sacred bond”, that protects both the practitioner and the integrity of the teachings.” It is then difficult for westerners to study this path as it often entails speaking the language (ibetan and Japanese) and being accepted in a monastery by a master. In Japan, in particular, Koya-san accepts some foreigners but the path is difficult and they often suffer from some form of subtle racism as the Japanese people feel that Buddhism can only be understood by Japanese. Links	Zen
On the radio for years, Mrs Dale worried about who?	Meditation Techniques Meditation Techniques Meditation techniques are numerous. Even if meditation is a practice at the very core of Buddhism (The Buddha attained enlightment through meditation after all!) it is not practiced by all Buddhist. Many other traditions and religions also practice meditation, often calling it other things. It is a form of meditation, even if they do not realize it. It is sometimes difficult to start meditation by yourself, without any guidance. Fortunately for us, in our modern world, Meditation is an exercise of the mind. Meditation is you, flexing your mind muscles to make it bend to your will. It is focusing your mind on a single task, be it walking (as in the walking meditation technique) writing, chanting, manually working or even more difficult, emptying your mind. Meditation techniques are just that: techniques to acheive a goal. The goal behind all meditation techniques is to gain control over your mind, that bucking stallion who will not stop jumping around unless you tame it. Why is it important to tame your mind and quiet it? Good question. You can first have a look at the benefits of meditation. Then, I would tell you that meditation is the single easiest way of being happy. While you meditate, you are with yourself, alone. You build an inner undertanding of who you are and your inner peace is thus boosted to a degree you would not be able to acheive otherwise. In Buddhism, the importance of meditation is so that you can get closer to enlightment. In Zen, zazen -the state of just sitting- is the main way one can acheive enlightment. The chief aims of most Buddhist meditation techniques are to develop mindfulness, concentration, supramundane powers, tranquility, and insight. Below are a list of meditation techniques and some other articles related to the topic. Please browse through them and learn some. When it comes to meditation though, the most important thing is to just do it. Menu of Meditation Techniques and Topics benefits of meditation	i don't know
The word 'stannary' refers to which metal?	Metal - definition of metal by The Free Dictionary Metal - definition of metal by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/metal Related to metal: heavy metal met·al (mĕt′l) n. 1. Any of a category of electropositive elements that usually have a shiny surface, are generally good conductors of heat and electricity, and can be melted or fused, hammered into thin sheets, or drawn into wires. Typical metals form salts with nonmetals, basic oxides with oxygen, and alloys with one another. 2. An alloy of two or more metallic elements. 3. An object made of metal. 4. Basic character; mettle. 5. Broken stones used for road surfaces or railroad beds. 6. Molten glass, especially when used in glassmaking. 7. Molten cast iron. 8. Printing Type made of metal. 9. Music Heavy metal. tr.v. met·aled, met·al·ing, met·als also met·alled or met·al·ling To cover or surface (a roadbed, for example) with broken stones. [Middle English, from Old French, from Latin metallum, from Greek metallon, mine, ore, metal.] metal n 1. (Elements & Compounds) a. any of a number of chemical elements, such as iron or copper, that are often lustrous ductile solids, have basic oxides, form positive ions, and are good conductors of heat and electricity b. an alloy, such as brass or steel, containing one or more of these elements 2. (Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) printing type made of metal 3. (Ceramics) the substance of glass in a molten state or as the finished product 4. (Civil Engineering) short for road metal 5. (Pop Music) informal short for heavy metal 1 6. (Military) navy a. the total weight of projectiles that can be shot by a ship's guns at any one time b. the total weight or number of a ship's guns 7. (Elements & Compounds) astronomy Also called: heavy element any element heavier than helium 8. (Heraldry) heraldry gold or silver 9. (Railways) (plural) the rails of a railway adj vb (tr) , -als, -alling or -alled, -als, -aling or -aled 10. (Metallurgy) to fit or cover with metal 11. (Civil Engineering) to make or mend (a road) with road metal [C13: from Latin metallum mine, product of a mine, from Greek metallon] ˈmetal-ˌlike adj (ˈmɛt l) n., v. -aled, -al•ing (esp. Brit.) -alled, -al•ling. n. 1. any of a class of elementary substances, as gold, silver, or copper, all of which are crystalline when solid and many of which are characterized by opacity, ductility, conductivity, and a unique luster when freshly fractured. 2. such a substance in its pure state, as distinguished from alloys. 3. an alloy or mixture of such substances, as brass. 4. an element yielding positively charged ions in aqueous solutions of its salts. 5. formative material; stuff. 7. printing type made of metallic alloy. 8. molten glass in the pot or melting tank. 11. to furnish or cover with metal. [1250–1300; Middle English (< Old French) < Latin metallum quarry, metal < Greek métallon] met′al•like`, adj. met·al (mĕt′l) 1. Any of a large group of elements, including iron, gold, copper, lead, and magnesium, that conduct heat and electricity well. Metals can be hammered into thin sheets or drawn into wires. They are usually shiny and opaque. All metals except mercury are solid at room temperature. 2. An alloy, such as steel or bronze, made of two or more metals. Usage We think of metals as hard, shiny materials used to make things like paper clips and cars. But for chemists, a metal is a chemical element that loses electrons in a chemical reaction. Metal atoms do this because of the structure of their electron shells—the layers in which electrons are arranged around an atom's nucleus. If an element's outermost electron shell is filled, the element is stable and does not react easily. But if the shell contains only a few electrons, the atom will try to share them with another atom in a chemical reaction, thereby becoming stable. Elements having only one electron in their outermost shell are the most reactive; all they have to do to become stable is lose this electron. Such elements are alkali metals like sodium and potassium, and they are listed in the left-hand column of the Periodic Table at Periodic Table . The metals farther toward the right side of the Periodic Table, such as tin and lead, have more electrons in their outermost shell and are not as reactive because sharing or losing all these electrons would require more energy. The elements that fall between these extremes are somewhat reactive and are called transition elements. They include elements like iron, copper, tungsten, and silver. metal I will have been metalling you will have been metalling he/she/it will have been metalling we will have been metalling you will have been metalling they will have been metalling Past Perfect Continuous Noun 1. metal - any of several chemical elements that are usually shiny solids that conduct heat or electricity and can be formed into sheets etc. metallic element heavy metal - a metal of relatively high density (specific gravity greater than about 5) or of high relative atomic weight (especially one that is poisonous like mercury or lead) base metal - a metal that is common and not considered precious; "lead, iron, copper, tin, and zinc are base metals" chemical element , element - any of the more than 100 known substances (of which 92 occur naturally) that cannot be separated into simpler substances and that singly or in combination constitute all matter noble metal - any metal that is resistant to corrosion or oxidation Al , aluminium , aluminum , atomic number 13 - a silvery ductile metallic element found primarily in bauxite Am , americium , atomic number 95 - a radioactive transuranic metallic element; discovered by bombarding uranium with helium atoms antimony , atomic number 51 , Sb - a metallic element having four allotropic forms; used in a wide variety of alloys; found in stibnite atomic number 56 , Ba , barium - a soft silvery metallic element of the alkali earth group; found in barite atomic number 4 , Be , beryllium , glucinium - a light strong brittle grey toxic bivalent metallic element atomic number 83 , Bi , bismuth - a heavy brittle diamagnetic trivalent metallic element (resembles arsenic and antimony chemically); usually recovered as a by-product from ores of other metals atomic number 48 , cadmium , Cd - a soft bluish-white ductile malleable toxic bivalent metallic element; occurs in association with zinc ores atomic number 20 , Ca , calcium - a white metallic element that burns with a brilliant light; the fifth most abundant element in the earth's crust; an important component of most plants and animals atomic number 98 , californium , Cf - a radioactive transuranic element; discovered by bombarding curium with alpha particles atomic number 58 , Ce , cerium - a ductile grey metallic element of the lanthanide series; used in lighter flints; the most abundant of the rare-earth group atomic number 55 , caesium , cesium , Cs - a soft silver-white ductile metallic element (liquid at normal temperatures); the most electropositive and alkaline metal atomic number 24 , chromium , Cr - a hard brittle multivalent metallic element; resistant to corrosion and tarnishing atomic number 27 , cobalt , Co - a hard ferromagnetic silver-white bivalent or trivalent metallic element; a trace element in plant and animal nutrition atomic number 29 , copper , Cu - a ductile malleable reddish-brown corrosion-resistant diamagnetic metallic element; occurs in various minerals but is the only metal that occurs abundantly in large masses; used as an electrical and thermal conductor atomic number 96 , curium , Cm - a radioactive transuranic metallic element; produced by bombarding plutonium with helium nuclei atomic number 66 , Dy , dysprosium - a trivalent metallic element of the rare earth group; forms compounds that are highly magnetic alloy mixture - (chemistry) a substance consisting of two or more substances mixed together (not in fixed proportions and not with chemical bonding) heavy metal - a metal of relatively high density (specific gravity greater than about 5) or of high relative atomic weight (especially one that is poisonous like mercury or lead) 18-karat gold - an alloy that contains 75 per cent gold 22-karat gold - an alloy that contains 87 per cent gold oreide , oroide - alloy of copper and tin and zinc; used in imitation gold jewelry Alnico - trade name for an alloy used to make high-energy permanent magnets; contains aluminum and iron and nickel plus cobalt or copper or titanium amalgam , dental amalgam - an alloy of mercury with another metal (usually silver) used by dentists to fill cavities in teeth; except for iron and platinum all metals dissolve in mercury and chemists refer to the resulting mercury mixtures as amalgams fusible metal - an alloy with a low melting point and used as solder and in safety plugs and sprinkler fuses electrum - an alloy of gold and silver pewter - any of various alloys of tin with small amounts of other metals (especially lead) pinchbeck - an alloy of copper and zinc that is used in cheap jewelry to imitate gold pot metal - an alloy of copper and lead used especially for making large pots solder - an alloy (usually of lead and tin) used when melted to join two metal surfaces white gold - a pale alloy of gold usually with platinum or nickel or palladium type metal - an alloy of tin and lead and antimony used to make printing type bearing metal , white metal - an alloy (often of lead or tin base) used for bearings babbitt , Babbitt metal - an alloy of tin with some copper and antimony; a lining for bearings that reduces friction Britannia metal - an alloy similar to pewter CARBOLOY - [trademark] an alloy based on tungsten with cobalt or nickel as a binder; used in making metal-cutting tools steel - an alloy of iron with small amounts of carbon; widely used in construction; mechanical properties can be varied over a wide range cheoplastic metal - any alloy that fuses at low temperatures and can be used molding artificial teeth copper-base alloy - any alloy whose principal component is copper dental gold - an alloy of gold used in dentistry Duralumin - an aluminum-based alloy Inconel - a nickel-base alloy with chromium and iron; used in gas-turbine blades Invar - an alloy of iron and nickel having a low coefficient of thermal expansion; used in tuning forks and measuring tapes and other instruments	Tin
There are four types of wetland: swamp, marsh, bog and what?	tin - English-Spanish Dictionary - WordReference.com tin nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (type of metal) hojalata nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). Mining tin used to be the main industry in Cornwall. tin nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (metallic element) estaño nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). The symbol for tin is Sn. tin, US: can nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. UK (can: of beans, etc.) lata nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). bote nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). envase nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). tin nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (container: for biscuits, etc.) lata nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). caja nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). Once the cake had cooled, Peter put it in a tin to store it. tin, US: pan nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. UK (container for baking) (de hojalata) bandeja nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). olla nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). cazuela nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). Rachel poured the cake batter into the tin and put it in the oven to bake. pan nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (sifting dish) batea nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). The miners used pans to look for gold in the riverbed. Los mineros usaban bateas para buscar oro en el lecho del río. pan nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (depression) olla nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). A low-lying area of land is sometimes referred to as a pan. Olla es el nombre que se le da a una depresión del terreno en la que se forman remolinos de agua. pan nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. slang (face) (coloquial) jeta nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). He took a smack in the pan, right on his nose. Le plantaron un golpe en plena jeta, justo en la nariz. pan, UK: tin nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. US (pan for roasting) asadera nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). bandeja para asar loc nom flocución nominal femenina: Unidad léxica estable formada de dos o más palabras que funciona como sustantivo femenino ("casa de citas", "zona cero", "arma secreta"). fuente para horno loc nom flocución nominal femenina: Unidad léxica estable formada de dos o más palabras que funciona como sustantivo femenino ("casa de citas", "zona cero", "arma secreta"). Edward heated some oil in the pan, before adding the potatoes. pan prefixprefix: Added to front of word stem--for example, unsaid = un+said. (all, every) pana prefijoprefijo: Se agrega al inicio de la palabra para alterar el significado ("releer" = volver a leer, "posguerra" = después de la guerra). pan viintransitive verb: Verb not taking a direct object--for example, "She jokes." "He has arrived." (wash gravel) cribar ⇒ vtrverbo transitivo: Verbo que requiere de un objeto directo ("di la verdad", "encontré una moneda"). Washing gravel in a shallow dish, looking for gold, is called "panning". El acto de lavar grava en una bandeja plana para separar el oro, recibe el nombre de cribar. pan viintransitive verb: Verb not taking a direct object--for example, "She jokes." "He has arrived." (move a camera) (desplazamiento de cámara) hacer una panorámica loc verblocución verbal: Unidad léxica estable formada de dos o más palabras que funciona como verbo ("sacar fuerzas de flaqueza", "acusar recibo"). (angl en cine) panear ⇒ viverbo intransitivo: Verbo que no requiere de un objecto directo (Él no llegó", "corrí a casa"). Note: En cinematografía es muy usado el anglicismo "panear" o "hacer un paneo". The camera panned over the audience. La cámara hizo una panorámica sobre el público. La cámara paneó sobre el público. pan viintransitive verb: Verb not taking a direct object--for example, "She jokes." "He has arrived." (result) salir ⇒ viverbo intransitivo: Verbo que no requiere de un objecto directo (Él no llegó", "corrí a casa"). It all panned out alright in the end. Al final todo salió bien. pan [sth] vtrtransitive verb: Verb taking a direct object--for example, "Say something." "She found the cat." informal (criticize) (figurado) destrozar ⇒ vtrverbo transitivo: Verbo que requiere de un objeto directo ("di la verdad", "encontré una moneda"). (ES, coloquial) poner a parir loc verblocución verbal: Unidad léxica estable formada de dos o más palabras que funciona como verbo ("sacar fuerzas de flaqueza", "acusar recibo"). A poor quality performance will be panned by the critics. Una actuación mediocre será destrozada por los críticos. La crítica pondrá a parir una actuación mediocre. biscuit tin nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. UK (metal box containing cookies) lata de galletas, lata de galletitas grupo nomgrupo nominal: Expresión que combina un sustantivo con sus modificadores y complementos, que forman una expresión compuesta usual, sin llegar a ser una locución nominal fija ("adjudicación de herencia", "despedida de soltero"). jarro de galletas grupo nomgrupo nominal: Expresión que combina un sustantivo con sus modificadores y complementos, que forman una expresión compuesta usual, sin llegar a ser una locución nominal fija ("adjudicación de herencia", "despedida de soltero"). cake tin nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. molde para bizcochos nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). loaf tin, US: loaf pan nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. UK (metal container for baking bread) molde nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). roasting tin, US: roasting pan nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. UK (large metal dish for oven cooking) bandeja de horno, fuente para horno grupo nomgrupo nominal: Expresión que combina un sustantivo con sus modificadores y complementos, que forman una expresión compuesta usual, sin llegar a ser una locución nominal fija ("adjudicación de herencia", "despedida de soltero"). tin can nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (metal food container) lata nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). bote nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). I hate eating soup from a tin can. Baked beans are sold in tin cans. Odio comer sopa de lata. Las judías cocidas se venden en botes. tarro nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). tin ceiling nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. US (interior design feature) cielorraso de paneles metálicos loc nom mlocución nominal masculina: Unidad léxica estable formada de dos o más palabras que funciona como sustantivo masculino ("ojo de buey", "agua mala"). tin hat nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. casco de hierro nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). tin opener, US: can opener nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. UK (gadget for opening cans) abrelatas nm invnombre masculino invariable: Sustantivo masculino que tiene la misma forma en singular y en plural ("apocalipsis", "paréntesis"). How will I pour the condensed milk if I can't find a can opener? My mum has a special tin-opener for people with arthritic hands. ¿Cómo voy a echar la leche condensada si no encuentro el abrelatas? Mi madre usa un abrelatas especial para aquejados de artritis. tin oxide nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (chemical compound) óxido de estaño loc nom mlocución nominal masculina: Unidad léxica estable formada de dos o más palabras que funciona como sustantivo masculino ("ojo de buey", "agua mala"). tin plate nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (thin sheet of tin-coated iron, steel) hojalata nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla"). Tin plate is used for food cans because it does not react to the acids present in food. tin roof nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (lightweight metal covering for top of building) tejado de zinc nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). La gata sobre el tejado de zinc. techo de zinc, techo de chapa nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). tin soldier nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. soldadito de hojalata nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). tin toy nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. (child's plaything made of lightweight metal) juguete de hojalata nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). juguete de lata nmnombre masculino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente masculino ("televisor", "piso"). tobacco tin, US: tobacco can nnoun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. UK (small metal box for smoking tobacco) lata de tabaco nfnombre femenino: Sustantivo de género exclusivamente femenino ("mesa", "tabla").	i don't know
In standard English which three letters convert a verb into a gerund?	How to convert a VERB into a GERUND? : Letters : Parts of English : Alphabets How to convert a VERB into a GERUND? How to convert a VERB into a GERUND? : If the verb ends in E, remove the E and add ING. Examples : If the last two letters of the verb are EE, simply add ING. Examples : If the last two letters of the verb are IE, remove them and add YING. Examples : Die + ing = dying Lie + ing = lying If the last letter of the verb is a consonant and the letter before the consonant is a short vowel, just double the short vowel and add ING. Examples : Clap + ing = clapping Develop + ing = developing If the last letter is a consonant and the two letters before the consonant are vowels, simply add ING. Examples : Boil + ing = boiling Quit + ing = quitting If the last letter of the Verb is either one of W or X or Y, simply add ING. Examples : Follow + ing = following Fix + ing = fixing If the last two letters of the Verb are either of ON or EN or UR, simply add ING. Examples :	ING Group
Which of his marshals did Napoleon call 'the bravest of the brave'?	We can use the -ing form of the verb: • as a noun: Swimming is very good for your health. You can get fit by swimming regularly. -ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns as an adjective: The main problem today is rising prices. That programme was really boring. He saw a woman lying on the floor. Because the -ing noun or adjective is formed from a verb it can have any of the patterns which follow a verb, for example: ... an object: I saw a dog chasing a cat. ... or an adverbial: You can earn a lot of money by working hard. There were several people waiting for the bus. ... or a clause: I heard someone saying that. The -ing noun can be used: as the subject of a verb: Learning English is not easy. as the object of a verb: We enjoy learning English. Common verbs followed by an -ing object are:	i don't know
John Wayne played which part in the 1939 film 'Stagecoach'?	Stagecoach (1939) - IMDb IMDb 17 January 2017 4:34 PM, UTC NEWS There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error A group of people traveling on a stagecoach find their journey complicated by the threat of Geronimo and learn something about each other in the process. Director: Ernest Haycox (original story), Dudley Nichols (screen play) Stars: From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC Famous Directors: From Sundance to Prominence From Christopher Nolan to Quentin Tarantino and every Coen brother in between, many of today's most popular directors got their start at the Sundance Film Festival . Here's a list of some of the biggest names to go from Sundance to Hollywood prominence. Watch the video Related News a list of 46 titles created 03 Mar 2014 a list of 26 titles created 28 May 2015 a list of 39 titles created 11 months ago a list of 26 titles created 10 months ago a list of 40 titles created 8 months ago Search for " Stagecoach " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Won 2 Oscars. Another 4 wins & 5 nominations. See more awards » Videos A Civil War veteran embarks on a journey to rescue his niece from an Indian tribe. Director: John Ford A senator, who became famous for killing a notorious outlaw, returns for the funeral of an old friend and tells the truth about his deed. Director: John Ford Dunson leads a cattle drive, the culmination of over 14 years of work, to its destination in Missouri. But his tyrannical behavior along the way causes a mutiny, led by his adopted son. Directors: Howard Hawks, Arthur Rosson Stars: John Wayne, Montgomery Clift, Joanne Dru A small-town sheriff in the American West enlists the help of a cripple, a drunk, and a young gunfighter in his efforts to hold in jail the brother of the local bad guy. Director: Howard Hawks At Fort Apache, an honorable and veteran war captain finds conflict when his regime is placed under the command of a young, glory hungry lieutenant colonel with no respect for the local Indian tribe. Director: John Ford A Western retelling the tale of the Shoot-out at the OK Corral. Director: John Ford Captain Nathan Brittles, on the eve of retirement, takes out a last patrol to stop an impending massive Indian attack. Encumbered by women who must be evacuated, Brittles finds his mission imperiled. Director: John Ford A weary gunfighter attempts to settle down with a homestead family, but a smoldering settler/rancher conflict forces him to act. Director: George Stevens A cavalry officer posted on the Rio Grande must deal with murderous raiding Apaches, his son who's a risk-taking recruit and his wife from whom he has been separated for many years. Director: John Ford A retired American boxer returns to the village of his birth in Ireland, where he finds love. Director: John Ford A marshall, personally compelled to face a returning deadly enemy, finds that his own town refuses to help him. Director: Fred Zinnemann An aging group of outlaws look for one last big score as the "traditional" American West is disappearing around them. Director: Sam Peckinpah Edit Storyline A simple stagecoach trip is complicated by the fact that Geronimo is on the warpath in the area. The passengers on the coach include a drunken doctor, two women, a bank manager who has taken off with his client's money, and the famous Ringo Kid, among others. Written by Andrew Hyatt <[email protected]> See All (71) » Taglines: Danger holds the reins as the devil cracks the whip ! Desperate men ! Frontier women ! Rising above their pasts in a West corrupted by violence and gun-fire ! See more » Genres: 3 March 1939 (USA) See more » Also Known As: Höllenfahrt nach Santa Fé See more » Filming Locations: Mono (Western Electric Mirrophonic Recording) Color: Did You Know? Trivia John Ford loved the Monument Valley location so much that the actual stagecoach journey traverses the valley three times. See more » Goofs In one scene the stagecoach is seen moving far away from "The Mittens", and in the very next scene it is crossing in front of "The Mittens". See more » Quotes [first lines] Cavalry scout : These hills here are full of Apaches. They've burnt every ranch building in sight. [referring to Indian scout] Cavalry scout : He had a brush with them last night. Says they're being stirred up by Geronimo. Capt. Sickel : Geronimo? How do we know he isn't lying? Cavalry scout : No, he's a Cheyenne. They hate Apaches worse than we do. (Brea, Ca. USA) – See all my reviews Stagecoach is not your normal, run of the mill, western. It will have you on the edge of your seat as passengers make their way through some dangerous Indian country. By the time the film ends, you will know all of the characters very well and ,for the most part,care whether they live or die.John Ford's excellent directing, great performances from John Wayne, Claire Trevor, Andy Devine and, especially, Thomas Mitchell who won an Acadamy Award for his portrayal of a drunken doctor aboard the stage. Add a great score, super stunt work, and filming done at Monument Valley (Arizona /Utah border) and you have a complete motion picture. I highly recommend "Stagecoach". 31 of 42 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Ringo Kid
If Wayne Morris played Kid Galahad in 1937, who played him in the 1962 remake?	John Ford's Stagecoach (1939) Starring John Wayne and Claire Trevor — Immortal Ephemera By Cliff Aliperti 10 Comments Stagecoach was the first John Wayne movie I saw when I was a kid and it remains my favorite of any of his films. Revisiting it this week left me amazed by how much Stagecoach manages to grow with you. Filled with a fine supporting cast, each of whose other work has become more familiar to me in the intervening years, it's all the more impressive that no matter what age I watch Stagecoach John Wayne's Ringo Kid still towers above them all. It's still my favorite screen entrance. We've heard a bit about him, but we don't meet the Ringo Kid until over 18 minutes into the movie. It looks the same every time, no surprises anymore, but it still gets a rise out of me. The camera catches Ringo from afar, makes a shaky approach that confuses to a blur before sharpening close upon his facial features. No matter how many times you've seen it that brief blur delivers a beat of anticipation knowing that once he comes into focus he's going to remain the focus. Credit John Ford for the style; credit John Wayne for sheer presence. It is one of those screen moments I wish I could go back and enjoy for the first time all over again. Ringo stands defiant yet quickly reveals himself to be down to earth, polite, even conscientious. All around charming. Character is the character's strength, all the more so when you remember that Ringo is an escaped convict on a mission of vengeance. Ringo's brother and father were killed by badman Luke Plummer and his brothers. Now Ringo wants Plummer. George Bancroft's Curley immediately puts Ringo under arrest, but from the second Ringo joins the others you know they're going to need him. You also know that there's nothing that could possibly restrain him from evening the score with the Plummer boys. Nothing but Claire Trevor's Dallas, a prostitute riding the stage to Lordsburg after being driven from town by the women of high society. How Trevor couldn't get an Oscar nomination in 1940 can only be explained with a shrug of the shoulders and quiet mention of 1939, commonly held up as the movies' greatest year. Stiff competition. What I forgot about Stagecoach until watching again this week, perhaps being too involved with Ringo to have ever even noticed before, is Trevor's stunning performance. The woman is broken and her fractured state causes her to really take society's scolding to heart. Her past keeps her from looking others in the eye when she speaks. She's used to scorn. So when Ringo treats her like a lady, just as much a lady as the respectable Mrs. Mallory (Louise Platt), Trevor's Dallas is so overwhelmed that her replies come in a quiver. Her shaky voice almost breaks you. You long to comfort her. Thankfully Ringo is there. Her eyes light up at his innocent defense of her. Ringo calls her "ma'am" and "Miss Dallas" while the others, excepting Doc (Thomas Mitchell), do their best not to speak to her at all. What I hadn't remembered about Stagecoach was that besides the incredible collection of characters, the breathtaking shots of Monument Valley, and beyond the rousing shoot 'em up action is, thanks to Trevor, a touching love story that stands out above all those other masterful ingredients. Stagecoach was based on the Ernest Haycox short story "Stage to Lordsburg," which was brief enough to appear in its entirety inside just one edition of Collier's Magazine. That April 10, 1937 edition of Collier's is a heck of a find for classic movie fans as not only does it include the basis of Stagecoach but Hagar Wilde's short story "Bringing Up Baby" as well! Stage to Lordsburg by Ernest Haycox as it appeared inside the April 10, 1937 edition of Collier's Magazine. John Ford spent $2,500 for the rights to Haycox's story and then unsuccessfully shopped it around until Walter Wanger wisely bit. Wanger wanted Gary Cooper and Marlene Dietrich to play Ringo and Dallas, but Ford wisely preferred to spread his budget over more talent to fill out the cast. Thankfully so as it is now hard to imagine anyone but these recognizable faces in each of Stagecoach's roles. For as great as John Wayne and Claire Trevor are we also have Thomas Mitchell , who did win an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in his part of the drunken Doc; The menacing John Carradine, dressed in black with a past to match as Hatfield; Andy Devine doing his usual delightful croaking as stagecoach driver, Buck; experienced and somewhat haggard looking George Bancroft as the Marshall, Curley, riding shotgun alongside Buck; Louise Platt looking as fragile as porcelain as the beautiful Lucy Mallory in search of her cavalry husband; the so properly named Donald Meek as Peacock, the quiet whiskey salesman who everyone confuses for a clergyman; and Berton Churchill as the shifty banker Gatewood who's playing just the part that pre-code fans would expect of him. Leaving the love story behind Stagecoach is still a gripping action film with layers of suspense that are continuously fulfilled. From the start, well before we even meet Ringo, there's the threat of Geronimo and the Apache. It saddles the Cavalry, led by young Tim Holt, alongside Buck's stage for the first part of the journey and is the prime threat to all throughout Stagecoach. Once Ringo joins the others the looming threat of his own one-on-one showdown begins to take over as prime concern of the audience. Why? Because we care so much about Ringo and it has been established that Luke Plummer (Tom Tyler) is a better shot than he is. And even if he isn't he has two brothers to more than shift the odds in his favor. As we become more involved with the Ringo Kid and Dallas we become more concerned about the threat of the Plummers. Of course, just as the Plummers loom as the sole threat in our minds the Apache send out war signals and we're sucked back into the lives of all our other interesting friends. John Ford's Stagecoach premiered in Los Angeles, February 15, 1939 before going into general release that March. It was an immediate critical and popular success and continues to be so. While a legendary collection of leading ladies may have kept Claire Trevor from an Oscar nomination in 1940, Stagecoach fared pretty well as a whole receiving seven Academy Award nominations in total, including Best Picture and Best Director, and winning two, Mitchell's for Supporting Actor and another split four ways for its score. I don't usually cover the really big movies like Stagecoach. It seems like everyone has seen it and everything has been written about it. But I do know there are people with a bias against Westerns. I know it personally through various friends and family. Stagecoach is delivered as a Western, sure, but forget about genre here. Anyone who loves rich characters and a poignant love story, and can withstand a bit of action along the way, will find something to love about Stagecoach. Share this:	i don't know
In which book does a boar named Old Major inspire a revolution?	Old Major - Animal Farm Characters Old Major by George Orwell Old Major Old Major is based on a combination of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, the two thinkers who helped develop Socialism as a theory. He is one of the pigs, an older boar, and, like both Marx and Lenin, he actually enjoyed a relatively privileged position on the farm. Old Major is twelve years old. He is a Middle White boar that won awards as a show pig under the name Willingdon Beauty. He has lived a life of ease because he was a show pig. The very inequities that he has observed plaguing the other animals have not impacted him. He has always had adequate food and comfortable living quarters. Moreover, his position of relative affluence has given him something that many of the other animals have not had: sufficient leisure time to observe human-animal interactions. Despite his relative privilege, Old Major considers himself capable of commenting on the conditions of the lower class and how they have been mistreated by the humans. Despite this apparent dichotomy, Orwell is not critical of Old Major as a philosopher or even as a potential leader of a revolution on the farm. Instead, Orwell presents Major as an animal with a good idea who is tired of seeing the animals mistreated by the humans. Old Major uses the position of privilege and respect that he has among the animals, which is partially the result of man’s differing treatment of the animals, to take his message to the other animals. He calls the animals together to discuss what he perceives as the inequities in how animals are treated under the farm system, and the reader is given the impression that one of the reasons that the animals gather to listen to the message is an underlying respect for Old Major. He teaches the animals the song “Beasts of England” and inspires the Rebellion with his vision of a utopian society based on Socialist principles. By teaching the animals this song, Old Major has planted the seeds for a revolution. It is important to understand that Old Major’s philosophy is idyllic, and it does not give the animals any type of concrete knowledge or guidance about how... ...Old Major Makes a Stand for Animalism All the governments in the... 2 Pages August 2013 ...3 1. Identify Old Major, Boxer, Clover, Benjamin and Mollie. *... 3 Pages October 2012 ...Animal Farm Human behavior can be interpreted through political... 2 Pages September 2013 ...Mr. Apple Utopia in Animal Farm Can the Utopia actually exist? In... 1 Pages October 2014	Animal Farm
What is James Bond's naval rank?	ANIMAL FARM ANIMAL FARM Name _________________________ Prereading Questions Animal Farm: A Fairy Story begins with a wise old boarï¿½s dream of a perfect society: What do you think a perfect society for animals would be like? Perfect societies are called utopias: Do you know of any attempts to build a utopian community? Do you think anyone will ever achieve a utopia? Explain. In this book, animals talk and act like humans. Why do you think the author chose to use animal characters in a book which criticizes human politics? What do you know about the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917? About the communist leaders who came to power in the U.S.S.R.? What kinds of things lead people to revolt against their leaders? How do you think people should react when their rights are violated? What keeps people from defending their rights? What questions do you have about this book or the issues it is based on? What dream does Old Majorï¿½s speech inspire in the animals? Describe the conditions at Manor Farm that lead to the animalsï¿½ Midsummer Rebellion. What changes do you think the Seven Commandments will bring? Why do you think the animalsï¿½ first harvest is so successful? 5. Contrast Boxersï¿½s attitude toward work with that of other animals on the farm. How do the pigs maintain control of the other animals and the farm? How well do you think Animal Farm is running at this point? How do you expect things to go in the future? What is the significance of the Battle of the Cowshed on October 12? What comparisons can you draw between the pigs Snowball and Napoleon and human political leaders? What signs indicate that Animal Farm is not achieving its ideals? Why do you think the animalsï¿½ dream is not being realized? What do you think of Boxerï¿½s response to Animal Farmï¿½s problems? Give reasons for your opinion. Many people consider Animal Farm a satire in which an author mocks the difference between the ideal and the real. Satirists often hope their criticisms will cause change. Is Animal Farm a satire? Explain. What questions do you have about the book so far? Is there anything that you strongly agree or disagree with? What kind of leader is Napoleon? Orwell uses animal characters like Napoleon to criticize human dictators. What effect does this technique have on you? Why do you think it has this effect? What does Boxerï¿½s fate tell you about how things are going at Animal Farm? Do you think Benjaminï¿½s cynical attitude is justified? Explain. The Final Commandment is ï¿½All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others.ï¿½ What is the significance of that statement in the book? In real life? At the end of the book, the animals cannot tell the difference between the pigs and the humans who do business with them. What is the significance of this confusion?	i don't know
Burke and Wills crossed which continent in an 1860 expedition?	Burke and Wills collection \| National Museum of Australia You are in site section: Collections Burke and Wills collection Robert O'Hara Burke and William John Wills Water bottle, breastplate and other National Historical Collection objects A growing collection The National Museum of Australia has a growing collection of objects related to the Burke and Wills expedition. This includes a breastplate awarded to the Aboriginal people who came to their assistance, a water bottle which belonged to Burke and various tributes to the explorers. The Victorian Exploring Expedition, 1860–61 Detail of the illumination given to Ambrose Kyte, MP, showing a portrait of Robert O'Hara Burke. Photo: National Museum of Australia. The Victorian Exploring Expedition, usually known as the Burke and Wills expedition, remains one of the most celebrated journeys of the 'heroic era' of Australian land exploration. In the 1860s the colony of Victoria was flush with wealth from the gold fields and wanted to enter the field of exploration. Supported by the Victorian government, the Royal Society of Victoria and private citizens, the expedition hoped to be the first to cross the continent from south to north. Robert O'Hara Burke (1821–1861) led the expedition. Burke was an Irish-born soldier who emigrated to Melbourne in 1853. He served as a police inspector and superintendent in Victoria, and was involved in policing at the Buckland River riots in 1857. Despite having little exploration or navigation experience, he was chosen to lead the expedition. William John Wills (1834–1861) was the expedition's surveyor and astronomer, and was second-in-command. Wills had arrived in Victoria in 1853, first working as a shepherd and then as an assistant to his father, a surgeon. He studied surveying and was appointed to a position at the Melbourne Observatory. Described as the best equipped expedition in Australia's history, the explorers set off for the Gulf of Carpentaria carrying some 21 tonnes of equipment. The departure from Royal Park in Melbourne on 20 August 1860 was a grand public event – the expedition party was farewelled by 15,000 Victorians. As they progressed northward, Burke found the expedition overburdened and the wagons unreliable. Furthermore, he feared that South Australian explorer John McDouall Stuart, who was also heading for the Gulf, might get there first. At Menindie, Burke appointed William Wright to be in charge and left for Cooper Creek. Wright was to bring up the party and supplies. Burke grew impatient waiting for Wright to arrive and decided to leave Depot Camp 65 for the Gulf. On 16 December 1860, Burke, Wills, Charles Gray and John King left Cooper Creek to make a dash for the northern shoreline. Burke and Wills eventually encountered salty marshes and a shifting tide, and could proceed no further. They had reached their goal, even though they could not see the open water. The return journey proved fatal. Charles Gray died and the others limped back to the Cooper Creek camp only to find that rest of the depot party had departed just hours earlier. Burke and Wills died attempting to reach Mount Hopeless. King, near death, was cared for by the Yandruwandha people until a relief expedition rescued him. When news of their disappearance reached Melbourne, four relief parties were despatched to search for them. One of the parties, led by Alfred Howitt, rescued King and buried Wills and Burke at Cooper Creek. An expedition led by William Landsborough worked south from the Gulf through the Flinders, Gregory and Georgina River regions. Landsborough continued all the way to Melbourne and was the first European to cross the continent from north to south. John McKinlay and his party left from Adelaide and found the flood plains of the Diamantina and travelled through northern Queensland. Frederick Walker's party left from Rockhampton and travelled across northern Queensland. They did not find the expedition party, but these three relief parties made significant tracts of grazing land known and accessible to pastoralists. John McDouall Stuart reached the ocean and returned to Adelaide in 1863. In 1862, Howitt returned to Cooper Creek and retrieved the remains of Burke and Wills. They lay in state at the Royal Society of Victoria in Melbourne and were viewed by over 100,000 people. Some estimated that three-quarters of the city's population watched the funeral procession in January 1863. The tragic fate of the Burke and Wills expedition received international attention. King was given a public welcome on his return to Melbourne but never recovered from the expedition ordeal. Burke and Wills material in the National Historical Collection Robert O'Hara Burke's water bottle The Robert O'Hara Burke water bottle collection is a tear-shaped water bottle of hardened leather with a cylindrical horn lid. String connects the horn lid to the bottle. Part of the spout of the bottle exhibits wear suggestive of extended rubbing. The water bottle is aged and in fair condition. Leather water bottle belonging to Robert O'Hara Burke. Photo: Dean McNicoll. Victorian Exploring Expedition breastplate This breastplate was one of three presented to the Yandruwandha people in appreciation for the assistance they gave to Burke, Wills and King. More on the Victorian Exploring Expedition breastplate A breastplate from the Victorian Exploration Committee presented to the Yandruwandha people of Cooper Creek as a token of appreciation for the care they extended to Burke, Wills and King. Photo: Lannon Harley. Map of the route taken by the Victorian Exploring Expedition, lithographed at the Office of Lands & Survey, Melbourne, 1861. Photo: National Museum of Australia. Map of the route taken by Burke and Wills Map in black ink on white paper which is stained. The map is set in a buff-coloured mat, with has a thin clear plastic window. It is titled: FROM COOPER'S CREEK TO CARPENTARIA (Copied from the map prepared by Wills.) Scale about 20 Miles to 1 Inch. Lithographed at the Office of Lands & Survey, Melbourne, Victoria, Nov. 25th 1861 by J. B. Philp & W. Collis. William Wills' copy of Georg von Neumayer's Magnetical, Nautical and Meteorological Observations, Parliament of Victoria. Photo: National Museum of Australia. Neumayer's observations The copy of the survey in the Museum's collection belonged to William John Wills who worked at the Melbourne Observatory. The title page is signed 'William Wills / July 31st 1860' above his black wax seal. The survey is an official Parliament of Victoria report by Professor Georg von Neumayer, a Bavarian scientist. The full title of the report reads: 1859-60 AT THE FLAGSTAFF OBSERVATORY, MELBOURNE AND AT VARIOUS STATIONS IN THE COLONY OF VICTORIA. MARCH, 1858, TO FEBRUARY, 1859. PRESENTED TO BOTH HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT BY HIS EXCELLENCY'S COMMAND Detail of Georg von Neumayer's Observations showing William Wills' name and black wax seal, dated 31 July 1860. Photo: National Museum of Australia. Illuminated address given to Ambrose Kyte, MP, in recognition of his financial support of the Victorian Exploring Expedition. Photo: National Museum of Australia. Ambrose Kyte illuminated address A framed manuscript, written in black ink and coloured paints recognising Ambrose Kyte's support of the Victorian Exploring Expedition. The manuscript features two rondels housing albumen print photographs of Kyte (left) and Burke (right). It is housed in an elaborate, carved timber, glazed frame which features the Australian coat of arms on the top. The illumination was presented to Kyte by the Governor of Victoria, Sir Henry Barkly, on behalf of the Victorian Exploration Committee, on 21 January 1863, in recognition of Kyte's support of the Burke and Wills expedition. In 1858, Kyte had donated £1000 towards the fit-out of the expedition. This enabled the Committee to raise further funds required for the expedition. Herbert Basedow image of blazed tree at Cooper Creek An original negative taken by Herbert Basedow in 1919. Basedow's caption reads 'The famous tree at Fort Wills on the Cooper, under which a relief party buried a cache containing provisions for members of the ill-fated Burke and Wills expedition in 1861. The tree was marked: "Dig three feet westward"'. 'The famous tree at Fort Wills on the Cooper'. Fort Wills was the stockade built to protect the expedition's animals and supplies. The remains can be seen to the right of the tree. Photo: Herbert Basedow, 1919, reproduced from glass negative by George Serras. Hand carved emu egg showing a map of the route taken by Burke and Wills, carved by Peter Harris. Photo: Dragi Markovic. Carved and mounted emu egg The egg, carved by craftsman Peter Harris, depicts a map of the journey of Burke and Wills. The egg rests on a marble base with a plaque with gold lettering. The engraved text reads 'HAND CARVED / EMU EGG / Peter J. Harris GL 470'. Postcard of a Burke and Wills monument located in Castlemaine, Victoria. Photo: National Museum of Australia. Burke and Wills have been the subject of art, craft and popular media since the outset of their journey. Mr Harris has carved two eggs relating to Burke and Wills. They display his interest in local and national history as his home in Lake Cargelligo, New South Wales lies on the explorers' route. Emu egg carving has its origins from the 1930s when it was first taken up by Aboriginal people. Mr Harris' compositions reflect the style of these early carvers. He is regarded as one of the most skilled contemporary emu egg carvers. Postcard of a Burke and Wills monument, Castlemaine, Victoria An unused postcard featuring a slightly pressed black and white photograph of an obelisk with a fence around it. The text reads 'BURKE AND WILLS MONUMENT, CASTLEMAINE'. The postcard was made by Ward, Lock and Co Ltd in England and is part of the Museum's Josef Lebovic Gallery collection. More	Australia
'London Calling' was a 1980 hit song for which group?	Burke and Wills \| State Library of New South Wales View the Burke and Wills' Exploring Expedition The Burke and Wills expedition: crossing the continent By the 1850s, the focus of exploration had shifted to Central Australia and in particular to crossing the continent from south to north. The race was on between Victoria and South Australia to see which state could be the first to scout a location for a telegraph station on the north coast and find a course for the telegraph line to connect with the southern cities. In 1860, a South Australian, John McDouall Stuart, became the first European to gaze upon the 'red centre'. However, a combination of scurvy, lack of water and hostile Aborigines forced him to turn back before he could reach the north coast. In the same year Robert O'Hara Burke and William John Wills set out from Melbourne to travel to the Gulf of Carpentaria, Qld, via the Darling River and Cooper's Creek. Funded entirely by the newly independent colony of Victoria, partly by subscription, there was much public interest in their expedition. The party consisted of 15 men and they were provided with camels, horses, wagons and enough food for two years. They left Melbourne on 20 August, 1860. After a slow passage they reached Menindee, NSW, on the Darling River at the beginning of October. Here, in a controversial move, Burke left most of his men and equipment and set out with six men and 15 camels for Cooper's Creek, Qld. Camp at Coopers Creek, c.1862, by S.T. Gill Watercolour DGA 15/ 3 At the Cooper's Creek depot, stores were left under the charge of William Brahe. Burke plunged on with three men, Wills, John King and Charles Gray in a dash for the Gulf of Carpentaria. They reached the Gulf, half starving, in February, 1861. During the return journey Gray died. When the three remaining men staggered into the depot at Cooper's Creek they found it deserted - the ashes of the campfires still warm. Brahe's party had left only seven hours earlier with most of the food. Arrival at Carpentaria, c.1862, by S.T. Gill Watercolour DGA 15/ 6 Instead of following them, Burke decided to make for the police station at Mount Hopeless, 150 miles away. Before leaving he buried a letter explaining his decision. The three men were too weak to make much progress and they stayed close to Cooper's Creek hoping to be rescued. Wills died first followed by Burke two days later. King managed to survive with the help of the local Aboriginal people and was eventually found by a rescue party led by A.W. Howitt. Read the explorer's narratives, published in The Illustrated Australian Mail A Royal Commission was held to enquire into the deaths of Burke and Wills. It found that Burke had made a number of wrong decisions. Burke's journey had little value in terms of exploration as he failed to keep a detailed journal and made no scientific observations. His route through tropical Queensland was only practical in the exceptionally dry season he had experienced. The artist William Strutt (1825-1915) took a keen interest in the Victorian Exploring Expedition. He watched the preparations and departure of the explorers and even followed them to their first camp at Essendon, where he had some photographs taken. These are the only known photographs of the expedition. Strutt's Burke and Wills albums also contain his own detailed drawings and notes which he used as source material for his later artworks.	i don't know
Blondie's hit song 'Call Me' comes from the soundtrack to which 1980 film?	Blondie – Call Me Lyrics \| Genius Lyrics Call me, call me any, any time Call me, I'll arrive Call me, call me for some overtime Call me in my life Call me, call me and my sleek designs Call me, call me for your lover's lover's alibi Call me in my life Call me, call me any, any time Ooh-ooh-ooh Call me, oh-oh, call me Call me in my life Call me, call me any, any time More on Genius About “Call Me” Blondie’s biggest hit, 1980 song of the year which spent 6 weeks at the top of the charts. The original 8 minute long version produced and co-written by European Giorgio Moroder (aka “The Italian Disco King”) was trimmed to 3 minutes and 33 seconds for the radio edit, whilst the video mix was 2 minutes 15 seconds. The song was from the soundtrack the band provided for the film American Gigolo , from the album with the film’s name as title. The idea of the song was initially offered to Fleetwood Mac’s Stevie Nicks who could not take it due to contractual conflicts. Two of the better filmed versions of the song are the performance of Debbie Harry as a guest on The Muppet Show and the performance with Shirley Manson of Garbage . The song was also recorded in Spanish, called “Llámame” and released simultaneously with the English version. Hidden This page is accessible to Verified artists on the song Locked This song has been locked and is considered "done." You need 600 IQ to add annotations to locked songs. what is meant by "color me"? Please read the first two annotations; I believe your answer is there somewhere…:) "Call Me" Track Info	American Gigolo
Henry Cavendish, whose tomb is in Derby Cathedral, discovered which element?	Blondie – 10 of the best \| Music \| The Guardian 10 of the best Blondie – 10 of the best They were initially dismissed by the New York punks as too kitschy and pop, but Blondie soon outgrew CBGB to become the biggest pop sensation of the late 70s Blondie … ‘We wanted to be uncool.’ Photograph: Michael Ochs Archives Wednesday 16 September 2015 11.28 EDT Last modified on Tuesday 5 January 2016 06.40 EST 1. In the Flesh When they emerged in 1974 from an embryonic incarnation called the Stilettos/Stillettoes (the spelling fluctuated), Blondie were initially dismissed by New York punk scenesters. They were too kitsch, too pop, and Debbie Harry too much of a heart-stopping bombshell; their aesthetic of camp glamour didn’t chime with the art punk of downtown Manhattan. In the Flesh, from their self-titled 1976 debut album, encapsulates everything that irritated the early punks: on one level, it’s a swooning tribute to early-60s girl groups, with an opiated chorus that instantly embeds itself in the memory; on another, it was a shop window for Debbie Harry’s “Blondie” character – a cool, knowing siren whose deadpan vocals promised heartbreak for anyone who fell for her. Harry was a fan of groups like the Shangri-Las and the Ronettes – hood girls whose toughness concealed their vulnerability – and adapted elements of their image into her Blondie persona. Fittingly, In the Flesh was a homage to them – a velvety slowie, steeped in girl-group harmonies, that could be taken as a daydreamy love song, or as something more base. It starts with Harry mooning over a boy she spots when she’s out walking on the Lower East Side (this was a reference to the neighbourhood where the band shared an apartment, across from the punk club CBGB), and having a confrontation with his girlfriend, who hisses: “Hands off this one, sweetie – this boy is mine.” Undeterred by that passive-aggressive “sweetie”, Harry spends the rest of the song yearning to be “warm and soft, hot and close … in the flesh”. She’s magnificent here, going several lustful steps further than the early girl groups would have dared, but simultaneously radiating sweetness. This became Blondie’s first hit – in Australia, anyway, where it reached No 2. 2. Rip Her to Shreds In which Harry, in mean-girl mode, dissects the appearance of another girl, vehemently sticking the knife in: “Oh, you know her, Miss Groupie Supreme / Yeah, you know her, Vera Vogue on parade / Red eye shadow, green mascara / Yuck! She’s too much.” It’s a comic-book spite-fest, made camper by Jimmy Destri’s Farfisa organ and Chris Stein’s surfy guitar; you can picture Harry on a Bowery street corner in her leather jacket and stilettos, sneering at the retreating figure of Miss Groupie Supreme (thought by some to be Sid Vicious’s girlfriend, Nancy Spungen). “It’s so dirty and menacing,” Harry said of the song. “It’s what we all do when we’re getting catty – that’s what the New York scene was like. There’s toughness, but a lot of affection as well. It’s like being roasted.” But she also offered another interpretation, claiming the song was actually about the press’s treatment of female celebrities. By the same token, her own record label colluded in exploiting her, issuing a promotional poster of her wearing a transparent black top, with the invitation: “Wouldn’t you like to rip her to shreds?” Harry, who’d known nothing about the poster until it appeared, was appalled, but also resigned to the response it would get: “I’ve always been followed by perverts. Always the sick kind.” 3. I’m on E Almost more demo than finished song, this track from the Plastic Letters album is about as lo-fi as early Blondie got. There’s a good deal less craftsmanship here than usual – it’s a two-minute romp propelled by Clem Burke’s hopped-up drumming and Harry’s detached voice intoning: “I’m on E, I’m on E, I used to have a car of my own, I gave my car to a guy named Vinnie.” It feels like an in-joke, or something the band were playing around with but never got around to fleshing out. In any case, it’s much more of a piece with the Mo-Dettes’s breathless DIY hit White Mice than with the sophisticated pop of Plastic Letters. I’ve included it here because it’s Blondie’s most insidious earworm: hear it in the morning and it’ll still be in your head in the evening. The moment to listen for is 1min 21sec, when Harry hits a hysterical crescendo and sounds as if it’s the most fun she’s had all day. The title, by the way, has nothing to do with ecstasy, which was then years away from being adopted as a recreational drug. “It wasn’t written about ecstasy, that’s for sure,” according to Harry. “I guess it was E for England, E for energy, E for empty.” 4. Hanging on the Telephone This cover of a song by short-lived California pop-punks the Nerves essentially copies the original note-for-note, right down to the ringing phone at the start. For my money, though, Blondie’s version is far superior. The Nerves infuse the song with adolescent petulance, but Blondie turn it into a ragged demand for attention, with Harry turning in a grade-A job of acting out the role of a woman desperately trying to contact some chump who refuses to pick up the phone. Over its 2min 20sec, Harry becomes increasingly distraught as the phone rings and rings, and at the end collapses, phone still unanswered. From the first line, she’s rattled (“I’m in the phone booth, it’s the one across the hall / If you don’t answer, I’ll just ring it off the wall”), then resorts to sexual provocation (“Your voice across the line gives me a strange sensation”) and eventually breaks down, pleading: “Hang up and run to me.” It’s a massive powerpop tune, produced by glam-rock veteran Mike Chapman, who was brought in in 1978 to give Blondie’s sound a makeover for their third album. He was so expert at smoothing down their new-wave edges and ramping up their full-figured pop sensibility that the album, Parallel Lines, sold 20m copies and ushered in Blondie’s golden age. 5. Fade Away and Radiate The B-side of Hanging on the Telephone, Fade Away and Radiate fused some of the things Blondie loved most: sci-fi, Hollywood glamour and being awake at 4am, watching old movies in a narcotised haze. The synth intro – which might have been playing on Ultravox’s stereo three years later as they wrote Vienna – conjures up the chilly blueish light given off by a portable black-and-white TV (the only kind of television that New York punks owned; they saved their money for leather jackets and black skinny jeans). Then Debbie Harry wafts in, swooning over the long-dead actors on the screen, who exist now only in cathode-ray tubes. Her lyric absolutely captures the nocturnal dreaminess: “Ooh, baby, I hear how you spend night time / Wrapped like candy in a blue, blue neon glow … Silver pictures move so slow / Golden tubes faintly glow.” Woven through the song is a proggy-but-perfect guitar line, played by Robert Fripp. He was then living in New York, and keen to work with new-wave bands, who were duly nonplussed (he had to “beg” Los Angeles punks the Screamers to let him do a gig with them). Perhaps because of Blondie’s arty aesthetic, they got on well enough to play a few shows together and work in the studio. 6. Heart of Glass Blondie’s first nine singles failed to chart in the US, though they were hits elsewhere. At home, they finally broke through with the song that definitively severed their ties with the punk scene. “When we did Heart of Glass, it wasn’t too cool in our social set to play disco,” Harry said. “But we did it because we wanted to be uncool.” Uncool, maybe, but releasing an unabashed dance record was also a resounding commercial progression. This changed Blondie’s fortunes at a stroke. The 1979 Billboard chart reveals that almost every No 1 single of that year was either disco or disco-influenced. Heart of Glass fit in so well – it was No 1 for the week of 28 April preceded by Amii Stewart’s Knock on Wood and followed by Peaches & Herb’s Reunited – that it was almost as if Blondie hadn’t spent the past five years scuffling around with the CBGB demi-monde. Harry’s spun-sugar vocals float atop Jimmy Destri’s dizzying synth line, creating the sweetest confection of Blondie’s career. Several thousand listens later, it still sparkles. 7. The Hardest Part From 1979’s Eat to the Beat album, this one saw a return to camp role play, with Harry assuming the persona of an armed robber’s moll. Blondie were by this point a full-fledged dance-rock act, and if this single erred on the side of rock, the dance element was still perceptible, bubbling away under Chris Stein’s squawky riffing. The lyric – a fantasy about the heist of an armoured truck – is one of Harry’s funniest: “Twenty-five tons of hardened steel rolls on no ordinary wheel / The hardest part of the armoured guard / Big man of steel behind the steering wheel.” Or maybe it’s just her sneering delivery: she enunciates every word with metaphorical middle finger raised. The video, by the way, suggests that the group didn’t want to lose touch with their art-pop roots completely – it was filmed in a warehouse that had been covered with purposefully-artless graffiti. But among the spray-painted scribbles are slogans like Freedom of Expression, Art Soup and Urban Realism. 8. Call Me Call Me is pure, chrome-plated hedonism. Written for the soundtrack to the 1980 film American Gigolo, starring Richard Gere, it’s as cold and detached as Gere’s male-escort character, Julian. It was co-written by Harry and Giorgio Moroder, who had recently finished work on Donna Summer’s Bad Girls album. Call Me turned out to be mutually beneficial: it showed that Moroder, then the world’s top disco producer, could work with a rock band, while, for Blondie, it proved that the success of Heart of Glass wasn’t a one-off. Call Me was a global hit, and the biggest-selling single of 1980 in the US, as well as the ninth biggest single of the whole decade. Call me was an impeccably judged rock-disco hybrid, allowing as much room for Chris Stein’s guitar as Moroder’s swirling disco production. As ever, Harry’s lyrics were both arch and funny; the line “Roll me in designer sheets, I’ll never get enough” is particularly so, given that the early 80s saw the rise of everything “designer”. Harry herself briefly appeared in a Gloria Vanderbilt advert, one of the first designer brands. 9. Atomic During the first Gulf war, Atomic was on the BBC’s banned list (along with Lulu’s Boom-Bang-a-Bang, Cher’s Bang Bang and everything by Massive Attack) because the title was deemed inflammatory. To be fair, the video did show an immense nuclear cloud, but it symbolised the sexual explosiveness Harry alluded to in her lyric rather than something more literal. The whole thing came together by accident while they were making Eat to the Beat; co-writer Jimmy Destri was trying to create a song replicating Heart of Glass’s crystalline freshness, but it turned into a surging spaghetti western/surf track that ranks as perhaps Blondie’s best song. It does something most Blondie songs don’t – namely, it builds up, verse by verse, to a huge (atomic) crescendo – all hands on deck, Clem Burke’s drums pounding, Stein’s guitar twanging hell for leather and Debbie wailing, “Oh, your hair is beautiful! Uh-uh-uh-tomic!” It’s one-third of Blondie’s perfect post-punk trinity, along with Heart of Glass and Call Me, but its hot-bloodedness sets it apart. It’s glorious. 10. Rapture It took about 20 years, but Rapture finally grew on me. When I first heard it, its flaws were numerous and glaring. It was a lily-livered bit of opportunism that showed Blondie in the least flattering light, exposing Harry as a hopeless rapper who didn’t get rap, even if she did mention Fab 5 Freddy. Drifting from a dreamy sung introduction (“Toe to toe, dancing very close”) to karaokeish have-a-go rapping, it was the definition of bandwagon-jumping. And it got to No 1 – the first “rap” single to do so. But now I hear it for what it is: a great song that adapted rap’s precepts to suit Blondie’s own style.	i don't know
Periods of the year with distinctive climates are called what?	climate - National Geographic Society climate Tea is harvested in the tropical foothills of Mount Kenya, Kenya. Photograph by George F. Mobley Quotable Twain The famous author Mark Twain described the difference between weather and climate like this: "Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get." The Big Chill Antarcticas frigid climate makes it the only continent on Earth with no permanent human residents. The coldest temperature ever recordedminus-89.2 degrees Celsius (-128.5 degrees Fahrenheit)was at Vostok Station, Antarctica. Climate is the long-term pattern of weather in a particular area. Weather is the state of the atmosphere over short periods of time. Weather can change from hour to hour, day to day, month to month or even year to year. A region’s weather patterns, tracked for more than 30 years, are considered its climate. Climate Features Different parts of the world have different climates. Some parts of the world are hot and rainy nearly every day. They have a tropical wet climate. Others are cold and snow-covered most of the year. They have a polar climate . Between the icy poles and the steamy tropics are many other climates that help make the Earth a unique planet. Average temperature and precipitation are important features of a climate. So are the day-to-day, day-to-night, and seasonal variations in temperature and precipitation. For example, San Francisco, California, and Beijing, China, have similar yearly temperatures and precipitation. However, the daily and seasonal changes make San Francisco and Beijing very different. San Francisco’s winters are not much cooler than its summers, while Beijing is hot in summer and cold in winter. San Francisco’s summers are dry and its winters are wet. The wet and dry seasons are reversed in Beijing—it has rainy summers and dry winters. Climate features also include windiness, humidity , cloud cover , and fogginess. Climate Conditions A region’s climate is something like a person’s personality. It is usually constant, but there may be surprises. Just as someone with a cheerful attitude will sometimes become sad, an area with a generally mild climate will occasionally experience extreme rainfall or drought . But because climates are mostly constant, living things can adapt to them. The enormous variety of life on Earth is largely due to the variety of climates that exist and the climate change s that have occurred in the past. Climate has influence d the development of culture s and civilization s. People everywhere have adapted in various ways to the climates in which they live. Clothing, for example, is influenced by climate. The warm clothing developed by Eskimo cultures of Asia and North America are necessary for survival in the cold, windy climate near the North Pole. Grass skirts, on the other hand, are part of many cultures in warm, humid climates, such as Tahiti, an island in the South Pacific Ocean. Climate also influences where and when a civilization constructs housing or other buildings. The ancient Anasazi people of southern North America built apartments into tall cliffs. The sheltered, shady area kept residents cool in the hot, dry desert climate. The development of agriculture was very dependent on climate. Ancient agricultural civilizations, such as those in Greece and India, flourish ed where the climate was mild. Communities could grow crops every season, and experiment with different types of foods and farming techniques. Today, farmers are still in tune with the climate. They plant certain crop s according to the expected amount of rainfall and the length of the growing season. A growing season is the time between the last frost of spring and the first frost of autumn. When the weather does not follow the typical climate pattern, it can mean hard times for farmers and higher food costs for consumer s. Of course, no climate is uniform . Small variation s, called microclimate s, exist in every climate region. Most are caused by topographic feature s such as lakes, vegetation, and cities. In large urban area s, for example, streets and buildings absorb heat from the sun, raising the average temperature of the city higher than the average temperatures of more open areas nearby. This is known as the “ urban heat island effect.” Large bodies of water, like the Great Lakes in the United States and Canada, can also have microclimates. Cities on the southern side of Lake Ontario, for example, are cloudier and receive much more snow than cities on the northern shore. This “ lake effect ” is a result of cold wind s blowing across warmer lake water. Climate Types The most widely used system for classifying climates was proposed in 1900 by Wladimir Koppen . Koppen observed that the type of vegetation in a region depended largely on climate. He used this fact as the starting point for his classification scheme . Studying temperature and precipitation data, he and other scientists developed a system for naming climate regions. According to this system, there are five climate group s: tropical, dry, mild, continental, and polar. These climate groups are further divided into climate type s. The following list shows the climate groups and their types: Tropical Wet and dry (or savanna ) Dry Ice cap All climates are the product of many factors, including latitude , elevation , topography , distance from the ocean, and location on a continent . The rainy tropical climate of West Africa, for example, results from the region’s location near the Equator and its position on the western side of the continent. A constant amount of sunlight keeps temperatures in the area warm and steady. West Africa is also at the site where moist trade wind s meet, an area called the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) (pronounced “itch”). As a result, the region’s climate is warm and rainy. Tropical Climates There are three climate types in the tropical group: tropical wet; tropical monsoon; and tropical wet and dry. Places with a tropical wet climate are also known as rain forests. Rain forests have the most predictable weather on Earth, with warm temperatures and regular rainfall. Annual rainfall exceeds 150 centimeters (59 inches), and the temperature varies more during a day than it does over a year. The coolest temperature, about 20-23 degrees Celsius (68-73 degrees Fahrenheit), occurs just before dawn. Afternoon temperatures usually reach 30-33 degrees Celsius (86-91 degrees Fahrenheit). Rain forests experience very little seasonal change, meaning average monthly temperatures remain fairly constant. Tropical wet climates exist in a band extending about 10 degrees of latitude on either side of the Equator. This part of the globe is always under the influence of the intertropical convergence zone. The zone follows a pendulum -like path during the course of a year, moving back and forth across the Equator with the seasons. It moves north during summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and south during the northern winter. Some tropical wet climates are wet throughout the year. Others experience more rainfall during the summer or winter, but they never have especially dry season s. The U.S. state of Hawaii; Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; and Belém, Brazil, are examples of areas with tropical wet climates. Tropical monsoon climate s are most common in southern Asia and West Africa. A monsoon is a wind system that reverses its direction every six months. They usually flow from sea to land in the summer, and from land to sea in the winter. Summer monsoons bring large amounts of rainfall to tropical monsoon regions. People living in these regions depend on the seasonal rains to bring water to their crops. India and Bangladesh are famous for their monsoon climate patterns. The third type of climate, tropical wet and dry climate , has three seasons. These areas are just outside the ITCZ, near the Equator. One season is cool and dry when the warm, moist ITCZ is in the opposite hemisphere . Another season is hot and dry as the ITCZ approaches. The last season is hot and wet as the ITCZ arrives and the region experiences months as a tropical wet climate. Life in these tropical wet and dry regions depends on the wet season’s rains. During years when rains are light, people and animals suffer. Havana, Cuba; Kolkata, India; and Africa’s vast Serengeti Plain are in the wet and dry tropics. Dry Climates Regions lying within the dry climate group occur where precipitation is low, including cool, high latitudes. There are two dry climate types: arid and semiarid. Most arid climate s receive 10 to 30 centimeters (4-12 inches) of rain each year, and semiarid climate s receive enough to support extensive grassland s. Often, these grasslands are known as savannas or prairie s. Temperatures in both arid and semiarid climates show large daily and seasonal variations. The hottest spots in the world are in arid climates. The temperature in the North African town of El Aziza, Libya, reached 58 degrees Celsius (136 degrees Fahrenheit) on September 13, 1922—the highest weather temperature ever recorded. Although rainfall is limited in all dry climates, there are few parts of the world where it never rains. One of the driest places on Earth is the Atacama Desert of Chile, on the west coast of South America. There, the town of Arica averages less than 0.05 centimeters (0.02 inches) of rain a year. Semiarid regions, such as the Australian Outback , usually receive between 25 and 50 centimeters (10-20 inches) of rainfall every year. They are often located between arid and tropical climate regions. Arid and semiarid climates can occur when warm, moist air is blocked by mountain s. Denver, Colorado, next to the Rocky Mountains in the U.S., has this type of dry climate. Mild Climates Regions with mild and continental climates are also called temperate regions. Both climate types have distinct cold seasons. In these parts of the world, climate is influenced mostly by latitude and by a region’s position on the continent. The mild climate type called Mediterranean climate has a warm summer and a short, mild, and rainy winter. It is found on the west coasts of continents between 30 and 40 degrees latitude, and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Mediterranean summers feature clear skies, cool nights, and little rain. The city of Jerusalem, Israel, once had no rain in July for more than 100 years. The type of mild climate known as humid subtropical climate is usually found on the eastern sides of continents. In cities such as Savannah, Georgia, in the U.S.; Shanghai, China; and Sydney, Australia, summers are hot and humid. Winter can be severely cold. Precipitation is spread evenly through the year and totals 76 to 165 centimeters (30-65 inches). Hurricane s and other violent storms are common in these regions. Weather on both sides of a continent generally becomes cooler as latitude increases and areas are closer to the poles. The marine west coast climate , a type of mild climate typical of cities such as Seattle, Washington, in the U.S. and Wellington, New Zealand, has a longer, cooler winter than the Mediterranean climate. Drizzle falls about two-thirds of winter days, and temperatures average about 5 degrees Celsius (41 degrees Fahrenheit). Continental Climates Areas with continental climates have colder winters, longer-lasting snow, and shorter growing seasons. They are the transition zone s between mild and polar climates. Continental climate s experience extreme seasonal changes. There are three types of continental climate—warm summer, cool summer, and subarctic. All these climates exist only in the Northern Hemisphere. Usually, continental climates are found in the interior of continents. Warm summer climate regions often have wet summer seasons, similar to monsoon climates. For this reason, this climate type is also called humid continental . Most of Eastern Europe, including Romania and Georgia, has humid continental climates. Cool summer climate s have winters with low temperatures and snow. Cold winds, sweeping in from the Arctic, dominate the winter weather. People living in these climates have grown accustom ed to the harsh weather, but those unprepared for such cold may suffer. Many of Napoleon Bonaparte’s soldiers, for example, were used to the mild Mediterranean climates of France. Thousands died in bitter cold as they retreat ed from Russia’s cool summer climate in the winter of 1812. North of regions with cool summer climates are regions with subarctic climate s. These regions, including northern Scandinavia and Siberia , experience very long, cold winters with little precipitation. Subarctic climates are also called boreal climate s or taiga . The range of weather in continental climate regions makes them among the most spectacular sites for weather phenomena . In autumn, for instance, vast forest s put on their annual show of brilliant color before shedding their leaves as winter approaches. Thunderstorm s and tornado es, among the most powerful forces in nature, form mostly in continental climates. Polar Climates The two polar climate types, tundra and ice cap, lie within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles near the North and South Poles. In tundra climate s, summers are short, but plants and animals are plentiful. Temperatures can average as high as 10 degrees Celsius (50 degrees Fahrenheit) in July. Wildflowers dot the landscape, and flocks of birds return from their winter migration s to feed on insects and fish. Whales feed on microscopic creatures in the region’s cold, nutrient -rich waters. People have adapted to life on the tundra for thousands of years. Few living things exist in the ice cap climate s of the Arctic and Antarctic. Temperatures rarely rise above freezing, even in summer. The ever-present ice helps keep the weather cold by reflecting most of the sun’s energy back into the atmosphere. Skies are mostly clear and precipitation is low all year. In fact, Antarctica, covered by an ice cap a mile thick, is actually one of the largest, driest deserts on Earth. High Elevation Climates Several geographer s and climatologist s have modified the Köppen classification system over the years, including geographer Glen Trewartha, who added a category for highland climates. There are two high elevation climate types: upland and highland. Upland climate s occur on high plateau s, or flat-topped mountains. The Patagonia n Plateau, in southern South America, has an upland high-elevation climate. Highland climate s occur on mountains. High-elevation climates are marked by very different temperatures and levels of precipitation. Climbing a lofty mountain or reaching a plateau can be like moving toward the poles. On some mountains, such as Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, the climate is tropical at the base and polar at the summit. Often, high-elevation climate differs from one side of the mountain to the other. Changes in Climate Climate does not change from day to day like weather, but it does change over time. Climate changes happen slowly over hundreds or even thousands of years. For example, periodic ice age s have covered large portions of Earth with ice caps. Some evidence shows that the Sahara Desert was once covered by ocean during a warm “wet age.” Climate change can happen for many reasons. The movement of tectonic plate s, volcanic activity, and the tilt of Earth’s axis all have effects on climate. After the eruption of the island volcano of Krakatoa, Indonesia, in 1883, winters and even summers in Asia and Europe were colder and darker. Volcanic ash blocked the sun. Farmers had to adjust to shorter, weaker growing seasons. Climates around the world were changed for years. More recently, human civilizations have begun to affect climate. Human activities that include burning fossil fuel s and cutting down forests release greenhouse gas es into the atmosphere. These gases hold in heat, which raises temperature. Scientists believe this “ greenhouse effect ” is increasing global temperatures. Increasing temperatures can change climate types. Low-lying island s may be flooded as sea waters rise from melting glacier s. Heat in the atmosphere may increase the interaction of diverse weather system s, resulting in more hurricanes and typhoon s. Organisms that have adapted to one climate may have to migrate or adapt to warmer temperatures. Manatee s, for instance, are marine mammal s native to tropical waters. As temperatures increase, manatees have been migrating as far north as New York City, New York. to adjust to new surroundings or a new situation. agriculture Noun Anasazi Noun (1200 BCE-1300 CE) people and culture native to what is now the southwestern United States. Also called Ancestral Puebloans. ancient (dry climate) region that receives 10 to 30 centimeters (4-12 inches) of rain each year. atmosphere boreal climate Adjective region that experiences long, cold winters with very little precipitation. Also called a subarctic or tundra climate. city large settlement with a high population density. civilization to identify or arrange by specific type or characteristic. climate one of five classifications of the Earth's climates: tropical, dry, mild, continental, and polar. climate type division within a climate group. climatologist person who studies long-term patterns in weather. cloud cover amount of sky covered with clouds. construct person who uses a good or service. continent continental climate Noun climate group that experiences extreme seasonal change. Continental climates are only found in the Northern Hemisphere. cool summer climate region that experience cool summers and snowy winters. crop learned behavior of people, including their languages, belief systems, social structures, institutions, and material goods. data (singular: datum) information collected during a scientific study. dependent relying on or needing something. desert Noun construction or preparation of land for housing, industry, or agriculture. diverse varied or having many different types. dominate time of year with little precipitation. elevation release of material from an opening in the Earth's crust. Eskimo Noun people and culture native to the Arctic region of eastern Russia, the U.S. state of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. experiment to try or test an idea. extensive the art, science, and business of cultivating the land for growing crops. flourish to thrive or be successful. fog ecosystem filled with trees and underbrush. fossil fuel Noun coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals. frigid person who studies places and the relationships between people and their environments. glacier ecosystem with large, flat areas of grasses. Great Lakes Noun largest freshwater bodies in the world, located in the United States and Canada. Lake Huron, Lake Ontario, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and Lake Superior make up the Great Lakes. greenhouse effect Noun phenomenon where gases allow sunlight to enter Earth's atmosphere but make it difficult for heat to escape. greenhouse gas Noun gas in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone, that absorbs solar heat reflected by the surface of the Earth, warming the atmosphere. growing season period in the year when crops and other plants grow rapidly. harsh climate group found in mountains and plateaus. highland climate (high-elevation climate) region found on and around mountains. housing humid continental Noun (continental climate) region that experiences cold winters and warm, wet summers. Also called a warm summer climate. humidity region that experiences cool winters and hot humid summers. hurricane Noun tropical storm with wind speeds of at least 119 kilometers (74 miles) per hour. Hurricanes are the same thing as typhoons, but usually located in the Atlantic Ocean region. ice age Noun long period of cold climate where glaciers cover large parts of the Earth. The last ice age peaked about 20,000 years ago. Also called glacial age. ice cap climate region where temperatures rarely rise above freezing. influence to encourage or persuade a person or organization to act a certain way. interaction relationship between two or more forces, objects, or organisms. Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Noun belt of low-pressure air currents that circle the Earth at the Equator. Also known as the Monsoon Zone. island lake effect Noun process where cold winds blowing over a relatively warm lake cause rapid cloud formation and precipitation. latitude threatened marine mammal native to the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean. marine mammal Noun an animal that lives most of its life in the ocean but breathes air and gives birth to live young, such as whales and seals. marine west coast climate (mild climate) region that experiences rain and long, cool winters. Mark Twain (1835-1910, born Samuel Langhorne Clemens) American writer. Mediterranean climate (mild climate) region that experiences mild winters and warm summers. microclimate Noun small area where the climate differs within a larger climate region, such as "heat islands" in a city. microscopic to move from one place or activity to another. migration movement of a group of people or animals from one place to another. mild climate climate group that experiences seasonal temperature changes. Also called a temperate climate. moist monsoon Noun seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing winds of a region. Monsoon usually refers to the winds of the Indian Ocean and South Asia, which often bring heavy rains. landmass that forms as tectonic plates interact with each other. Northern Hemisphere half of the Earth between the North Pole and the Equator. North Pole Noun remote, sparsely populated interior region of Australia. Patagonia large plateau in southern South America, stretching from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. pendulum object suspended from a point, able to swing back and forth. periodic (singular: phenomenon) any observable occurrence or feature. plateau having to do with the North and/or South Pole. polar climate climate group found within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. prairie regular or able to be forecasted. rain forest time of year when most of the rain in a region falls. region Noun any area on Earth with one or more common characteristics. Regions are the basic units of geography. to go back to a familiar or safe place. savanna type of tropical grassland with scattered trees. Scandinavia region and name for some countries in Northern Europe: Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark. scheme structure or diagram of the way information is studied, documented, and understood. seasonal likely to change with the seasons. semiarid climate Noun (dry climate) region that receives between 25 and 50 centimeters (10-20 inches) of rainfall every year. shore region of land stretching across Russia from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. snow precipitation made of ice crystals. spectacular subarctic climate Noun region that experiences long, cold winters with very little precipitation. Also called a boreal or tundra climate. sunlight visible radiation from the sun. taiga tectonic plate Noun massive slab of solid rock made up of Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle). Also called lithospheric plate. temperature cloud that produces thunder and lightning, often accompanied by heavy rains. topographic feature map representation of the Earth's surface showing elevation. topography study of the shape of the surface features of an area. tornado Noun a violently rotating column of air that forms at the bottom of a cloud and touches the ground. trade wind Noun winds that blow toward the Equator, from northeast to southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from southeast to northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. transition zone area between two natural or artificial regions. tropical climate climate group that experiences hot, wet summers. tropical monsoon climate region that experiences the monsoon winds, which bring heavy rain. tropical wet and dry climate Noun region that experiences three seasons: cool, hot, and wet. tropical wet climate Noun region that experiences hot temperatures and heavy rainfall all year. Also called a rain forest climate. tundra climate region that experiences short summers and long winters. typhoon Noun tropical storm with wind speeds of at least 74 miles (119 kilometers) per hour. Typhoons are the same thing as hurricanes, but usually located in the Pacific or Indian Ocean region. typical exactly the same in some way. unique (high-elevation climate) region found on and around large plateaus. urban area all the plant life of a specific place. volcanic having to do with volcanoes. volcanic ash region that experiences cool winters and warm, wet summers. Also called a humid continental climate. weather movement of warm or cold air. wind Noun movement of air (from a high pressure zone to a low pressure zone) caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun. winter Noun time of year when part of the Earth receives the least daylight: December, January, and February in the Northern Hemisphere and June, July, and August in the Southern Hemisphere. Wladimir Koppen	Season
Diplopodology is the study of which many-legged arthropods?	Tree Rings & Climate - Windows to the Universe Tree Rings & Climate Tree-ring patterns provide data about past climates. Credit: UCAR Trees contain some of nature's most accurate evidence of the past. Their growth layers, appearing as rings in the cross section of the tree trunk, record evidence of floods, droughts, insect attacks, lightning strikes, and even earthquakes that occurred during the lifespan of the tree. Subtle changes in the thickness of the rings over time indicate changes in length of, or water availability during, the growing season. ï¿½ Each year, a tree adds to its girth, with the new growth being called a tree ring. Tree growth depends upon local environmental conditions. In some areas the limiting factor for growth is water availability, in other areas (especially at high latitudes) it is the length of the growing season. In areas where water is limited and the amount of water varies from year to year, scientists can use tree-ring patterns to reconstruct regional patterns of drought. In areas where the length of the growing season is the limiting factor, the thickness of tree rings can indicate when growing seasons were longer (during warmer times) and when growing seasons were shorter (cooler times). The study of the growth of tree rings is known as dendrochronology. The study of the relationship between climate and tree growth in an effort to reconstruct past climates is known as dendroclimatology. A tree ring consists of two layers: A light colored layer which grows in the spring A dark colored layer which forms in late summer At locations where tree growth is limited by water availability, trees will produce wider rings during wet and cool years than during hot and dry years and the rings are wider. Drought or a severe winter can cause narrower rings too. If the rings are a consistent width throughout the tree, the climate was the same year after year. By counting the rings of a tree, we can pretty accurately determine the age and health of the tree and the growing season of each year. Modern dendrochronologists seldom cut down a tree to analyze its rings. Instead, core samples are extracted using a borer that's screwed into the tree and pulled out, bringing with it a straw-size sample of wood about 4 millimeters in diameter. The hole in the tree is then sealed to prevent disease. Computer analysis and other methods have allowed scientists to better understand certain large-scale climatic changes that have occurred in past centuries. These methods also make highly localized analyses possible. For example, archaeologists use tree rings to date timber from log cabins and Native American pueblos by matching the rings from the cut timbers of homes to rings in very old trees nearby. Matching these patterns can show the year a tree was cut, thus revealing the age of a dwelling. Tree ring data is only collected outside of the tropics. Trees in temperate latitudes have annual spurts of growth in the summer and periods of dormancy in the winter, which creates the distinctive pattern of light and dark bands. Tropical trees grow year-round, and thus do not have the alternating dark and light band pattern that allows us to read tree ring records. Tree ring records can be combined to create climate records that span a timeframe longer than the life of a single tree. For example, the data from a living, 200-year old tree could be combined with a data from wood from a tree that was felled 150 years ago (after living a couple of centuries) to produce a composite dataset spanning several hundred years. Trees, alive or dead, are not the only source of wood used to construct such extended records. Beams from old buildings or ruins, samples from wooden frames of old paintings, and slivers from violins have all been used to add wood samples from trees long dead to climate chronologies. In some cases, tree rings enshrined in petrified wood even give us some insights into climate conditions in truly ancient times. The oldest trees on Earth, the bristlecone pines of western North America, can live for more than 4,000 years. Dead bristlecone trunks, often well-preserved in the dry terrain upon which bristlecones grow, can be as much as 9,000 years old. The proxy climate record preserved by tree ring data spans a period of about 9,000 years. The resolution of tree ring data is one year. Tree ring records are amongst the highest resolution proxy climate data types, but they also have one of the shortest time spans over which they apply as compared to other proxies. This map shows sites from which tree ring samples have been gathered. Tree ring samples are collected in temperate zones where the trees have annual growth patterns that produce rings. Credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Paleoclimatology Program/Department of Commerce. Online activities We have developed two computer-based activities that allow you to experiment with some of the concepts related to dendrochronology. The first, "Build a Tree", allows you to specify the conditions (temperature and precipitation) in the vicinity of a tree on a yearly basis, and to see how those conditions influence tree ring growth. The second, "Splice Tree Ring Records Together to form a Longer Chronology", invites you to align the records from three samples of wood to generate a longer record of climate history. Click on the links below to go to these activities (require Moodle login).	i don't know
In astronomy an ‘event horizon’ surrounds which kind of region?	Black Hole Event Horizon \| Astronomy Source Author: Wolf Damm Published: October 13th, 2011 Gravitational distortions caused by a black hole in front of the Large Magellan cloud. Black holes, the enigmatic cosmic objects, are actually not so rare in the universe. All it needs is a star with the mass of at least 10 times that of our sun. After its Hydrogen has run out and Hydrogen-fusion is no longer possible, things start to change. Without fusion, the equilibrium between gravity and fusion pressure ceases to exist. The result: a supernova explosion that sheds the outer layers of the star. With only gravitational forces left, remnant material collapses. If the remaining mass is about 1.5 to 2 times that of the sun, the force will push electrons into protons, which become neutrons, hence the name neutron star. If more mass remains, gravitational forces squeeze even neutrons into each other. This results is an area so massive and so dense that even light cannot escape its gravitational pull. The process is quite normal; black holes are simply evolutionary endpoints in the life of a large star. Milky Way’s center has a much higher star density than the outer regions; subsequently it would also be populated with a greater number of black holes. As a matter of fact, so many black holes were concentrated in the center, that they have merged to one super massive black hole, with a mass equal to 4.3 million suns. Due to its position in the constellation Sagittarius, this black hole is called Sagittarius A, or short SGR A (pronunciation: Sagittarius A star). It is thought that most galaxies contain both, super massive black holes in their centers and stellar mass size black holes floating in their outer regions. Why are black holes black? The speed required to overcome the gravitational pull of any celestial body is called escape velocity (EV) . It depends on the mass of the body and the distance of the escaping body to the center of gravity. An space ship must exceed a speed of 11.2 km/s to escape the earth’s gravity. Escape velocity in the proximity of the black whole is higher than the speed of light (299,792 km/s). Since relativity theory predicts that nothing can exceed the speed of light, even photons (light) are caught and cannot escape. Due to that characteristic, black holes are indeed perfectly black. Black hole regions. When discussing black holes we look at three different active regions: Singularity, Event Horizon and Ergosphere. Singularity Matter and electromagnetic waves in the vicinity of a black hole are sucked into it. As closer they come, as higher the gravitational forces. These forces increase also with the amount of matter sucked in. But where is the matter going? This point is called singularity. With equation at hand it is not possible for scientists to describe location and ruling conditions of a singularity mathematically. All equations trying to describe this point result in infinity, like infinitely small or infinitely dense. Singularity is the entity of matter and energy compressed into one point. Event Horizon & Schwarzschild Radius The event horizon of a black hole marks the dark region in space where the escape velocity is higher than the speed of light. This region is typically considered the “black hole”. Nothing can escape it, both photons and matter is inevitably pulled into the singularity. The distance from the singularity to the event horizon is also known as the Schwarzschild radius. Ergosphere Ergosphere is a region outside the event horizon, where gravitational forces start to influence objects movements. Objects here can no longer remain stationary in space. Depending on the distance between object and to the event horizon, the influence can be extremely strong or very weak. Close to the event horizon, where escape velocity is nearly the speed of light gravitational will rip objects apart and eventually draw most of their material in. Far away the effects are virtually non-existent. Objects in the Ergosphere can escape the forces of a black hole if their speed is higher than the appropriate escape velocity. General relativity theory predicts that any rotating mass drags surrounding space-time with it. This makes the ergosphere not just a characteristic of black holes, but it is present with all regular cosmic objects of mass, including earth, planets or the sun. Size of a Black hole As discussed above, a black hole is understood as the region within the event horizon. With 30 km in diameter, stellar black holes are actually quite small, approximately the size of an asteroid. Super massive black holes are significantly larger but still relatively small in cosmic scale. The event horizon of SGR A* has an estimated size that it would fit in the orbit of Mercury. The active ergosphere of SGR A* is thought to be only 10 light days in diameter. How can we detect black holes? Object movement in the vicinity Due to their perfect absorption of light, it is impossible to see black holes directly. Their large mass allows however to observe their influence on other bodies in the vicinity. An analogy might be air movement, we can’t see the wind but because leaves are moving we are certain about its existence. Researchers started in 1998 to record the movement of 90 objects in the neighborhood of SGR A. By applying Kepler’s laws, this information provided very accurate information about location and mass of Milky Way’s central black hole. X-Ray Emissions M87 with jet caused by the black hole in the center of this galaxy. Credit: NASA, ESA. Interstellar matter that is drawn towards a black hole accelerates. The closer it comes the higher the gravitational pull. This acceleration heats it up, and with high enough temperature ionizes its atoms. Once the temperature reaches several million Kelvin, atoms start emitting X-Rays, which can be observed with x-Ray telescopes or indirectly, through emissions of objects that are excited by them. Typical for a black hole is that X-Ray jets are not constant. There is simply no steady input of matter. Black holes nurture more randomly, and are depending on how much matter is available in their ergosphere. SGR A is currently very quite simply because most of the matter in its vicinity has already been attracted and is used up. Other galaxies are more active and show intense X-Rays emitting from their center, a famous example is M87. Gravitational Lensing As any body with a mass, black holes bent space-time fabric. Since they employ huge mass in a very small region the effects of black holes in the vicinity are very strong. Gravitational lensing could be used to determine black holes but due to the very small active area of stellar black holes, it might only be practicable with super massive black holes. A word on singularity Mathematically, a singularity is a condition where equations do not provide valid values. Our current equations, based on general relativity theory, are not sufficient to describe conditions of the singularity. Equations and scale used by relativity theory are simply too coarse to present satisfactory results. Quantum theory equations would be more appropriate, but unfortunately the mathematical bridge between both theories has yet to be made. Stephen Hawking radiation equation shows that black holes can indeed radiate energy and conserve entropy (disorder). According to the second law of thermodynamics entropy implies heat and therefore temperature. Hawking’s calculations predict a black body temperature of a couple nano-Kelvin; low indeed but an energy emission nevertheless. This means that black holes do not exist infinitely, they rather evaporate.	Black hole
Who was the first Englishman to win the Formula One Drivers Championship?	Vanishing Gas Confirms Black Hole Event Horizons Vanishing Gas Confirms Black Hole Event Horizons By Ker Than \| January 9, 2006 11:20am ET MORE Washington, DC-A type of X-ray explosion found on neutron stars does not occur near black holes, scientists announced here today. The lack of explosions is strong evidence for the existence of a black hole event horizon, a theoretical boundary into which matter vanishes and cannot escape. The explosions are brief thermonuclear eruptions called type I X-ray bursts and last about one minute. The bursts occur every several hours on the surface of very small, dense stars called neutron stars. They are fueled by gas that a neutron star siphons off a companion star. The gas accumulates on the neutron star's surface and when enough builds up, the gas erupts in an X-ray burst. Scientists examined neutron stars and black holes detected by NASA's Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer during the past nine years. They found X-ray bursts from 13 sources believed to be neutron stars, but none from 18 suspected black holes. "By looking at objects that pull in gas, we can infer whether that gas crashes and accumulates onto a hard surface or just quietly vanishes," said study leader Ron Remillard, an astronomer at MIT's Kavli Institute. "For the group of suspected black holes we studied, there is a complete absence of X-ray bursts. The gas that would fuel such bursts appears to vanish." The findings were presented at the 207th meeting of the American Astronomical Society. "Proving that something has an event horizon is probably an impossible test, but we can test our thinking about how they form and how they lie in space and curve space time," Remillard said. One of the ways to test whether event horizons exist is to show that black holes don't have conventional surfaces made up of normal matter, said Kimberly Weaver, a scientist from NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center who was not involved in the study. While the current findings on their own do not add up to definitive proof for the existence of event horizons, they do strongly support previous findings, including one that found similar phenomena occurring with ultraviolet light, she added. A neutron stars forms when a star 10 to 25 times more massive than our Sun runs out of fuel and expels most of itself into space. The remains, typically one or two solar masses, collapses into a compact sphere about 10 miles across. When stars with more than 25 solar masses collapse, they're thought to become black holes with infinite densities and no surfaces. A black hole is thought to be surrounded by an event horizon, a spherical region of space that extends about 50 miles from its center. Within the event horizon, the pull of gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light, can break free. Like neutron stars, black holes can siphon off another star's gas if the pair are close enough, but because they don't have surfaces for the gas to collect upon, black holes can't produce X-ray bursts. The idea of using the lack of X-ray bursts to confirm the existence of event horizons has been proposed before, but the current study improves upon earlier research by giving a better account of the conditions that give birth to such explosions. It also allows scientists to calculate how many X-ray bursts should occur when the amount of gas accumulating on the neutron star's surface is known. Weaver said that knowledge about event horizons could prove important for future NASA missions that plan to map black holes using electromagnetic radiation like X-rays. "In one case we want to image an event horizon and the idea is to use X-rays to do that," Weaver said. "So if there's a problem with using typical electromagnetic radiation to study black holes, we want to know that now." Neutron Stars Shed Light on Black Holes Fury of a Neutron Star Far Exceeds Our Sun Possible First Direct Evidence That Black Holes Exist Subscribe To SPACE.com	i don't know
Which Chinese philosophical system translates into English as ‘Wind – Water’?	Chinese symbols and their Translations Chinese symbols and their translations Share the Symbols on this page: Tweet The Culture of China is one of the world's oldest and most complex cultures. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in eastern Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and provinces. Most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism. In ancient times there were several well known chinese symbols. Here is our collection of chinese symbols. Chinese characters or symbols usually have one or more meanings and some of them are particularly loved by Chinese people. Here is the top ten list of the lucky ones. Please note Pinyin is also used here, which is the Chinese spelling system for the characters. For example, fu is the pinyin for good luck in Chinese. But fu is only the phonic part of the character and it also represents other Chinese characters that sound the same. Fu - Blessing, Good Fortune, Good Luck Fu is one of the most popular Chinese characters used in Chinese New Year. It is often posted upside down on the front door of a house or an apartment. The upside down fu means good luck came since the character for upsite down in Chinese sounds the same as the character for came. Lu - Prosperity It used to mean official's salary in feudal China. Fengshui is believed to be the Chinese way to health, wealth and happiness. If you are interested in Fengshui, you may check out the book 'The Feng Shui Kit.' Shou - Longevity Shou also means life, age or birthday. Xi - Happiness Double happiness is usually posted everywhere on Chinese weddings. Related Chinese Jewelry I Ching Cai - wealth, money Chinese often say money can make a ghost turn a millstone. It is to say money really can do a lot of things. Buy Direct He - harmonious 'People harmony' is an important part of Chinese culture. When you have harmonious relations with others, things will be a lot easier for you. Ai - love, affection Don't need to say any more about this one. Just want to point out ai is often used with 'mianzi' together. Aimianzi means 'be concerned about one's face-saving.' Mei - beautiful, pretty The United States of American is called Mei Guo in the short form. Guo means country so Meiguo is a good name. Ji - lucky, auspicious, propitious Hope all is well. De - virtue, moral De means virtue, moral, heart, mind, and kindness, etc. It is also used in the name for Germany, i.e., De Guo. Here are the chinese zodiac signs. These are important chinese symbols that have deep meaning for the chinese and many other people who are interested in horoscopes. Dog - The Dog is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Dog is associated with the earthly branch symbol. Dragon - The Dragon, is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar, and the only animal that is legendary. The Year of the Dragon is associated with the earthly branch symbol. Honest, sensitive, and brave, these individuals are most compatible with Rats, Snakes, Monkeys, and Roosters. Horse - The Horse is the seventh of the 12 animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Horse is associated with the earthly branch symbol. Monkey - The Monkey is the ninth of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Monkey is associated with the earthly branch symbol. Ox - The Ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Ox is denoted by the earthly branch character. In the Vietnamese zodiac, the water buffalo occupies the position of the ox. Pig - The Pig, or Boar, is the last of the 12 animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac. The Year of the Pig is associated with the earthly branch Hai. In Chinese culture, the pig is associated with fertility and virility. To bear children in the Year of the Pig is considered to be very fortunate, for they will be happy and honest. Rabbit - The Chinese Year of the Rabbit is actually the Chinese Year of the Hare, as China has seven native species of hares and no native species of rabbits. The Chinese applied their word for hare to the first rabbits to be taken to China, and the word is now erronously back-translated into English as rabbit. The hare is the fourth animal in the 12-year cycle of the Chinese zodiac. The Year of the Hare is associated with the earthly branch symbol. In the related Vietnamese zodiac, the cat takes the place of the hare. Ram - The Goat (also translated as Sheep or Ram) is the eighth sign of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Goat is associated with the earthly branch symbol. Rat - The Rat is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar, the Year of the Rat is associated with the earthly branch symbol. In some parts of the world, a year associated with this animal is referred to as Year of the Mouse because the word may be translated to "rat", "mouse", or more broadly, "rodent". Rooster - The Rooster (also translated as Cock or Chicken) is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Rooster is represented by the earthly branch character. Snake - The Snake (also known as the Serpent) is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Snake is associated with the earthly branch symbol. Tiger - The Tiger, is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The Year of the Tiger is associated with the earthly branch symbol. The Symbols of the Five Universal Elements The Wood Element is the energy associated with regeneration, renewal, and growth. The season of Spring expresses this rebirth as the blooming of new life, the continual movement of Chi. The Wood Element expresses the vision of life, direction, and movement. Fire is the spark of life. It warms and circulates the blood and Chi. It represents the fullest expression of yang. Earth - In ancient Chinese texts, the Earth Element was often depicted as the center with the other four elements surrounding it. Earth provides nourishment and shelter for all life. The Earth Element and its two officials, the Spleen and Stomach, are the organs that support the nourishing processes in body, mind, and spirit. The stomach takes in nourishment; the spleen distributes the energy throughout the body obtained from foods. Metal - The Metal Element supports breathing, inspiration, and respiration, the breath of life, as well as the release of impurities. Out with the old and in with the new. Water - Water is the foundation of life. It expresses stillness, power, cleansing, and refreshment. Water supports every cell in the body. Without fresh, pure water in our bodies and in our environment, we compromise the vital integrity of our health. Bamboo - An intrinsic part of the Chinese culture since ages, Bamboo is symbolic of longevity, youth, strength, suppleness, flexibility, adaptability, endurance, good luck, prosperity, virtue and traditional values. The Chinese associate its deep roots with resoluteness, the tall, clean and evergreen stem with honor and chastity, and the hollow interior with simplicity and Another very important chinese symbol is the ying yang symbol. In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin yang, normally referred to in the West as (yin and yang) is used to describe how polar or seemingly contrary forces are interconnected and interdependent in the natural world, and how they give rise to each other in turn. Opposites thus only exist in relation to each other. The concept lies at the origins of many branches of classical Chinese science and philosophy, as well as being a primary guideline of traditional Chinese medicine, and a central principle of different forms of Chinese martial arts and exercise, such as baguazhang, taijiquan (tai chi), and qigong (Chi Kung) and of I Ching divination. Many natural dualities - e.g. dark and light, female and male, low and high, cold and hot - are thought of as manifestations of yin and yang (respectively). Goldfish - Goldfish is associated with wealth, affluence and abundance. In the Chinese culture, Goldfish is a very popular symbol and may be worn embroidered on clothes to encourage the flow of riches and comforts into life. The symbol is often used alongside the lotus flower as a New Year image. Together, they are supposed to be the harbingers of prosperity as well as harmony.	Feng shui
What are the water buses or water taxi’s in Venice called?	Coin Value: China Yong Zheng Tong Boa Coinage (including Feng Shui) 1723 to 1735 Sell Coins China Yong Zheng Tong Boa Coinage (including Feng Shui) 1723 to 1735 These old coins from the China Qing Dynasty, Emperor Shi Zong, were cast between 1723-35. Our image below shows how the Chinese characters are read, from top to bottom, then from right to left: Yong zheng Tong bao, also called Yung-cheng T-ung-pao. We discuss three types of this coin, first the amazing specimen in our primary picture (to the left) and then the two coins in our secondary picture below. Heritage Auctions sold the master coin in our primary picture for $3200 US dollars during a 2015 auction. This coin is one of the 'seed' coins used to make the molds from which standard circulating coins were cast. For obvious reasons, such master coins are in strong demand and carry very high prices. $3200 is not unreasonable for such a superb specimen. CoinQuest thanks Heritage for use of their coin photo. It is a beauty! Consider now the two coin below, shown to scale. The upper coin is a 'Cash coin' used in circulation, and the lower coin is a 'Feng Shui' coin used in metaphysical arts. (Discussion continues below these pictures.) Values of cash coins are still quite low. As interest in Chinese coins continues to grow, prices are sure to pick up. Typical catalog values for the cash coins (reverse sides vary) are: CASH: YONG ZHENG TONG BAO (about 26 mm diameter) worn: $3 US dollars approximate catalog value average circulated: $15 well preserved: $30 The cash coin in our picture above would sell for about $12 retail. The larger Feng Shui coins are usually modern and less valuable. Feng shui is a Chinese philosophical system that seeks to harmonize people with their surroundings. The term feng shui literally translates as 'wind-water' in English. It is one of the Five Arts of Chinese Metaphysics, and Feng Shui coins are meant to bring good luck. Accurately evaluating Feng Shui coins is basically impossible. A Google search on 'feng shui coin' brings up dozens of listings with prices ranging from a few US cents per coin to a few US dollars. Since Feng Shui has been around for thousands of years, it is possible that ancient Feng Shui coins exist. If a coin can be proven ancient, it would be worth substantial amounts. But modern technology makes it easy to produce a modern coin that looks old. To our knowledge there is no reliable method to date Feng Shui coins. Our value estimates, then, are: MODERN FENG SHUI: YONG ZHENG TONG BAO (about 40 mm diameter) worn: less than $1 US dollars approximate catalog value average circulated: $3 ANCIENT FENG SHUI: YONG ZHENG TONG BAO (about 40 mm diameter) worn: $10 US dollars approximate catalog value average circulated: $80	i don't know
Who made up the panel on Juke Box Jury on the only occasion it had 5 members not 4?	Cameron K's Blog: Juke Box Jury (1959-1967) Cameron K's Blog Collection of short bios represents a lifelong love of popular music and the artists and record companies that made them. The information has been collected in good faith and researched from reputable sources. I hope you have the opportunity to enjoy the music (and buy the vinyls, CDs or download from iTunes and Spotify). I am grateful to YouTube for the opportunity to share. Monday, January 19, 2009 Juke Box Jury (1959-1967) Growing up in the UK, Saturday nights in front of the box was an essential way to hear and see some of the biggest names in pop and show business. The BBC had Juke Box Jury which was produced by Bill Cotton Jnr and ran from 1959 until 1967. The simple format was based on an American Show (KNXT) which featured DJ Peter Potter. David Jacobs hosted the panel of four celebrities whose task it was to judge the commercial success (hit or miss) of recent 45 releases. Once the panel had commented and voted David would register the outcome with an appropriate sound effect (a ringing buzzer for a hit, and a rasping hooter for a miss). In the event of a panel split decision, three members of the audience sat in the front row ready to give their 'tie-breaker' vote. Just to give the program an edge performer(s) would sometimes be hidden in the studio. Once the verdict was given they would then be presented to the panel. A feature of the program whilst the music was being played for a jukebox was to pan the studio audience and panel to catch their reaction. Head nods and finger clicking were common as was the hand jive. The original panel consisted of Pete Murray (actor and DJ), Alma Cogan (singer), Gary Miller (actor and singer) and Susan Stranks (actor and presenter), who gave a 'teenager's view' on the offerings. Despite its instant appeal to young people it was also criticised mainly because of the ill-informed panelists and too much chatter between discs. To vary the format and address these issues the panel members changed from week to week. The Beatles made up the panel on December 7th 1963; and the only time the panel numbered five was when the Rolling Stones were the invited judges (July 4, 1964). Juke Box Jury had a weekly audience peaking at around 12 million and was a popular ‘gig’ for visiting celebrities like Roy Orbison, Phil Spector and The Seekers. David Jacobs catchphrase was "Let's hear what the panel thinks of the next record," which would be as well known then, as “Phone a friend is today.’ The program’s theme tune was ‘Hit and Miss’ by John Barry. Eventually Juke Box Jury was axed in1967 due to falling ratings, the programs format was exhausted and rival teenage programs like Top of the Pops had set new barriers for pop music television. The program was twice revived; by Noel Edmonds (BBC, 1979) and then Jools Holland (BBC, 1989-90), neither attempt recaptured the popularity of the original. Posted by	The Rolling Stones
Which herb is commonly used to flavour the tomato on pizza toppings?	Sixties City - Pop and Music Television A show called 'The Hit Parade', produced by Francis Essex, was first transmitted by the BBC in January 1952 from Studio 'G' at Lime Grove (that was later to host 'Top Of The Pops') and was described in the Radio Times as '... the most ambitious attempt yet made to present popular music on the screen in a directly visual way'. This apparently meant using dance sequences to dramatise the song lyrics with a forerunner of the iconic 'Pan's People'. The show did not present the original artists but used house musicians, featuring vocalists Petula Clark and Denis Lotis, to recreate the popular songs of the day and pre-dating by several months the start of the UK singles chart. The show was briefly revived in 1955. Essex also produced another show for the BBC called 'Off The Record', in May 1955, which was hosted by bandleader Jack Payne and was not only more eclectic in terms of artists featured but also included some music news and the occasional short feature on aspects of the record industry. Artists who typically appeared on the show included Ronnie Hilton, Alma Cogan (Dreamboat), The Four Aces (Stranger in Paradise) and Max Bygraves. This programme survived until 1958 with the latter output starting to feature more of the new rock'n'roll sounds. A one-hour long live classical music offering called 'Music For You' was transmitted by the BBC once a month, on Wednesday evenings, from Studio G, hosted by Eric Robinson and directed and produced by Patricia Foy. Artists appearing included Luigi Infantino, Annaliese Rothenberger, Joan Hammond and Hilde Gueden. On their third day of transmission in September 1955, ITV broadcast a programme called 'TV Music Shop' that featured various stars such as Pearl Carr and Teddy Johnson. Under the terms of the Television Act of 1954, that had been put into place to help regulate potential commercial television channels, a 'closed period' existed between 6.00pm and 7.00pm that was often referred to as 'the toddler's truce', a reference to the supposed intention of allowing parents this uninterrupted time to put their children to bed before the evening 'adult' programmes commenced. Although this was initially acceptable to independent television management at its launch, financial losses the following year prompted them to petition Charles Hill, the Post Master General, for a relaxation of this rule. This request met with government acceptance and, despite resistance from the BBC who tried to delay the decision, the condition was abolished on Saturday 16th February 1957. On that weekend evening the BBC took full advantage of the new timings to experiment with a programme aimed at older children and young adults. A short news bulletin was broadcast at 6.00pm, lasting five minutes, following which a live music program called '6.5 Special' first aired. 'Magazine' format programmes such as 'Tonight' (18th February 1957) catered for a wide variety of people getting home from work on weekdays but the weekend viewing pattern was somewhat different. Programme planners decided that something aimed at young adults would be more suitable to fill the gap between children's television and the adult offerings in the evening while not driving the older audience away to a different channel. With this in mind, one of the suggested titles for the new programme was 'Start the Night Right'. Other possible titles included 'Take It Easy', 'Don't Look Now', 'Hi There' and 'Live It Up' but '6.5 Special' was eventually selected for its 'jazz' allusion to trains. It was the BBC's original intention to run '6.5 Special' for just six weeks as a weekend 'filler' for the 6.00pm to 7.00pm 'gap' in transmission but Jack Good's production was of such a high quality that it quickly gained popularity and a regular audience in excess of six million. He said: "When I got the job to produce '6.5 Special' I was dedicated to making a rock 'n' roll show, although I didn't entirely succeed. I had to find British rockers because they only gave us a budget of ï¿½1,000 for the whole programme - that's the set, the costumes, everything". After the launch of '6.5 Special', Saturday early evenings seemed to become the 'prime time' slot for pop music programmes and remained so for quite a long period. The show itself was the result of a 'compromise' between the BBC and Jack Good's original concept, being a combination of 'variety' and 'magazine' type shows mixing popular music with other types of entertainment, sprinkled with items intended to inform and educate, whereas Good had wanted to fully project the energy and excitement of rock'n'roll. The first show was presented by Pete Murray and 27 year-old Josephine Douglas (who was also the show's co-producer), providing what they considered to be a mixture of 'youth and experience' but was not entirely acceptable to the teenage target audience who expected younger presenters for what they considered ought to be a 'pop' show. Although giving the appearance of being spontaneous, the presentation of the show was actually pre-arranged and quite strict. The musical numbers were deliberately varied and designed to provide a balance of pace and style and the original written script also clearly demonstrates the 'compromise' arrangement: Pete Murray: "Hi there, welcome aboard the '6.5 Special'. We've got almost a hundred cats jumping here, some real cool characters to give us the gas, so just get with it and have a ball". Jo Douglas: "Well I'm just a square, it seems, but for all the other squares with us, roughly translated what Peter Murray just said was, we've got some lively musicians and personalities mingling with us here, so just relax and catch the mood from us". Trevor Peacock, who was the '6.5 Special' scriptwriter for Jack Good, wrote several hit songs including Joe Brown's 'That's What Love Will Do' and Jess Conrad's 'Mystery Girl'. The first show was played in and out by Kenny Baker and his jazz band. In between, Michael Holliday performed a couple of ballad-type songs and the rock'n'roll element was provided by Bobbie and Rudy and The King Brothers. Somewhat bizarrely, there was also an appearance by a Ukrainian classical pianist, Leff Pouishnoff, who contributed a selection from Beethoven and Chopin but, although the BBC persevered with the idea of including a classical item for a few weeks, this aspect of the show soon quietly disappeared. 'Regular' features came and went, including film extracts, film star interviews and a section featuring less well-known sports, introduced by boxer Freddie Mills. The first of these was a demonstration by 'The Herculean Balancers', two Hungarian strongmen who carried Freddie onto the set and caused him to comment "If you're going to rock'n'roll properly, you need to have your muscles in pretty good shape". Dance was a common feature and it was '6.5 Special' that introduced the world to the 'Hand Jive', with a supporting set of instructions written by Good 'Hand Jive at 6.5'. The first programme also included a recorded feature on The Brady Boys' Youth Club choir performing a selection of folk songs and it was this type of feature that carried the BBC's intention to try and educate and inform. The show tended towards four main types of music: rock'n'roll, trad jazz, ballads and, of course, skiffle with Lonnie Donegan, Willie McCormick and Chas McDevitt making regular appearances. Its later theme tune was performed by the Bud Cort Skiffle Group and it even had its own skiffle competition. However, it was for the 'new' sound of rock'n'roll that the programme was to become most famous and '6.5 Special' played a leading role in its growth in the UK, influencing record sales and providing a showcase for emerging British artists as, at that time, not many established American stars were keen on coming across the Atlantic. One of the new crop of British talent was Terry Dene who, after appearing on '6.5 Special' in April, subsequently hit the British music charts with his cover of 'A White Sports Coat' and starred in a 'pop' film called 'The Golden Disc' that was vaguely based on his own career. Other stars in the making were Marty Wilde and Jim Dale, who was later to compere the show but is now possibly better remembered for his performances in the 'Carry On' films. Although usually produced at Lime Grove (and subsequently the Riverside studios), the show also occasionally went 'on tour' with 'specials' such as its broadcast from Glasgow in May 1957. The most famous of these OB's was probably its 16th November event that came from 'the 'birthplace of British rock'n'roll', the 'Two I's Coffee Bar' in Old Compton Street, Soho. That show included both '6.5 Special' regulars and 'Two I's' resident performers, notably opening with Adam Faith's skiffle group The Worried Men, and also contained a version of 'Rockin' At The Two I's' by the curious combination of Wee Willie Harris, The King Brothers and Mike and Bernie Winters. BBC Deputy Director Cecil McGivern was to report; "This edition was not only extraordinary but extraordinarily good. It was first-class television as well as first-class entertainment". Despite such high commendation this episode was also to be one of Jack Good's last. Against the expressed wishes of the Corporation he announced his decision to produce a '6.5 Special' stage show and, on 9th January 1958, the BBC announced that it was not renewing his contract. Good had never been entirely happy with the 'compromise' of the show's presentation anyway and, following co-producer Josephine Douglas's decision to turn freelance, the introduction of new co-producer Dennis Main Wilson created further internal friction. Jack Good was replaced by Duncan Wood to share production duties with Wilson, later being joined by Billy Cotton Jr., and Good moved to independent television where his new show 'Oh Boy!' was to eclipse his BBC creation. In December 1956 'Cool For Cats', produced by Associated-Rediffusion, was shown in the London area at 7.15pm on Mondays (later changed to Thursdays). It was originally presented by journalist Ker Robertson who had come up with the format for the programme and chose the records to be played, but it was not long before he was replaced by a younger presenter thought to be more appealing to a youthful audience, a certain Kent Walton. The 15-minute, twice weekly show (the second a repeat), later expanded to half an hour, was directed by Joan Kemp-Welch and consisted of comments on the records played and a regular dance troupe that was choreographed by Douglas Squires. By June 1957 it was being nationally networked twice a week and lasted until December 1959. Cool For Cats 1958 Although made at the Hackney Empire studio in London, ABC gave Jack Good's 'Oh Boy!' a trial run in the Midlands region during June 1958, followed by national ITV networking on 12th September at 6.00pm to 6.30pm in direct competition with BBC's '6.5 Special'. The original hosts were Jimmy Henney and Tony Hall, with a resident band led by Harry Robinson, the musical director. Other regular artists included Lord Rockingham's XI, The Vernon's Girls, Marty Wilde, The Dallas Boys, Neville Taylor's Cutters, Dicky Pride, Vince Eager, Ronnie Carroll, Red Price and Billy Fury (mostly performers from the Larry Parnes 'stable' of rock'n'roll stars) with Cherry Wainer on an electric organ and singer 'Cuddly Dudley' (Dudley Heslop) who was generally noted as 'Britain's first black rock'n'roller'. The first episode of the show also featured a new young singer named Cliff Richard who entered the music charts a fortnight later with a rock'n'roll offering called 'Move It', written by Ian Samwell. This non-stop music show was billed in the TV Times as 'an explosion of beat music' and crammed as many numbers as possible into its twenty six minutes, which meant that the presenters were hardly given any air time at all as the cameras moved from act to act with virtually no pause in between. For the same reason audience shots were also rare, unlike in previous shows where they had been a planned visual feature. The camera work was done in a style that attempted to reproduce the 'feel' of a live concert and everything was designed around this idea with fairly strict choreography, lighting and angle composition. The simple stage set design placed a band to the right, some steps and stage platforms at the back with a microphone at front centre, most of the performers being shot in close-up or mid-shot. The set-up and technique prompted The Daily Herald to comment "The three-dimensional sets, clever lighting and fast, exciting atmosphere of 'Oh Boy!' have confirmed Jack Good as ITV's most imaginative producer of 'pop' shows". The BBC attempted to respond to this new challenge and later editions of '6.5 Special' consisted almost entirely of music, but still lacked the energy and drive of 'Oh Boy!'. Changes in style and presentation cast were to prove equally ineffective as the producers were simply unwilling to let go of their more staid, 'establishment' approach, becoming even more disconnected from teenage tastes, and the BBC eventually decided to ditch the show altogether. It was replaced with 'Dig This!', a new offering that retained its predecessor's nominal 6.05pm start time but was shortened to half the length in order to try and inject a bit of pace and energy. It was first seen on 3rd January 1959, with the Radio Times of 19th December 1958 promoting it as 'a swift moving, up-to-the-minute show with all the latest pop music presented in a new streamlined manner'. 'Dig This!' was initially introduced by an ex-serviceman called Gary Marshall with a rousing cry of "Hi, kids! Dig this!" and, similar to 'Oh Boy!', the show also had its own resident band, Bob Miller and The Millermen. Despite the updated format the BBC's efforts somehow still failed to reverse the trend in audience figures. The show had only been running for a few weeks before cast changes were made in February and, at the end of March, the BBC accepted defeat in the fight for the 6.00pm audience, ending the show's brief run and replacing it with the American western series 'Wells Fargo'. However, they didn't give up on 'pop' music shows altogether and a younger producer called Stewart Morris was brought in to oversee 'the first of the new 'beat' programmes', a production called 'Drumbeat', which first aired at 6.30pm on 4th April 1959. For this new show Bob Miller and his band were kept on and joined by a second 'house' band, The John Barry Seven. 'Regular' performers included the 17 year-old Sylvia Sands and the former 'Oh Boy!' singer Vince Eager but it was another former protï¿½gï¿½ of Jack Good's who benefited most from the new show and, by the end of the year, 'What Do You Want' was a chart-topping hit for Adam Faith. The show did well enough, although Morris's claim of having more viewers than 'Oh Boy!' may have been slightly optimistic, and it was allowed an extension of its original planned run, eventually ending on 29th August and outliving its arch rival by three months! There didn't seem to be any one particular reason to end 'Oh Boy!' but the 'copycat' BBC production rivalry and the fact that ABC wanted to vacate the Hackney Empire in favour of its Manchester studios almost certainly played their part in the decision. 'Oh Boy!' was axed from ITV on 30th May 1959 to be replaced with a new half-hour show called 'Boy Meets Girls' on 12th September at the new, later time of 6.30pm. Singer Marty Wilde was the 'boy' in question, with Joe Brown making regular appearances on the programme and The Vernon's Girls providing the female element of the title. Some other artists, such as sax player Red Price and organist Cherry Wainer , were also retained from its predecessor but the direction by Rita Gillespie was a markedly different concept, although the new show was still produced and presented by Jack Good. 'Boy Meets Girls' was a much gentler show, featuring more ballads and musical variety, which was suggestive of Jack Good being persuaded, or pressurised by the BBC, to calm things down a bit. Good himself was to comment "Oh Boy! taught me that there is no substitute for personality in entertainmentï¿½. ï¿½.we shall use an occasional, wild number but the accent is on friendliness and the programme is aimed at a wider audience. We are out to capture the elder brothers and sisters of the teenagers, and the mums and dads too". It may have succeeded to some extent with older viewers but the show certainly seemed to be less appealing to the youth audience. Viewing figures started falling and attempts made by Good to liven it up with the appearance of major American artists such as Gene Vincent and Eddie Cochran (who both made their UK television debuts there on January 16th 1960, sharing the bill with Billy Fury, Adam Faith and Jess Conrad) came too late to save the show. It was brought to a close a few weeks later, on 5th March 1960, shortly before the shock of Cochran's untimely death from head injuries received in a car crash on April 17th. 'Bandstand' was launched by ITV in September 1959, a half-hour jazz programme featuring performances that were mostly mimed. Jack Good was to return only a month after the end of 'Oh Boy!' with his third television attempt, a show called 'Wham!' that was billed as 'a fistful of songs' and was the vehicle that brought DJ Keith Fordyce to the fore as a television pop show presenter. As in Good's previous two series, The Vernon's Girls were resident dancers and the acts on the first show on 23rd April 1960 featured Billy Fury, Joe Brown and The Bruvvers, Jess Conrad, Dickie Pride, Little Tony, Vince Taylor and the brilliant Johnny Kidd and The Pirates. Despite the star-studded line-up the format was, by this time, a bit of an anachronism. Even so, it surprisingly only lasted eight episodes, ending on 18th June. After this failure, Good returned to America where he produced 'Shindig!' for ABC in 1964, using the 'Oh Boy!' formula. He did briefly return to the UK in 1979 to produce a short, nostalgic revival of 'Oh Boy!'. Meanwhile, the BBC's iconic show 'Juke Box Jury' replaced 'Drumbeat' on 1st June 1959, compered by DJ David Jacobs, with the first show featuring panellists Pete Murray, Alma Cogan, Gary Miller and introducing Susan Stranks (later to co-present the children's programme 'Magpie') as a 'typical teenager'. The production format of 'Juke Box Jury' was a marked change in the way 'pop' music was presented on television and coincided with what was to be more or less the end of the four-year reign of rock n' roll as the most popular 'youth' music on television. The programme was based on an American format and produced by Russell Turner. It originally began in June, being aired on Mondays at 7.30pm, but it was soon moved to the Saturday evening slot, being recognised as approaching the 'holy grail' mix of teenage appeal and adult entertainment that they had been searching for. It soon gained regular viewing figures of 9 million, rising to around 12 million at its peak in 1962. The production saw resident DJ David Jacobs sitting at a desk next to a prop jukebox, presenting clips from the latest record releases to a guest panel of four people for appraisal, with the cameras occasionally panning the studio audience of young people, viewing their reactions. After each clip members of the panel voiced their opinion on it and voted it a chart 'hit' or 'miss'. In the event of a 2-2 'tie' a panel of teenagers, selected from the studio audience, would be invited to decide. Each week at least one of the artists whose record was being reviewed would make a guest appearance, remaining out of sight until the panel had voted - sometimes quite embarrassing if it had been voted a 'miss'! The initial 'panel' usually consisted of people directly connected with the 'pop music industry' but slowly started to integrate other 'celebrity' guest panellists, such as Diana Dors, who provided a point of interest for those viewers who weren't particularly interested in the music but led to some criticism about the validity of the 'voting' by people not particularly well-qualified to make a judgement. One particular case in point involved journalist Nancy Spain who, on the 29th October 1960 edition, bizarrely confused Lloyd Price with Frank Lloyd Wright, and the singer Carmen McCrae who, on hearing 'Blue Angel' by Roy Orbison, happily spouted that she 'hated this type of music', but thought that it would be a 'hit' because it was so 'terrible'. A short, ten-minute version of 'Juke Box Jury' was broadcast as part of the BBC variety show 'Christmas Night with the Stars' on Christmas Day in 1962 and 1963 and the BBC also broadcast 'Twist Music With a Beat' on 7th July 1962, which was a pop programme about the new dance craze, a 'Twist' competition between some of the cast of the TV show 'Compact' and regular 'Juke Box Jury' panel members, featuring Petula Clark, Don Lang and His Twisters, Tony Osborne and His Mellow Men and The Viscounts. The main programme ran until the end of 1967 when it was eventually dropped due to falling ratings. The last show was broadcast on 27th December 1967 with original jury members Pete Murray and Susan Stranks making a final appearance to complete the 'circle'. Pop-only shows using the '6.5 Special' format were revived by ABC in April 1961 with the arrival of 'Thank Your Lucky Stars' on a Saturday tea-time. Initially shown only in the local region, it was to become what was possibly the most influential 'pop' show of the early sixties. The programme was compered by BBC and Radio Luxembourg DJs Brian Matthew and Keith Fordyce and, later, by Jim Dale. After becoming fully-networked it helped start the rise of 'super-groups' such as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and many others. The show also had a 'Juke Box Jury'-style section called 'Spin-a-Disc' where a guest DJ and three random teenagers reviewed three new releases. This bit is well remembered for the appearance of Janice Nicholls , a former office clerk from the Midlands who became famous for her catchphrase 'Oi'll give it foive', delivered in a strong Black Country accent. Westward was a small TV franchise whose output could not be seen much beyond Devon, Cornwall, Dorset and Somerset, but this didn't stop them embracing the 'new' music. An early programme produced by Westward for young people was 'Spin Along', presented by Alan 'Fluff' Freeman, first broadcast on Tuesday 12th September 1961 between 6.15pm and 6.45pm to fill the hole left by 'Westward Diary' which was not broadcast on Tuesdays. A second series, starting on 24th September 1962 was shown at the later time of 7.00pm. Other Westward programmes included 'Move Over Dad' for which, in November 1963, The Beatles had to be 'smuggled' through a tunnel into their Derry's Cross studio to record an interview with Stuart Hutchison due to the huge numbers of fans outside. They also produced a show called 'Pop And Leslie' and, in 1964, 'The Westward Beat Competition' that boasted a panel of judges which included Brian Epstein and Dick Rowe and was won by a group called 'The Rustiks'. Even as late as 1962 some TV stations and producers still continued to promote trad jazz music, particularly ATV who provided us with Lonnie Donegan's 'Putting On The Donegan' series and 'All That Jazz', the latter using 'jazz' in the title more than in the content as it was a series of shows that actually featured quite a wide variety of mainstream acts such as Karl Denver, Frank Ifield and Billy Fury, but that's about as far as ATV went in producing 'popular music' programmes. The 'birth of Mersey beat' provided a whole new genre in British pop music and, focussed on the North-West, on their doorstep, naturally attracted great interest from ABC and Granada as it had the potential to provide a new 'weapon' in the competition between regional stations. This was mainly between ABC, Granada and the more Southern-based Associated-Rediffusion as ATV still clung to their previous ideas on musical entertainment, even though their parent company owned Pye records! Pop music acts were being increasingly featured in all kinds of variety shows and even found their way into children's television on shows such as 'Tuesday Rendezvous' (later 'The Five O'Clock Club'). TWW (Television Wales & West) aired a local thirty-minute show called 'Discs A-Go-Go' in 1962 from their Brislington studios. It was produced by Chris Mercer and compered by Kent Walton, later better known for his Saturday afternoon 'World of Sport' wrestling commentaries, and where artists were unavailable to perform, a series of still pictures featuring a cartoon fox were used as a visual aid to illustrate the theme of the lyrics! The show was later partially networked but never seen in the London region as its format was considered to be too similar to RSG! Tony Prince appeared on this show before joining 'pirate' Radio Caroline as a DJ. The only surviving recorded edition is a later-made one-off 'Bristol special', originally transmitted on 2nd March 1968, hosted by Tony Blackburn and featuring The Symbols, Paul and Barry Ryan, Tomorrow, Keith West, Steve Howe, Solomon King, The Gojos, Samantha Lee, Engelbert Humperdinck and Bob Miller and The Millermen. Associated-Rediffusion, who held the weekday ITV contract for the London area (and called 'Rediffusion-London' after 1964), launched their next assault on the youth audience on Friday 9th August 1963 via a black and white live show from their Kingsway Studio 9 called 'Ready, Steady, Go!' with the memorable tagline 'The weekend starts here!'. Conceived by A-R boss Elkan Allan and produced by Francis Hitching, it comprised a number of different elements including pop music, the latest dances, various weekly competitions and a lot of 'audience participation', portrayed in a 'club-like' atmosphere. The studio itself was quite small, therefore even the cameras and operators became part of the action. Robert Fleming was the show's first director and the presenters were Keith Fordyce and 'typical teenager' Cathy McGowan, with occasional input from David Gell and Michael Aldred, although Dusty Springfield also acted as a compere in the very early shows. Initially a local show, the programme was soon networked nationally but strangely, due to the scheduling of the times of local news, some ITV regions had to join the show part-way through. The show was later transmitted from Studio 5 at Wembley. Of course, BBC Light Entertainment supremo Bill Cotton wanted a programme to compete against 'RSG!' and the various proposals put forward resulted in the iconic 'chart songs only' show, 'Top Of The Pops', being launched on New Year's Day 1964, broadcast from Manchester. Due to the geographical problems in getting artists there the show was permanently moved to London studios commencing Thursday 20th January 1966. Southern television aired a show similar in format to BBC's 'Juke Box Jury' called 'Dad, You're A Square' on 21st June 1963. Although only 13 shows were originally planned, it ran until 13th May 1964. A pilot of the show, devised by Barry Langford and hosted by actor Bill Owen, had originally been made by ATV in 1960 but not followed up. Southern happily took up the idea and hired the previously untried Sandra Stone, an eighteen year old shop assistant, as the host. In dramatic fashion, if a record was voted a miss then a cannonball would destroy the record. 1964 saw the introduction, or continuation, of many more local shows, including one of Ulster's few attempts at a 'pop' show, 'Pop Scene', a short-lived five nights a week presentation, from 28th September to 23rd December that featured show bands twice weekly, and Border Television's 'Beat The Border', a pop TV series presented by Tom Edwards who was later to work for Radio City and Radio Caroline. Viewers in London and the surrounding areas found themselves blessed with a third television station on 20th April 1964 with the launch of BBC2. The new channel's initial foray into the regular 'pop' scene was 'The Beat Room', first shown on Monday 6th July from 7.35pm to 8.00pm. It was a live performance show, produced and directed by Barry Langford and presented by Pat Campbell, with resident dancers 'The Beat Girls' plus resident band Wayne Gibson and The Dynamic Sound. The only surviving recording of the show is of #14, featuring The Kinks' 'You Really Got Me' and 'Got Love If You Want It', The Syndicats and John Lee Hooker. Advertised as '30 minutes of non-stop beat and shake' the series lasted for about a year, tending towards the R&B style of music that RSG! had helped to popularise and featuring a range of blues artists from both sides of the Atlantic including Sonny Boy Williamson, Little Walter, Chris Farlowe and Long John Baldry. Other BBC2 music shows included the monthly 'Top Beat' (1964-65), hosted by Alan Freeman and shown mid-week at about 9.15pm, that crammed eight or nine acts into a 45-minute studio concert and which, in 1965, featured possibly the greatest sixties television line-up ever, including The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Cliff Richard and The Shadows, The Kinks, The Searchers, Dusty Springfield, Donovan and Them. The popularity of jazz persisted and a show called 'Jazz 625', featuring performances by British and American jazz musicians, was broadcast on BBC2 between 21st April 1964 and August 1966. Created by Terry Henebery, the title referred to the 625-line UHF transmission by BBC2 as opposed to the 405-line VHF system still used by other channels. The theme tune was written by presenter Steve Race and later presenters included Humphrey Lyttelton and Peter Clayton. It was based at the BBC Television Theatre, the old Empire on Shepherd's Bush Green, with some outside broadcasts being recorded at the Marquee Club. Southern TV broadcast a show called 'Ladybirds' that featured all female artists and ran from 31st December 1964 to 29th July 1965. It was hosted by Terence Carroll and Shaw Taylor (of 'Police 5' fame) and was one of many that Mike Mansfield was to produce for the station over the following years, including 'Pop The Question', a 1965 music quiz hosted by Muriel Young and its sequel, 'Countdown', that ran from 15th October 1966 to 23rd December 1966. 'Countdown' was a quiz show where pop stars were asked questions about current chart hits and would, in turn, be allowed promote their own recordings. Muriel Young continued to host, assisted by Don Wardell. Although a Southern production, it actually debuted on ATV in October 1966 but lasted just one series. 1965 saw BBC2's successor to 'The Beat Room' appearing on Monday 1st February from 6.55pm to 7.25pm, again produced by Barry Langford. The new show, 'Gadzooks! It's All Happening', was compered by Alan David and Christine Holmes (who also co-hosted the popular children's programme 'Crackerjack!') with resident dance troupe 'The Beat Girls' surviving from the previous show. Occasional 'guest' presenters included Lulu and Marianne Faithfull. The title was changed to 'Gadzooks! It's the In Crowd' for a while before eventually being shortened to just 'Gadzooks!'. David left the show on 5th July 1965 because "not enough people are looking in". Roger Whittaker subsequently took his place until the show was axed after just eight months. The show is notable for eventually presenting David Bowie's first television performance, as 'Davy Jones and The Manish Boys' on March 8th 1965, with 'I Pity The Fool', after a row about the length of his hair. BBC Scotland introduced their own show called 'Stramash!' from 4th October 1965 to 3rd January 1966, a weekly pop programme for Scottish viewers (and artists) featuring regulars Lulu and The Luvvers, The Senate with Sol Byron and two dance troupes: 'The Stramashers' and 'The Lindella Movers'. Produced by David Bell and hosted by Christian (Chris McClure), the one English act to appear regularly was Peter London. On Wednesday 5th January 1966 BBC1 aired a new (but short-lived) half-hour programme from 6.30pm called 'A Whole Scene Going', hosted by Barry Fantoni and Wendy Varnals. Purporting to reflect 'the tastes and times of Britain's under 21s' it was a teenage lifestyle 'magazine' programme containing features on Carnaby Street fashions, the London club scene and package holidays abroad. It is notable for containing Twiggy's first television appearance. Due to changes in viewing demographics and falling audiences,1966 saw 'Ready, Steady, Go!' being reduced to half an hour to accommodate the 'Crossroads' soap and a reduced version of 'Thank Your Lucky Stars' being moved to Sunday afternoons, both eventually being axed altogether, a fate they shared with the American show 'Shindig!' which was replaced by 'Batman' in January that year. In 1967 ex-Radio Caroline DJ Simon Dee was given his own chat show on BBC1, the legendary 'Dee Time', which featured new record releases between his conversations with various guests. Television in general was giving increasing prominence to personalities, and individuals such as Lulu, Val Doonican, Rolf Harris, Dickie Valentine, Ken Dodd, Petula Clark, Cilla Black, Sandie Shaw, Tom Jones, Scott Walker and Cliff Richard all starred in their own musical show series, as well as BBC1 introducing us to the TV show featuring the zany world of chart-topping American pop group The Monkees. The remaining years of the Sixties became absolutely packed with a wide variety of different types of music show. Shortly after leaving university in 1967, ATV gave Jonathan King his television break with 'Good Evening I'm Jonathan King' which ran for six months on Saturday evenings, initially at 6.30pm, and discussed pop, films, theatre and books. At the end of February 1968 King's show was moved to a later time of 11.20pm to make way for 'Time For Blackburn' and, after six weeks in the late night slot, it was finally axed on 30th March. Another Southern TV pop show called 'As You Like It', produced by Mike Mansfield and hosted by Don Moss, ran from 11th March to 27th June 1967. This was one of two shows being run as 'pilots', the other being 'New Release' which aired at the start of 1968 and was, initially, only shown in the Southern region on Fridays from 7.00pm to 7.30pm, hosted by DJ Tony Blackburn. It only ran under this title from Friday 5th January to 23rd February, at which time some other regions started taking it and it was re-named 'Time For Blackburn' from 2nd March to 28th December 1968. The show featured five newly-released discs, the artist performing their song live to a recorded backing track under the auspices of musical director Johnnie Pearson, after which they joined Tony at a round table to discuss it. Each subsequent performer joined the 'panel' at the table to discuss their own and each other's records. Some inserts were also filmed at London's 'Revolution Club' while Blackburn would introduce the acts and clips from the studio in Southampton. One episode is notable for (The Crazy World of) Arthur Brown accidentally setting fire to himself while performing 'Fire'. To complement this bizarre incident the station identity caption was also set alight at the beginning of the show. The series was widely seen, being shown on ATV London, Border, Anglia, Channel, Westward and Tyne Tees. It is most likely that the fortunes of the show were affected by the regional franchise changes in some of the ITV stations at the end of July. LWT (the new London weekend station) aired the show in a Friday night slot at the end of 1968 but dropped it after 6 weeks, with Southern eventually axing the series altogether after the Saturday 4th January 1969 show. A 1967 series from Ulster TV called 'Zoom In', conceived by Gordon Burns of 'Krypton Factor' fame, was originally planned to be just two 'filler' shows called 'Zoom In' and 'Zoom Out' but was sufficiently successful to be given a run in the 7.00pm prime time slot. Co-produced by Tony Eames, it featured both Irish showbands and visiting English artists with two regular go-go dancers and the studio audience. The show also contained comedy sketches featuring DJ Hendi (Michael Henderson). The 14-hour 'Technicolor Dream Festival' at Alexandra Palace on 29th April 1967 was attended by about 10,000 and filmed by the BBC. A longer-lasting (though less potent) version of the drug LSD called 'STP' was handed out free to anyone who wanted it. Pink Floyd made an appearance, although not filmed, and there were various other performers including artists, poets, dancers and jugglers. The programme was aired by BBC2 on Wednesday 17th May 1967 from 8.05pm, in black and white. From the Dickenson Road studio in Manchester a much under-rated weekly 25-minute show called 'All Systems Freeman!' was launched by BBC1 at 6.40pm on Friday 5th January 1968, using a combination of pop radio style presentation with visual television music formats. Its early evening scheduling probably robbed it of the larger, late evening audience it might have had but the show quickly gained a cult following even though it only lasted for 12 episodes, finishing on 22nd March. 'Fluff' sat behind a (for the time) high-tech console, appearing to control the musical inserts with sliders, dials and other interesting mechanisms. The visible turntables were much more than just props and actually provided some genuine audio input. Alan Freeman wore 'can' style headphones and did his own vision mixing on a panel adjacent to the turntables. The programme included a mixture of film reports on developments in the world of popular music, pop 'business' news and film clips of groups performing in non-studio settings - an early, ground-breaking kind of 'pop video'. Also regularly appearing on the show was Bernard Herrmann who had previously been a musical director for 'The Good Old Days' and 'Dee Time'. The Ladybirds and The Northern Dance Orchestra provided the studio backing and Johnnie Stewart was the producer. New on 7th September 1968 was 'Colour Me Pop', which BBC2 had originally featured as a segment of the Friday magazine show 'Late Night Line Up'. It was specifically designed to take advantage of colour TV transmission and eventually became a programme in its own right from Saturday 2nd November. The series was produced by Steve Turner and ran for over a year before it was superseded, in January 1970, by 'Disco 2' (originally named 'Line Up's Disco 2'), a largely-forgotten series first presented by Tommy Vance (and later Pete Drummond) and was a predecessor of 'The Old Grey Whistle Test' that ran on BBC2 from 1971 to 1978. It was directed by Granville Jenkins, with a theme tune by Elton John that was later replaced with Led Zeppelin's 'Moby Dick' intro. The show was first broadcast on Saturday evenings, later moved to Thursdays and the occasional Friday. 'How It Is', a 40-minute magazine series "by the young, for the young at heart" appeared on BBC1 on Friday 19th July 1968 from 6.00pm produced by Tony Palmer, who also presented alongside Peter Asher (who left after only a few weeks), Radio 1 DJ John Peel, 'Oz' magazine editor Richard Neville and Angela Huth. The 25th October 1968 edition was not broadcast live as the BBC were concerned about the 'October Revolution' that was due to take place in London that weekend and so it was recorded an hour early. Palmer soon became frustrated with people thinking the programme was aimed solely at teenagers and, in late November, it was announced that the series was going to be 'rested', but would return in a new late-night slot in 1969. The last episode of this show was transmitted on Friday 20th December 1968. It was replaced with 'How Late It Is' in a later time slot at 10.50pm on Friday 14th March 1969, which was effectively a 'second series'. Huth and Neville continued to present, joined by Pete Drummond. The producer, Tony Staveacre, promoted the show's 're-launch' by saying "We want to provide a platform for new ideas, styles and sounds and, at the same time, offer new opportunities for established artists. We want the show to have an urgent, last-minute appeal so that viewers will never quite know what is coming up next" which is probably quite true as the series only lasted until Friday 23rd May. A series of six programmes, hosted by Alan Price and called 'Monster Music Mash', went out on BBC1 on Tuesdays from 7th October to 11th November at 5.15pm to 5.44pm, a weekday children's slot. Price said of the show "I adore working with children. We aim to bring the kids all kinds of music, everything from pop to blues and traditional folk. We want to give all the artists on the show the chance to perform two or three numbers - anything they feel like doing, and we want to get away from this idea of guest artists coming on just to plug their latest record". 'Discotheque', produced by Granada Television in 1969, was another short-lived children's pop music show, hosted by Ayshea Brough (who also starred as a 'Skydiver' operative in Gerry Anderson's futuristic TV series 'UFO' ) before moving on to 'Lift Off' (later 'Lift Off With Ayshea Brough') shown at 4.55pm to 5.20pm from 5th November. 'Lift Off' ran until 1972 and was initially co-presented by Graham Bonney, featuring current chart hits and new talent. For a short period the show was co-hosted by Billy J. Kramer. The show's 'resident' group was 'The Pattern' and also featured 'The Ken Martyne Dancers'. 'Lift Off' was originally devised by Muriel Young. Probably the last offering of the 1960s was a one-off 75-minute TV 'special' called 'Pop Go The Sixties!', a celebration of Sixties music, broadcast in colour on 31st December 1969. It was a co-production between the BBC and Germany's ZDF, primarily produced and recorded at the BBC's Television Centre in London, in late 1969. Presented by Jimmy Savile and Elfi Von Kalckreuth, Johnnie Stewart produced the show and Stanley Dorfman directed. The only song performed in German was by Sandie Shaw.	i don't know
Ouzel is an old name for the turdus merula aka which common garden bird?	The RSPB: Blackbird Blackbird Conservation status: Green The males live up to their name but, confusingly, females are brown often with spots and streaks on their breasts. The bright orange-yellow beak and eye-ring make adult male blackbirds one of the most striking garden birds. One of the commonest UK birds, its mellow song is also a favourite. Illustrations	Blackbird
Which nursery rhyme characters were the victims of a triple caudectomy?	Blackbird dictionary definition \| blackbird defined » more... Of birds some species of parrakeet, the "mandarin" blackbird, and the woodcock are not found in the rest of Indo-China. BLACKBIRD (Turdus merula), the name commonly given to a well-known British bird of the Turdidae family, for which the ancient name was ousel, Anglo-Saxon Osle, equivalent of the German Amsel, a form of the word found in several old English books. The blackbird is of a shy and restless disposition, courting concealment, and rarely seen in flocks, or otherwise than singly or in pairs, and taking flight when startled with a sharp shrill cry. The blackbird feeds chiefly on fruits, worms, the larvae of insects and snails, extracting the last from their shells by dexterously chipping them on stones; and though it is generally regarded as an enemy of the garden, it is probable that the amount of damage by it to the fruit is largely compensated for by its undoubted services as a vermin-killer. The notes of the blackbird are rich and full, but monotonous as compared with those of the song-thrush.	i don't know
Who delivers the black spot to Billy Bones in Treasure Island?	Part I Part I Bookmark this page Manage My Reading List Summary The narrator, Jim Hawkins, begins the first chapter ("The Old Sea Dog at the Admiral Benbow") by saying that he is writing this history at the request of Squire Trelawney, Dr. Livesey, and other gentlemen, leaving out nothing but the location of the island, where some treasure still remains. Jim describes how a large, old sailor arrives one day to his father's inn, the Admiral Benbow, and rents a room. Saying they can call him "the captain," he spends his stay watching the sea. He pays Jim a small amount of money to watch out for other seamen, especially a sailor with one leg. He frequently gets drunk in the evenings and terrifies the other guests (who are nonetheless fascinated) by singing violent sea songs and demanding that everyone else join in. The captain is dressed in rough, filthy clothes and spends no money, not even to pay for his room and board, of which fact Jim's father is too intimidated to remind him. One night the captain, drunk and roaring, signals for silence while he sings, but Dr. Livesey, the local physician who has come to treat Jim's ill (indeed, dying) father, goes on with his conversation. In response to the captain's curses and threats, Livesey calmly predicts that he'll die soon if he keeps on drinking. And the doctor, who is also a district law enforcement official, says he'll have the man arrested if he keeps on threatening people. In the second chapter ("Black Dog Appears and Disappears") a stranger arrives one January morning while the captain is on the beach with his telescope and Jim is readying the breakfast table. The stranger asks if "his mate Bill" is there, and Jim tells him he knows no one by that name, that he is preparing the table for "the captain." Jim feels that this person means the captain no good, and he starts out to warn their guest, but the man prevents him from leaving. When the captain approaches, he reacts to the stranger with a kind of sickly fear, addressing him as "Black Dog." Black Dog orders Jim to bring him rum and then leave the room, and although Jim tries to overhear their conversation, he can make out nothing until suddenly there's a great crash and a clash of swords. He runs back in, just in time to see Black Dog, wounded, hurrying away. The captain seems greatly upset, demands rum, and says he must leave the inn. But before anything else can happen, he falls down unconscious. Soon the doctor arrives and tells Jim and his mother that the old man has had a stroke. He gets Jim to help him treat the captain, who eventually recovers consciousness. Livesey tells him that unless he stops drinking immediately he'll have another stroke, which will kill him. Chapter 3 ("The Black Spot") begins later that day. When the captain hears he has been ordered to stay in bed for a week, he declares that this will be impossible. Black Dog and others worse than he will return, wanting to steal his sea chest. They will give him "the black spot," which he says is a summons. When they come, he says, Jim must get Dr. Livesey to call down the law on them. He explains very little, but says these men are "old Flint's crew," that he himself was Flint's first mate, and that Flint gave him something — he does not say what — before he died. Then the captain takes the medicine the doctor left for him and sleeps. That evening, Jim's father dies, and Jim has little time to worry about their guest and his troubles. The next day the captain manages to come downstairs and help himself liberally to rum. For several days he keeps this up, growing weaker and weaker, until the day after the funeral. That afternoon another stranger arrives, a ragged and fearsome-looking blind man. He forces Jim to take him to the captain, who sees him with terror. The blind man puts something into the captain's hand and leaves quickly. When the captain sees what he has been given, he says: "Six hours. We'll do them yet." But as he gets to his feet he reels, sways, and falls dead to the floor. As Chapter 4 ("The Sea Chest") begins, Jim tells his mother what the captain has told him and, knowing their danger, both walk to the nearby village for help. They arrive at dusk and can find no one brave enough to go back with them, although one boy says he'll ride for Livesey. Mrs. Hawkins says she'll go back alone, then, to get what the captain owes her, and Jim has no choice but to go with her. They return to the inn, and Jim reluctantly searches the captain's corpse to find the key to the sea chest. In the chest they discover various articles, including a few bars of silver, a few English and foreign coins, and a sealed packet. Jim's mother begins to count what coins she can recognize, but they hear the blind man's stick approaching and, in the dark, they run out of the inn. They are badly frightened, and Mrs. Hawkins faints. Jim hides her as well as he can, listening, as Chapter 5 ("The Last of the Blind Man") opens. He hears several men run into the inn, where they discover the captain is dead and the sea chest has been opened. Whatever they are looking for is gone. As a signal from their watchman sounds, most of the pirates want to run, but the blind man, Pew, insists they stay to search for Jim and his mother. They have reluctantly begun to do so when horsemen approach. The pirates scatter — all but Pew, who blunders down the road, deserted by his comrades, and is run down and killed by a man on horseback. The boy who rode for Dr. Livesey has returned with a company of revenue men (tax collectors), whom Jim recognizes and hails. They find that the inn has been ransacked and robbed. The revenue officer, Mr. Dance, hearing Jim's story, says he must go report to the magistrate, Livesey, and will take Jim with him. Chapter 6 ("The Captain's Papers") begins at Dr. Livesey's house, where they are told that the doctor has gone to dine with Squire Trelawney at his hall. They proceed there, and Dance tells his story to the doctor and squire. Livesey is interested in the packet Jim took from the sea chest, but he waits to open it until after Dance has gone. When it is opened, it is found to contain a book listing sums of money and dates covering over twenty years. Livesey deduces it is a record of the captain's share in plunder taken from many ships and towns by the notorious pirate Flint and his crew. Along with the book is a map showing where the treasure is hidden, buried on an island about 45 square miles in area. The squire immediately proposes to leave for the port city of Bristol, where he'll obtain a ship, hire a crew, and — taking Livesey as ship's doctor, Jim as cabin boy, and three other men whom he names (Redruth, Joyce, and Hunter) — they will sail in search of the island and the treasure. Livesey warns him not to tell anyone of his plans and destination, and the squire promises he'll be "silent as the grave." Analysis To read the opening paragraph of Treasure Island is a bit like sneaking a look at the last page first. When you come to the end of the first sentence, you know that the treasure-seeking voyage is over and was successful — with part of what was found still left on the island — and that at least three of the major characters (although you do not yet know that they are major characters), the squire, the doctor, and the narrator, have survived it. That you are told these details at the outset does not affect your reading of the story, because you can tell from the tone of the paragraph that the story is not about whether Treasure Island and its cache of riches can be found but about how the story unfold and all the particulars that take place on the way. It is, in other words, about an adventure. And you believe in that adventure because its details are set down in writing by someone who experienced it, someone whom you are inclined to trust because he is recording it at the request of other men who experienced it, too. Thus, Stevenson's first-person narrator immediately transcends fiction and becomes, for the willing reader, a real person writing about real events. The first part introduces you to several of the major characters of the novel. One of them, Billy Bones (whom Jim innocently calls "the captain," although this rank has been conferred on Billy by himself alone), is dead before the third chapter ends. Billy, despite his rough talk and ragged appearance, seems to Jim, and indeed to some of the neighbors who come to the inn for evening refreshment and conversation, to be fierce and commanding, something of an exotic figure. These are country people who, despite the fact that they live on the coast of southwestern England, are not very familiar with sea-faring men and their ways, and Billy is entertaining. But he is mostly bluster. He is a drunken old miser who bullies everyone he can, frightening Jim's father into giving him room, board, and plenty of rum at no charge and scaring the neighbors into joining him in drink and raucous song. But he backs down immediately when his loud bullying has no effect on Dr. Livesey, and he is horribly frightened of his erstwhile shipmates, especially the one-legged man for whom he urges Jim to keep a sharp lookout. What is Billy Bones doing at the Admiral Benbow? In fact, he seems to have no real idea. He has Flint's map, the key to a vast fortune, given him — as he says — by Flint on his deathbed, which is probably true, because Flint was much taken with rum himself (as is described in a later chapter) and perhaps Billy Bones seemed to him an appropriate heir. But Billy's former mates know that he has the map, and Billy knows that they know, and he knows they will eventually come after it and him (as of course they will, for his behavior has made it inevitable that people will spread the word of his being there, and he will be recognized by his description). Billy has good reason to fear his pursuers, because they want his treasure and he does not want to share it. So he waits for the inevitable approach of his former shipmates and, meanwhile, drinks himself to death in an effort not to think about what will happen to him as a result of his unwillingness to give up any of the treasure. In the end, Jim Hawkins pities him. Trelawney reveals himself as another blusterer, although of a pleasanter sort than Billy. He is openhanded, quick to think well of people (he pronounces Jim a "trump" without having any good reason to think so and offers him a hearty meal), and he is impulsive, deciding immediately to go after the treasure and telling not only Livesey but also Jim, whom he has just met and has no reason to trust, of his decision. He is also, as Jim says without resentment or irony, "condescending" — that is, he is aware of his wealth and position and pleased that others are aware of it. He has always been an important person in the district, a big frog in a small puddle, and you can see that he may be taken advantage of by a reasonably clever person. On the other hand, he is not offended when the doctor (a professional man but not the squire's social equal) tells him that he is likely to talk too much; the squire knows this is true and does not care, because it has never cost him what it may cost him now. Trelawney is a hearty man and, so far, a lucky one; readers like him but do not really trust him. Dr. Livesey is trustworthy. He is revealed as a conventionally good man: honest, outspoken, courageous, steady, and notably un-condescending. You discover very little more about him than this as the novel progresses. But because you already know that he survives the voyage, Livesey becomes a sort of anchor for the reader, an adult whom you know will act firmly and with good sense throughout the book. The fourth major character presented is Jim Hawkins himself, the narrator and apparently the novel's protagonist. What do you discover about Jim? His age is not immediately obvious, but you know something about the century in which he lives: "17__," he writes, and from later evidence in the book, you may put the events of this first chapter at no earlier than 1730 or so and no later than around 1750 or '55. During this time period, the age at which young men were considered adults and at which they often went to sea as common sailors or even junior officers was about sixteen; because the squire suggests that he be a cabin boy instead of an ensign or mate, you can guess that Jim is in or very near his early teens. He is young enough that Black Dog can patronize him as "sonny" and that blind Pew recognizes his youth; his voice has apparently not begun to deepen. (Stevenson's stepson, Lloyd Osbourne, in whose company he wrote Treasure Island, was about twelve years old when this writing began, so it is tempting to think that the young protagonist himself is about that age or perhaps a year older.) Jim must be literate and fairly intelligent, and he must subsequently have proved himself honest, or he would probably not have been asked to write this record of events. He is open and trusting, first of "the captain" and later of Black Dog and then of Pew, but he learns quickly and is mature enough to pity Billy Bones. He is responsible at his work, and although much later he tells you that he had often played "boys games," you do not see him doing that now, only working. It's probably fair to say that Jim at this point is a normal young teenager of his (or at least of Stevenson's) time, and, like boys of our own time — although perhaps in different ways — sometimes still a child and sometimes, when circumstances demand it, almost an adult. The minor characters who appear in this part are relatively few. The pirates, Black Dog and Pew, give you a taste of some of the pirates Jim will meet on the voyage. Black Dog is patently a cruel, vicious man, patronizing Jim, calling him "sonny," talking about "discipline" — all very thinly veiled threats: Do what I say or I will hurt you. Pew, the blind beggar (and you later discover that he is indeed a beggar, having wasted his own wealth in record time), applies pain directly instead of merely threatening. Like another character whom you meet later, Pew is physically daunting, having overcome his disability to an extent that would be admirable in a different man and is frightening in this one. Although you see Black Dog for an instant in the next part of the book, neither of these men figures in the rest of the story. Yet their presence as individuals is felt effectively here; like Billy Bones, they lend Treasure Island color and texture from the beginning. Jim's father, on the other hand, is almost a nonentity so far as the book is concerned. He scarcely speaks, and Jim scarcely speaks of him. All you know of Hawkins senior is that he owns and operates an inn that has very little business, that he is ill (dead before the end of the third chapter, like Billy Bones), and that he allows the person who is apparently the inn's only actual guest free room and board, not out of charity but out of timidity — he is afraid to face the old sailor and demand the money due him. One may say, of course, that he is not important to the book, that his fictional existence is necessary only as a nearly anonymous innkeeper whose young son finds a treasure map left by a deceased guest. But why, then, does he appear at all? Note, for example, that in the 1934 MGM film directed by Victor Fleming, in some ways the best of the movies made of Treasure Island, Jim's father is said to have died well before the film opens. One possible reason for Mr. Hawkins' appearance seems to be related to one of the themes of the book, that its central action is a quest for Flint's treasure (just as Jason's quest, in Greek mythology, is for the Golden Fleece). But Jim's quest, too, is for a father. Not only do you know that is he suddenly left fatherless, you also know that the man who raised him lacked courage to collect payment for services he provided. No wonder Jim's father appears in the book as a nonentity; although the comparison is unspoken, the reader is aware throughout the novel that Jim must be comparing him, perhaps unconsciously, with all the other men into whose company he is now thrust. Another minor character deserves a mention. Jim's mother, whose first name is never given, is the only female character in the book, and she is barely sketched as an individual, let alone drawn in any detail. Yet in the one instance of action she is allowed, she shows herself to be a stronger person than her husband (to whom she defers, as convention required, when he is alive). He does not dare to ask Billy Bones for the money owed them, but after both he and Billy are dead, Mrs. Hawkins berates the men of the village who refuse to accompany her back into danger. She insists on going back to the inn, on opening the sea chest, and on counting out as well as she can the exact amount due her. Jim leaves no doubt that he would not have chosen to go back, or that — having been forced to accompany his mother — he would have taken a random number of coins and left immediately. He blames her, he says in an interesting phrase, for her honesty as well as for her greed. And, while greed is certainly one of the themes of Treasure Island, it is interesting to note here that greed is not attributed solely to the "bad" characters, represented in the first part of the novel by Billy Bones and by Pew, who loses his life mainly because he insists (like Mrs. Hawkins) upon finding what he and his mates have come for, even after the signal of danger has been heard and the others want to run away without the map. Squire Trelawney, too, who has plenty of money, is immediately eager to spend quite a lot of it in a search for the treasure; and Dr. Livesey, who seems happy in his position in the district and also seems to have a better idea of the dangers this enterprise may hold, is anything but reluctant to agree with Trelawney's hastily-formed plan. Seven hundred thousand pounds — as the island's treasure is eventually estimated — is a lot of money, and to some extent everyone in the book is under its spell from the start. Glossary buccaneer a pirate, a sea robber. saber a heavy cavalry sword with a slightly curved blade. his tarry pigtail . . . Sailors of the period commonly treated their braided hair with the same tar they used to waterproof ropes and sails. capstan an apparatus around which cables or hawsers are wound for hoisting anchors. The devise resembles a tuning peg on a stringed instrument, so the captain's voice sounds as if it had been tuned too tightly and broken. handspike a heavy bar used as a lever, as in turning a capstan. a man who sailed before the mast . . . a common sailor, not an officer; from the quarters of the crew ahead of the foremast. cove a small bay or inlet. mail a vehicle by which mail is delivered (in this case, a stage coach). Dry Tortugas a group of small islands of Florida, west of Key West. Spanish Main the Caribbean Sea, or that part of it adjacent to the northern coast of South America. the sort of man that made England terrible at sea England was the strongest sea power among European nations of the period, both in its royal navy and its privateers; the man uses "terrible" in the sense of "terrifying, justifiably feared." the cocks of his hat Sailors of the period wore hats whose brims they rolled on three sides to form a stiff triangle; the Captain's hat has come unrolled on one side. his powder white as snow Fashionable upper- and middle-class men in the 1700s wore various styles of wig; these were often bleached white and treated regularly with white talc. magistrate a civil officer empowered to administer the law. assizes court sessions held periodically in each county of England to try civil and criminal cases. cutlas an old spelling of cutlass; a short, thick, curving sword with a single cutting edge, used especially by sailors. split him to the chine cut him through to the backbone. I have drawn blood enough A common medical practice was to draw blood from a patient; this was standard treatment for a variety of ailments and was supposed to be effective. swabs enlisted men or common sailors; a derisive term as the captain uses it. Yellow Jack yellow fever, an acute, infectious tropical disease caused by a virus and spread by mosquitoes. apoplexy a stroke. hamlet a small village. lugger a small vessel equipped with a lugsail (a four-sided sail supported by a spar — a slender wooden rod — that is fastened to the mast). gully a large knife. quadrant an instrument (later replaced by the sextant) used in navigating. cannikin a small can; a metal drinking cup. two brace two pair. alow and aloft nautical terms for "below and above" meaning thoroughly, in every possible place. their glim their light, in this case their candle, whose wax or tallow is still warm. dingle a deep, wooded valley. Master Pew's dead . . . if make it out they can The revenue officer (tax collector) is unpopular and knows it; he wants to report Pew's accidental death (which he caused) to the magistrate (Livesey) before someone else misreports it as deliberate. the Hall . . . the squire The squire is the principal landowner of a district; the Hall is his place of residence, usually a large, old house. a trump a good fellow. sealed . . . thimble Letters and documents were sometimes stuck shut with wax, which was then impressed with a seal, a device to ensure they had not been opened; the captain has sealed his packet using a thimble, a metal cap used to protect a finger when sewing. play duck and drake with waste, squander (from a game, "ducks and drakes," of skipping flat stones across water).	Treasure Island
In which film series does Keanu Reeves play a computer hacker with the alias Neo?	Muppet Treasure Island - The Black Spot - YouTube Muppet Treasure Island - The Black Spot Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on May 12, 2011 The Black Spot scene......	i don't know
Who played Ian Dury in Sex and Drugs and Rock n’ Roll?	Amazon.com: sex & drugs & rock & roll (Tribeca Festival Premiere): Andy Serkis, Olivia Williams, Mat Whitecross: Amazon Digital Services LLC By Eric Sanber on January 29, 2011 Format: DVD I can't say as I remember this being released in the cinemas, so it sure took me by surprise seeing it on DVD. This is one heck of a romp. I knew a bit about Ian Dury but not much. I knew the songs of his that managed to garner some air time and I knew he was afflicted with polio as a boy, but that's about the extent of it. Watching this movie was like walking into Ian Dury World. What an unbelievably colorful character. And what a great way to present him in a movie. I'd seen "Ray" and "I Walk the Line" and I enjoyed them enough, but they look entirely pedestrian compared to this. Here is a movie about a rock star and it contains very little footage of him making, recording or performing music. It's about him. Who he is, how he thinks, his bad sides and good sides. He's bright and imaginative and he's almost always "on." It occurred to me that he wasn't really a musician at all but an artist that expressed himself through music. They make note of the fact that he always needed someone in the band to help him write tunes. The movie itself is a hoot. It captures the time perfectly. It's goofy and adventurous, with a lot of funny, wild 'sign of the times' nuances in art, fashion and.......music. The performances are generally good as well. Olivia Williams is gorgeous as ever and turns in a fine performance as Dury's wife. Naomie Harris is good as the girlfriend. But the shining star is Andy Serkis. He steals the show. I liked his portrayal so much I wanted to call him up and have a beer with him. There is nothing I didn't like about this movie. It's a wild and fresh approach to the genre and could probably be enjoyed by someone who doesn't even know who Ian Dury is. The production values are good. Read more ›	Andy Serkis
What was the name of Jodie Foster’s character in Bugsy Malone?	Amazon.com: sex & drugs & rock & roll (Tribeca Festival Premiere): Andy Serkis, Olivia Williams, Mat Whitecross: Amazon Digital Services LLC By Eric Sanber on January 29, 2011 Format: DVD I can't say as I remember this being released in the cinemas, so it sure took me by surprise seeing it on DVD. This is one heck of a romp. I knew a bit about Ian Dury but not much. I knew the songs of his that managed to garner some air time and I knew he was afflicted with polio as a boy, but that's about the extent of it. Watching this movie was like walking into Ian Dury World. What an unbelievably colorful character. And what a great way to present him in a movie. I'd seen "Ray" and "I Walk the Line" and I enjoyed them enough, but they look entirely pedestrian compared to this. Here is a movie about a rock star and it contains very little footage of him making, recording or performing music. It's about him. Who he is, how he thinks, his bad sides and good sides. He's bright and imaginative and he's almost always "on." It occurred to me that he wasn't really a musician at all but an artist that expressed himself through music. They make note of the fact that he always needed someone in the band to help him write tunes. The movie itself is a hoot. It captures the time perfectly. It's goofy and adventurous, with a lot of funny, wild 'sign of the times' nuances in art, fashion and.......music. The performances are generally good as well. Olivia Williams is gorgeous as ever and turns in a fine performance as Dury's wife. Naomie Harris is good as the girlfriend. But the shining star is Andy Serkis. He steals the show. I liked his portrayal so much I wanted to call him up and have a beer with him. There is nothing I didn't like about this movie. It's a wild and fresh approach to the genre and could probably be enjoyed by someone who doesn't even know who Ian Dury is. The production values are good. Read more ›	i don't know
In Ancient Rome what was a ‘Lustrum?	Lustrum - definition of lustrum by The Free Dictionary Lustrum - definition of lustrum by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/lustrum (lŭs′trəm) n. pl. lus·trums or lus·tra (-trə) 1. A ceremonial purification of the entire ancient Roman population after the census every five years. 2. A period of five years. [Latin lūstrum; see luster.] n, pl -trums or -tra (-trə) (Units) a period of five years [C16: from Latin: ceremony of purification, from lustrāre to brighten, purify] lus•trum (ˈlʌs trəm) n., pl. -trums, -tra (-trə). 1. (in ancient Rome) a lustration or ceremonial purification of the people, performed every five years, after the taking of the census. 2. Also, luster ;esp. Brit., lustre . a period of five years. [1580–90; < Latin lūstrum; compare luster 1] lustrum, luster, lustre 1. lustrum - a period of five years period , period of time , time period - an amount of time; "a time period of 30 years"; "hastened the period of time of his recovery"; "Picasso's blue period" 2. lustrum - a ceremonial purification of the Roman population every five years following the census ceremony - the proper or conventional behavior on some solemn occasion; "an inaugural ceremony" capital of Italy , Eternal City , Italian capital , Rome , Roma - capital and largest city of Italy; on the Tiber; seat of the Roman Catholic Church; formerly the capital of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire antiquity - the historic period preceding the Middle Ages in Europe Translations	period of five years
Which flower appears on the crest of the Borough of Saffron Walden?	The Census of Ancient Rome Essay - 665 Words March 3rd, 2013 The Census of Ancient Rome The Census of Ancient Rome was of great importance to the Romans, molded the city into political and military community capable of collective action. First of all, the word census means “estimate.” Meaning the census is a way to estimate the number of people in the population Having this figure would provide the ancient Romans with an idea of how large or small, weak or strong their army would be. Every five years male Roman citizens were required to register for the census. With the census the city was divided into four different classes depending on statues in the community and wealth. When a man would register for the census, he would declare his family, wife, children, slaves and riches (Tu). The census meant freedom for the Romans, if a master wishes to free his slave; he would simply enter the slaves name in the census list as a citizen. Punishment for failing to register in the census was severe. I f a male Roman citizen neglected to register; he would have all of his possessions confiscated including his freedom, as he would be sold into slavery. Servius, king of Rome established a system of dividing the common people into classes and enacted a law that punished with death all who failed to register with the census (Zoch 25). This resulted in a major increase of men capable of bearing arms. Here Zoch describes Servius’s actions: Once the census was conducted, Servius also performed a lustrum (purification ceremony), whose purpose was to ward off evil; Since the census and lustrum occurred every five years, lustrum came also to mean a period of five years (25). With the census being of great importance, there were only two men responsible for compiling the lists, and these two men were chosen because of their proven integrity and authority. This responsibility would consist of evaluating each man and placing him... Essay on Ancient Rome vs Ancient Greece ...Rome: In Rome, there are three social classes, arranged according to wealth; Patricians, Plebians, and Slaves. Patricians are the upper class citizens; they are very wealthy and highly educated. They make up the majority of the senate and therefore control the laws. Plebians are the poor, lower-class citizens. They greatly outnumber the Patricians, make up most of the army, and pay most of the taxes. They are not allowed to marry Patricians or take part in... 762 Words \| 2 Pages Essay about Ancient Rome ...In Ancient Rome there were festivals and events that might be named different but are still being held in our modern day. Feralia- February 21st , The Romans would bring offerings to the Roman Gods and the souls of the deceased,and put them in or outside of the tombs. Including wreaths and bread soaked in wine. There they sprinkled grain, salt and violet petals. Once the Romans ignored the festival, because they were to busy at war, it was said that dead... 1208 Words \| 4 Pages Ancient Rome Essay ...Romulus and Remus Romulus is given the credit for founding Ancient Rome – so legend has it. Children in Roman schools were taught the story and it became almost set in stone. What is legend of Romulus and Remus? Romulus and Remus were twin brothers. They were abandoned by their parents as babies and put into a basket that was then placed into the River Tiber. The basket ran aground and the twins were discovered by a female wolf. The wolf nursed the babies for a... 2656 Words \| 7 Pages Ancient Rome Essay ...Ancient Rome The culture of ancient Rome existed for 1200 years and started in the 8th century BC. Rome started off as a small town and grew into an empire that included much of Europe, Britain, western Asia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean islands. For 450 years it was a Republic and with Julius Caesar ruling it became an empire. The Romance languages, the modern western alphabet, the modern western calendar, and... 1005 Words \| 3 Pages Jobs in Ancient Rome Essay ...Jobs in Ancient Rome In ancient Rome there were many different types of jobs. Some of the jobs paid well, while others did not. A lot of jobs were shown on inscriptions on tombstones. Most jobs are very similar to jobs today. They mostly keep the same reputation as well. Jobs were not easy to come by and people worked hard to get them and maintain the job when they did have it . During ancient Roman times there were... 960 Words \| 3 Pages Ancient Greece to Ancient Rome ...ANCIENT GREECE TO ANCIENT ROME: THE COMPARISON This paper will focus on three key points shared by both cultures which will help demonstrate the relationship between these two civilizations: religion, the arts and the state. Ancient Greek and Roman civilization left a permanent stamp on history, including the areas: politics and the state, art and literature, religion and philosophy. Yet, if it were not for the Roman civilization... 952 Words \| 3 Pages women in ancient Greece and ancient Rome Essay ... HIST 111 World Civilization Before 1650 Jodie Cummings March 23, 2014 My paper will compare and contrast women in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. It will cover three areas to the woman’s life; marriage, inheritance and social life. Marriage in ancient Greece was considered one of the most important aspects of a woman’s life, yet she had no control over it. When a woman was to be married she... 955 Words \| 5 Pages Women s Roles in Ancient Greece and Rome Essay ...Women's Roles in Ancient Greece and Rome Women have played important roles throughout history. They have been responsible for the rise and fall of nations, sustaining families, and have been the focal point of worship in ancient religions. Moving forward in history, women's roles have continually changed. Their status as matriarchs changed as the more advanced ancient civilizations rose. The patriarchal societies of... 1141 Words \| 4 Pages	i don't know
What is the green number on a British roulette wheel?	ROULETTE WHEEL \| Colors \| Numbers \| Layout \| Sequence Roulette W heel 's The European roulette wheel is the same as the French roulette wheel The European roulette wheel is the most played game of online roulette games because of its lower house edge (2.7%). European / French Roulette Wheel shown. The French roulette wheel is a contrasting theme of reds and blacks, broken by a single green slot. There are 37 numbered compartments from 0 to 36, though no ordered numerical sequence is adopted, there is a correlation between the color and whether a number is odd or even. As there are '8 RED EVEN' and '10 RED ODD' and in comparison '8 BLACK ODD' and '10 BLACK EVEN' roulette wheel/table numbers. French and European roulette wheels have only one green coloured slot, the zero number. Each number changes color repeatedly between the roulette signature colors of red and black. American roulette wheel The American roulette wheel has an extra green compartment for a double zero '00' number. Shown in the picture below. Double Zero '00' the extra compartment added to the American roulette wheel, diagonally opposes the single zero '0'. But the extra double zero isn't the only modification made. The American roulette wheels number sequence in comparison to the European/French wheel, is completely different too. Though each numbers color hasn't changed i.e. black 22 is still black 22 in both wheel types. The frenetic randomness of the French wheel sequence is less so in the American wheel with regards to diagonally opposing numbers bearing some relation to each other like 1 and 2 oppose each other, the pattern continues up to 35 opposing 36 possibly done this way as the zero and double zero face one another to bring about a pleasing symmetry when in designing the American roulette wheel. with the Best Chance The Roulette Wheel with the single green slot marked as a [0], is of the European and French Roulette wheel games. Compare this to the American Roulette Wheel which has one more green slot on the wheel marked as a [00] and you can see that your chances of winning are reduced by this additional green slot. The Casino has nearly a 3 percent advantage over the player with the Roulette Wheel pictured on the left and just over a 5 percent advantage with the American Roulette Wheel. Playing online you have the choice of both wheels.	zero
Who wrote The Compleat Angler?	The Green Pockets on the Roulette Wheel Home The Green Pockets on the Roulette Wheel Roulette is an incredibly popular gambling game. It was one of the iconic games that Europe's elite played in the casinos of Monaco during the 18th Century. Because of its association with the glamour and decadence of Monte Carlo, roulette is also frequently referred to as the "king of casino games." An American roulette wheel has thirty-eight numbered and colored pockets. Two of those pockets, numbered zero and double zero, are colored green; and the rest are numbered from one to thirty-six, and colored an alternating red and black. A European roulette wheel, on the other hand, has thirty-seven numbered and colored pockets. It only has one green pocket, numbered zero. There are a lot of different ways to bet in roulette, and these types of bets can be separated into inside bets and outside bets. Inside bets are bets placed on individual numbers or sets of numbers in a particular position. Outside bets, on the other hand, are bets placed on whether the ball will land on an odd or even number, a on whether or not it will land in a red or black pocket, and on whether or not the ball will land within a range of numbers. Unless specified though, none of these types of bets include the zero or zeros on the roulette wheel. In American roulette, if a person makes a Straight Up bet -a bet on a single number on the roulette wheel- their chances of winning are thirty-seven to one. Despite that, the payout that they can receive will only be thirty-five dollars to every dollar that they have wagered. An American roulette wheel has thirty-eight pockets, but because the two green pockets are not counted when calculating for the payout. The fact that the two green pockets in American roulette and the single green pocket in European roulette are not counted when calculating the payout means that the house has an edge in relation to how much the casino might lose when a player wins. The house edge is the advantage that the casino has over their players. It is often believed that if a person bets on the green pocket or pockets, they gain the house edge, but this is untrue. Betting on the green pockets on a roulette wheel does not give a person any greater or smaller a chance of winning than if they had bet on any other pockets on the wheel.	i don't know
Which country gave Idi Amin sanctuary from 1980 until his death in 2003?	Idi Amin \| Military Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Uganda-Tanzania War Idi Amin Dada ( c. 1925 – 16 August 2003) was the third President of Uganda , from 1971 to 1979. Amin joined the British colonial regiment, the King's African Rifles in 1946, serving in Somalia and Kenya. Eventually, Amin held the rank of Major general in the post-colonial Ugandan Army and became its Commander before seizing power in the military coup of January 1971 , deposing Milton Obote . He later promoted himself to field marshal while he was the head of state. Amin's rule was characterised by human rights abuse, political repression, ethnic persecution , extrajudicial killings , nepotism, corruption, and gross economic mismanagement. The number of people killed as a result of his regime is estimated by international observers and human rights groups to range from 100,000 [1] to 500,000. [2] During his years in power, Amin shifted in allegiance from being a pro-Western ruler enjoying considerable Israeli support to being backed by Libya's Muammar Gaddafi , the Soviet Union , and East Germany . [3] [4] [5] In 1975, Amin became the Chairman of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), a Pan-Africanist group designed to promote solidarity of the African states. [6] During the 1977–1979 period, Uganda was a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights . [7] In 1977, when Britain broke diplomatic relations with Uganda, Amin declared he had defeated the British and added "CBE", for "Conqueror of the British Empire," to his title. Radio Uganda then announced his entire title: "His Excellency President for Life, Field Marshal Alhaji Dr. Idi Amin Dada, VC, DSO, MC, CBE". [2] Dissent within Uganda and Amin's attempt to annex the Kagera province of Tanzania in 1978 led to the Uganda–Tanzania War and the demise of his eight-year regime, leading Amin to flee into exile to Libya and Saudi Arabia, where he lived until his death on 16 August 2003. Contents Edit Amin never wrote an autobiography nor did he authorize any official written account of his life, so there are discrepancies regarding when and where he was born. Most biographical sources hold that he was born in either Koboko or Kampala around 1925. [A] Other unconfirmed sources state Amin's year of birth from as early as 1923 to as late as 1928. According to Fred Guweddeko, a researcher at Makerere University , Idi Amin was the son of Andreas Nyabire (1889–1976). Nyabire, a member of the Kakwa ethnic group , converted from Roman Catholicism to Islam in 1910 and changed his name to Amin Dada. He named his first-born son after himself. Abandoned by his father at a young age, Idi Amin grew up with his mother's family in a rural farming town in northwestern Uganda. Guweddeko states that Amin's mother was called Assa Aatte (1904–1970), an ethnic Lugbara and a traditional herbalist who treated members of Buganda royalty, among others. Amin joined an Islamic school in Bombo in 1941. After a few years, he left school with nothing more than a fourth grade English-language education and did odd jobs before being recruited to the army by a British colonial army officer. [8] Colonial British Army Field Marshal Amin joined the King's African Rifles (KAR) of the British Colonial Army in 1946 as an assistant cook. [9] He claimed he was forced to join the Army during World War II and that he served in the Burma Campaign , [10] but records indicate he was first enlisted after the war was concluded. [2] [11] He was transferred to Kenya for infantry service as a private in 1947 and served in the 21st KAR infantry battalion in Gilgil , Kenya until 1949. That year, his unit was deployed to Northern Kenya to fight against Somali rebels in the Shifta War . In 1952 his brigade was deployed against the Mau Mau rebels in Kenya. He was promoted to corporal the same year, then to sergeant in 1953. [8] In 1959, Amin was made Afande ( warrant officer ), the highest rank possible for a Black African in the colonial British Army of that time. Amin returned to Uganda the same year, and in 1961 he was promoted to lieutenant , becoming one of the first two Ugandans to become commissioned officers . He was assigned to quell the cattle rustling between Uganda's Karamojong and Kenya's Turkana nomads. In 1962, following Uganda's independence from the United Kingdom , Amin was promoted to captain and then, in 1963, to major . He was appointed Deputy Commander of the Army the following year. [8] Amin was an athlete during his time in both the British and Ugandan army. At 193 cm (6 ft 4 in) tall and powerfully built, he was the Ugandan light heavyweight boxing champion from 1951 to 1960, as well as a swimmer. Idi Amin was also a formidable rugby forward, [12] [13] although one officer said of him: "Idi Amin is a splendid type and a good (rugby) player, but virtually bone from the neck up, and needs things explained in words of one letter". [13] [14] In the 1950s, he played for Nile RFC. [15] There is a frequently repeated urban myth [13] [15] that he was selected as a replacement by East Africa for their match against the 1955 British Lions . Amin, however, does not appear on the team photograph or on the official team list, [16] and replacements were not allowed in international rugby until 13 years after this event is supposed to have taken place. [17] Following conversations with a colleague in the British Army, Amin became a keen fan of Hayes Football Club – an affection that would remain for the rest of his life. [18] Army commander Edit In 1965, Prime Minister Milton Obote and Amin were implicated in a deal to smuggle ivory and gold into Uganda from Zaire. The deal, as later alleged by General Nicholas Olenga, an associate of the former Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba , was part of an arrangement to help troops opposed to the Congolese government trade ivory and gold for arms supplies secretly smuggled to them by Amin. In 1966, the Ugandan Parliament demanded an investigation. Obote imposed a new constitution abolishing the ceremonial presidency held by Kabaka (King) Mutesa II of Buganda , and declared himself executive president. He promoted Amin to colonel and army commander. Amin led an attack on the Kabaka's palace and forced Mutesa into exile to the United Kingdom, where he remained until his death in 1969. [19] [20] Amin began recruiting members of Kakwa , Lugbara , Nubian , and other ethnic groups from the West Nile area bordering Sudan. The Nubians had been residents in Uganda since the early 20th century, having come from Sudan to serve the colonial army. Many African ethnic groups in northern Uganda inhabit both Uganda and Sudan; allegations persist that Amin's army consisted mainly of Sudanese soldiers. [21] Seizure of power Edit Eventually, a rift developed between Amin and Obote, exacerbated by the support Amin had built within the army by recruiting from the West Nile region, his involvement in operations to support the rebellion in southern Sudan , and an attempt on Obote's life in 1969. In October 1970, Obote himself took control of the armed forces, reducing Amin from his months-old post of commander of all the armed forces to that of commander of the army. [22] Having learned that Obote was planning to arrest him for misappropriating army funds, Amin seized power in a military coup on 25 January 1971, while Obote was attending a Commonwealth summit meeting in Singapore. Troops loyal to Amin sealed off Entebbe International Airport , the main airport, and took Kampala. Soldiers surrounded Obote's residence and blocked major roads. A broadcast on Radio Uganda accused Obote's government of corruption and preferential treatment of the Lango region . Cheering crowds were reported in the streets of Kampala after the radio broadcast. [23] Amin announced that he was a soldier, not a politician, and that the military government would remain only as a caretaker regime until new elections, which would be announced when the situation was normalised. He promised to release all political prisoners. [24] Amin gave former king of Buganda and President, Sir Edward Mutesa (who had died in exile), a state funeral in April 1971, freed many political prisoners, and reiterated his promise to hold free and fair elections to return the country to democratic rule in the shortest period possible. [25] Presidency Edit On 2 February 1971, one week after the coup, Amin declared himself President of Uganda, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Army Chief of Staff , and Chief of Air Staff. He announced that he was suspending certain provisions of the Ugandan constitution and soon instituted an Advisory Defence Council composed of military officers with himself as the chairman. Amin placed military tribunals above the system of civil law , appointed soldiers to top government posts and parastatal agencies, and informed the newly inducted civilian cabinet ministers that they would be subject to military discipline . [22] [26] Amin renamed the presidential lodge in Kampala from Government House to "The Command Post". He disbanded the General Service Unit (GSU), an intelligence agency created by the previous government, and replaced it with the State Research Bureau (SRB). SRB headquarters at the Kampala suburb of Nakasero became the scene of torture and executions over the next few years. [27] Other agencies used to persecute dissenters included the military police and the Public Safety Unit (PSU). [27] Obote took refuge in Tanzania, having been offered sanctuary there by the Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere . Obote was soon joined by 20,000 Ugandan refugees fleeing Amin. The exiles attempted to regain the country in 1972 through a poorly organised coup attempt. [28] Persecution of ethnic and other groups Edit Amin retaliated against the attempted invasion by Ugandan exiles in 1972 by purging the army of Obote supporters, predominantly those from the Acholi and Lango ethnic groups. [29] In July 1971, Lango and Acholi soldiers were massacred in the Jinja and Mbarara Barracks , [30] and by early 1972, some 5,000 Acholi and Lango soldiers, and at least twice as many civilians, had disappeared. [31] The victims soon came to include members of other ethnic groups , religious leaders, journalists, artists, senior bureaucrats, judges, lawyers, students and intellectuals, criminal suspects, and foreign nationals. In this atmosphere of violence, many other people were killed for criminal motives or simply at will. Bodies were often dumped into the River Nile. [32] The killings, motivated by ethnic, political, and financial factors, continued throughout Amin's eight-year reign. [31] The exact number of people killed is unknown. The International Commission of Jurists estimated the death toll at no fewer than 80,000 and more likely around 300,000. An estimate compiled by exile organizations with the help of Amnesty International puts the number killed at 500,000. [2] Among the most prominent people killed were Benedicto Kiwanuka , the former Prime Minister and Chief Justice; Janani Luwum , the Anglican archbishop; Joseph Mubiru , the former governor of the Central Bank ; Frank Kalimuzo, the vice chancellor of Makerere University ; Byron Kawadwa, a prominent playwright; and two of Amin's own cabinet ministers, Erinayo Wilson Oryema and Charles Oboth Ofumbi . [33] Amin recruited his followers from his own tribe, the Kakwas, along with Sudanese and Nubians. By 1977, these 3 groups formed 60% of the 22 top generals and 75% of the cabinet. Similarly, Muslims formed 80% and 87.5% of these groups even though they were only 5% of the population. This helps explain why Amin survived 8 attempted coups. In August 1972, Amin declared what he called an "economic war", a set of policies that included the expropriation of properties owned by Asians and Europeans. Uganda's 80,000 Asians were mostly from the Indian subcontinent and born in the country, their ancestors having come to Uganda when the country was still a British colony. [34] Many owned businesses, including large-scale enterprises, which formed the backbone of the Ugandan economy. On 4 August 1972, Amin issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the 60,000 Asians who were not Ugandan citizens (most of them held British passports ). This was later amended to include all 80,000 Asians, except for professionals, such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers. A plurality of the Asians with British passports, around 30,000, emigrated to the UK . Others went to Australia, Canada, India, Kenya, Pakistan, Sweden, Tanzania, and the U.S. [35] [36] [37] Amin expropriated businesses and properties belonging to the Asians and handed them over to his supporters. The businesses were mismanaged, and industries collapsed from lack of maintenance. This proved disastrous for the already declining economy. [26] In 1977, Henry Kyemba , Amin's health minister and a former official of the first Obote regime, defected and resettled in the UK. Kyemba wrote and published A State of Blood, the first insider exposé of Amin's rule. International relations See also: Foreign relations of Uganda Following the expulsion of Ugandan Asians in 1972, most of whom were of Indian descent, India severed diplomatic relations with Uganda. The same year, as part of his "economic war", Amin broke diplomatic ties with the UK and nationalised eighty-five British-owned businesses. That year, relations with Israel soured. Although Israel had previously supplied Uganda with arms, in 1972 Amin expelled Israeli military advisers and turned to Muammar Gaddafi of Libya and the Soviet Union for support. [29] Amin became an outspoken critic of Israel. [38] In return, Gaddafi gave financial aid to Amin. [39] In the 1974 French-produced documentary film General Idi Amin Dada: A Self Portrait , Amin discussed his plans for war against Israel, using paratroops, bombers and suicide squadrons. [10] The Soviet Union became Amin's largest arms supplier. [4] East Germany was involved in the General Service Unit and the State Research Bureau, the two agencies which were most notorious for terror. Later during the Ugandan invasion of Tanzania in 1979, East Germany attempted to remove evidence of its involvement with these agencies. [5] In 1973, U.S. Ambassador Thomas Patrick Melady recommended that the United States reduce its presence in Uganda. Melady described Amin's regime as "racist, erratic and unpredictable, brutal, inept, bellicose, irrational, ridiculous, and militaristic ". [40] Accordingly, the United States closed its embassy in Kampala . In June 1976, Amin allowed an Air France airliner hijacked by two members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – External Operations (PFLP-EO) and two members of the German Revolutionäre Zellen to land at Entebbe Airport . There the hijackers were joined by three more. Soon after, 156 non-Jewish hostages who did not hold Israeli passports were released and flown to safety, while 83 Jews and Israeli citizens, as well as 20 others who refused to abandon them (among whom were the captain and crew of the hijacked Air France jet), continued to be held hostage. In the subsequent Israeli rescue operation, codenamed Operation Thunderbolt (popularly known as Operation Entebbe ), on the night of 3–4 July 1976, a group of Israeli commandos were flown in from Israel and seized control of Entebbe Airport, freeing nearly all the hostages. Three hostages died during the operation and 10 were wounded; seven hijackers, about 45 Ugandan soldiers, and one Israeli soldier, Yoni Netanyahu , were killed. A fourth hostage, 75-year-old Dora Bloch, an elderly Jewish Englishwoman who had been taken to Mulago Hospital in Kampala before the rescue operation, was subsequently murdered in reprisal. The incident further soured Uganda's international relations, leading the United Kingdom to close its High Commission in Uganda. [41] Uganda under Amin embarked on a large military build-up, which raised concerns in Kenya. Early in June 1975, Kenyan officials impounded a large convoy of Soviet -made arms en route to Uganda at the port of Mombasa. Tension between Uganda and Kenya reached its climax in February 1976 when Amin announced that he would investigate the possibility that parts of southern Sudan and western and central Kenya, up to within 32 kilometres (20 mi) of Nairobi, were historically a part of colonial Uganda. The Kenyan Government responded with a stern statement that Kenya would not part with "a single inch of territory". Amin backed down after the Kenyan army deployed troops and armored personnel carriers along the Kenya–Uganda border. [42] Deposition and exile See also: Uganda–Tanzania War By 1978, the number of Amin's supporters and close associates had shrunk significantly, and he faced increasing dissent from the populace within Uganda as the economy and infrastructure collapsed from years of neglect and abuse. After the killings of Bishop Luwum and ministers Oryema and Oboth Ofumbi in 1977, several of Amin's ministers defected or fled into exile. [43] In November 1978, after Amin's vice president, General Mustafa Adrisi , was injured in a car accident, troops loyal to him mutinied . Amin sent troops against the mutineers, some of whom had fled across the Tanzanian border. [26] Amin accused Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere of waging war against Uganda, ordered the invasion of Tanzanian territory, and formally annexed a section of the Kagera Region across the boundary. [26] [28] In January 1979, Nyerere mobilised the Tanzania People's Defence Force and counterattacked, joined by several groups of Ugandan exiles who had united as the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA). Amin's army retreated steadily, and, despite military help from Libya's Muammar Gaddafi , he was forced to flee into exile by helicopter on 11 April 1979, when Kampala was captured . He escaped first to Libya, where he stayed until 1980, and ultimately settled in Saudi Arabia, where the Saudi royal family allowed him sanctuary and paid him a generous subsidy in return for his staying out of politics. [9] Amin lived for a number of years on the top two floors of the Novotel Hotel on Palestine Road in Jeddah. Brian Barron , who covered the Uganda–Tanzania war for the BBC as chief Africa correspondent, together with cameraman Mohamed Amin of Visnews in Nairobi, located Amin in 1980 and secured the first interview with him since his deposition. [44] During interviews he gave during his exile in Saudi Arabia, Amin held that Uganda needed him and never expressed remorse for the nature of his regime. [45] In 1989, he attempted to return to Uganda, apparently to lead an armed group organised by Colonel Juma Oris . He reached Kinshasa, Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), before Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko forced him to return to Saudi Arabia. Death Edit On 19 July 2003, one of Amin's wives, Madina, reported that he was in a coma and near death at the King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, from kidney failure. She pleaded with the Ugandan President, Yoweri Museveni , to allow him to return to Uganda for the remainder of his life. Museveni replied that Amin would have to "answer for his sins the moment he was brought back". [46] Amin died at the hospital in Jeddah on 16 August 2003 and was buried in Ruwais Cemetery in Jeddah. [47] Family and associates Edit A polygamist, Idi Amin married at least five women, three of whom he divorced. He married his first and second wives, Malyamu and Kay, in 1966. The next year, he married Nora and then married Nalongo Madina in 1972. On 26 March 1974, he announced on Radio Uganda that he had divorced Malyamu, Nora and Kay. [48] [49] Malyamu was arrested in Tororo on the Kenyan border in April 1974 and accused of attempting to smuggle a bolt of fabric into Kenya. She later moved to London where she operates a restaurant in East London. [48] [50] [50] Kay Amin died under mysterious circumstances in the mid 70s and her body was found dismembered. Nora first fled to DR Congo in 1979 but her current whereabouts are unknown. [50] In August 1975, during the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) summit meeting in Kampala, Amin married Sarah Kyolaba. Sarah's boyfriend, whom she had been living with before she met Amin, vanished and was never heard from again. By 1993, Amin was living with the last nine of his children and a single wife, Mama a Chumaru (which appears to be his sixth and newest wife), the mother of the youngest four of his children. His last known child, daughter Iman, was born in 1992. [51] According to The Monitor, Amin married a few months before his death in 2003. [50] Sources differ widely on the number of children Amin fathered; most say that he had 30 to 45. [B] Until 2003, Taban Amin (born 1955), [52] Idi Amin's eldest son, was the leader of West Nile Bank Front (WNBF), a rebel group opposed to the government of Yoweri Museveni . In 2005, he was offered amnesty by Museveni, and in 2006, he was appointed Deputy Director General of the Internal Security Organisation . [53] Another of Amin's sons, Haji Ali Amin, ran for election as Chairman (i.e. mayor) of Njeru Town Council in 2002 but was not elected. [54] In early 2007, the award-winning film The Last King of Scotland prompted one of his sons, Jaffar Amin (born in 1967), [55] to speak out in his father's defence. Jaffar Amin said he was writing a book to rehabilitate his father's reputation. [56] Jaffar is the tenth of Amin's 40 official children by seven official wives. [55] On 3 August 2007, Faisal Wangita (born in 1983), [57] one of Amin's sons, was convicted for playing a role in a murder in London. [58] Wangita's mother is Amin's fifth wife, Sarah Kyolaba (born 1955) [59] a former go-go dancer , but known as 'Suicide Sarah', because she was a go-go dancer for the Ugandan Army's Revolutionary Suicide Mechanised Regiment Band. [59] Among Amin's closest associates was the British-born Bob Astles , who is considered by many to have been a malignant influence and by others as having been a moderating presence. [60] Isaac Malyamungu was an instrumental affiliate and one of the more feared officers in Amin's army. [43] Erratic behaviour, self-bestowed titles, and media portrayal Edit A 1977 caricature of Amin in military and presidential attire by Edmund S. Valtman As the years progressed, Amin's behaviour became more erratic, unpredictable, and outspoken. After the United Kingdom broke off all diplomatic relations with his regime in 1977, Amin declared he had defeated the British and conferred on himself the decoration of CBE (Conqueror of the British Empire). His full self-bestowed title ultimately became: "His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada, VC , DSO , MC , Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Seas and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular", in addition to his officially stated claim of being the uncrowned King of Scotland. [61] He was not a recipient of a Distinguished Service Order (DSO) or a Military Cross (MC). He conferred a doctorate of law on himself from Makerere University , [6] and the Victorious Cross (VC) was a medal made to emulate the British Victoria Cross . [62] Amin became the subject of rumours and myths, including a widespread belief that he was a cannibal. [63] Some of the unsubstantiated rumours, such as the mutilation of one of his wives, were spread and popularised by the 1980 film Rise and Fall of Idi Amin and alluded to in the film The Last King of Scotland in 2006. [64] During Amin's time in power, popular media outside of Uganda often portrayed him as an essentially comic and eccentric figure. In a 1977 assessment typical of the time, a Time magazine magazine article described him as a "killer and clown, big-hearted buffoon and strutting martinet ". [65] The comedy-variety series Saturday Night Live aired four Amin sketches between 1976–79, including one in which he was an ill-behaved houseguest in exile, and another in which he was a spokesman against venereal disease. [66] The foreign media were often criticised by Ugandan exiles and defectors for focusing on Amin's excessive tastes and self-aggrandizing eccentricities, and downplaying or excusing his murderous behavior. [67] Other commentators even suggested that Amin had deliberately cultivated his eccentric reputation in the foreign media as an easily parodied buffoon in order to defuse international concern over his administration of Uganda. [68] Portrayal in media and literature The Last King of Scotland (2006), a film adaptation of Giles Foden 's 1998 novel of the same name . For his portrayal of Idi Amin, Forest Whitaker won the Academy Award, British Academy Film Award , Broadcast Film Critics Association Award , Golden Globe Award, and Screen Actors Guild Award , thus becoming the fourth black actor to win the Oscar for Best Actor. Documentaries General Idi Amin Dada: A Self Portrait (1974), directed by French filmmaker Barbet Schroeder . Idi Amin: Monster in Disguise (1997), a television documentary directed by Greg Baker . The Man Who Ate His Archbishop's Liver? (2004), a television documentary written, produced and directed by Elizabeth C. Jones for Associated-Rediffusion and Channel 4. The Man Who Stole Uganda (1971), World In Action first broadcast 5 April 1971. Inside Idi Amin's Terror Machine (1979), World In Action first broadcast 13 June 1979. Books General Amin (1975) by David Martin I Love Idi Amin: The Story of Triumph under Fire in the Midst of Suffering and Persecution in Uganda (1977) by Festo Kivengere Impassioned for Freedom: Uganda, Struggle Against Idi Amin (2006) by Eriya Kategaya Confessions of Idi Amin: The chilling, explosive expose of Africa's most evil man – in his own words (1977) compiled by Trevor Donald "Kahawa" by Donald Westlake ; a thriller in which Amin is a minor character, but Amin's Uganda is portrayed in detail. "Culture of the Sepulchre" (2012) by Madanjeet Singh published by Penguin. Singh was India's Ambassador to Uganda during Idi Amin's tenure. Music and audio "Idi Amin - the Amazin' Man song" (1975) by John Bird "Springtime in Uganda" (2004) by Blaze Foley (posthumous release) The Collected Bulletins of Idi Amin (1974) and Further Bulletins of President Idi Amin (1975) by Alan Coren , portraying Amin as an amiable, if murderous, buffoon in charge of a tin-pot dictatorship. Alan was also responsible in part for a music release – " The Collected Broadcasts of Idi Amin ". It was a British comedy album parodying Ugandan dictator Idi Amin, released in 1975 on Transatlantic Records. It was performed by John Bird and written by Alan Coren, based on columns he wrote for Punch magazine. Notes Edit A ^ Many sources, like Encyclopædia Britannica, Encarta and the Columbia Encyclopedia, hold that Amin was born in Koboko or Kampala c. 1925, and that the exact date of his birth is unknown. Researcher Fred Guweddeko claimed that Amin was born on 17 May 1928, [8] but that is disputed. [69] The only certainty is that Amin was born some time during the mid-1920s. B ^ According to Henry Kyema and the African Studies Review, [70] Idi Amin had 34 children. Some sources say Amin claimed to have fathered 32 children. A report in The Monitor says he was survived by 45 children, [50] while another in the BBC gives the figure of 54. [71] Footnotes ↑ "Amins row over inheritance" . BBC News. 25 August 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3179085.stm . Retrieved 9 August 2009. Stefan Lindemann, The ethnic politics of coup avoidance, page 19 References Edit African studies review. 25–26. University of California. 1982. Avirgan, Tony; Martha Honey (1982). War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin. Westport, Connecticut: Lawrence Hill & Co. Publishers. ISBN 0-88208-136-5 . Cotton, Fran (Ed., 1984) The Book of Rugby Disasters & Bizarre Records. Compiled by Chris Rhys. London. Century Publishing. ISBN 0-7126-0911-3 Decalo, Samuel (1989). Psychoses of Power: African Personal Dictatorships. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press . ISBN 0-8133-7617-3 . Gwyn, David (1977). Idi Amin: Death-Light of Africa. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-33230-5 . Kyemba, Henry (1977). A State of Blood: The Inside Story of Idi Amin. New York ISBN 0-441-78524-4 : Ace Books . Lloyd, Lorna (2007). Diplomacy with a difference: the Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner, 1880–2006. University of Michigan: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-04-15497-3 . Melady, Thomas P.; Margaret B. Melady (1977). Idi Amin Dada: Hitler in Africa. Kansas City: Sheed Andrews and McMeel. ISBN 0-8362-0783-1 . Orizio, Riccardo (2004). Talk of the Devil: Encounters with Seven Dictators. Walker & Company. ISBN 0-436-20999-3 . Palmowski, Jan (2003). Dictionary of Contemporary World History: From 1900 to the present day (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860539-0 . External links	Saudi Arabia
For which county was Gary Sobers playing when he hit six sixes in one over?	Deposition and exile Further information: Uganda-Tanzania War... By 1978, the number of Amin's close associates had shrunk significantly, and he faced increasing dissent from within Uganda. After the killings of Luwum and ministers Oryema and Oboth Ofumbi in 1977, several of Amin's ministers defected or fled to exile. Later that year, after Amin's vice president, General Mustafa Adrisi, was injured in a car accident, troops loyal to him mutinied. Amin sent troops against the mutineers, some of whom had fled across the Tanzanian border. Amin accused Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere of waging war against Uganda, ordered the invasion of Tanzanian territory, and formally annexed a section of the Kagera Region across the boundary.] Nyerere mobilized the Tanzania People's Defence Force and counterattacked, joined by several groups of Ugandan exiles who had united as the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA). Amin's army retreated steadily, and despite military help from Libya's Muammar al-Gaddafi, he was forced to flee on 11 April 1979 when Kampala was captured. He escaped first to Libya and ultimately settled in Saudi Arabia. Amin held that Uganda needed him and never expressed remorse for the abuses of his regime.[49] In 1989, he attempted to return to Uganda, apparently to lead an armed group organised by Colonel Juma Oris. He reached Kinshasa, Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), before Zairian President Mobutu forced him to return to Saudi Arabia. Amin's Death On 20 July 2003, one of Amin's wives, Madina, reported that he was in a coma and near death at King Faisal Specialist Hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. She pleaded with Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni to allow him to return to die in Uganda. Museveni replied that Amin would have to "answer for his sins the moment he was brought back." Amin died in Saudi Arabia on 16 August 2003. He was buried in a simple grave in Ruwais Cemetery in Jeddah. Family and associates A polygamist, Idi Amin married at least six women, three of whom he divorced. He married his first and second wives, Malyamu and Kay, in 1966. The next year, he married Nora and then Nalongo Madina in 1972. On 26 March 1974, he announced on Radio Uganda that he had divorced Malyamu, Nora and Kay. Malyamu was arrested in Tororo on the Kenyan border in April 1974 and accused of attempting to smuggle a bolt of fabric into Kenya. She later moved to London. Kay died on 13 August 1974, reportedly from an attempted surgical abortion performed by her lover Dr. Mbalu Mukasa (who himself committed suicide). Her body was found dismembered. In August 1975, during the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) summit meeting in Kampala, Amin married Sarah Kyolaba. Sarah's boyfriend, whom she was living with before she met Amin, vanished and was never heard from again. According to The Monitor, Amin married a wife a few months before his death in 2003. Sources differ widely on the number of children Amin fathered; most say that he had 30 to 45. Until 2003, Taban Amin, Idi Amin's eldest son, was the leader of West Nile Bank Front (WNBF), a rebel group opposed to the government of Yoweri Museveni. In 2005, he was offered amnesty by Museveni, and in 2006, he was appointed Deputy Director General of the Internal Security Organisation. Another of Amin’s sons, Haji Ali Amin, ran for election as Chairman (i.e. mayor) of Njeru Town Council in 2002 but was not elected. In early 2007, the award-winning film The Last King of Scotland prompted one of his sons, Jaffar Amin, to speak out in his father's defense. Jaffar Amin said he was writing a book to counter his father's reputation. On 3 August 2007, Faisal Wangita, one of Amin's sons, was convicted for playing a role in a murder in London. Among Amin's closest associates was the British-born Bob Astles, who is considered by many to have been a malign influence, and by others as a moderating presence.Isaac Malyamungu was an instrumental affiliate and one of the more feared officers in Amin's army See More Favorite Music Army commander In 1965 Prime Minister Milton Obote and Amin were implicated in a deal to smuggle ivory and gold into Uganda from the Democratic Republic of the... Congo. The deal, as later alleged by General Nicholas Olenga, an associate of the former Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba, was part of an arrangement to help troops opposed to the Congolese government trade ivory and gold for arms supplies secretly smuggled to them by Amin. In 1966, Parliament demanded an investigation. Obote imposed a new constitution abolishing the ceremonial presidency held by Kabaka (King) Edward Mutesa II of Buganda, and declared himself executive president. He promoted Amin to colonel and army commander. Amin led an attack on the Kabaka's palace and forced Mutesa into exile to the United Kingdom, where he remained until his death in 1969. Amin began recruiting members of Kakwa, Lugbara, Nubian, and other ethnic groups from the West Nile area bordering Sudan. The Nubians had been residents in Uganda since the early 20th century, having come from Sudan to serve the colonial army. In Uganda, Nubians were commonly perceived as Sudanese foreigners and erroneously referred to as Anyanya (Anyanya were southern Sudanese rebels of the First Sudanese Civil War and were not involved in Uganda). Because many ethnic groups in northern Uganda inhabit both Uganda and Sudan, allegations persist that Amin's army consisted substantially of Sudanese soldiers. [edit] Seizure of power Eventually, a rift developed between Amin and Obote, worsened by the support Amin had built within the army by recruiting from the West Nile region, his involvement in operations to support the rebellion in southern Sudan, and an attempt on Obote's life in 1969. In October 1970, Obote himself took control of the armed forces, reducing Amin from his months-old post of commander of all the armed forces to that of commander of the army. Having learned that Obote was planning to arrest him for misappropriating army funds, Amin seized power in a military coup on 25 January 1971, while Obote was attending a Commonwealth summit meeting in Singapore. Troops loyal to Amin sealed off Entebbe International Airport, the main artery into Uganda, and took Kampala. Soldiers surrounded Obote's residence and blocked major roads. A broadcast on Radio Uganda accused Obote's government of corruption and preferential treatment of the Lango region. Cheering crowds were reported in the streets of Kampala after the radio broadcast. Amin announced that he was a soldier, not a politician, and that the military government would remain only as a caretaker regime until new elections, which would be announced as soon as the situation was normalised. He promised to release all political prisoners. Amin was initially welcomed both within Uganda and by the international community. In an internal memo, the British Foreign Office described him as "a splendid type and a good football player". He gave former king and president Mutesa (who had died in exile) a state burial in April 1971, freed many political prisoners, and reiterated his promise to hold free and fair elections to return the country to democratic rule in the shortest period possible. See More Favorite Movies Main article: Uganda under Idi Amin... Establishment of military rule On 2 February 1971, one week after the coup, Amin declared himself President of Uganda, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, Army Chief of Staff and Chief of Air Staff. He announced that he was suspending certain provisions of the constitution and soon instituted an Advisory Defence Council composed of military officers, with himself as the chairman. Amin placed military tribunals above the system of civil law, appointed soldiers to top government posts and parastatal agencies, and informed the newly inducted civilian cabinet ministers that they would be subject to military discipline. Amin renamed the presidential lodge in Kampala from Government House to "The Command Post". He disbanded the General Service Unit (GSU), an intelligence agency created by the previous government, and replaced it with the State Research Bureau (SRB). SRB headquarters at the Kampala suburb of Nakasero became the scene of torture and executions over the next several years.Other agencies used to root out political dissent included the military police and the Public Safety Unit (PSU). Obote took refuge in Tanzania, having been offered sanctuary there by Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere. He was soon joined by 20,000 Ugandan refugees fleeing Amin. In 1972, the exiles attempted to regain the country through a poorly organized coup attempt, without success. [edit] Persecution of ethnic and other groups Amin retaliated against the attempted invasion by Ugandan exiles in 1972 by purging the army of Obote supporters, predominantly those from the Acholi and Lango ethnic groups. In July 1971, Lango and Acholi soldiers were massacred in the Jinja and Mbarara Barracks, and by early 1972, some 5,000 Acholi and Lango soldiers, and at least twice as many civilians, had disappeared. The victims soon came to include members of other ethnic groups, religious leaders, journalists, senior bureaucrats, judges, lawyers, students and intellectuals, criminal suspects, and foreign nationals. In some cases entire villages were wiped out. In this atmosphere of violence, many other people were killed for criminal motives or simply at will. Bodies floated on the River Nile in quantities sufficient to clog the Owen Falls Hydro-Electric Dam in Jinja on at least one occasion. The killings, motivated by ethnic, political and financial factors, continued throughout Amin's eight-year reign. The exact number of people killed is unknown. The International Commission of Jurists estimated the death toll at no fewer than 80,000 and more likely around 300,000. An estimate compiled by exile organizations with the help of Amnesty International puts the number killed at 500,000. Among the most prominent people killed were Benedicto Kiwanuka, the former prime minister and later chief justice; Janani Luwum, the Anglican archbishop; Joseph Mubiru, the former governor of the Central Bank; Frank Kalimuzo, the vice chancellor of Makerere University; Byron Kawadwa, a prominent playwright; and two of Amin's own cabinet ministers, Erinayo Wilson Oryema and Charles Oboth Ofumbi. In 1977, Henry Kyemba, Amin's health minister and a former official of the first Obote regime, defected and resettled in Britain. Kyemba wrote and published A State of Blood, the first insider exposé of Amin's rule. In August 1972, Idi Amin declared what he called an "economic war", a set of policies that included the expropriation of properties owned by Asians and Europeans. Uganda's 80,000 Asians were mostly Indians born in the country, whose ancestors had come to Uganda when the country was still a British colony. Many owned businesses, including large-scale enterprises, that formed the backbone of the Ugandan economy. On 4 August 1972, Amin issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the 60,000 Asians who were not Ugandan citizens (most of them held British passports). This was later amended to include all 80,000 Asians, with the exception of professionals, such as doctors, lawyers and teachers. A plurality of the Asians with British passports, around 30,000, emigrated to Britain. Others went to Australia, Canada, India, Sweden, and the U.S. Amin expropriated businesses and properties belonging to the Asians and handed them over to his supporters. The businesses were mismanaged, and industries collapsed from lack of maintenance. This proved disastrous for the already declining economy. International relations Further information: Foreign relations of Uganda Following the expulsion of Indians in 1972, India severed diplomatic relations with Uganda. The same year, as part of his "economic war", Amin broke diplomatic ties with Britain and nationalized 85 British-owned businesses. He also expelled Israeli military advisers and turned to Muammar al-Gaddafi of Libya and the Soviet Union for support. In 1973, U.S. Ambassador Thomas Patrick Melady recommended that the United States reduce its presence in Uganda. Melady described Amin's regime as "racist, erratic and unpredictable, brutal, inept, bellicose, irrational, ridiculous, and militaristic". Accordingly, the United States closed its embassy in Kampala. In June 1976, Idi Amin allowed an Air France aeroplane hijacked by two members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - External Operations (PFLP-EO) and two members of the German Revolutionäre Zellen to land at Entebbe Airport. There, the hijackers were joined by three more. Soon after, 156 hostages who did not hold Israeli passports were released and flown to safety, while 83 Jews and Israeli citizens, as well as 20 others who refused to abandon them, continued to be held hostage. In the subsequent Israeli rescue operation, codenamed Operation Thunderbolt (popularly known as Operation Entebbe), nearly all of the hostages were freed. Three hostages died and 10 were wounded; six hijackers, 45 Ugandan soldiers, and one Israeli soldier, Yoni Netanyahu, were killed. This incident further soured Uganda's international relations, leading Britain to close its High Commission in Uganda. Uganda under Amin embarked on a large military build-up, which raised concerns in Kenya. Early in June 1975, Kenyan officials impounded a large convoy of Soviet-made arms en route to Uganda at the port of Mombasa. Tension between Uganda and Kenya reached its climax in February 1976 when Amin announced that he would investigate the possibility that parts of southern Sudan and western and central Kenya, up to within 32 kilometres (20 mi) of Nairobi, were historically a part of colonial Uganda. The Kenyan Government responded with a stern statement that Kenya would not part with "a single inch of territory". Amin backed down after the Kenyan army deployed troops and armored personnel carriers along the Kenya-Uganda border. Erratic behaviour As the years went on, Amin became increasingly erratic and outspoken. In 1977, after Britain had broken diplomatic relations with his regime, Amin declared he had beaten the British and conferred on himself the decoration of CBE (Conqueror of the British Empire). Radio Uganda then read out the whole of his new title: "His Excellency President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada, VC,DSO, MC, CBE." In 1971, Amin and Zaire's president Mobutu Sese Seko changed the names of Lake Albert and Lake Edward to Lake Mobutu Sese Seko and Lake Idi Amin Dada, respectively. Amin became the subject of rumours and myths, including a widespread belief that he was a cannibal. Some of the unsubstantiated rumours, such as the mutilation of one of his wives, were spread and popularised by the 1980 film, Rise and Fall of Idi Amin. During Amin's reign, popular media outside of Uganda often portrayed Amin as an essentially comic figure. In a 1977 assessment typical of the time, Time magazine article described him as a "killer and clown, big-hearted buffoon and strutting martinet". For focusing on Amin's excessive tastes and self-aggrandizing eccentricities, the foreign media was often criticized for downplaying or excusing his murderous behavior. Other commentators even suggested that Amin had deliberately cultivated his reputation in the foreign media as an easily-parodied buffoon in order to defuse international concern over his administration of Uganda. See More Interests Early life and military career Amin never wrote an autobiography or authorized any official account of his life. There are discrepancies as to when and where h...e was born. Most biographical sources hold that he was born in either Koboko or Kampala around 1925.[7] According to Fred Guweddeko, a researcher at Makerere University, Idi Amin was the son of Andreas Nyabire (1889–1976). Nyabire, a member of the Kakwa ethnic group, converted from Roman Catholicism to Islam in 1910 and changed his name to Amin Dada. Abandoned by his father, Idi Amin grew up with his mother's family. Guweddeko states that Amin's mother was called Assa Aatte (1904–1970), an ethnic Lugbara and a traditional herbalist, who treated members of Buganda royalty, among others. Amin joined an Islamic school in Bombo in 1941. After a few years he left school and did odd jobs before being recruited to the army by a British colonial army officer. Chronology of Amin's military promotions King's African Rifles Islam Activities Idi Amin Dada (mid 1920s – 16 August 2003), commonly known as Idi Amin, was a Ugandan military dictator and the president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. Amin join...ed the British colonial regiment, the King's African Rifles, in 1946, and advanced to the rank of Major General and Commander of the Ugandan Army. He took power in a military coup in January 1971, deposing Milton Obote. His rule was characterized by human rights abuses, political repression, ethnic persecution, extrajudicial killings and the expulsion of Asians from Uganda. The number of people killed as a result of his regime is unknown: estimates from human rights groups range from 100,000 to 500,000. From 1977 to 1979, Amin titled himself as "His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada, VC, DSO, MC, Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Seas and Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular." In 1975–1976, despite opposition[citation needed], Amin became the Chairman of the Organization of African Unity, a pan-Africanist group designed to promote solidarity of the African states. During the 1977–1979 period, Uganda was appointed to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Dissent within Uganda, and Amin's attempt to annex the Kagera province of Tanzania in 1978, led to the Uganda-Tanzania War and the fall of his regime in 1979. Amin fled to Libya, before relocating to Saudi Arabia in 1981, where he died in 2003. Amin and his regime have been the subject of films and documentaries including General Idi Amin Dada: A Self Portrait (1974), Rise and Fall of Idi Amin (1980) and The Last King of Scotland (2006). See More Gender	i don't know
Which King novel was set at the Overlook Hotel?	Overlook Hotel \| Stephen King Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Share The Overlook in Stanley Kubrick's The Shining. The Overlook Hotel was a secluded hotel located in the Rocky Mountains. During its history it was the site of many unsavory activities, including suicides, gangland hits, and many suspicious changes of ownership, yet the hotel remained a luxurious destination known for its sumptuous grounds and spectacular mountain view. In the novel, The Shining , the Overlook was destroyed when the hotel's winter caretaker, Jack Torrance , allowed the outmoded boiler to go untended until it exploded, burning the Overlook to the ground. Jack's wife Wendy and his son Danny Torrance are the only two survivors. Years later, Andrew Pomeroy , an amateur painter, was employed by a magazine to sketch the ruins of the hotel. Pomeroy disappeared during the assignment. Later on in 1982, his body was found inside the ruins of the hotel, no one knowing how it was possible. In the film, Stanley Kubrick's The Shining , the Overlook Hotel's exterior is represented by Timberline Lodge at Mt. Hood in Oregon. The interiors of the Overlook are based heavily on the Ahwahnee Hoteel at Yosemite. The film's Colorado Lounge is a near copy of the Grand Lounge at Ahwahnee. The elevators and Lobby of both are also nearly identical. It has been noticed that from scene to scene the layout of the Overlook changes. There are several impossible shots in the film. The Shining In The Shining, Jack Torrance, his wife Wendy Torrance and son Danny Torrance arrive at the Overlook Hotel just as everyone is checking out. They are given a grand tour by Mr Ullman. Danny is told by Halloran, the hotels chef, that the hotel has a bad history and warns him to stay out of Room 237. The Torrances watch everyone leave the hotel until the last person leaves and they are alone in the hotel. At first, the hotel seems to be a blessing to Wendy and Jack and Wendy claims this is the happiest she has ever been. But Danny is hiding dark secrets, and soon starts to see terrifying visions and ghosts. Danny enters Room 237 one day and finds a dead corpse in the bath, which smiles at him and captures him and strangles him. He is found by Wendy, who blames Jack. However, Danny tells Wendy that it was Miss Massey and Jack enters the room. He finds nothing, but hears the footsteps of Miss Massey coming towards him. Jack flees the room, frightened, and the room is not entered again. Danny starts seeing more terrifying visions and the topiary animals come to life. Jack Torrance slowly starts to go crazy and the ghost of the previous caretaker convinced him to kill his wife and son so that the hotel can inherit Danny's power. Danny calls to Halloran for help with his Shining, and he comes. The hotel finally starts to show its evil power and the ghosts come alive around Wendy, Danny and Halloran. The hotel manages to murder Jack by brutally chopping his face off with the roque mallet. Wendy, Danny and Halloran escape the hotel just as the boiler explodes, destroying the hotel.	Shining
Under which other name did King write novels in the 1970s?	Iconic set design: The Shining's Overlook \| Den of Geek Search Iconic set design: The Shining's Overlook The Shining's Overlook hotel remains one of the most disturbing locations in horror. Here's its history, and how it tells Kubrick's story... j Cinema is full of set designs so beautiful, you almost wish you they were real. Fritz Lang had vast chunks of city built for Metropolis. Joseph Mankiewicz nearly brought 20th Century Fox to its knees, so huge and sumptuous were his sets for 1963’s Cleopatra. Thinking back over the course of movie history, how many films can you think of where the set itself is as big a star as the actors that emote within it? In Alien or Blade Runner, perhaps. The impossibly creepy motel and Victorian house of horrors in Psycho, maybe. The set in Stanley Kubrick’s The Shining, I’d argue, towers over all these. In no other film has an interior felt so mundane and yet so palpably evil – Jack Nicholson may rant and rave spectacularly as unhinged writer Jack Torrance, and Shelley Duval may act convincingly exhausted and terrified as his beleaguered wife, but it’s production designer Roy Walker’s set design that constantly dazzles. Credit must also go, of course, to John Alcott’s prowling cinematography, aided Garrett Brown and his wonder invention, the Steadicam, which allowed Stanley Kubrick, ever the technician, to pull off some of the most striking long takes in all cinema. Nevertheless, it’s the Overlook Hotel, at the time the biggest indoor set ever built, that bears so much of the film’s dramatic weight. This is partially because The Shining has such a simple story to tell. Pared back even by the standards of Stephen King’s source novel, the movie contains none of the rampaging elephant-shaped hedges or infernos of the original book. Instead, Kubrick’s film presents us with little more than embittered, failed writer, Jack, slowly growing crazy in a remote hotel. His wife Wendy (Duvall) and telepathic son Danny (Danny Lloyd) can do little more than look on in horror. At first glance, Kubrick and Walker appear to have created the perfect fusion between exterior and interior shots. At the start of the film, the outside of the Overlook we see is actually the Timberline Lodge, located in Oregon. The rest of the film's exteriors and interiors, meanwhile, were immaculately constructed back at Elstree Studios in the UK. A world away from the dusty, peeling interiors usually seen in horror movies, the hotel interior envisioned by Kubrick is spacious and modern. The set generates tension not through claustrophobia and dark spaces, but with high ceilings and lonely expanses. Characters are frequently dwarfed by gigantic columns or huge windows. Even the carpets accentuate the how small and vulnerable Danny and his mother are; one shot shows the little boy playing on a carpet whose huge geometric patterns surround him like a cage. As he did in 2001: A Space Odyssey and A Clockwork Orange, Kubrick uses violent contrasts of colour to heighten the feeling of unease. There’s a key moment, where Grady (Philip Stone) ushers Jack into a bathroom and urges him, rather unsubtly, to “correct” his family. The acting in this scene is so intense that it’s easy to miss just how striking the actors’ surroundings are; unlike the warm, boozy golds of the ballroom Jack was drinking in seconds before, the bathroom is bathed in stark artificial light. The pure white ceiling and floor merely accentuate the startling crimson of the walls. The room is utterly unlike any other in the hotel – it’s as though it’s a direct projection of Jack’s violent mind, which it almost certainly is. It’s but one example of how Kubrick uses colour and design to reflect the mood of his characters. As an example of how The Shining’s set takes us through those moods, take a look at the manager’s room, where Jack is interviewed at the beginning of the film – it’s a typical 70s office, its ugly salmon-coloured walls festooned with framed pictures. It’s vastly different from the supernatural ballroom or evil-looking bathroom seen in the film’s final act. When Walker set about designing the film’s rooms, he took inspiration from real hotel rooms from around America, and went all over the country photographing different interiors. On his returm, Kubrick leafed through the pictures, chose the ones he liked, and had his production team construct rooms that looked exactly the same. The director described the process of designing the film’s sets in an interview with writer Michel Ciment. “We wanted the hotel to look authentic rather than like a traditionally spooky movie hotel,” Kubrick said. “The hotel's labyrinthine layout and huge rooms, I believed, would alone provide an eerie enough atmosphere. This realistic approach was also followed in the lighting, and in every aspect of the decor it seemed to me that the perfect guide for this approach could be found in Kafka's writing style. His stories are fantastic and allegorical, but his writing is simple and straightforward, almost journalistic.” Writer Rob Ager made an exhaustive and brilliant examination of The Shining’s set design, and suggested that Kubrick deliberately built anomalies into the hotel’s layout in order to confuse the viewer’s spatial awareness. (It’s a fascinating piece of work, and you can read it, and watch an accompanying video, here .) From a plan view, as one might see in an architect’s drawing, the Overlook’s layout doesn’t make any sense; hotel rooms open out straight onto balconies; what should be internal windows appear to have light coming from outside; corridors lead to abrupt dead ends. Not everyone agrees with Ager’s thesis, but I’d argue it’s too plausible to dismiss entirely. While it’s possible that Kubrick and his designers may have cut a few corners to cram their already enormous sets into the space available at Elstree, it’s unlikely that a director as meticulous and obsessed with minor detail as Kubrick would make so many glaring errors. Besides, Kubrick makes it obvious from the outset that the hotel’s architecture is vital to his story. His use of Steadicam isn’t merely a gimmicky use of new technology – it allows him to lead us around this weird interior landscape, across horrid carpets, polished floors and rugs, through its sprawling kitchen and storage rooms. He wants us to know how gigantic and dehumanising this place is – before the psychological wargames begin, he shows us the battleground on which they'll take place. In the Overlook, Kubrick created a hotel that acts as a kind of psychological torture chamber, trapping its victims in a labyrinth of impossible corridors and rooms. Its design mirrors that of the hedge maze outside, cunningly built from a wood and wire mesh frame, with foliage threaded through it. This maze, with its eight-foot high walls, was complex enough for the crew to get lost in. Kubrick’s daughter Vivian shot a candid documentary of The Shining’s making, and the director and his crew are seen consulting maps of the maze’s layout. It’s been said that, at one point in The Shining’s year-long shoot, Kubrick had the maze walls rearranged, without telling certain members of the crew. When they became lost in its new layout, their cries for help were met with peals of laughter from Kubrick – laughter that, disconcertingly, seemed to becoming from all directions at once. The Shining is the perfect example of the use of set design to enhance a narrative. Combined with its cinematography, the viewer is left with the impression of a building that isn’t merely haunted, but alive, and actively observing its occupants’ every move. No other set in cinema is quite so oppressive, or so convincingly depicted – we barely notice the spatial anomalies that Ager points out, but it’s likely that on some subconscious level, our brain notices, and shudders. The Shining’s shoot was long and arduous. In his quest for perfection, Kubrick went through take after take. Scatman Crothers and Shelly Duvall clashed with the director. The latter even collapsed, exhausted, which was caught on camera by Vivian Kubrick. The film’s extraordinarily realistic lighting also took its toll: the pale sun shining through the vast windows in the main room was achieved with a bank of powerful studio lights – so powerful were these, the set eventually caught fire. Rather than work with the footage he’d already shot, Kubrick, perfectionist to the last, had the set rebuilt from scratch. Kubrick’s maniacal approach to filmmaking resulted in one of the most unusual entries in the horror canon. Its performances are desperate and sometimes bizarre, its images wavering violently between the starkly real and the surreal. And then there’s the Overlook itself, watching, waiting – it's entirely unforgettable, and perhaps the most striking haunted house in all cinema.	i don't know
Which football club’s ground is closest to the river Mersey?	What league football ground is closest to the River ... Home > Forum > C H A T > What league football ground is closest to the River ... What league football ground is closest to the River ... Back 233 VIEWS 2 REPLIES Back 29th Jun 2011 - 18:53 29th Jun 2011 What league football ground is closest to the River ... What league football ground is closest to the River Mersey ? Those who had to Google it...confess! 0 members like Clive Smith's post The following 0 members like Clive Smith's post: 30th Jun 2011 - 09:09 30th Jun 2011 Well I knew it was Stockport County having been to an away match once and some locals told us when chatting but seeing as they are not legue club now I did google it for next nearest and apparantly its Man U? 0 members like Chris Freear's post The following 0 members like Chris Freear's post: 30th Jun 2011 - 10:00 30th Jun 2011 Quote: Well I knew it was Stockport County having been to an away match once and some locals told us when chatting but seeing as they are not legue club now I did google it for next nearest and apparantly its Man U?	Stockport County F.C.
In the Sermon on the Mount who did Christ say ‘shall be called the children of God’?	Everton and Stockport County â The 'Other' Mersey Team \| ToffeeWeb \| Fan Articles Everton and Stockport County â The 'Other' Mersey Team By Rob Sawyer 24/04/2014 Why Everton must never sell Ross Barkley A traditional pub quiz question was âWhich league football team is located closest to the River Mersey? The answer, which catches most respondents out, was Stockport County. My parents relocated from Merseyside to NE Cheshire shortly before my birth in 1970. My Dad ensured I followed in the Mersey Blue tradition established by my great-grandfather but I have always kept a watchful eye on developments at Stockport County as my nearest team. Sadly for âThe Hatters, they can no longer claim to be a league team having endured a dramatic dip in fortunes that has seen them sink from the second to sixth tier (âThe Skrill Northâ) of English football within 12 years. It is not only the Mersey which links these two Clubs at opposite ends of the football spectrum. Over the past century they have shared a number of players â and managers. The likes of Ted Critchley, Harry Hardy, Harry Catterick (Wartime football), Charlie Gee, Nick Chadwick and Alex Young have turned out for both teams. On a downbeat note, Brett Angel, who had a successful career at County, is widely credited with being Evertons least adept top-flight player ever. Managerial-wise Dave Jones, Gary Megson, Gary Ablett and Harry Cattericks father have all held the Hatters managerial position. This Saturday, 26 April, Phil Jevons will make his final professional appearance at Edgeley Park as Stockport County entertain Harrogate Town. Jevons was once a promising striker at Everton who made nine senior appearances in the Walter Smith era before embarking on a successful lower league career. This season, he has combined captaining County with coaching at Evertons Academy; the demands of his coaching role mean that he has been obliged to hang up his boots. He has recently been joined in the County line-up by Jamie Milligan, a left-sided midfielder who failed to make the expected impact at Goodison in the late 1990s and now finds himself on a short-term deal at Edgeley Park. Milligan also owns a football coaching company with fellow ex-Toffee Gavin McCann. Having already written about Ted Critchley, with his daughter Doris, for ToffeeWeb , I hope to add further articles about people linking the two clubs in the coming months â starting with Charlie Gee. If anyone has any information that may help with the project, please feel free to get in touch via the ToffeeWeb editors. Share this article	i don't know
Which king was the husband of Jezebel?	How Bad Was Jezebel? - Biblical Archaeology Society Reviews How Bad Was Jezebel? Read Janet Howe Gaines's full article about Jezebel in the Bible and later depictions as it appeared in Bible Review Janet Howe Gaines • 09/17/2016 Read Janet Howe Gaines’s article “Jezebel” as it originally appeared in Bible Review, October 2000. The article was first republished in Bible History Daily in 2010.—Ed. Who Was Jezebel? Israel’s most accursed queen carefully fixes a pink rose in her red locks in John Byam Liston Shaw’s “Jezebel” from 1896. Jezebel’s reputation as the most dangerous seductress in the Bible stems from her final appearance: her husband King Ahab is dead; her son has been murdered by Jehu. As Jehu’s chariot races toward the palace to kill Jezebel, she “painted her eyes with kohl and dressed her hair, and she looked out of the window” (2 Kings 9:30). Image: Russell-Cotes Art Gallery and Museum, Bournemouth, UK/Bridgeman Art Library. For more than two thousand years, Jezebel has been saddled with a reputation as the bad girl of the Bible, the wickedest of women. This ancient queen has been denounced as a murderer, prostitute and enemy of God, and her name has been adopted for lingerie lines and World War II missiles alike. But just how depraved was Jezebel? In recent years, scholars have tried to reclaim the shadowy female figures whose tales are often only partially told in the Bible. Rehabilitating Jezebel’s stained reputation is an arduous task, however, for she is a difficult woman to like. She is not a heroic fighter like Deborah, a devoted sister like Miriam or a cherished wife like Ruth. Jezebel cannot even be compared with the Bible’s other bad girls—Potiphar’s wife and Delilah—for no good comes from Jezebel’s deeds. These other women may be bad, but Jezebel is the worst. 1 Yet there is more to this complex ruler than the standard interpretation would allow. To attain a more positive assessment of Jezebel’s troubled reign and a deeper understanding of her role, we must evaluate the motives of the Biblical authors who condemn the queen. Furthermore, we must reread the narrative from the queen’s vantage point. As we piece together the world in which Jezebel lived, a fuller picture of this fascinating woman begins to emerge. The story is not a pretty one, and some—perhaps most—readers will remain disturbed by Jezebel’s actions. But her character might not be as dark as we are accustomed to thinking. Her evilness is not always as obvious, undisputed and unrivaled as the Biblical writer wants it to appear. In the free eBook Paul: Jewish Law and Early Christianity , learn about the cultural contexts for the theology of Paul and how Jewish traditions and law extended into early Christianity through Paul’s dual roles as a Christian missionary and a Pharisee. Ahab and Jezebel in the Bible The story of Jezebel, the Phoenician wife of King Ahab of Israel, is recounted in several brief passages scattered throughout the Books of Kings. Scholars generally identify 1 and 2 Kings as part of the Deuteronomistic History, attributed either to a single author or to a group of authors and editors collectively known as the Deuteronomist. One of the main purposes of the entire Deuteronomistic History, which includes the seven books from Deuteronomy through 2 Kings, is to explain Israel’s fate in terms of its apostasy. As the Israelites settle into the Promised Land, establish a monarchy and separate into a northern and a southern kingdom after the reign of Solomon, God’s chosen people continually go astray. They sin against Yahweh in many ways, the worst of which is by worshiping alien deities. The first commandments from Sinai demand monotheism, but the people are attracted to foreign gods and goddesses. When Jezebel enters the scene in the ninth century B.C.E., she provides a perfect opportunity for the Bible writer to teach a moral lesson about the evil outcomes of idolatry, for she is a foreign idol worshiper who seems to be the power behind her husband. From the Deuteronomist’s viewpoint, Jezebel embodies everything that must be eliminated from Israel so that the purity of the cult of Yahweh will not be further contaminated. As the Books of Kings recount, the princess Jezebel is brought to the northern kingdom of Israel to wed the newly crowned King Ahab, son of Omri (1 Kings 16:31). Her father is Ethbaal of Tyre, king of the Phoenicians, a group of Semites whose ancestors were Canaanites. Phoenicia consisted of a loose confederation of city-states, including the sophisticated maritime trade centers of Tyre and Sidon on the Mediterranean coast. The Bible writer’s antagonism stems primarily from Jezebel’s religion. The Phoenicians worshiped a swarm of gods and goddesses, chief among them Baal, the general term for “lord” given to the head fertility and agricultural god of the Canaanites. As king of Phoenicia, it is likely that Ethbaal was also a high priest or had other important religious duties. According to the first-century C.E. historian Josephus, who drew on a Greek translation of the now-lost Annals of Tyre, Ethbaal served as a priest of Astarte, the primary Phoenician goddess. Jezebel, as the king’s daughter, may have served as a priestess as she was growing up. In any case, she was certainly raised to honor the deities of her native land. The legacy of Jezebel. “In the last days, the daughters of Jezebel shall rule over nations,” warns the scrawling inscription that surrounds the face of Jezebel in this 1993 painting by American folk artist Robert Roberg. The apocalyptic message seems to associate the Biblical queen with the “mother of whores and of abominations” who “rules over the kings of the earth” and who has committed fornication with them (Revelation 17:2, 5, 18). Jezebel’s name appears once in the New Testament Book of Revelation, where it is attached to an unrepentant prophetess who has beguiled the people “to practice fornication and to eat food sacrificed to idols” (Revelation 2:20). Yet the Book of Kings offers no hint of sexual impropriety on Queen Jezebel’s part, argues author Gaines. She is, if anything, a too-devoted wife, willing even to commit murder in order to help her husband maintain his authority as king. Image: Robert Roberg When Jezebel comes to Israel, she brings her foreign gods and goddesses—especially Baal and his consort Asherah (Canaanite Astarte, often translated in the Bible as “sacred post”)—with her. This seems to have an immediate effect on her new husband, for just as soon as the queen is introduced, we are told that Ahab builds a sanctuary for Baal in the very heart of Israel, within his capital city of Samaria: “He took as wife Jezebel daughter of King Ethbaal of the Phoenicians, and he went and served Baal and worshiped him. He erected an altar to Baal in the temple of Baal which he built in Samaria. Ahab also made a ‘sacred post’” a (1 Kings 16:31–33). 2 Jezebel does not accept Ahab’s God, Yahweh. Rather, she leads Ahab to tolerate Baal. This is why she is vilified by the Deuteronomist, whose goal is to stamp out polytheism. She represents a view of womanhood that is the opposite of the one extolled in characters such as Ruth the Moabite, who is also a foreigner. Ruth surrenders her identity and submerges herself in Israelite ways; she adopts the religious and social norms of the Israelites and is universally praised for her conversion to God. Jezebel steadfastly remains true to her own beliefs. Jezebel’s marriage to Ahab was a political alliance. The union provided both peoples with military protection from powerful enemies as well as valuable trade routes: Israel gained access to the Phoenician ports; Phoenicia gained passage through Israel’s central hill country to Transjordan and especially to the King’s Highway, the heavily traveled inland route connecting the Gulf of Aqaba in the south with Damascus in the north. But although the marriage is sound foreign policy, it is intolerable to the Deuteronomist because of Jezebel’s idol worship. The Bible does not comment on what the young Jezebel thinks about marrying Ahab and moving to Israel. Her feelings are of no interest to the Deuteronomist, nor are they germane to the story’s didactic purpose. To learn more about Biblical women with slighted traditions, take a look at the Bible History Daily feature Scandalous Women in the Bible , which includes articles on Mary Magdalene and Lilith. We are not told whether Ethbaal consults his daughter, if she departs Phoenicia with trepidation or enthusiasm, or what she expects from her role as ruler. Like other highborn daughters of her time, Jezebel is probably a pawn, packed off to the highest bidder. Israel’s topography, customs and religion would certainly be very different from those of Jezebel’s native land. Instead of the lushness of the moist seacoast, she would find Israel to be an arid, desert nation. Furthermore, the Torah shows the Israelites to be an ethnocentric, xenophobic people. In Biblical narratives, foreigners are sometimes unwelcome, and prejudice against intermarriage is seen since the day Abraham sought a woman from his own people to marry his son Isaac (Genesis 24:4). In contrast to the familiar gods and goddesses that Jezebel is accustomed to petitioning, Israel is home to a state religion featuring a lone, masculine deity. Perhaps Jezebel optimistically believes that she can encourage religious tolerance and give legitimacy to the worship habits of those Baalites who already reside in Israel. Perhaps Jezebel sees herself as an ambassador who could help unite the two lands and bring about cultural pluralism, regional peace and economic prosperity. What spurs Jezebel to action is unknown and unknowable, but the motives of the Deuteronomist come through plainly in the text. Jezebel is a bold and impious interloper who has to be stopped. From her own point of view, however, she is no apostate. She remains loyal to her religious upbringing and is determined to maintain her cultural identity. According to the Deuteronomist, however, Jezebel’s desire is not merely confined to achieving ethnic or religious parity. She also seems driven to eliminate Israel’s faithful servants of God. Evidence of Jezebel’s cruel desire to wipe out Yahweh worship in Israel is reported in 1 Kings 18:4, at the Bible’s second mention of her name: “Jezebel was killing off the prophets of the Lord.” The threat of Jezebel is so great that later in the same chapter, the mythic prophet Elijah summons the acolytes of Jezebel to a tournament on Mt. Carmel to determine which deity is supreme: God or Baal. Whichever deity is capable of setting a sacrificial bull on fire will be the winner, the one true God. It is only then that we learn just how many followers of Jezebel’s gods and goddesses are near her at court. Elijah challenges them: “Now summon all Israel to join me at Mount Carmel, together with the four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal and the four hundred prophets of Asherah who eat at Jezebel’s table” (1 Kings 18:19). Whether the grand total of 850 is a symbolic or literal number, it is impressive. Glass jewels and glitter adorn the veiled crown of Jezebel and twisted branches speckled with paint form the queen’s body in this sculpture by Bessie Harvey. Photo by Ron Lee, The Silver Factory/The Arnett Collection, Atlanta, GA Detail of veiled crown of Jezebel (compare with photo of veiled crown of Jezebel). Photo by Ron Lee, The Silver Factory/The Arnett Collection, Atlanta, GA. Yet their superior numbers can do nothing to ensure victory; nor can petitions to their god. The prophets of Baal “performed a hopping dance about the altar” and “kept raving” (1 Kings 18:26, 29) all day long in a vain attempt to rouse Baal. They even gash themselves with knives and whoop it up in a heightened emotional state, hoping to incite Baal to unleash a great fire. But Baal does not respond to the ecstatic ranting of Jezebel’s prophets. At the end of the day, it is Elijah’s single plea to God that is answered. Standing alone before Jezebel’s host of visionaries, Elijah cries out: “O Lord, God of Abraham, Isaac, and Israel! Let it be known today that You are God in Israel and that I am Your servant, and that I have done all these things at Your bidding. Answer me, O Lord, answer me, that this people may know that You, O Lord, are God; for You have turned their hearts backward” (1 Kings 18:36–37). At once, “fire from the Lord descended and consumed the burnt offering, the wood, the stones and the earth;…When they saw this, all the people flung themselves on their faces and cried out: ‘The Lord alone is God, the Lord alone is God!’” (1 Kings 18:38–39). Elijah’s solitary entreaty to Yahweh serves as a foil to the hours of appeals made by Baal’s followers. Jezebel herself is absent during this all-male event. Nevertheless, her presence is felt and the Deuteronomist’s message is clear. Jezebel’s deities and the huge number of prophets loyal to her are powerless against the omnipotent Yahweh, who is proven by the tournament to be ruler of all the forces of nature. Ironically, at the conclusion of the Carmel episode, Elijah proves capable of the same murderous inclinations that have previously characterized Jezebel, though it is only she that the Deuteronomist criticizes. After winning the Carmel contest, Elijah immediately orders the assembly to capture all of Jezebel’s prophets. Elijah emphatically declares: “Seize the prophets of Baal, let not a single one of them get away” (1 Kings 18:40). Elijah leads his 450 prisoners to the Wadi Kishon, where he slaughters them (1 Kings 18:40). Though they will never meet in person, Elijah and Jezebel are engaged in a hard-fought struggle for religious supremacy. Here Elijah reveals that he and Jezebel possess a similar religious fervor, though their loyalties differ greatly. They are also equally determined to eliminate one another’s followers, even if it means murdering them. The difference is that the Deuteronomist decries Jezebel’s killing of God’s servants (at 1 Kings 18:4) but now sanctions Elijah’s decision to massacre hundreds of Jezebel’s prophets. Indeed, once Elijah kills Jezebel’s prophets, God rewards him by sending a much-needed rain, ending a three-year drought in Israel. There is a definite double standard here. Murder seems to be accepted, even venerated, as long as it is done in the name of the right deity. After Elijah’s triumph on Mt. Carmel, King Ahab returns home to give his queen the news that Baal is defeated, Yahweh is the undisputed master of the universe and Jezebel’s prophets are dead. Jezebel sends Elijah a menacing message, threatening to slaughter him just as he has slaughtered her prophets: “Thus and more may the gods do if by this time tomorrow I have not made you like one of them” (1 Kings 19:2). The Septuagint, a third- to second-century B.C.E. Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, prefaces Jezebel’s threat with an additional insult to the prophet. Here Jezebel establishes herself as Elijah’s equal: “If you are Elijah, so I am Jezebel” (1 Kings 19:2 b ). 3 In both versions the queen’s meaning is unmistakable: Elijah should fear for his life. These are the first words the Deuteronomist records from Jezebel, and they are filled with venom. Unlike the many voiceless Biblical wives and concubines whose muteness reminds us of the powerlessness of women in ancient Israel, Jezebel has a tongue. While her verbal acuity shows that she is more daring, clever and independent than most women of her time, her withering words also demonstrate her sinfulness. Jezebel transforms the precious instrument of language into an evil device to blaspheme God and defy the prophet. So frightened is Elijah by Jezebel’s threatening words that he flees to Mt. Horeb (Sinai). Despite what he has witnessed on Carmel, Elijah seems to falter in his faith that the Almighty will protect him. As a literary device, Elijah’s sojourn at Horeb gives the Deuteronomist an opportunity to imply parallels between the careers of Moses and Elijah, thus reinforcing Elijah’s exalted reputation. Nevertheless, the timing of Elijah’s flight south makes him look suspiciously like he is afraid of a mere woman. Jezebel indeed shows herself as a person to be feared in the next episode. The story of Naboth, an Israelite who owns a plot of land adjacent to the royal palace in Jezreel, provides an excellent occasion for the Deuteronomist to propose that Jezebel is not only the foe of Israel’s God, but an enemy of the government. In 1 Kings 21:2, Ahab requests that Naboth give him his vineyard: “Give me your vineyard, so that I may have it as a vegetable garden, since it is right next to my palace.” Ahab promises to pay Naboth for the land or to provide him with an even better vineyard. But at 1 Kings 21:3, Naboth refuses to sell or trade: “The Lord forbid that I should give up to you what I have inherited from my fathers!” The king whines and refuses to eat after Naboth’s rebuff: “Ahab went home dispirited and sullen because of the answer that Naboth the Jezreelite had given him…He lay down on his bed and turned away his face, and he would not eat” (1 Kings 21:4). Apparently perturbed by her husband’s political impotence and sulking demeanor, Jezebel steps in, proudly asserting: “Now is the time to show yourself king over Israel. Rise and eat something, and be cheerful; I will get the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite for you” (1 Kings 21:7). Naboth is fully within his rights to hold onto his family plot. Israelite law and custom dictate that his family should maintain their land (nachalah) in perpetuity (Numbers 27:5–11). As a Torah-bound king of Israel, Ahab should understand Naboth’s legitimate desire to keep his inheritance. Jezebel, on the other hand, hails from Phoenicia, where a monarch’s whim is often tantamount to law. 4 Having been raised in a land of absolute autocrats, where few dared to question a ruler’s wish or decree, Jezebel might naturally feel annoyance and frustration at Naboth’s resistance to his sovereign’s proposal. In this context, Jezebel’s reaction becomes more understandable, though perhaps no more admirable, for she behaves according to her upbringing and expectations regarding royal prerogative. Four outstanding scholars look closely at a number of prominent women in the Bible and the men to whom they relate in Feminist Approaches to the Bible , published by the Biblical Archaeology Society. Learn more >> Elijah’s challenge of “the 450 prophets of Baal and the 400 prophets of Asherah who eat at Jezebel’s table” (1 Kings 18:19) is depicted in two scenes on the walls of the third-century C.E. synagogue at Dura-Europos in modern Syria. According to 1 Kings 18, Elijah proposed that both he and the prophets of Baal lay a single bull on an altar and then pray to their respective deities to ignite the sacrificial animal. Whichever deity responded would be deemed the more powerful and the one true God. In the painting shown here, the priests of Baal gather around their altar, crying out, “O, Baal, answer us,” but their sacrifice remains untouched. The small man standing inside the altar in this painting does not appear in the Biblical story, but rather in a later midrash. According to this midrash, when the prophets of Baal realized they would fail, a man named Hiel agreed to hide within the altar to ignite the heifer from below. The Israelite God foiled their plan by sending a snake to bite Hiel, who subsequently died. Image: E. Goodenough, Symbolism in the Dura Synogogue (Princeton Univ. Press) Without Ahab’s direct knowledge, Jezebel writes letters to her townsmen, enlisting them in an elaborate ruse to frame the innocent Naboth. To ensure their compliance, she signs Ahab’s name and stamps the letters with the king’s seal. Jezebel encourages the townsmen to publicly (and falsely) accuse Naboth of blaspheming God and king. “Then take him out and stone him to death,” she commands (1 Kings 21:10). So Naboth is murdered, and the vineyard automatically escheats to the throne, as is customary when a person is found guilty of a serious crime. If Naboth has relatives, they are now in no position to protest the passing of their family land to Ahab. Yet the details of Jezebel’s underhanded plot against Naboth do not always ring true. The Bible maintains that “the elders and nobles who lived in [Naboth’s] town…did as Jezebel had instructed them” (1 Kings 21:11). If the trickster queen is able to enlist the support of so many people, none of whom betrays her, to kill a man whom they have probably known all their lives and whom they realize is innocent, then she has astonishing power. The fantastical tale of Naboth’s death—in which something could go wrong at any moment but somehow does not—stretches the reader’s credulity. If Jezebel were as hateful as the Deuteronomist claims, surely at least one nobleman in Jezreel would have refused to assist in the nefarious scheme. Surely one individual would have had the courage to expose the detestable deed and become the Deuteronomist’s hero by spoiling the plan. 5 Shown here, Elijah and his followers have easily conjured up a blazing fire, which engulfs their white bull. Seeing the flames, the Israelites call out, “Yahweh alone is God, Yahweh alone is God” (1 Kings 18:39). Jezebel herself is not present during the event. And yet Elijah’s contest is a direct challenge to the queen who has brought the worship of Baal to the forefront in Israel by inviting the pagan prophets to the palace (compare with painting of the priests of Baal). Image: The Jewish Mesuem, NY/Art Resource, NY. Perhaps the Biblical compiler is using Jezebel as a scapegoat for his outrage at her influence over the king, meaning that she herself is being framed in the tale. Traditionally thought to be a narrative about how innocent Naboth is falsely accused, the story could instead be an exaggeration of fact, fabricated to demonstrate the Deuteronomist’s continued wrath against Jezebel. As a result of this incident, Elijah reappears on the scene. First Yahweh tells Elijah how Ahab will die: “The word of the Lord came to Elijah the Tishbite: ‘Go down and confront King Ahab of Israel who [resides] in Samaria. He is now in Naboth’s vineyard; he has gone down there to take possession of it. Say to him, “Thus said the Lord: Would you murder and take possession? Thus said the Lord: In the very place where the dogs lapped up Naboth’s blood, the dogs will lap up your blood too”’” (1 Kings 21:17–19). But when Elijah confronts Ahab, the prophet predicts instead how the queen will die: “The dogs shall devour Jezebel in the field of Jezreel” (1 Kings 21:23). c Poetic justice, as the Deuteronomist sees it, demands that Jezebel end up as dog food. Ashamed of what has happened and fearful of the future, Ahab humbles himself by assuming outward signs of mourning, fasting and donning sackcloth. Prayer accompanies fasting, whether the Bible explicitly says so or not, so we may assume that Ahab raises his penitential voice to a forgiving Yahweh. For once, Jezebel does not speak; her lack of repentance is implicit in her silence. After the Death of Ahab: The Ill Repute of Jezebel in the Bible When Jezebel’s name is mentioned again, the Bible writer makes his most alarming accusation against her. Ahab has died, as has the couple’s eldest son, who followed his father to the throne. Their second son, Joram, rules. But even though Israel has a sitting monarch, a servant of the prophet Elisha crowns Jehu, Joram’s military commander, king of Israel and commissions Jehu to eradicate the House of Ahab: “I anoint you king over the people of the Lord, over Israel. You shall strike down the House of Ahab your master; thus will I avenge on Jezebel the blood of My servants the prophets, and the blood of the other servants of the Lord” (2 Kings 9:6–7). Four paleo-Hebrew letters—two just below the winged sun disk at center, two at bottom left and right—spell out the name YZBL, or Jezebel, on this seal. The Phoenician design, the dating of the seal to the ninth or early eighth century B.C.E. and, of course, the name, have led scholars to speculate that the Biblical queen may once have used this gray opal to seal her documents. In the Phoenician language, Jezebel’s name may have meant “Where is the Prince?” which was the cry of Baal’s subjects. But the spelling of the Phoenician name has been altered in the Hebrew Bible, perhaps in order to read as “Where is the excrement (zebel, manure)?”—a reference to Elijah’s prediction that “her carcass shall be like dung on the ground” (2 Kings 9:36). Collection Israel Museum/Photo Zev Radovan. King Joram and General Jehu meet on the battlefield. Unaware that he is about to be usurped by his military commander, Joram calls out: “Is all well, Jehu?” Jehu responds: “How can all be well as long as your mother Jezebel carries on her countless harlotries and sorceries?” (2 Kings 9:22). Jehu then shoots an arrow through Joram’s heart and, in a moment of stinging irony, orders the body to be dumped on Naboth’s land. From these words alone—uttered by the man who is about to kill Jezebel’s son—stems Jezebel’s long-standing reputation as a witch and a whore. The Bible occasionally connects harlotry and idol worship, as in Hosea 1:3, where the prophet is told to marry a “wife of whoredom,” who symbolically represents the people who “stray from following the Lord” (Hosea 1:3). Lusting after false “lords” can be seen as either adulterous or idolatrous. Yet throughout the millennia, Jezebel’s harlotry has not been identified as mere dolatry. Rather, she has been considered the slut of Samaria, the lecherous wife of a pouting potentate. The 1938 film Jezebel, starring Bette Davis as the destructive temptress who leads a man to his death, is evidence that this ancient judgment against Jezebel has been transmitted to this century. Nevertheless, the Bible never offers evidence that Jezebel is unfaithful to her husband while he is alive or loose in her morals after his death. In fact, she is always shown to be a loyal and helpful spouse, though her brand of assistance is deplored by the Deuteronomist. Jehu’s charge of harlotry is unsubstantiated, but it has stuck anyway and her reputation has been egregiously damaged by the allegation. When Jezebel herself finally appears again in the pages of the Bible, it is for her death scene. Jehu, with the blood of Joram still on his hands, races his chariot into Jezreel to continue the insurrection by assassinating Jezebel. Ironically, this is her finest hour, though the Deuteronomist intends the queen to appear haughty and imperious to the end. Realizing that Jehu is on his way to kill her, Jezebel does not disguise herself and flee the city, as a more cowardly person might do. Instead, she calmly prepares for his arrival by performing three acts: “She painted her eyes with kohl and dressed her hair, and she looked out of the window” (2 Kings 9:30). The traditional interpretation is that Jezebel primps and coquettishly looks out the window in an effort to seduce Jehu, that she wishes to win his favor and become part of his harem in order to save her own life, such treachery indicating Jezebel’s dastardly betrayal of deceased family members. According to this reading, Jezebel sheds familial loyalty as easily as a snake sheds its skin in an attempt to ensure her continued pleasure and safety at court. This ivory comes from Arslan Tash, in northern Syria. The most common motif found on Phoenician ivories, the woman at the window may represent the goddess Astarte (Biblical Asherah) looking out a palace window. Perhaps this widespread imagery influenced the Biblical author’s description of Jezebel, a follower of Astarte, looking out the palace window as Jehu approached (2 Kings 9:30). Photo: Erich Lessing Ivory fragment discovered in Samaria (compare with photo of ivory from Arslan Tash). Photo: Israel Antiquities Authority. Applying eye makeup (kohl) and brushing one’s hair are often connected to flirting in Hebraic thinking. Isaiah 3:16, Jeremiah 4:30, Ezekiel 23:40 and Proverbs 6:24–26 provide examples of women who bat their painted eyes to lure innocent men into adulterous beds. Black kohl is widely incorporated in Bible passages as a symbol of feminine deception and trickery, and its use to paint the area above and below the eyelids is generally considered part of a woman’s arsenal of artifice. In Jezebel’s case, however, the cosmetic is more than just an attempt to accentuate the eyes. Jezebel is donning the female version of armor as she prepares to do battle. She is a woman warrior, waging war in the only way a woman can. Whatever fear she may have of Jehu is camouflaged by her war paint. Her grooming continues as she dresses her hair, symbol of a woman’s seductive power. When she dies, she wants to look her queenly best. She is in control here, choosing the manner in which her attacker will last see and remember her. The third action Jezebel takes before Jehu arrives is to sit at her upper window. The Deuteronomist may be deliberately conjuring up images to associate Jezebel with other disfavored women. For example, contained within Deborah’s victory ode is the story of the unfortunate mother of the enemy general Sisera. Waiting at home, Sisera’s unnamed mother looks out the window for her son to return: “Through the window peered Sisera’s mother, behind the lattice she whined” (Judges 5:28). Her ladies-in-waiting express the hope that Sisera is detained because he is raping Israelite women and collecting booty (Judges 5:29–30). In truth, Sisera is already dead, his skull shattered by Jael and her tent peg (Judges 5:24–27). King David’s wife Michal also looks through her window, watching her husband dance around the Ark of the Covenant as it is triumphantly brought into Jerusalem, “and she despised him for it” (2 Samuel 6:16). Michal does not understand the people’s euphoria over the arrival of the Ark in David’s new capital; she can only feel anger that her husband is dancing about like one of the “riffraff” (2 Samuel 6:20). Generations later, Jezebel also appears at her window, conjuring up images of Sisera’s mother and Michal, two unpopular Biblical women. Not a BAS Library member yet? Join the BAS Library today . The image of the woman at the window also suggests fertility goddesses, abominations to the Deuteronomist and well known to the general public in ancient Israel. Ivory plaques, dating to the Iron Age and depicting a woman peering through a window, have been discovered in Khorsabad, Nimrud and Samaria, Jezebel’s second home. 6 The connection between idol worship, goddesses and the woman seated at the window would not have been lost on the Deuteronomist’s audience. Sitting at her window, Jezebel is seemingly rendered powerless while the active patriarchal world functions beyond her reach. 7 But a more sympathetic reading of the situation suggests that Jezebel has determined the superior angle from which she will be viewed by Jehu, thus giving the queen mastery of the situation. Positioned at the balcony window, the queen does not remain silent as the usurper Jehu arrives into town. She taunts him by calling him Zimri, the name of the unscrupulous predecessor of Omri, Jezebel’s father-in-law. Zimri ruled Israel for only seven days after murdering the king (Elah) and usurping the throne. “Is all well, Zimri, murderer of your master?” Jezebel asks Jehu (2 Kings 9:31). Jezebel knows that all is not well, and her sarcastic, sharp-tongued insult of Jehu disproves any interpretation that she has dressed in her finest to seduce him. She has contempt for Jehu. Unlike many Biblical wives, who remain silent, Jezebel has a distinct voice, and she is unafraid to articulate her view of Jehu as a renegade and regicide. To demonstrate his authority, Jehu orders Jezebel’s eunuchs to throw her out of the window: “They threw her down; and her blood spattered on the wall and on the horses, and they trampled her. Then [Jehu] went inside and ate and drank” (2 Kings 9:33–34). In this highly symbolic political action, the once mighty Jezebel is shoved out of her high station to the ground below. Her ejection from the window represents an eternal demotion from her proper place as one of the Bible’s most influential women. Jezebel’s body is left in the street as Jehu celebrates his victory. Later, perhaps because the new monarch does not wish to begin his reign with such a disrespectful act against a woman, or perhaps because he realizes the danger in setting a precedent for ill treatment of a dead ruler’s remains, Jehu orders Jezebel’s burial: “Attend to that cursed woman and bury her, for she was a king’s daughter” (2 Kings 9:34). Jezebel is not to be remembered as a queen or even as the wife of a king. She is only the daughter of a foreign despot. This is intended as another blow by the Deuteronomist, an attempt to marginalize a formidable woman. When the king’s men come to bury Jezebel, it is too late: “All they found of her were the skull, the feet, and the hands” (2 Kings 9:35). Jehu’s men inform the king that Elijah’s prophecies have been fulfilled: “It is just as the Lord spoke through His servant Elijah the Tishbite: The dogs shall devour the flesh of Jezebel in the field of Jezreel; and the carcass of Jezebel shall be like dung on the ground, in the field of Jezreel, so that none will be able to say: ‘This was Jezebel’” (2 Kings 9:36–37). With its green hills, fecund grapevines and abundant flowers, the scene depicted in this early-17th-century silk embroidery would appear peaceful—if not for the gruesome detail at left, which shows a woman being pushed out the palace window to a pack of hungry dogs. According to 2 Kings 9, Jehu orders the palace eunuchs to throw Jezebel out a window. When he later commands his men to bury her, little remains: “All they found of her were the skull, the feet and the hands” (2 Kings 9:35). Jehu’s men inform the new king that Elijah’s prophecies have been fulfilled: The queen’s corpse has been devoured by dogs; her body is mutilated beyond recognition, so that “none will be able to say ‘This was Jezebel’” (2 Kings 9:37). Death of Jezebel/Holburne Museum, Bath, UK/Bridgeman Art Library How Bad Was Jezebel? While the Biblical storyteller wants the final images of Jezebel to memorialize her as a brazen hussy, a sympathetic interpretation of her behavior has more credibility. When all a person has left in life is the way she faces her death, her final actions speak volumes about her character. Jezebel departs this earth every inch a queen. Now an aging grandmother, it is highly unlikely that she has libidinous designs on Jehu or even entertains the notion of becoming the young king’s paramour. As the daughter, wife, mother, mother-in-law and grandmother of kings, Jezebel would understand court politics well enough to realize that Jehu has far more to gain by killing her than by keeping her alive. Alive, the dowager queen could always serve as a rallying point for anyone unhappy with Jehu’s reign. The queen harbors no illusions about her chances of surviving Jehu’s bloody coup d’état. How bad was Jezebel? The Deuteronomist uses every possible argument to make the case against her. When Ahab dies, the Deuteronomist is determined to show that “there never was anyone like Ahab, who committed himself to doing what was displeasing to the Lord, at the instigation of his wife Jezebel” (1 Kings 21:25). It is interesting that Ahab is not held responsible for his own actions. 8 He goes astray because of a wicked woman. Someone has to bear the writer’s vituperation concerning Israel’s apostasy, and Jezebel is chosen for the job. Every Biblical word condemns her: Jezebel is an outspoken woman in a time when females have little status and few rights; a foreigner in a xenophobic land; an idol worshiper in a place with a Yahweh-based, state-sponsored religion; a murderer and meddler in political affairs in a nation of strong patriarchs; a traitor in a country where no ruler is above the law; and a whore in the territory where the Ten Commandments originate. Yet there is much to admire in this ancient queen. In a kinder analysis, Jezebel emerges as a fiery and determined person, with an intensity matched only by Elijah’s. She is true to her native religion and customs. She is even more loyal to her husband. Throughout her reign, she boldly exercises what power she has. And in the end, having lived her life on her own terms, Jezebel faces certain death with dignity. “How Bad Was Jezebel?” by Janet Howe Gaines originally appeared in Bible Review, October 2000. The article was first republished in Bible History Daily in June 2010. Janet Howe Gaines is a specialist in the Bible as literature in the Department of English at the University of New Mexico. She recently published Music in the Old Bones: Jezebel Through the Ages (Southern Illinois Univ. Press). Notes 1. For a fuller treatment of Jezebel, see Janet Howe Gaines, Music in the Old Bones: Jezebel Through the Ages (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1999). 2. All references to the Bible, unless otherwise noted, are to Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation According to the Traditional Hebrew Text (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1985). 3. The translation of the Greek text is my own. According to Sir Lancelot C.L. Brenton (The Septuagint with Apocrypha: Greek and English, 3rd ed. [Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1990], p. 478), the translation of the entire line is “And Jezabel sent to Eliu, and said, If thou art Eliu and I am Jezabel, God do so to me, and more also, if I do not make thy life by this time tomorrow as the life of one of them.” 4. For a discussion of Phoenician customs, see George Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia (London: Longmans, 1889). 5. As corroborating evidence, see the story of David’s plot to kill Uriah the Hittite in 2 Samuel 11:14–17. Like Jezebel, David writes letters that contain details of his scheme. David intends to enlist help from the entire regiment as confederates who are to “draw back from” Uriah, but Joab makes a shrewd and subtle change in the plan so that it is less likely to be discovered. 6. Eleanor Ferris Beach, “The Samaria Ivories, Marzeah, and Biblical Text,” Biblical Archaeologist 56:2 (1993), pp. 94–104. 7. For an excellent, detailed discussion of Biblical imagery concerning women seated at windows, see Nehama Aschkenasy, Woman at the Window (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1998).	Ahab
Which famous Elizabethan was executed for treason by King James in 1618?	Who was Jezebel in the Bible? By Ariela Pelaia Updated March 30, 2016. Jezebel 's story is recounted in 1 Kings and 2 Kings, where she is described as a worshiper of the god Ba'al and the goddess Asherah — not to mention as an enemy of God's prophets. Name Meaning and Origins Jezebel (אִיזָבֶל, Izavel), and translates from the Hebrew as something akin to "Where is the prince?" According to the Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible, "Izavel" was cried out by worshipers during ceremonies in honor of Ba'al. Jezebel lived during the 9th century BCE, and in 1 Kings 16:31 she's named as the daughter of Ethba'al, the king of Phoenicia/Sidon (modern day Lebanon), making her a Phoenician princess. She married Northern Israel's King Ahab, and the couple were established in the northern capital of Samaria. As a foreigner with foreign forms of worship, King Ahab built and alter to Ba'al in Samaria to appease Jezebel. Jezebel and God's Prophets As King Ahab's wife, Jezebel mandated that her religion should be the national religion of Israel and organized guilds of prophets of Ba'al (450) and Asherah (400). As a result, Jezebel is described as an enemy of God who was "killing off the Lord's prophets" (1 Kings 18:4). In response, the prophet Elijah accused King Ahab of abandoning the Lord and challenged Jezebel's prophets to a contest. They were to meet him on the top of Mt. Carmel. Then Jezebel's prophets would slaughter a bull, but not set fire to it, as required for an animal sacrifice. Elijah would do that same on another altar. Whichever god caused the bull to catch fire would then be proclaimed the true god. Jezebel's prophets beseeched their gods to ignite their bull, but nothing happened. When it was Elijah's turn, he soaked his bull in water, prayed, and "then the fire of the Lord fell and burned up the sacrifice" (1 Kings 18:38). Upon seeing this miracle, the people who were watching prostrated themselves and believed that Elijah's god was the true God. Elijah then commanded the people to kill Jezebel's prophets, which they did. When Jezebel learns of this, she declares Elijah an enemy and promises to kill him just as he killed her prophets. Then, Elijah fled to the wilderness, where he mourned Israel's devotion to Ba'al. Jezebel and Naboth's Vineyard Although Jezebel was one of King Ahab's many wives, 1 and 2 Kings make it apparent that she wielded a considerable amount of power. The earliest example of her influence occurs in 1 Kings 21, when her husband wanted a vineyard belonging to Naboth the Jezreelite. Naboth refused to give his land to the king because it had been in his family for generations. In response, Ahab became sullen and upset. When Jezebel noticed her husband's mood, she inquired after the cause and decided to get the vineyard for Ahab. She did so by writing letters in the king's name commanding the elders of Naboth's city to accuse Naboth of cursing both God and his King. The elders obliged and Naboth was convicted of treason, then stoned. Upon his death his property reverted to the king, so in the end Ahab got the vineyard he wanted. At God's command, the prophet Elijah then appeared before King Ahab and Jezebel, proclaiming that because of their actions, "This is what the Lord says: In the place where dogs licked up Naboth's blood, dogs will lick up your blood — yes, yours!" (1 Kings 21:17). He further prophesied that Ahab's male descendants will die, his dynasty will end, and that dogs will "devour Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel" (1 Kings 21:23). Jezebel's Death Elijah's prophesy at the end of the narrative of Naboth's vineyard comes true when Ahab dies in Samaria and his son, Ahaziah, dies within two years of ascending the throne. He is killed by Jehu, who emerges as another contender for the throne when the prophet Elisha declares him King. Here again, Jezebel's influence becomes apparent. Although Jehu has killed the king, he has to kill Jezebel in order to assume power. According to 2 Kings 9:30-34, Jezebel and Jehu meet soon after the death of her son Ahaziah. When she learns of his demise, she puts on makeup, does her hair, and looks out a palace window only to see Jehu enter the city. She calls to him and he responds by asking her servants if they are on his side. "Who is on my side? Who?" he asks, "Thrown her down!" (2 Kings 9:32). Jezebel's eunuchs then betray her by throwing her out the window. She dies when she hits the street and is trampled by horses. After taking a break to eat and drink, Jehu commands that she be buried "for she was a king's daughter" (2 Kings 9:34), but by the time his men go to bury her, dogs have eaten all but her skull, feet, and hands. "Jezebel" as a Cultural Symbol In modern times the name "Jezebel" is often associated with a wanton or evil woman. According to some scholars, she has received such a negative reputation not only because she was a foreign princess who worshiped foreign gods, but because she wielded so much power as a woman. There are many songs composed using the title "Jezebel," including those by	i don't know
What do you get if you multiply volts by amperes?	KVA to KW, How to Convert Watts to VA and kVA to kW Simplified -- Converting Volt-amps to Watts the easy way, VA to Watts, Amps to A, watts to kVA Custom design and manufacture of state-of-the-art power supplies, battery packs, battery chargers, AC Adapters, and power supplies for OEMs in a Hurry Basics of AC power calculatoin Since watts is volts times amps, what is VA? VA (or volt-amps) is also volts times amps, the concept however has been extended to AC power. For DC current VA = Watts (DC current). In AC if the volts and amps are in phase (for example a resistive load) then the equation is also VA=Watts (resistive load) where V is the RMS voltage and A the RMS amperage. In AC, the volts and amps are not always in phase (meaning that the peak of the voltage curve is does not happen at the peak of the current curve). Think of pushing a swing. The greatest force is applied when the swing stops at the peak, but the greatest velocity is at the bottom of the arc. When you have reactive circuit elements the current can't keep up with the voltage, but lags behind. So in AC, if the volts and amps are not precisely in phase you have to calculate the watts by multiplying the volts times the amps at each moment in time and take the average over time, i.e. the integral of VA dt over a full cycle. The ratio between the VA (i.e. rms volts time rms amps) and Watts is called the power factor PF. VA·PF = Watts (any load, including inductive loads) In other words, volt-amps x power factor = watts. Similarly, KVAPF = KW, Or kilovolt-amps times power factor equals kilowatts. When you want to know how much the electricity is costing you, you use watts. When you are specifying equipment loads, fuses, and wiring sizes you use the VA, or the rms voltage and rms amperage. This is because VA considers the peak of both current and voltage, without taking into account if they happen at the same time or not. Finding the Power Factor How do you find the power factor? This isnt easy. The idea is that you multiply the amps times the volts for every increment of time and take the sum and average. You then divide this by the power you would have calculated if the amps and volts are exactly in phase. Since the voltage and current can be out of phase (which is the whole point of power factor) the power factor can be anywhere between zero and one. For computer power supplies and other supplies that are power factor corrected the power factor is usually over 90%. For high power motors under heavy load the power factor can be as low as 35%. Industry standard rule-of-thumb is that you plan for a power factor of 60%, which somebody came up with as a kind of average conservative power factor. Converting VA to Amps How to convert VA to amps? Use the following formula: A = (Va * Pf)/V Where A stands for the RMS amps, VA stands for volt-amps, V stands for RMS volts and PF stands for the power factor. Converting VA to Volts How to convert VA to volts? Use the following formula: V=(Va*Pf)/A Where V stands for RMS volts, A stands for the RMS amps, VA stands for volt-amps, and PF stands for the power factor. What is KVA?	Watts
Which is the largest city within the Arctic Circle?	Difference Between Volts and Watts \| Difference Between Difference Between Volts and Watts • Categorized under Technology \| Difference Between Volts and Watts Volts vs Watts Volts is the unit of measurement for potential difference while watts is the unit of measurement for power . These two are used only in electric circuits to quantify the power of a power source or the electricity needs of a certain device. Voltage and wattage are related to each other because you can derive the value of one from the other, given that you have another variable; either current in amps or resistance in ohms. In order to get the wattage of something, you would need to multiply the voltage across its terminals and the current flowing through it. And since current and voltage are tied to each other based on the Ohms law, you can derive other formulas from it. Taking or calculating voltage values is a lot easier compared to wattage as it is more straightforward. In order to get a watt reading, you would need to get both the current and voltage. This is complicated further by something called power factor which is due to the existence of reactive components in the circuit such as capacitors and inductors. The power factor relates apparent power to real power because the reactive components can store electric charge. A higher power factor means a more efficient circuit compared to a low power factor. This complexity also comes with benefits as power provides us with a more realistic quantification. If you know how many watts a device consumes, you can easily compute how much money it costs to run the device every hour. Most electrical devices do not show how many watts it provides. The values listed on most electrical devices are the voltage in volts and the current in amps . You can compute the wattage from those. Wattage is often seen in devices that have motors like air conditioning units or refrigerators. If you are reading how many volts, you are only getting one aspect of the power source. Summary: 1.Volts is the unit of measurement for potential difference while Watts is a unit of measurement for power 2.You can get wattage by multiplying the voltage with the maximum current the power source can deliver 3.It is more difficult to get a watt reading than a voltage reading 4.Volts only describes a portion of the power source while Watts can give you a more realistic measurement 5.Power supplies and batteries often show how many volts it provides but not how many watts Related Posts	i don't know
Lake Eyre is the lowest point of which country?	Lowest Land Points Below Sea Level Map \| Depression Elevations By David K. Lynch, Thule Scientific Each pushpin on the map above marks the lowest point in one of Earth's ten structural depressions with the lowest land elevations. Use the controls in the upper left corner of the map to zoom in for a closer look. You can change from satellite images to maps with the controls in the upper right corner. Thanks to Google for letting us use their services to make this fun map and to Brad Cole for creating it! Introduction: Dozens of land areas of the Earth sit below current sea level. The ten with the lowest elevations are listed below, along with a Google Map showing their locations. The lowest land area is the shoreline of the Dead Sea Depression and the largest below-sea-level depression by surface area is the Caspian Depression. A total of 33 countries have land below sea level. What Causes Most Below-Sea-Level Depressions? Most major depressions are associated with tectonic plate boundaries. They form when converging plates deform or when spreading centers open. A few are volcanic in origin. Most of these depressions are in the northern hemisphere for a good reason: this is where most of the land is and where most of the plate boundaries occur. Many are found in the vicinity of where the African, Arabian and Eurasian plates meet. Most are found in hot desert regions of the planet where high evaporation rates prevent them from filling with water. A few are found in temperature climes. Many well-populated places in the world are below sea level. About a third of the Netherlands including Schiphol Airport is below sea level. So too are the Jordan River and parts of many coastal cities including New Orleans and Bangkok. Other regions below sea level are the Enriquillo-Cul de Sac Depression (Hispaniola), Chott Melrhir Depression (Algeria), Sebkhet Shunayn and Sabkhat Ghuzayyil (Libya), Shatt al Gharsah (Tunisia), Lammefjord (Denmark), Sebkha Tah (Morocco), Hachiro-gata (Japan), Sariqarnish Kuli (Uzbekistan), The Fens (UK) and Lake Eyre, Australia. Of the two hundred and fifty five recognized countries or protectorates in the world, 33 have land below sea level . Most of these are only a few meters down. Some below-sea-level depressions are dry, most others have salt lakes. The lakes are undrained, which means water flows in but does not flow out. Since water cannot flow up hill, the lakes cannot empty into the sea like most do and so they accumulate salt as their waters evaporate. Where does the salt originate? Some of it comes from ancient sea floor salt deposits that have been uplifted then weather and release the salt which reaches the depressions via rivers. Many other rocks weather to yield sodium and chlorine ions that are carried to the lake by rivers. The Sea of Galilee is below sea Level but is a freshwater lake because it drains into the Dead Sea through the Jordan River. Owing to variations in rainfall, evaporation rates, and human water use, most of the lake levels fluctuate from year to year. Some have come and gone in historic times. The present Salton Sea was produced by a canal construction accident in 1905, though the lake has come and gone naturally many times in the last thousand years. The lowest exposed land on Earth is at the Dead Sea shore, at -413 meters. The deepest lake bottom in a below-sea-level depression also belongs to the Dead Sea at -750 meters. Lake Baikal in Russia is at an elevation of 447 meters, but with a maximum depth of 1637 meters, its bottom lies at -1190 meters. The Bentley Subglacial Trench in Antarctica reaches 2555 meters below sea level. It is the lowest point on Earth that is not covered by ocean, although it is covered by ice. The trench is huge, roughly the size of Mexico. The deepest point on the ocean floors is -10,916 meters in the Mariana Trench. Trenches are the upper most parts of subduction zones and there are dozens of trench locations that are more than 5000 meters below sea level. Strictly speaking, most of the surface of the Earth is below sea level because oceans cover 71 % of the planet. But sea level varies and during the Great Ice Age 18,000 years ago, sea level was 130 meters lower. Today, large areas are under water that during the Great Ice Age were well above sea level. It is also likely that long ago and far into the future, plate tectonics will produce higher mountains and deeper trenches and depressions than we have today. The Dead Sea is located in a deep valley at the transform boundary between the African and Arabia Plates (shown as a black line on the map above). At over 400 meters below sea level, it is the land area with the lowest elevation. The motions of the African and Arabian Plates, combined with the motion of shear-zone faulting has resulted in the formation of the deep Dead Sea Depression. Image by the United States Geological Survey. Most land that is below sea level is located in an area with a very dry climate. The dry climate offers very little rain and very high evaporation. This excess of evaporation over precipitation prevents the depression from filling with water. The photo above shows salt deposits of the Dead Sea - a product of high evaporation rate. Image copyright by iStockPhoto and Steven Allan. New Orleans is a city below sea level. It is protected from flooding by seawalls and an extensive groundwater pumping system. NASA Landsat image composed by Angela King. The Ten Depressions with the Lowest Dry Land 1) Dead Sea Depression - The lowest point on Earth Elevation: 413 meters below sea level (approximate and fluctuating) Country: Israel, Jordan, Syria Latitude/Longitude: 31°32′N 35°29′E The Dead Sea Depression is an extensive area of land that is below sea level. It contains the Dead Sea, the Sea of Galilee, a portion of the Jordan River, large areas of cultivated land and many communities. The shoreline of the Dead Sea is the lowest dry land on Earth. It is approximately 413 meters below sea level. However, this elevation is constantly changing. The surface of the Dead Sea rises and falls as precipitation, evaporation, irrigation, salt production and other natural and human activities consume the water of the Jordan River, the Dead Sea and its tributaries. 2) Lake Assal (in the Afar Depression) Elevation: 155 meters below sea level (approximate and fluctuating) Country: Djibouti Latitude/Longitude: 11°39′N 42°25′E The shoreline of Lake Assal is the lowest point in Africa and the second lowest location on Earth. Lake Assal is located in the Afar Depression which is formed at a triple junction of tectonic plates (Indian, African and Arabian). The relative motion of these plates produces a divergence that results in a lowering of Earth's surface. Lake Assal's water emerges from springs which are believed to be fed by groundwater flow from the Gulf of Tadjoura. This water evaporates rapidly because the climate there is one of the hottest and driest on Earth. This high evaporation rate makes Lake Assal the saltiest body of water on Earth. 3) Turfan Depression	Australia
Chicory Tip’s release Son of My Father was the first UK No.1 to feature which instrument?	The Lowest Points On Each Of The World's Continents - WorldAtlas.com Geography The Lowest Points On Each Of The World's Continents The Dead Sea, Caspian Sea, and Death Valley are the lowest points in Asia, Europe, and North America, respectively. The salt-brimmed coast of the Dead Sea, earth's lowest exposed point. Sea level is the sea’s surface level at around the point where it meets the land halfway between the mean high and low tides. Sea level is not constant and is subject to fluctuations due to changing climatic conditions and in different localities. The term mean sea level was coined to refer to the measure of the average height of the sea’s surface over a long period. The measurement is used as the basis to determine elevations and depths of Earth’s geographical surfaces. The lowest points of each of the world’s continents are discussed below. The Lowest Points Of Each Of The World's Continents Dead Sea The continent of Asia has the absolute lowest point on earth , namely the Dead Sea at an elevation of -1,401 feet below sea level. Its surface and coastline border Israel to its west and Jordan to its east. The Dead Sea is a landlocked salt lake and is fed primarily by the Jordan River . The Dead Sea has an unusual level of salinity which gives it natural buoyancy. People easily float on the surface of the Dead Sea. The lake has deposits of asphalt which float upon its surface. It gained its name because it is hard for marine plants and animals to survive in such saline conditions. The water from the Dead Sea is believed to have cosmetic and health benefits. Miles of desert surround the Dead Sea with warm, dry, and sunny climatic conditions. Lake Assal Lake Assal in Djibouti, Africa is the second lowest point on Earth with an elevation of -509 feet. Lake Assal has the greatest depth in the African continent. It is a highly saline lake and serves an economic purpose for the inhabitants through the selling of its salt deposits. The region around Lake Assal is characterized by extremely high temperatures of more than 50 Degrees Celsius during the day. These temperatures cause high levels of evaporation in the Lake such that the salt deposits form a single dense carpet. Lake Assal is located in the middle of a desert characterized by scarcity of vegetation except for a few shrubs and thorny bushes. The lake does not support other marine life besides abundant bacteria. It is a crater and volcanic lake. Lake Assal is considered to be the saltiest lake in the world. Laguna del Carbón The third lowest point in the world is found in Argentina, South America namely the Laguna del Carbón at an elevation of -344 feet. It is an endorheic salt water lake and has the lowest point in the Southern and Western Hemispheres. The lake region has plenty of salt marshes. It is located around 54 kilometers from the city of Puerto San Julian. Fossils have been found around the area making the lake an important archaeological zone. There is little tourist activity on the lake. Death Valley Death Valley is the fourth lowest point in the world at an elevation of -282 feet at its Badwater Basin. It is a desert valley found in Eastern California, the US in North America. Death Valley is scorching and recorded the highest temperature of 134 Degrees Fahrenheit in 1913. Death Valley is also unusually dry and records small amounts of rainfall annually. Notably, there was no rain in death valley in 1929.The valley is home to abundant species of plants and animals, some of whom are only found in its national park. Fossils have been discovered in the valley leading archaeologists to believe that there was human life in ancient age. Other Continental Minimum Elevation Extremes Other low points in the world’s continents and their elevations include the Deep Lake of the Vestfold Hills found in Antarctica at an elevation of -160 feet, the Caspian Sea in Europe at an elevation of -92 feet, and Lake Eyre in Australia at an elevation of -49 feet. The world similarly has geographical high points. The highest points on these continents are Mt. Everest in Asia at 29,035 feet, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa at 19,563 feet, Aconcagua in South America at 22,831 feet, Mt. McKinley in North America at 20,320 feet, and the Vinson Massif in Antarctica at 16,066 feet. The lowest and highest points provide opportunities for adventure and scientific research prompting people to climb the highest points, and travel and sail to the lowest geographical points across the world. The Lowest Points Of The World's Continents Rank	i don't know

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