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In which city are the headquarters of the European	World’s Most Popular Business Cities World’s Most Popular Business Cities SHARES » more from Asia-Pacific News World's Most Popular Business Cities A shift in economic growth from the West to emerging markets over the past decade has led to the emergence of new business hubs across the world. Regions such as Asia, the Middle East and South America have seen rapid economic growth, coupled with improved infrastructure, and in some cases, lighter regulation. Multinational organizations have rushed to capitalize on this, increasing the number of people they hire in these countries and setting up new offices in emerging markets. For example, banks including HSBC and Barclays have said they will increase hiring in Asia, while cutting staff in developed markets. GE, for example, has moved the headquarters of its X-ray business to Beijing from the U.S. The emergence of these new business centers has sometimes come at the expense of the traditional centers such as New York, Frankfurt and London. But it hasn't always been smooth. Dubai, which experienced huge investments in real estate over the past decade, faced a property bust in 2009. We decided to look at the top business hubs in the world based on research by global real estate firm CB Richard Ellis, which surveyed 300 of the world's largest companies, including Fortune 500 firms and other non-listed entities, such as law firms. The ranking is based on what percentage of these companies have offices in these cities. We've matched that with the cost of renting office space in the central business districts (CBDs) of these hubs from real estate firm Cushman & Wakefield. Office rent cost is measured in square meter per year. The results might surprise you with some of the largest North American cities absent. So which cities are the world's most popular business hubs? Click ahead to find out. By: Rajeshni Naidu-Ghelani (Posted: August 16, 2011)	Frankfurt
Who wrote the novels 'Go Tell It On The Mountain' and 'Giovanni's Room'?	London is pick of Europe for world’s biggest companies for headquarters \| London Evening Standard London is pick of Europe for world’s biggest companies for headquarters Friday 4 April 2014 10:17 BST Click to follow The Evening Standard The dominance of London’s position as the business capital of Europe was laid bare today, with new data showing 40% of the globe’s biggest companies choose to base themselves here rather than elsewhere in the continent. Two in five of the 250 largest companies in the world with a main or European headquarters have it in London, according to a study by Deloitte seen exclusively by the London Evening Standard. That is five times as many as pick Paris, the second-most popular city in Europe. The gap grows even larger when looking at just the non-European companies, with 60% of them having their European headquarters in London. The study shows that London also comes out the winner as a destination for top talent; nearly half of all high-skilled workers in the top five European business cities are employed here. Paris again comes second, with 19%, followed by Berlin (13.7%), Milan (11%) and Frankfurt (9.8%). London’s dominance in attracting Europe’s top talent contrasts with New York. While the Big Apple has the largest proportion of high-skilled workers from across North America’s top five cities, it only accounts for just under a third of the total. Related stories Angus Knowles-Cutler, a senior partner at Deloitte, said the “sheer gap between [London] and any continental rivals really surprised us. It is hard to imagine the US economy without New York at its heart, but the facts here show that London is even more vital to European business and commerce.” However, the study also sparked a warning from figures in the City over the prospect of an in/out EU referendum. “One of the main reasons companies come to London is because the city is a springboard to Europe — the biggest single market in the world,” said Baroness Jo Valentine, chief executive of business group London First. “If we are left outside of the EU after a referendum we would no longer be able to offer that prize to businesses and London would suffer because of it.” Deloitte also reiterated its call for the Government to overhaul visa rules with an “intelligent” system that will allow London to keep attracting high-skilled workers to the capital. Other measures the firm is calling for include the appointment of a “chief talent officer”, responsible for London’s approach to attracting workers, and more work to tackle the problem of the increased cost of housing. London Mayor Boris Johnson promised to “consider this report’s recommendations carefully”, saying: “Long-term planning is essential to maintain and strengthen the city’s position as the greatest city in the world.”	i don't know
Which cyclist won the first ever Tour de France in 1903?	The Birth of the Tour de France, 110 Years Ago - History in the Headlines The Birth of the Tour de France, 110 Years Ago June 28, 2013 By Christopher Klein 2012 Tour de France The Birth of the Tour de France, 110 Years Ago Author The Birth of the Tour de France, 110 Years Ago URL Google Launched as a newspaper publicity stunt in 1903, the Tour de France instantly proved itself an epic test of endurance, with competitors in the first race pedaling through the night on grueling stages that lasted upwards of 24 hours. Cheating was also endemic from the very start. As the Tour de France embarks on its 100th edition—world wars canceled 11 races—take a look back at the birth of the world’s most famous cycling race. On July 1, 1903, 60 men mounted their bicycles outside the Café au Reveil Matin in the Parisian suburb of Montgeron. The five-dozen riders were mostly French, with just a sprinkle of Belgians, Swiss, Germans and Italians. A third were professionals sponsored by bicycle manufacturers, the others simply devotees of the sport. All 60 wheelmen, however, were united by the challenge of embarking on an unprecedented test of endurance—not to mention the 20,000 francs in prize money—in the inaugural Tour de France. At 3:16 p.m., the cyclists turned the pedals of their bicycles and raced into the unknown. Nothing like the Tour de France had ever been attempted before. Journalist Geo Lefevre had dreamt up the fanciful race as a stunt to boost the circulation of his struggling daily sports newspaper, L’Auto. Henri Desgrange, the director-editor of L’Auto and a former champion cyclist himself, loved the idea of turning France into one giant velodrome. They developed a 1,500-mile clockwise loop of the country running from Paris to Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse, Bordeaux and Nantes before returning to the French capital. There were no Alpine climbs and only six stages—as opposed to the 21 stages in the 2013 Tour— but the distances covered in each of them were monstrous, an average of 250 miles. (No single stage in the 2013 Tour tops 150 miles.) Between one and three rest days were scheduled between stages for recovery. The inaugural Tour de France, July 1903. The first stage of the epic race was particularly dastardly. The route from Paris to Lyon stretched nearly 300 miles. No doubt several of the riders who wheeled away from Paris worried not about winning the race—but surviving it. Unlike today’s riders, the cyclists in 1903 rode over unpaved roads without helmets. They rode as individuals, not team members. Riders could receive no help. They could not glide in the slipstream of fellow riders or vehicles of any kind. They rode without support cars. Cyclists were responsible for making their own repairs. They even rode with spare tires and tubes wrapped around their torsos in case they developed flats. And unlike modern-day riders, the cyclists in the 1903 Tour de France, forced to cover enormous swathes of land, spent much of the race riding through the night with moonlight the only guide and stars the only spectators. During the early morning hours of the first stage, race officials came across many competitors “riding like sleepwalkers.” Hour after hour through the night, riders abandoned the race. One of the favorites, Hippolyte Aucouturier, quit after developing stomach cramps, perhaps from the swigs of red wine he took as an early 1900s version of a performance enhancer. Twenty-three riders abandoned the first stage of the race, but the one man who barreled through the night faster than anyone else was another pre-race favorite, 32-year-old professional Maurice Garin. The mustachioed French national worked as a chimney sweep as a teenager before becoming one of France’s leading cyclists. Caked in mud, the diminutive Garin crossed the finish line in Lyon a little more than 17 hours after the start outside Paris. In spite of the race’s length, he won by only one minute. “The Little Chimney Sweep” built his lead as the race progressed. By the fifth stage, Garin had a two-hour advantage. When his nearest competitor suffered two flat tires and fell asleep while resting on the side of the road, Garin captured the stage and the Tour was all but won. The sixth and final stage, the race’s longest, began in Nantes at 9 p.m. on July 18, so that spectators could watch the riders arrive in Paris late the following afternoon. Garin strapped on a green armband to signify his position as race leader. (The famed yellow jersey worn by the race leader was not introduced until 1919.) A crowd of 20,000 in the Parc des Princes velodrome cheered as Garin won the stage and the first Tour de France. He bested butcher trainee Lucien Pothier by nearly three hours in what remains the greatest winning margin in the Tour’s history. Garin had spent more than 95 hours in the saddle and averaged 15 miles per hour. In all, 21 of the 60 riders completed the Tour, with the last-place rider more than 64 hours behind Garin. For Desgrange, the race was an unqualified success. Newspaper circulation soared six-fold during the race. However, a chronic problem that would perpetually plague the Tour de France was already present in the inaugural race—cheating. The rule breaking started in the very first stage when Jean Fischer illegally used a car to pace him. Another rider was disqualified in a subsequent stage for riding in a car’s slipstream. That paled in comparison, however, to the nefarious activity the following year in the 1904 Tour de France. As Garin and a fellow rider pedaled through St. Etienne, fans of hometown rider Antoine Faure formed a human blockade and beat the men until Lefevre arrived and fired a pistol to break up the melee. Later in the race, fans protesting the disqualification of a local rider placed tacks and broken glass on the course. Riders acted little better. They hitched rides in cars during the dark and illegally took help from outsiders. Garin himself was accused of illegally obtaining food during a portion of one stage. The race was so plagued by scandal that four months later Desgrange disqualified Garin and the three other top finishers. It, of course, wouldn’t be the last time a Tour winner was stripped of his title. Tags	Maurice Garin
Which former MI5 secret service agent wrote the controversial book 'Spycatcher'?	Encompass Graphics Ltd Tour de France: 1903 Infographic Tour de France Legend Infographic Infographic about the first ever Tour de France staged in 1903. The graphs show the breakdown of starting and finishing riders by nationality. The map provides information on the six epic stages of the race. This is supported by a small graphic showing the General Classification and the time gaps between the top 3 riders. Compared to modern Grand Tours the first tour had relatively few stages, but each was much longer than those raced today. The cyclists did not have to compete in all six stages, although this was necessary to qualify for the general classification. The pre-race favourite, Maurice Garin, won the first stage, and retained the lead throughout. He also won the last two stages, and had a margin of almost three hours over the next cyclist. The circulation of L’Auto increased more than sixfold during and after the race, so the race was considered successful enough to be rerun in 1904, by which time Le Vélo had been forced out of business.	i don't know
For his role in which 1987 film did Michael Douglas win an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of 'Gordon Gecko'?	Wall Street (1987) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error A young and impatient stockbroker is willing to do anything to get to the top, including trading on illegal inside information taken through a ruthless and greedy corporate raider who takes the youth under his wing. Director: From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC a list of 38 titles created 21 Apr 2013 a list of 44 titles created 19 Jul 2013 a list of 25 titles created 04 May 2014 a list of 24 titles created 25 Aug 2015 a list of 37 titles created 07 Sep 2015 Search for " Wall Street " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Won 1 Oscar. Another 9 wins & 4 nominations. See more awards » Videos Now out of prison but still disgraced by his peers, Gordon Gekko works his future son-in-law, an idealistic stock broker, when he sees an opportunity to take down a Wall Street enemy and rebuild his empire. Director: Oliver Stone The biography of Ron Kovic. Paralyzed in the Vietnam war, he becomes an anti-war and pro-human rights political activist after feeling betrayed by the country he fought for. Director: Oliver Stone A New Orleans DA discovers there's more to the Kennedy assassination than the official story. Director: Oliver Stone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 7.2/10 X The story of the famous and influential 1960s rock band The Doors and its lead singer and composer, Jim Morrison , from his days as a UCLA film student in Los Angeles, to his untimely death in Paris, France at age 27 in 1971. Director: Oliver Stone A married couple try everything to get each other to leave the house in a vicious divorce battle. Director: Danny DeVito A borderline personality disordered defense worker frustrated with the various flaws he sees in society, begins to psychotically and violently lash out against them. Director: Joel Schumacher A biographical story of former U.S. president Richard Milhous Nixon, from his days as a young boy to his eventual presidency which ended in shame. Director: Oliver Stone A married man's one-night stand comes back to haunt him when that lover begins to stalk him and his family. Director: Adrian Lyne A chronicle of the life and presidency of George W. Bush . Director: Oliver Stone Two victims of traumatized childhoods become lovers and psychopathic serial murderers irresponsibly glorified by the mass media. Director: Oliver Stone A young recruit in Vietnam faces a moral crisis when confronted with the horrors of war and the duality of man. Director: Oliver Stone A rude, contemptuous talk show host becomes overwhelmed by the hatred that surrounds his program just before it goes national. Director: Oliver Stone Edit Storyline Bud Fox is a Wall Street stockbroker in early 1980's New York with a strong desire to get to the top. Working for his firm during the day, he spends his spare time working an on angle with the high-powered, extremely successful (but ruthless and greedy) broker Gordon Gekko. Fox finally meets with Gekko, who takes the youth under his wing and explains his philosophy that "Greed is Good". Taking the advice and working closely with Gekko, Fox soon finds himself swept into a world of "yuppies", shady business deals, the "good life", fast money, and fast women; something which is at odds with his family including his estranged father and the blue-collared way Fox was brought up. Written by Murray Chapman <[email protected]> Every dream has a price. Genres: 11 December 1987 (USA) See more » Also Known As: Did You Know? Trivia Michael Douglas had just come off heroic roles like the one in Romancing the Stone (1984) and was looking for something dark and edgy. See more » Goofs When Gekko's 3-year old son Rudy tosses the raspberry at Gekko's lawyer, it flies downward onto the patio table. In the next shot it hits Gekko's lawyer in the face. See more » Quotes Businesswoman #1: [a crowd of businessmen stampede into an elevator] Excuse me. Businessman #1: Easy! there are 2 roads, but only one bears Stone's intent 20 June 2002 \| by scrummy01 (Phoenix, Arizona) – See all my reviews You can watch Wall Street and take it for face value. If you want to do that, all you have to do is watch Michael Douglas, probably the most underrated actor of the last 30 years, give his greed speech. You will be amazed at this man's talent for delivering a performance. You can watch Daryl Hannah give a flawless interpretation of the high priced trophy girlfriend/wife. And you can just feel the disappointment that your father showed you the first time you let him down when you watch Martin and Charlie Sheen deliver the hospital scene. The story is a classic. It is purely timeless. The setting is as grand as the money that they are playing with. The supporting cast is excellent (realtor, boss, traders, etc.) This film is everything a casual movie fan needs to sit for 2 hours and be entertained. However, if you want to look deeper into the film you will appreciate the true intent of Mr. Stone's effort. Don't get too caught up in the façade of tall buildings, trading stock and corporate tycoons. Wall Street is not necessarily all that it seems. Rather, it is consistent with Mr. Stone's clever work in the past. It seems that to a creative genius like Stone, it is not enough to make the typical story of the kid hits it big and suddenly crashes back to earth (see secret of my success, cocktail, top gun, etc.) The intent of the picture may be completely different from the actual medium chosen. Stone drops clues throughout the film. It's the dawn of a new age, 1987. The journey from the old economy i.e. the airline industry and paper industry to the age of information. The sun is rising in the east as shown in the beach scene. A quote from Stone's character Gekko `damn I wish you could see this' is the perfect hint of what Mr. Stone is trying to say. Oliver Stone sees the future, it is a future economy based on information being the most powerful resource in the world. The eastern philosophy, the greed, the self-destruction of smoking and working out. All these things brought Gekko down. Gekko was brought down by what? A man with a micro tape recorder. A man armed with the medium of the new economy, electronic media. He was nailed by a person whom he trained to `get information' Well, he got the information and Gekko was brought down by the fact that he was short sighted to it. Great movie and excellent foresight by Mr. Stone as always. I suggest you watch it again. But, this time I suggest that you look for the real intent of the film. In my opinion, this is quite simply one of the best films of all time. Not only because of its timeliness, amazing foresight (see stock market crash in October 87, and the rise of silicon valley and Microsoft in late 80's) and one of the best performances by an actor period in Michael Douglas' portrayal of Gordon Gekko. 120 of 159 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Wall Street
UNITA was the name of the guerrilla army that fought for independence for which African country?	Oscars: Every single best actor winner - CNN.com Oscars: Every single best actor winner By Breeanna Hare, CNN Updated 3:17 PM ET, Thu February 20, 2014 Chat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds. Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Leonardo DiCaprio accepts the best actor award at the 88th annual Academy Awards on February 28, 2016. DiCaprio won for his role in "The Revenant." Here are the actors whose footsteps he has followed in: Hide Caption 1 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Emil Jannings (1929) – The first best actor Oscar went to Emil Jannings at the academy's inaugural ceremony held in 1929. Jannings received the honors for two films: 1927's "The Way of All Flesh" and 1928's "The Last Command." Hide Caption 2 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Warner Baxter (1930) – Warner Baxter, right, earned the best actor Oscar for his role as the Cisco Kid in "In Old Arizona" (1929). Baxter appears here with best actress winner Mary Pickford at the April 1930 awards ceremony, which recognized films made between August 1, 1928, and July 31, 1929. Baxter loved the role so much he reprised it twice more, in "The Cisco Kid" (1931) and again in "The Return of the Cisco Kid" (1939). Hide Caption 3 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors George Arliss (1930) – George Arliss won the best actor Oscar for "Disraeli," apparently also beating himself since he was nominated for that film and "The Green Goddess." In the early years of the Oscar, a single nomination could recognize more than one role. However, for reasons not entirely clear, the actor won solely for "Disraeli." Perhaps it was a glitch on behalf of the academy, or perhaps voters truly preferred his portrayal as the famed British prime minister. The November 1930 awards ceremony recognized work from 1929 and 1930. Hide Caption 4 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Lionel Barrymore (1931) – Lionel Barrymore, here with "Min and Bill" best actress winner Marie Dressler, won the best actor Oscar for his work in "A Free Soul." Barrymore played an alcoholic lawyer whose daughter gets involved with a mobster he helped go free. Hide Caption 5 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Wallace Beery (1932) – The previous year's Oscar winner Lionel Barrymore, left, presents Wallace Beery, right, with the best actor Oscar for "The Champ." Beery tied that year with Fredric March in "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde." Hide Caption 6 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Fredric March (1932) – Fredric March, right, was honored the same year as Wallace Beery for "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde." Beery actually received one less vote than March, which it resulted in a tie winner according to academy rules of the day. Hide Caption 7 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Charles Laughton (1934) – British actor Charles Laughton won the best actor Oscar for the title role "The Private Life of Henry VIII" (1933), beating out Leslie Howard in "Berkeley Square" (1933) and Paul Muni in "I Am a Fugitive From a Chain Gang" (1932). The sixth awards ceremony was held in March 1934 and recognized movies released from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Hide Caption 8 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Clark Gable (1935) – Clark Gable's status as a Hollywood icon was cemented when the box-office star won the best actor Oscar for Frank Capra's "It Happened One Night" (1934). The screwball comedy was a massive hit with academy voters at the February 1935 ceremony, sweeping the five big categories -- best picture, best director (Capra), best adapted screenplay and best actress (Claudette Colbert). Hide Caption 9 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Victor McLaglen (1936) – Victor McLaglen, left, beat out two earlier Oscar winners to claim the best actor prize for "The Informer." He was up against Charles Laughton and Clark Gable, both nominated for their roles in best picture winner "Mutiny on the Bounty." McLaglen appears with best actress winner Bette Davis and filmmaker D.W. Griffith of "The Birth of a Nation" fame at the March 1936 ceremony. Hide Caption 10 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Paul Muni (1937) – After two earlier best actor nominations, Paul Muni finally won for the title role in "The Story of Louis Pasteur," the first of several biographical films he made at Warner Bros. Hide Caption 11 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Spencer Tracy (1938) – Spencer Tracy, left, with co-star Freddie Bartholomew, won his first best actor Oscar as a Portuguese fisherman in "Captains Courageous." He beat out Oscar-winning actors Fredric March in "A Star Is Born" and Paul Muni in "The Life of Emile Zola." It was Tracy's second nomination. Hide Caption 12 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Spencer Tracy (1939) – Spencer Tracy takes home his second best actor Oscar for "Boys Town." He appears here with Bette Davis, best actress for "Jezebel," at the ceremony held in 1939. Hide Caption 13 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Robert Donat (1940) – Robert Donat's Oscar win for "Goodbye, Mr. Chips" was definitely a surprise. Donat earned the honors for his title role as a schoolteacher, beating out some strong performances, including Clark Gable in "Gone With the Wind," James Stewart in "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington" and Laurence Olivier in "Wuthering Heights." Hide Caption 14 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors James Stewart (1941) – After losing the Oscar a year earlier for his iconic role in "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington," James Stewart received the award playing a reporter who falls for Katharine Hepburn in "The Philadelphia Story." Stewart and best actress winner Ginger Rogers celebrate their wins at the ceremony held in 1941. Hide Caption 15 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Gary Cooper (1942) – James Stewart, right, bestows pal Gary Cooper with the statuette for "Sergeant York." Cooper nabbed the win over Orson Welles, whose "Citizen Kane" also lost out on the best picture award but has become the epitome of a Hollywood classic. Hide Caption 16 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors James Cagney (1943) – Gary Cooper, right, congratulates James Cagney for his best actor win in "Yankee Doodle Dandy" at the Oscar ceremony held in 1943. Cooper, also a nominee for "The Pride of the Yankees," didn't seem to hold a grudge against Cagney. Hide Caption 17 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Paul Lukas (1944) – Character actor Paul Lukas faced stiff competition from stars Humphrey Bogart ("Casablanca") and Gary Cooper ("For Whom the Bell Tolls"), but he was able to take home the Oscar for "Watch on the Rhine." Lukas and best actress winner Jennifer Jones celebrate at the ceremony held in 1944. Hide Caption 18 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Bing Crosby (1945) – Bing Crosby, right, and co-star Barry Fitzgerald find a reason to celebrate after the 1945 awards ceremony. They won the best actor and best supporting actor awards, respectively, for "Going My Way." Hide Caption 19 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Ray Milland (1946) – Ray Milland had a prolific career for decades -- including a standout role in Alfred Hitchcock's "Dial M for Murder" -- but he received only one Oscar nomination. Luckily, he made it count, winning the best actor prize for his role as an alcoholic writer in "The Lost Weekend." Ingrid Bergman presents Milland with the prize at the 1946 ceremony. Hide Caption 20 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Fredric March (1947) – Fredric March, right, Dana Andrews, center, and Harold Russell struck a chord with postwar audiences as servicemen returning home in "The Best Years of Our Lives." March picked up his second Oscar for the role. Hide Caption 21 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Ronald Colman (1948) – Ronald Colman, far right, a star since the silent days, picked up the best actor Oscar as a jealous actor in "A Double Life." Coleman appears with the year's other winners at the 1948 ceremony -- from left, Darryl Zanuck, producer of best picture "Gentleman's Agreement," best actress Loretta Young, best supporting actor Edmund Gwenn and best supporting actress Celeste Holm. Hide Caption 22 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Laurence Olivier (1949) – Laurence Olivier's commitment to bringing Shakespeare's "Hamlet" to the screen paid off handsomely at the Oscars. Olivier walked away with the best actor Oscar in the title role, and "Hamlet" also won for best picture. Here Olivier appears with best actress winner Jane Wyman in 1949. Hide Caption 23 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Broderick Crawford (1950) – Broderick Crawford, second from left, pushed past Kirk Douglas, Gregory Peck, Richard Todd and John Wayne to win the best actor Oscar with "All the King's Men." Crawford appears with best supporting actress winner Mercedes McCambridge, far left, best actress winner Olivia de Havilland and best supporting actor winner Dean Jagger at the 1950 ceremony. Hide Caption 24 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors José Ferrer (1951) – Puerto Rican-born José Ferrer became the first Hispanic to win an Oscar when he was named best actor for "Cyrano de Bergerac." Here he appears with Gloria Swanson, left, and Judy Holliday (best actress for "Born Yesterday") in 1951. Hide Caption 25 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Humphrey Bogart (1952) – Claire Trevor can't resist giving Humphrey Bogart a kiss backstage at the 1952 Oscars ceremony after he won the best actor award for "The African Queen." Bogart beat out Marlon Brando in "A Streetcar Named Desire," Fredric March in "Death of a Salesman" and Montgomery Clift in "A Place in the Sun." Hide Caption 26 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Gary Cooper (1953) – Gary Cooper won his second best actor award for the classic Western "High Noon" with Grace Kelly. Among Cooper's competitors were Kirk Douglas in "The Bad and the Beautiful," José Ferrer in "Moulin Rouge," Alec Guinness in "The Lavender Hill Mob" and Marlon Brando in "Viva Zapata!" Hide Caption 27 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors William Holden (1954) – William Holden celebrates his best actor win for "Stalag 17" with best supporting actress winner Donna Reed at the Oscar ceremony in 1954. It was the actor's second nomination; his first was for Billy Wilder's 1950 classic "Sunset Boulevard." Hide Caption 28 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Marlon Brando (1955) – Oscars host Bob Hope, right, might have tried, but there was no way Marlon Brando was parting with his best actor award at the 1955 ceremony. Brando had lost three years in a row before then, but the actor's luck finally changed with "On the Waterfront." Hide Caption 29 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Ernest Borgnine (1956) – Ernest Borgnine faced heavy competition for best actor, beating out James Dean ("East of Eden"), Frank Sinatra ("The Man With the Golden Arm"), James Cagney ("Love Me or Leave Me") and Spencer Tracy ("Bad Day at Black Rock"). Backstage at the 1956 ceremony, Borgnine holds the Oscar for his portrayal of a lonely butcher in "Marty." Hide Caption 30 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Yul Brynner (1957) – Yul Brynner repeated his stage success as the King of Siam, winning the best actor Oscar for "The King and I." He's pictured at the 1957 ceremony. Hide Caption 31 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Alec Guinness (1958) – British actor Alec Guinness will always be known to "Star Wars" fans as Obi-Wan Kenobi, but he had an illustrious career on stage and screen long before the George Lucas blockbuster. After losing an earlier Oscar nomination, he finally won the best actor award as a World War II British officer in "The Bridge on the River Kwai." Hide Caption 32 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors David Niven (1959) – David Niven, right, joins fellow Oscar winners Burl Ives and Susan Hayward at the 1959 ceremony after winning the best actor award for "Separate Tables." The actor fought off competition from Tony Curtis and Sidney Poitier, both up for "The Defiant Ones"; Paul Newman in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof"; and Spencer Tracy in "The Old Man and the Sea." Hide Caption 33 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Charlton Heston (1960) – Charlton Heston helped "Ben-Hur" to win a record 11 Academy Awards, shutting out Jack Lemmon, James Stewart, Paul Muni and Laurence Harvey as best actor. Heston appears with French actress Simone Signoret (best actress for "Room at the Top") at the 1960 ceremony. Hide Caption 34 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Burt Lancaster (1961) – Burt Lancaster was a winner two times over at the 1961 Oscar ceremony. He won the best actor prize for the title role in "Elmer Gantry," and he had glamorous Elizabeth Taylor, best actress winner for "Butterfield 8," by his side backstage. Hide Caption 35 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Maximilian Schell (1962) – Maximilian Schell won the best actor Oscar over his "Judgment at Nuremberg" co-star Spencer Tracy. Schell had previously portrayed the character of German lawyer Hans Rolfe in a television version of "Judgment." Hide Caption 36 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Gregory Peck (1963) – Gregory Peck's performance as lawyer Atticus Finch in the film of Harper Lee's novel, "To Kill a Mockingbird," was a standout to academy voters. He beat out some stiff competition for best actor: Peter O'Toole for "Lawrence of Arabia" and Burt Lancaster for "Birdman of Alcatraz." Here Peck and his wife, Veronique, attend an Oscar after-party in 1963. Hide Caption 37 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Sidney Poitier (1964) – Sidney Poitier became the first African-American to win the best actor Oscar -- for his work in "Lilies of the Field." Poitier had been nominated once before for "The Defiant Ones." Interestingly, Poitier was the only one of the four acting category winners present at the 1964 ceremony. Hide Caption 38 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Rex Harrison (1965) – Who didn't fall in love with "My Fair Lady"? The academy sure did. Rex Harrison took the best actor prize for his role as Henry Higgins at the 1965 ceremony, and the musical won best picture honors, among others. But Audrey Hepburn's performance has Eliza Doolittle wasn't even nominated -- the Oscar went to Julie Andrews for "Mary Poppins." Hide Caption 39 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Lee Marvin (1966) – Lee Marvin won the Oscar for his comic role in "Cat Ballou" over dramatic heavyweights such as Laurence Olivier in "Othello," Richard Burton in "The Spy Who Came in From the Cold," Rod Steiger in "The Pawnbroker" and Oskar Werner in "Ship of Fools." Here, Marvin appears with then-girlfriend Michelle Triola in 1966. Hide Caption 40 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Paul Scofield (1967) – Paul Scofield also was up against some heavyweight actors, particularly Richard Burton in "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?" But Scofield, here with Susannah York, won for his work as Thomas More in the period drama "A Man for All Seasons." Hide Caption 41 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Rod Steiger (1968) – Sidney Poitier may have been the star of the detective drama "In the Heat of the Night," but he was snubbed in the Oscars race. It wasn't that academy voters didn't love the movie though: "In the Heat of the Night" won best picture as well as best actor for Poitier's co-star, Rod Steiger, here holding his Oscar at the 1968 ceremony. Hide Caption 42 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Cliff Robertson (1969) – Cliff Robertson's portrayal of a mentally challenged man in the drama "Charly" was enough to bowl over competition such as Peter O'Toole and Alan Arkin. Hide Caption 43 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors John Wayne (1970) – The best actor category was fierce the year John Wayne won the gold for "True Grit." In only his second nomination, the Hollywood legend beat out newcomers Dustin Hoffman and Jon Voight in "Midnight Cowboy" as well as Richard Burton in "Anne of the Thousand Days" and Peter O'Toole in "Goodbye, Mr. Chips." Barbra Streisand congratulates Wayne at the 1970 ceremony. Hide Caption 44 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors George C. Scott (1971) – "Patton" features one of the most readily recognizable images in films -- that of George C. Scott's general standing in front of the American flag -- and it was as critically acclaimed as it was popular. But while "Patton" nabbed the best picture title and a best actor Oscar for Scott, the actor was having none of it. He refused to accept the prize, calling the politics surrounding the ceremony "demeaning" and likening the Oscars to a "two-hour meat parade." Hide Caption 45 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Gene Hackman (1972) – Everyone wanted in on "The French Connection," and star Gene Hackman was rewarded handsomely with the best actor award at the 1972 ceremony. Hide Caption 46 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Marlon Brando (1973) – An Oscar is an honor most stars would never refuse, but Marlon Brando did when the academy bestowed him with the best actor prize for "The Godfather" at the 1973 ceremony. Brando, who had won the award once before, said he was protesting the portrayal of Native Americans on TV and in film. Hide Caption 47 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Jack Lemmon (1974) – The academy loved to nominate Jack Lemmon, but it wasn't always so quick to give him the prize. The star's luck changed when "Save the Tiger" earned him a best actor Oscar. Hide Caption 48 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Art Carney (1975) – For Art Carney, there were two phrases that helped him secure the best actor Oscar for "Harry and Tonto." "Do it! You are old," words of wisdom that came from his agent. Hide Caption 49 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Jack Nicholson (1976) – After losing out four times as an Oscar nominee, Jack Nicholson triumphantly claimed his prize for "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest." Hide Caption 50 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Peter Finch (1977) – "Network's" Peter Finch faced some tough competition for the best actor award. He was up against Robert De Niro in "Taxi Driver" and Sylvester Stallone in best picture winner "Rocky" as well as his "Network" co-star, William Holden. Finch died two months before the March 1977 ceremony and became the first actor to win an Oscar posthumously. Hide Caption 51 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Richard Dreyfuss (1978) – John Travolta in "Saturday Night Fever" and Woody Allen in "Annie Hall" have become prime examples of characters in '70s films, but Richard Dreyfuss' performance as a struggling actor in "The Goodbye Girl" stood out the most to academy voters at the time. Here the actor accepts his prize at the 1978 ceremony. Hide Caption 52 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Jon Voight (1979) – Jon Voight had been nominated for a best actor Oscar once before for 1969's "Midnight Cowboy," but it was the Vietnam War drama "Coming Home" that finally earned him the honors. Hide Caption 53 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Dustin Hoffman (1980) – Like Jack Nicholson before him, Dustin Hoffman was forever the bridesmaid and never the bride. But after losing for "Midnight Cowboy," "The Graduate" and "Lenny," Hoffman got to accept the award at the 1980 ceremony, thanks to his work in best picture winner "Kramer vs. Kramer." Hide Caption 54 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Robert De Niro (1981) – Robert De Niro faced movie greats such as Peter O'Toole and Jack Lemmon in the best actor category. De Niro had already won the best supporting actor Oscar for "The Godfather: Part II," and academy voters couldn't help but hand him the best actor prize for "Raging Bull" -- especially since he gained nearly 60 pounds to play Jake LaMotta as an aging boxer. Hide Caption 55 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Henry Fonda (1982) – After being a movie legend for more than 40 years, Henry Fonda won his first competitive Oscar for "On Golden Pond." His co-star, Katharine Hepburn, also shined in the movie as his wife, picking up her fourth best actress prize. Hide Caption 56 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Ben Kingsley (1983) – Ben Kingsley's portrayal in "Gandhi" was the performance to beat in that year's best actor Oscar race, and neither Dustin Hoffman in "Tootsie" nor Paul Newman in "The Verdict" could compete. Hide Caption 57 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Robert Duvall (1984) – Robert Duvall won the best actor prize for his performance as a country singer in "Tender Mercies." Hide Caption 58 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors F. Murray Abraham (1985) – F. Murray Abraham's performance as Salieri in "Amadeus" rocked academy voters, who named him best actor. Hide Caption 59 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors William Hurt (1986) – "Out of Africa" dominated the Oscars at the 1986 ceremony, but William Hurt picked up the best actor award for his portrayal of a gay imprisoned man in "Kiss of the Spider Woman." Hide Caption 60 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Paul Newman (1987) – Paul Newman's performance in "The Color of Money" struck Oscar gold. It was the actor's first competitive Oscar win, but he wasn't there to accept it -- he'd joked that, after showing up and losing six other times, he might finally nab the prize if he stayed away. Hide Caption 61 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Michael Douglas (1988) – Gordon Gekko's creed of greed was very, very good to Michael Douglas. The star -- and son of another frequent Oscar nominee, Kirk Douglas -- earned his first Oscar nomination and first win for best actor for his role as the ruthless corporate raider in "Wall Street." Here Douglas appears with Marlee Matlin at the 1988 ceremony. Hide Caption 62 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Dustin Hoffman (1989) – Awards came pouring in for "Rain Man" with Dustin Hoffman, left, as an autistic savant and Tom Cruise as his younger brother. Hoffman picked up his second best actor Oscar and received congratulations from Cruise at the 1989 ceremony. Cruise wasn't even nominated, but he was probably just fine with starring in the best picture winner. Hide Caption 63 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Daniel Day-Lewis (1990) – Before Daniel Day-Lewis became so revered he could strike fear in the hearts of Oscar competitors, the British performer proved his mettle with the biopic "My Left Foot," earning his first best actor Oscar. It was no easy task: Day-Lewis was up against Morgan Freeman in "Driving Miss Daisy," Kenneth Branagh in "Henry V," Tom Cruise in "Born on the Fourth of July" and Robin Williams in "Dead Poets Society." Hide Caption 64 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Jeremy Irons (1991) – We suppose the academy couldn't justify giving Kevin Costner the best director, best picture and the best actor prize for "Dances With Wolves," so Jeremy Irons took home the statuette for best actor for his role as Claus von Bülow in "Reversal of Fortune." Hide Caption 65 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Anthony Hopkins (1992) – Anthony Hopkins absolutely killed as Hannibal Lecter in "The Silence of the Lambs," so it wasn't surprising that he secured the best actor Oscar for the role. Hide Caption 66 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Al Pacino (1993) – Before "Scent of a Woman," Al Pacino had been nominated for best actor four times and best supporting actor twice without winning. But the star's moment to accept the best actor Oscar finally came at the 1993 ceremony. Pacino may have won for "Scent of a Woman," but he also lost that year in the best supporting actor category for "Glengarry Glen Ross." Hide Caption 67 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Tom Hanks (1994) – Little did anyone know that when Tom Hanks won the best actor Oscar for the legal drama "Philadelphia" he'd be back at the Oscars very soon, and in a very different role. Hide Caption 68 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Tom Hanks (1995) – Tom Hanks proved his versatility when he won the best actor Oscar for the second year in a row. His prize this time was for his performance as the mentally challenged but indefatigable "Forrest Gump." Hide Caption 69 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Nicolas Cage (1996) – Nicolas Cage may now be the butt of Internet jokes -- surely you've seen him swing from a "Wrecking Ball" ? -- but he was the man to beat at the 1996 Oscar ceremony. Cage won the best actor prize for "Leaving Las Vegas," his first nomination and first win. Hide Caption 70 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Geoffrey Rush (1997) – Some actors languish as nominees for years before winning an Oscar, but Geoffrey Rush won the best actor prize on his first try with "Shine." Hide Caption 71 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Jack Nicholson (1998) – By now, everyone knew what a powerhouse Jack Nicholson was, but he reminded moviegoers again with "As Good as It Gets," picking up yet another best actor Oscar. Hide Caption 72 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Roberto Benigni (1999) – Italian actor Roberto Benigni was unknown to American audiences before "Life Is Beautiful," but he stole the show at the 1999 Oscars ceremony. The academy gave him the best actor Oscar for "Life Is Beautiful," which also won the prize for best foreign-language film. Hide Caption 73 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Kevin Spacey (2000) – "American Beauty" was a cynical look at American middle class life with a new century arriving. Star Kevin Spacey received the best actor award for his portrayal of a middle-aged man who lusts after his teenage daughter's friend. The film also won best picture, director (Sam Mendes) and original screenplay (Alan Ball). Hide Caption 74 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Russell Crowe (2001) – The academy fawned over Russell Crowe's "Gladiator," a sword and sandals epic that picked up honors for best picture, best costume design, best sound, best visual effects and best actor -- the first win for the Australian Crowe. Hide Caption 75 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Denzel Washington (2002) – Denzel Washington has a reputation as a nice guy in Hollywood, so his transformation into the monstrous detective Alonzo in "Training Day" was incredible to watch. After already winning a best supporting actor statuette for "Glory," Washington took home the best actor award for "Training Day," making him the first African-American to win both. Hide Caption 76 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Adrien Brody (2003) – Adrien Brody appeared so thrilled when he won best actor award for "The Pianist" he even got Oscar presenter Halle Berry caught up in the moment with a passionate kiss at the 2003 ceremony. "I bet they didn't tell you that was in the gift bag," he joked when he finished. It was his first nomination and win. Hide Caption 77 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Sean Penn (2004) – The Oscar race for best actor was a tough one when Sean Penn faced off with Jude Law for "Cold Mountain" and Bill Murray for "Lost in Translation," among others. In the end, it was Penn's work in "Mystic River" that earned him his first Academy Award. Hide Caption 78 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Jamie Foxx (2005) – Before "Ray," Jamie Foxx was known primarily as a comedian -- the kind who would star in a popcorn flick like "Booty Call." But after his portrayal of singer Ray Charles in a musical biography, people realized he had been underestimated as an actor. The academy started paying attention, too, and gave Foxx two nominations for the 2005 ceremony: one for best actor for "Ray" and another for best supporting actor for "Collateral." He didn't win in the best supporting category, but we bet he's been able to live with that loss. Hide Caption 79 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Philip Seymour Hoffman (2006) – Philip Seymour Hoffman 's portrayal of writer Truman Capote in "Capote" was the kind of rock-solid immersion audiences had come to expect from the actor. He got his due with the best actor award -- his only Oscar. Hide Caption 80 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Forest Whitaker (2007) – Until "The Last King of Scotland," Forest Whitaker had been completely overlooked by the academy. But after he turned in a masterful portrayal of Ugandan dictator Idi Amin, academy voters handed him the Oscar. Hide Caption 81 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Daniel Day-Lewis (2008) – If Daniel Day-Lewis is in the running, chances are there will be an award for him. The actor won his second best actor Oscar for "There Will Be Blood." He receives the award from Helen Mirren at the 2008 ceremony. Hide Caption 82 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Sean Penn (2009) – Sean Penn, here with best actress Kate Winslet, left, and best supporting actress Penelope Cruz, gave the performance of a lifetime as openly gay politician and activist Harvey Milk in "Milk." The academy rewarded Penn with his second best actor Oscar at the 2009 ceremony. Hide Caption 83 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Jeff Bridges (2010) – Jeff Bridges was understandably ecstatic when he won the best actor Oscar for "Crazy Heart." Bridges had been nominated four times before, and, with competition from George Clooney in "Up in the Air" and Jeremy Renner in "The Hurt Locker," his wasn't an obvious win. So when his name was called at the 2010 ceremony, Bridges relished the moment in his acceptance speech : "Thank you, mom and dad, for turning me on to such a groovy profession," he said. Hide Caption 84 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Colin Firth (2011) – Colin Firth's portrayal of King George VI's fight to overcome a speech impediment beat out Jesse Eisenberg ("The Social Network") and James Franco ("127 Hours"), among others, to win the best actor Oscar. Hide Caption 85 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Jean Dujardin (2012) – "The Artist," a silent, black-and-white movie, was a celebration of old-school film. Its star, French actor Jean Dujardin, seemed to have a virtual lock on the best actor Oscar, even though he was competing against the likes of George Clooney and Brad Pitt. When awards night arrived in 2012, Dujardin walked away with the prize. Hide Caption 86 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Daniel Day-Lewis (2013) – Once again, the Oscar race for best actor was jam-packed with amazing performances, from Bradley Cooper in "Silver Linings Playbook" to Denzel Washington in "Flight." But Daniel Day-Lewis completely transformed himself into the 16th U.S. president for Steven Spielberg's "Lincoln," and he walked away with the honors at the 2013 ceremony, becoming the first three-time best actor winner. Hide Caption 87 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Matthew McConaughey (2014) – Matthew McConaughey won the Oscar in 2014 for his role in "Dallas Buyers Club" as Ron Woodroof, an HIV-positive man who smuggles drugs to AIDS patients. Co-star Jared Leto was named best supporting actor. Hide Caption 88 of 89 Photos: Oscar-winning best actors Eddie Redmayne wins best actor for his performance as Stephen Hawking in "The Theory of Everything" at the 87th Academy Awards in 2015. Hide Caption	i don't know
Which SAS soldier wrote the book 'Bravo Two Zero', an account of a failed mission during the (1st) Gulf War?	More About the Bravo Two Zero Patrol More About the Bravo Two Zero Patrol Gulf War Documentary The man who commanded the SAS in the Gulf War has spoken publicly for the first time about his unit's operations. In the BBC documentary series 'The Gulf War', Brigadier Andy Massey says that tactical mistakes were made in the deployment of the soldiers. Three men from the patrol known as Bravo Two Zero died in an operation to find Scud missiles behind Iraqi lines. For the SAS, the Bravo Two Zero patrol has always been seen with distinctly mixed feelings. On one hand, its most famous ever action is a tale of remarkable endurance and heroism, but it was also a clear failure, with only one of the eight-man patrol escaping death or capture. Privately, SAS soldiers have always acknowledged mistakes were made. Now, in an interview for a BBC documentary on the war, the commander of special forces in the Gulf, Brigadier Andy Massey, has publicly said there were errors, notably the failure to go behind enemy lines with vehicles. Without transport, the patrol was unable to move rapidly when they were discovered, having to try to escape from deep behind enemy lines on foot. In fact the men of Bravo Two Zero themselves chose not to use vehicles, while other patrols with the same task -finding Scud missiles - made what proved to be the right decision and took Land Rovers. Ironically it is the least successful patrol that has become a legend. Daily Telegraph ( 22 May 1996) Ex-SAS troopers accuse officers of hypocrisy By Tim Butcher, Defence Correspondent TENSIONS between officers and troopers that threaten to harm the SAS were revealed yesterday at the launch of another television programme on the Army's elite regiment. Five former troopers criticised what they describe as the "hypocrisy" of officers for banning them from the regiment's base in Hereford for taking part in the programme and being involved with the publication of the accompanying book. They accused officers of inconsistency for not taking similar action against commanders such as Gen Sir Peter de la Billière, who referred to the regiment extensively in two autobiographical books. "There are two rules, one for the officers and one for the soldiers," one of the troopers, who identified himself as Rusty, told a press conference. "The thing is the officers are telling the soldiers' stories and are allowed to get away with it." The five were among 40 names on a list of banned people not allowed access to Stirling Lines, the SAS base in Hereford. The others banned include Andy McNab and Chris Ryan, who both wrote SAS books about the Gulf conflict. One of the group who identified himself as Soldier "I" said they could take part in meetings of the SAS Regimental Association and other regimental functions, anywhere but at Stirling Lines. "In my mind it is sheer hypocrisy," Soldier "I" said. He believed the banning order was a short-sighted measure taken after the rash of recent SAS publicity including the books by McNab and Ryan as well as assorted videos and television programmes. He described the commanding officer of 22 SAS as "paranoid". "He does not know how to handle the press," he said. "He does not know how to handle this media explosion. "It's a knee-jerk reaction and he just decided the only way to combat this problem is to ban everybody, but in fact it drives it underground and makes people more determined to do their bit." "As far as I am concerned what we set about doing was to give the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth" All five appeared at the press launch of SAS - The Soldiers' Story to be broadcast by ITV, starting on Thursday week - wearing boiler suits, combat boots and black balaclavas, saying they did not want to reveal their identity because they had served in Northern Ireland. Each of the seven episodes includes personal accounts of some of the regiment's most famous achievements, including the 1980 storming of the Iranian embassy in London. The series' makers said the first episode had been cleared by the Ministry of Defence since it did not give away any specific details of SAS techniques or training. The other episodes would also be submitted to the MoD for clearance. In total 20 former members of the regiment took part in the making of the series, which they said was an accurate version of events told by the soldiers who took part. Three of the five ex-troopers attending the launch took part in the Iranian embassy siege. One of them, Mack, was shown by television news cameras blowing in a first-floor window. The men drew a distinction between SAS books written by people who described the actions of others and the television series. They said the programmes were produced only by the people who took part in the events. One of the men, who called himself Johnny Two-Combs, said: "As far as I am concerned, and the rest of the chaps here today, what we set about doing was dispelling various misquotes and misrepresentations by other people - once and for all to give the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth, told purely and simply in the words of the man who was there on the day." He said that service in or association with the regiment did not give anyone the right to make money by both retailing and embroidering the exploits of the soldiers themselves. The men were each paid less than £200 a day during the filming of the series but they expect to receive royalties from the sale of the accompanying book and video. The first episode covers the siege of the Iranian embassy. It uses archive reports as well as reconstruction to depict the incident that brought the SAS out of the shadows and contributed largely to its worldwide reputation for extreme professionalism. From the tone of the comments of the former members, it appears that the flood of books and published accounts and various SAS officers' reaction to them threatens to change the regiment radically. "They have turned it into an officers' club," said Soldier "I". It used to be a regiment run by senior NCOs." Daily Telegraph (04 Oct 96) SAS to take pledge of silence By Tim Butcher, Defence Correspondent MEMBERS of the SAS and Special Boat Squadron are to be forced to sign a confidentiality contract forbidding them from publicising their work without permission from senior officers. The contract, to be published today in a Defence Council instruction, applies to serving and future members of Britain's special forces. It does not apply to former members. It reflects concern among senior officers that the traditional conspiracy of silence within British special forces has been destroyed by a rash of books, television programmes and other publicity since the Gulf war. SAS troopers have been tempted to emulate former members Andy McNab and Chris Ryan who have earned fortunes from the sales of their books - Bravo Two Zero and The One That Got Away. "Each book, or piece of work, taken by itself does not reveal a great deal," one defence source said. "But, taken together, they allow a fairly clear picture to emerge of some of our tactics and methods." The contract involves a lifelong obligation under civil law not to disclose any unauthorised information about the activities of the special forces. Anyone who breaks the terms of the contract could be served with a writ for damages by the Ministry of Defence. MoD sources said the contract is intended to plug a loophole in existing regulations covering disclosure of information, including the 1989 Official Secrets Act, which covers members of the special forces. Under the Act, it is a criminal offence to publish certain types of information but MoD lawyers have had difficulty showing that it applies in the case of the material written by former SAS troopers. In this year's defence White Paper the MoD broke with tradition by devoting half a page to the SAS It is expected that a contract signed by members of the SAS, SBS, territorial SAS and a few other small covert intelligence units will be more enforceable. If a member or future member of the special forces refuses to sign the contract they will be dismissed from special forces and returned to their original unit. In May a group of former SAS members who took part in a television programme, SAS: The Soldiers' Story, accused senior officers of hypocrisy. They said officers such as Gen Sir Peter de la Billiere, regarded as the godfather of the modern regiment, were allowed to profit from books referring to his SAS experiences while the men were not. Gen de le Billiere has written two autobiographical books which make some references to the SAS but both books were sent to the MoD for clearance. In this year's defence White Paper the MoD broke with tradition by devoting half a page to the SAS, an institution about which it normally makes no comment. Under the title "Disclosure of Information on Special Forces", the White Paper said it would use "all appropriate legal options" to prevent publication of details believed to be damaging to the SAS and SBS. Daily Telegraph (22 Jan 1997) Ex-soldiers banned from SAS bases over books By Tim Butcher FORMER members of the SAS who have written books believed to have breached security are to be banned from Special Forces establishments, the Ministry of Defence said last night. However, the exclusion order will not apply to those former members, such as General Sir Peter de la Billière, former Director of Special Forces, whose books received the approval of MoD officials. General de la Billière said he knew that letters were being sent to some former special forces members, but added: "Both of my books were cleared by MoD and SAS before publication. I have not received, and do not expect to receive, such a letter." A senior MoD source said it was "inconceivable" that General de la Billière, who is widely regarded as the godfather of the modern SAS, would be subjected to any exclusion order by the Regiment. Nevertheless, some former members who have angered officers in the SAS by writing about their exploits will be told in writing that they can no longer enter the regiment's base in Hereford or other special forces properties around the country. The letters are intended to put the seal on informal bans, which have been in operation for some time, on some former soldiers such as Andy McNab, whose best-selling account of SAS operations in the Gulf War, Bravo Two Zero, was seen as the first major breach of operational security. Daily Telegraph (23 Jan 1997) Assault by SAS general on ministry book fiasco By Tim Butcher, Defence Correspondent GENERAL Sir Peter de la Billière, one of the Army's most distinguished post-war figures, was involved in an unseemly row yesterday over whether he has been punished for writing about the SAS. Senior MoD sources insisted that a ban on entering Special Forces bases applied to him, but he disagreed and demanded an apology. The argument, which called into question the Army's handling of sensitive announcements concerning Special Forces, reflected serious policy disagreements between senior figures in the British military establishment. A day of rapidly changing MoD statements and frantic meetings of senior defence officials ended in what supporters of Gen de la Billière called "a complete muddle". The MoD finally said a "gentleman's agreement" had been made with the general. He issued a statement but made no reference to a ban. Earlier, the general demanded an apology after being angered that no senior officer or official had contacted him over the issue. The first time he discussed a possible ban was when he was contacted by The Telegraph. The row turned on whether an official exclusion order from Special Forces bases for former members of the regiment who had contributed to the recent wave of SAS publicity applied to Gen de la Billière. The general, who was the most decorated serving member of the Army when he retired in 1992, referred to the SAS in two autobiographical books written after he commanded British forces in the 1991 Gulf war. Both books were submitted and passed by the MoD for publication. If applied, the ban would mean that the general, who served in the SAS for more than two decades, could be forcibly prevented from entering the regiment's headquarters in Hereford, near to his country home. Late on Tuesday, MoD spokesmen announced the ban and without commenting on individual cases said it would apply equally to officers and soldiers. General Sir Charles Guthrie, Chief of the General Staff who is soon to become Chief of the Defence Staff, was believed to support the idea of the ban applying equally to all ranks. The Telegraph spoke to Gen de la Billière late on Tuesday and he said he was aware of the proposed ban but did not expect it to apply to him as his two books had been fully cleared by MoD scrutineers and senior members of the SAS. It is understood that Gen de la Billière contacted senior figures at the MoD yesterday. He demanded an apology after being told that the official ban did not apply to him but the MoD's public position did not change until later in the afternoon after various high-level meetings at MoD Main Building in Whitehall. After the meetings a new public statement emerged that withdrew the initial public suggestions that Gen de la Billière would receive a letter informing him that he was banned from Special Forces bases. Instead it was suggested that he had been spoken to and while he had not been officially banned, a gentleman's agreement had been established that maintained the aim to treat officers and men equally. One senior defence source said that the issue was effectively over as Gen de la Billière had apparently accepted a de facto ban from Special Forces bases since last year. This version was somewhat at odds with the general's own account of the new position as he issued a statement that made no reference to any ban. "I have been informed that all authors of books mentioning Special Forces and written since the Gulf war whether cleared by MoD or not are only welcome on Special Forces property by invitation," the statement said. "I should add that ex-Servicemen do not expect to visit any military installation except by invitation." He repeated an earlier statement that "I have not received, and do not expect to receive such an exclusion order". Sergeant Andy McNab, whose book Bravo Two Zero about an ill-fated patrol in Iraq has made him a millionaire, is among the ex-SAS members affected by the order but he said yesterday that the ban would not have a significant effect. "All your friends and their families live outside the camp, so it doesn't stop you mixing with members of the regiment," he said. Daily Telegraph (09 March 1997) SAS purges its renegades in war of words By Tim Reid PAST and present members of the SAS are being forced to reapply for membership of their regimental association in a move that effectively expels two dozen former troopers who have publicly described their experiences in action. A highly-confidential application form, passed to The Telegraph, has been sent to all retired and serving members of 22 SAS, the Herefordshire-based regiment of regular soldiers, in the past 10 days. But under the form's terms, the most draconian attempt yet to gag serving and former members, only those who "have not been served with any form of exclusion order by the Director Special Forces" can apply. In January the former Gulf war commander, General Sir Peter de la Billière, along with several other soldiers-turned-authors, were banned by the Ministry of Defence from attending all SAS bases, as punishment for breaking the elite regiment's code of silence. They had been widely condemned for revealing their experiences in books and on television. The application form means the former soldiers will be prohibited from even remaining members of the Herefordshire branch of the SAS Regimental Association. They have effectively been expelled. Sir Peter is not a member of the Herefordshire branch, the association's largest, so is not yet believed to be affected by the new rule. His books - Storm Command and Looking for Trouble - were blamed by some SAS members for opening the floodgates to a stream of best-selling memoirs, including Andy McNab's Bravo Two Zero and Chris Ryan's The One That Got Away. The move also reflects growing concern within the MoD that despite the recent sanctions against Sir Peter and his literary companions - which included a ban on attending reunions and remembrance services on SAS bases - more books could be on the way. Members must also sign a declaration in which they undertake not to write or publicly speak about "any information . . . relating to the work of the United Kingdom Special Forces . . . without express prior authority". The development is believed to have come after at least three high-level meetings involving senior association members. Some hardliners within the association want the real names of authors to be revealed. A former senior officer in the regiment said last night that they had forfeited all right to Special Forces anonymity. "They have given too much away and therefore their true identities should be made known," he said. The Ministry of Defence should also be checking the accuracy of the claims made in the books, he added. "Some of these people have been making themselves out to be far more important in the organisation than they ever were. Some of the so-called incidents and operations simply didn't happen. "If the books are published despite all this then the MoD should go public and rebut the claims. This whole awful business has to stop. The effectiveness and employability of the regiment is at stake here. It is time to take the gloves off. "The association is a charity and it provides a safety net for ex-members of the regiment who fall on hard times. It also provides for their families. They should be aware that losing their membership on top of public ridicule is a very high price to pay. This applies equally to anyone thinking of publishing a book." In a Telegraph interview in January, Sir Peter condemned the MoD's "unbelievable management" of the issue. "My books are not damaging," he said. "Both were meticulously cleared by the SAS and the MoD and I took out everything they asked me to take out. No one ever said they were a security risk. Both my books enhanced the reputation of the SAS. They are used at the military staff college for reference purposes and I suspect will remain authoritative books on the Gulf." He said his works should not be lumped in with later, more sensational, books. "There has been a regrettable confusion between the first book - mine - and those which were damaging and came later. "The regrettable thing is that having got it wrong, nobody has had the courage to stand up in public and issue three or four lines saying that the banning of me wasn't correct." The Guardian (November 26, 1998) Books 'bad for SAS morale' Court in New Zealand dismisses book gag on ex-SAS man By Richard Norton-Taylor and Pattrick Smellie in Wellington British government efforts to silence former special forces and intelligence personnel suffered a new blow yesterday when a New Zealand court dismissed its attempt to prevent a former SAS soldier from speaking about his past exploits. The New Zealand appeal court allowed a television channel to broadcast an extensive interview with Mike Coburn, a member of the SAS Bravo Two Zero team which operated behind enemy lines during the Gulf war. In a case heard partly in secret, the Government argued that Mr Coburn - an assumed name - had broken a confidentiality contract. The British Government said last night it still intended to pursue its attempt to stop Mr Coburn from publishing his book, Soldier 5, in New Zealand, despite a spate of books published in Britain over the past few years by former SAS soldiers. The exploits of Bravo Two Zero - whose mission failed with four men captured and tortured, two killed in combat, one dying of exposure, and one escaping - have been graphically described in a best-seller by Andy McNab. Mr McNab claimed his book was prompted by references - in a previous book by General Sir Peter de la Billiere, Britain's Gulf war commander - to a failed operation to sabotage Iraqi Scud missile launchers. Chris Ryan, the one Bravo Two Zero team member who escaped to Syria, subsequently wrote a book about his experiences. Mr Coburn is identified in the McNab book as "Mark the Kiwi", who was shot twice in the leg in close-quarter fighting before he was captured, chained to a bed and tortured. In the New Zealand hearings, James Farmer QC, for the British Government, argued that both Mr Coburn and the television channel, TVNZ, breached secrecy contracts for SAS soldiers imposed by the Ministry of Defence in 1996 to try and stop the flow of memoirs. Willie Akel, a lawyer for TVNZ, argued that a ban would have been pointless in Mr Coburn's case, since the programme contained nothing new. "Bearing in mind the totality of the material is in the public domain already, it was reasonable for TVNZ to think there would not be any difficulties," he said yesterday. The court refused the Ministry of Defence the right to pursue its case at the Privy Council. Mr Coburn hopes that Reed will publish his book in New Zealand. A copy of the manuscript is understood to have been sent to Hodder Headline, the British publisher. Hodder is reported to have sent a copy of the manuscript to the MoD for vetting. An MoD spokesman said last night it was not prepared to tolerate unauthorised publications by former members of the special forces. "They are bad for morale, generate suspicion, threaten personal security and effect the valuable relationship [the special forces] have with allies and other organisations with which they work." The Times (Nov 27/98) McNab: claims the right decision was made SAS documentary claims regiment ignored help calls FROM CATHIE BELL IN WELLINGTON THE SAS let its men down by ignoring their calls for help, a New Zealander who served with the elite force in the Gulf War said yesterday. The special forces soldier, known as "Mark the Kiwi" in the bestselling Gulf War book Bravo Two Zero but referred to as Mike Coburn yesterday, spoke out on a current affairs programme screened in New Zealand last night. The British Government had gone to the highest court in New Zealand - the Court of Appeal - to stop TVNZ from running the interview with Mr Coburn, but the judges rejected the plea and refused the British Attorney-General leave to appeal for an injunction to the Privy Council, which is still the court of last resort for New Zealand. Mr Coburn said last night that when on operations SAS soldiers had a device called a "guardnet", which meant they could communicate directly with their squadron. "That's a fixed frequency, which may or may not work, but it's there and that's what we managed to get through on, saying we needed help. Unfortunately, that was ignored," he said. Mr Coburn added that he felt the hierarchy of the regiment during the Gulf War let a lot of its soldiers down. "They didn't lie to us, but we were misled," he said. He said it would have been all right if the soldiers had known before they left on operations that calls for help would be ignored: "You can get that mindset in your head and then you make your own contingencies for that. That was certainly never made clear to us before we went out. I was disgusted." Andy McNab, author of Bravo Two Zero, said on the programme that the right decision was made to ignore the calls. Had an aircraft been sent to help, it would have been shot down, he said. Sunday Times (Nov 29/98) A third member of Bravo Two Zero, the SAS mission during the Gulf war, wants to publish his controversial account of what happened. The government is determined to block it. Marie Colvin reports on the battles of 'Soldier 5' Breaking ranks When the Iraqi gunners opened fire on Mike Coburn, a former SAS man now at odds with the British government, it was the nightmare end to a mission that could not have gone more wrong. The corporal was part of the famous Bravo Two Zero patrol behind enemy lines during the Gulf war and was only six miles from the sanctuary of the Syrian border. His squad, infiltrated to sabotage Iraqi communication lines and Scud missile launches, had been rumbled within two days, forcing a desperate flight across the desert. The story of how three SAS men died, four were captured and one escaped was told by Andy McNab in a bestselling book that gave a gripping account of heroic failure. Chris Ryan, the member of the squad who escaped, later wrote his account of events. Now Coburn, called "Mark the Kiwi" in McNab's book, wants to have his say and, in the nature of war, the participants recollect things differently. By the time what remained of the patrol made its last stand, Coburn and McNab, the squad commander, were alone. "The first round, when it hit my leg, was quite strange because there wasn't any pain initially," Coburn said last week. "It was like this huge wave of nausea went over me, I mean really intense, certainly more intense than anything I ever felt before. It was like somebody taking a sledgehammer to my ankle and just smashing it on there. But there wasn't any pain." Nor was there any escape. "Another round went off through my arm and then the pain sort of came along and I started screaming. I was screaming my head off," he said, speaking in a television documentary that was broadcast in New Zealand last week after a court rejected attempts by the British government to stop the programme. McNab, interviewed for the same programme, remembered a different scenario. "There was certainly no screaming and no noise coming from him," he said. He repeated the account he wrote in Bravo Two Zero, the title of his book taken from the squad's radio call sign. "So far as I was concerned, he [Coburn] was dead as soon as they opened fire because the contact was five to seven metres away and they sort of just opened up with automatic fire. You just look at it and say, thankfully he's not lying there dying, because you tend to hear that. People will make sure you know they're alive." McNab escaped, he wrote in his book, but was captured later that day. The injured Coburn was captured on the spot. It seems the ranks of the SAS patrol, once so close in fierce camaraderie, are dissolving into mutual recriminations as the survivors of the mission vie to tell their stories. McNab's tale earned him a multi-million-pound fortune. Ryan, the only member of the team to escape, wrote The One That Got Away, a decidedly less heroic account of the ill-fated mission. He fell out with McNab over his portrayal of McNab as a glory-hunter and an ineffective leader. When a television dramatisation of Ryan's book was broadcast, McNab wrote to The Times, describing the programme as fact turned into fiction. "It is a pity that he [Ryan] chose to cheapen his own achievement and the reputations of the regiment and of comrades who would have sacrificed their lives for his, had the situation demanded, by denigrating those of others," he wrote. But these are tough men and McNab admitted that he could "take the remaining nonsense in his stride". For others, however, exactly what did happen with Bravo Two Zero remains a sensitive subject. Coburn - like McNab, the name is a pseudonym - would like to tell his story, but last week the British Government went all the way to the country's highest court to try to stop him from appearing in the TVNZ television programme Assignment. Though the government lost its case, it is still trying to block Reed, the New Zealand publisher of Spycatcher, from printing Coburn's book, entitled Soldier 5. Reed has ordered the paper and designed the cover, but is pondering its next move in the face of the British government's threat to seize all profits. Coburn's British publisher has put its plans on hold after a warning from the Ministry of Defence (MoD) that it does not approve of Soldier 5. But despite the legal constraints, some of Coburn's story can now be told. COBURN never imagined himself as a writer, much less one at the centre of international controversy. An orphan, he grew up in Auckland and became a star rugby player. At 19 and with little inclination for academic pursuits, he watched news broadcasts of the SAS siege of the Iranian embassy in London and decided that the life of the special forces was for him. He joined the New Zealand SAS, passing selection easily. He was something of a loose cannon in his youth and he ran foul of even the few restrictions placed on the notoriously independent service. After an exile to the ranks of the regular army, Coburn "learnt discipline" and was readmitted to his chosen regiment. He applied to the British SAS, regarded as the toughest and most skilled, for the challenge. He passed the selection course with ease and joined McNab's squadron on the secret SAS base at Stirling Lines, Hereford, shortly before the Gulf war. On January 10, 1991, days before allied planes began bombing Iraq, he was deployed to Saudi Arabia under McNab's command. Their secret sortie into Iraq was ill-starred from the beginning. The squad was dropped near an Iraqi army encampment. They could not communicate with their base - they had been given the wrong frequencies. On day two, they were spotted by a child who had followed his goats into the wadi where they were hiding. It was 300km south to the Saudi border, or 120km north to Syria; McNab decided to make a run for Syria. McNab took an executive decision to hijack a vehicle to the Syrian border, an action that would lead to disaster. Coburn and others in the squad wanted to continue cross-country, worried they would be too exposed on a road studded with checkpoints. But they deferred to McNab's experience as commander. They flagged down the first headlights that came along - only to find they had hijacked a yellow taxi and in the end had to shoot their way out of a traffic jam. In his book, McNab says the eight-man patrol killed 250 Iraqis in their fire fights. Coburn is less certain: last week he said the number of Iraqis "slotted" - to use McNab's phrase - could have been one or 1,000. The conditions made it impossible to tell. After he was wounded and captured, Coburn would not see McNab again until they were both released to the Red Cross in Baghdad. The young New Zealander suffered horrific beatings during the six weeks he was held by the Iraqis. They accused him of being an Israeli because of his dark complexion and circumcision, and beat him severely, day after day, sometimes in shifts. They refused him medical treatment for the gaping wound in his foot. His interrogators would prod the wound to cause him further pain. He remains stoic about the experience. "I was beaten. I don't know if that is torture or not," he said. "They would punch you in the head, and kick you and soften you up before the next guys came in." Unlike McNab, Coburn is bitter about the decision not to rescue the squad, as much for his three dead friends as for himself. The squad had managed to get out a call that they needed help on Guardnet, an emergency frequency that communicated directly to the SAS base in Saudi Arabia. No help was sent for fear a rescue helicopter would be shot down. Coburn still feels let down. He believes they should have been told before setting off on their mission that calls for help would be ignored. "They didn't lie to us, but we were misled," he said. "You can get that mindset in your head and then you make your own contingencies. That was certainly never made clear to us before we went out. I was disgusted." McNab, on the other hand, believes the commander back at base took the right decision to leave them to their fate. After six months' recuperation, Coburn returned to active service for five more years, doing tours in Northern Ireland and Bosnia, mostly in intelligence work. He has not revealed any details of the operations he took part in, but said of Ulster: "It's something that I'm quite proud of that I did my time over there." HE left the SAS in 1996 because of his frustration with an officer corps he describes as "elitist". But he still fiercely defends the regiment. "Who are they going to turn to when they get something like Prince's Gate [the siege of the Iranian embassy]? Who are they going to call when the world is falling apart behind them, and they're screaming out for somebody to go up there and sort the situtation out?" he asks. After the Gulf war, he married Sue, an aerobics teacher from Hereford. They seemed to have settled well into the local life, with three daughters and many friends. But he now feels like a hunted man and has decided he must move back to New Zealand. He was obliged to sign an agreement preventing him from divulging his experiences in the SAS, a measure brought in after McNab turned into a bestselling author. After leaving the army, he joined the "circuit" of security jobs that are generally filled from the ranks of ex-SAS officers and now works for a high-profile British corporation in Africa. Quiet and soft-spoken, he says he decided to write a book to give his account in memory of his three fallen friends. Fourteen months ago, as he was finishing the manuscript for Soldier 5, he was tracked down by Stephen Davis, a New Zealand journalist, who persuaded him to talk on television. Unlike McNab who has never revealed his face, Coburn agreed to be interviewed without disguise. He said he wanted viewers to be able to "see his eyes" and make up their own minds. Whatever other viewers thought, the government still has him and his family in its sights. His wife also faces an injunction against speaking out because she has read his manuscript. She believes she is followed whenever she leaves home, even if only to go to the post office. The couple have been house-hunting in Auckland. Friends say they are hoping for a new life. The sensitivities over what really happened with Bravo Two Zero, however, are unlikely to go away. McNab's account will be given further impetus when the BBC broadcasts a dramatisation of his book, starring Sean Bean, early next year. Coburn still faces the wrath of the MoD as he attempts to give his tale of what happened by getting Soldier 5 published. He is not deterred: for the surviving members of Bravo Two Zero, no longer the comrades they once were, the motto is now: Who Dares, Writes.	Andy McNab
For his role in which 1997 film did Jack Nicholson win an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of 'Melvin Udall'?	More About Andy McNab More About Andy McNab Daily Telegraph (15 June 1997) Gulf author in war of words with ex-wife By Alastair McQueen ANDY McNab, the SAS Gulf War veteran and best-selling author, has been accused by his ex-wife of making "silly and ridiculous" legal attempts to stop full publication of her book Married to the SAS. McNab, the commander of the ill-fated patrol Bravo Two Zero, has written two books about his time in the SAS and fought the Ministry of Defence for the right to publish the second, Immediate Action. Now his third wife, Frances Nicholson, has written her account of life married to an SAS man and McNab has taken legal action to stop certain passages being included. After a year of letters from his solicitor, her publisher John Blake has now agreed to remove the passages to ensure the book is published. Mrs Nicholson, 38, said she thought it ironic that a man who fought in the courts over his own book had tried to ban parts of hers. She said: "The man who fought the Ministry of Defence for the right to publish has put every obstacle in my way. Some of the things he wanted removed are ridiculous. But he made no secret of the fact that he could afford to fight all the way through the courts to stop me. His attitude to my book became very silly in the end. He is very, very protective of his image as the great British hero. Even if I had written the Bible he would have objected." According to Mr Blake, McNab claimed that the name he writes under was a trademark which Mrs Nicholson could not use, but backed down after she threatened to use his real name, which he believed would endanger his life. He said: "We have had a year of legal letters between his lawyers and ourselves. He has tried very, very hard to stop it. I have been very disappointed at his attitude. Before all this, like everyone else in the country, I regarded him as a national hero." In the book, Mrs Nicholson tells how she frequented bars in Hereford, where the SAS is based, to pick up members of the regiment. She said: "I don't know if he is upset because I slept with people he was serving with. It is hard living in a small place like Hereford when your husband has left you and you see him going round with his new girlfriend and you are left with a child. So you think about tit for tat." Tomorrow, Mrs Nicholson, who is now married to an American soldier and lives in the United States, will begin a round of interviews in Britain. McNab was unavailable for comment yesterday. But his lawyer, David Hooper, of Biddle and Co, said: "We have pointed out the dangers of publishing defamatory material. The book, as originally written, was in our view defamatory. Far from trying to suppress the book we agreed with the publisher changes which would not result in Mr McNab having to take action against them. We took the view that prevention was better than cure." Daily Telegraph (8 October 1998) 'We don't go around killing all the time' His third wife claimed that SAS men were sex maniacs... so what is Britain's most famous trained killer like in the flesh? Petronella Wyatt finds out I AM gazing out of the window, searching the faces in the street for that of Andy McNab, the former SAS soldier turned best-selling author. I have no idea what to look for. Photographs of McNab, which is not his real name, are always blacked out. This is because of the "unofficial threat" from the friends and families of people he has killed. Will he be tall or short? Ugly or handsome? Loud, or with an urgent quietude? Will his figure resemble that of a Chippendale or will it have been emaciated by the privations of war? If anything, the man in most of the doctored photographs appears rather fierce, with a growth of beard and the fuzzy hair peculiar to redheads. Suddenly, the door opens and a pale young man who has been loitering downstairs for the past few minutes bursts in. He is clean shaven, his eyes are as blue as Anatolian waters. The hair is not red but black. He grins at me. Oh, God. It occurs to me he is a hired assassin. He is going to "take me out" and then wait for McNab. But this is McNab. "Those photos don't do me justice," he laughs. "And I hadn't shaved when they did them." He sits, flexing his whippet-lean legs. "I tell you, it's great to be famous - and at the same time to be able to go down to the pub without anyone recognising you." The whole thing started, in traditional English-style, with a cock-up. If McNab and his patrol had not met with disaster in the Gulf War in 1991, he would never have written his account of the mission, Bravo Two Zero, the book that nudged him along the path to wealth and notoriety. "We were supposed to be disabling Scud missiles, when we were spotted by this shepherd boy," he recalls. "Well, you can't go around killing children, it would give you a bad press. So we got caught instead." Their cover blown, three of the patrol were killed. McNab was captured and tortured for six weeks. This would have broken most men, but it was the making of him. He was awarded the DCM. Bravo Two Zero was followed by Immediate Action, McNab's no-holds-barred autobiographical tale of life in the SAS, which the Army tried to ban, and Remote Control, a thriller, also frowned upon by the MoD. At 38, McNab now moves between France and the United States, where he vets action film scripts for authenticity. "I guess I projected the SAS into the nation's consciousness," McNab admits. "And in a pretty controversial way." There had been military memoirs before his, of course, but they were written by members of the officer class (including General Sir Peter de la Billière, former commander of the SAS and British forces in the Gulf war). The official reaction to Bravo Two Zero was extremely hostile. According to newspaper reports, he was banned from his regimental base. "It was a hypocritical class thing," he says, examining his nails. Indeed, McNab insists that it was "the establishment" that suggested he write Bravo Two Zero in the first place. "They wanted someone to set the record straight about the abortive Scud missile mission, but then the whole success of the book got out of control. They were amazed by the sales and they got frightened." At this point, I suggest to McNab that I am sceptical that he wrote his first book solely as a favour to "the establishment". Surely financial gain played a not inconsiderable part as well? He smiles affably. "Yes, of course it did. I was getting older and you can't stay in the Army for ever. I wanted security and the good life, I've wanted that all my life." Like the ace working-class spy Sidney Reilly, Andy McNab was born on the wrong side of the blanket. He was brought up in Peckham by adoptive parents: he says he has no desire to know his real mother and father. His natural mother apparently left him on the steps of Guy's Hospital in London, wrapped in a carrier bag. McNab grew up on the streets, and joined gangs at a young age. When he was eight, he witnessed his first death. Another young gang member was killed falling through a roof. Hardened by this experience, McNab went on to steal - everything from car radios to cheque books. He was sent to a detention centre, where he sobered up and decided on an Army career. "I hated detention. Really hated it. I thought there was only one way I was going to get out of my miserable life and that was by joining the Army. Also, the ads at the time were great - real James Bond stuff." McNab was posted to Northern Ireland. He was 19 when he first killed a man, a terrorist in South Armagh. What did it feel like? "It was very exciting for a 19-year-old," he enthuses, as if recalling the first time he had sex. "There was the adrenalin rush and the thought of the credibility it would bring. Then there was the soft toilet paper." Toilet paper? "What I mean is, I got to stay in Ireland. And in Ireland they gave you soft toilet paper, which they didn't in England. "There is a misconception, though, that we go around killing people all the time. You only shoot if they are in a position to shoot at you. It's defensive. You have to protect your group." McNab speaks of death in a voice that drifts coolly through the air like cigarette smoke; he seems almost completely unmoved by the subject. He joined the SAS in 1984 after a gruelling series of training courses. His career cannot have done much for his personal life: indeed, he has three failed marriages behind him. His first, to Christine, went, as he puts it, to "ratshit". He left his second wife, Debbie, by jumping out of the window. Why did he do that? "Because I couldn't get out of the door. It was locked." He has an 11-year-old daughter by his third marriage to a pretty blonde, Frances Nicholson. But the child was not enough to keep the relationship together. After their divorce, Nicholson wrote a book about their life. She claimed that SAS men were sex maniacs who beat up their wives. I try to imagine myself being in love with McNab but find it hard. Although he is undoubtedly good looking, his is the gaudy glamour of a prancing animal without a soul. Are you a sex maniac? I ask. He considers this. "No more than anyone else. Look, SAS people are fit young men. Obviously they attract women. It's like being a member of a football team." The ancient Greeks said that battle made them feel horny. Was this true? "Nah. After a fight, I just wanted to get drunk with my mates and go to sleep. I was very selfish, I admit. My career came before my marriages. I'm sorry for my wives. They had to put up with a lot." Frances Nicholson told journalists that McNab exerted pressure on her to use false names in her book. He says this is not true. "I didn't try to stop her using her real name. That was just a publicity stunt to sell the book. It sounded good to say I asked her to use a false name." This brings us to his own use of a pseudonym. When, in 1995, he was named in court documents, he accused the MoD of endangering his life. But does anyone genuinely want to kill him? Surely there are more important targets, like the Northern Ireland Secretary, who, incidentally, doesn't skulk about using a false name? He is offended. "I am important. What do you mean no one wants to kill me?" OK, assuming they did, surely they would manage it despite the false name. What if I were an assassin? I could be concealing a gun. What would he do then. How would he "stuff" me? Startled, he gazes at me in disbelief. "Why would I want to do that? In those instances you try to run away. I'd get out as quick as I could. I wouldn't stay and fight." McNab concedes that anonymity has commercial advantages. "Now it's become my pen name, there is not much point in changing it. I could decide there was a time when there was no longer any danger to me or my family, but what's the point? "As I said, it's nice to be able to go on the Tube without people knowing who you are. I get the best of both worlds." It has been said many times that McNab is a poor role model for the young, and that he has abused the security of an institution for financial gain. But he believes he has acted responsibly. "My so-called revelations have never risked security. In Remote Control, I describe how to make bombs out of household items, but I don't give the ingredients, so no one could actually do it. You're more likely to find out how on the Internet." He goes on hurriedly. "It's the media that see us as glamorous to the young. My books show we're not. There are no watches that turn into submarines or anything. I take war very seriously. I think it's bad that soon we'll have a generation in power that has only seen it on the television. It will make politicians too relaxed about it. War should be the last possible option." McNab narrows his blue eyes. "I got out in time. Most ex-Army people end up as pathetic security guards. I didn't want that. I wanted something more." He would seem to have got what he wanted: a film of Bravo Two Zero is to be released next year, in which he is played by Sean Bean. Not bad, eh? "Yeah. I've been very lucky," he reflects. "It could have been Harry Enfield." BBC Andy McNab Interview (1999) He joined the army after being done for breaking and entering, and had killed a man by the age of 19. He was stuck in Winchester during the Falklands war, when it seemed every time there was an operation to go on, the SAS got to go, so Andy McNab decided to join that elite service. On an SAS operation behind Iraqi lines during the Gulf war, the patrol McNab was leading was attacked. Three members died, one escaped to Syria, and four - including McNab - were captured and tortured. McNab's book about the experience, Bravo Two Zero, has sold over a million and a half copies. Another book, Immediate Action, followed - and now a BBC film starring Sean Bean. McNab relaxes by riding his 850cc Yamaha, and studying medieval history. Andy McNab is not his real name. Do you see the filming of Bravo Two Zero as setting the record straight after the earlier controversial TV movie based on Chris Ryan's The One That Got Away? (David Fevyer, Bournemouth) Not really no because the same TV production company approached me to do Bravo Two Zero before they approached Chris and they wanted to do the same thing with Bravo. I turned down their offer. What did you think of your character portrayd in The One That Got Away, and was there really much animosity between you and Chris Ryan? (Colin Lugwardine) The whole thing was certainly unfair to the dead people who can't defend themselves. At the time I was really annoyed and so were the rest of the patrol. What I understand now is that it's all to do with money and viewing figures. Unfortunately, Chris got ripped off and lost control which is a shame because he has taken the blame for something which is not necessarily his fault. There was hostility to him within the regiment One of the squadrons came back from a trip and went knocking on his door. It just got out of control and he's had to move out of Hereford (where the SAS is based). He doesn't deserve it. Now I'm involved in television, I understand the concern with viewing figures. Chris Ryan was probably badly advised. What role have you played in the filming of Bravo Two Zero? I went to South Africa with the crew and talked to the director who had the challenge of creating the illusion of realism. So I was helping to create that illusion and help the actors. They might ask what I would be feeling in certain situations. So I gave both technical advice and shared my experience. We didn't have formal sessions but we'd start casual conversations. One torture scene we filmed in an empty prison was actually quite hard for me to watch. Do you think that by revealing so much of the SAS's methods of operation you have made future activites more difficult for the regiment? (Gary Humphrey, Rochester) No, absolutely not. All three books have gone through the official vetting process. You can give someone a car manual but it's unlikely they will be able to strip the car. There have been loads of books about the regiment before Bravo Two Zero. It's nothing new. The authorities are happy provided there's nothing that will compromise operations. The regiment's main activities in Bosnia, the Gulf and Northern Ireland are well-known, but the more sensitive operations are protected by feeding the public information on the high profile work. Does Britain still need the SAS? Even more so. We no longer have a heavy standing army. To get a rapid action force anywhere in the world you need a forward 'recce' group to secure a landing. Quick reaction troops are more valuable than ever. The infantry will still be doing the same thing, but the emphasis will be on force projection using C-17 aircraft. We'll be able to move a brigade from one end of the world to another within 24 hours, which is a whole new concept for the Brits and the SAS will work on advance preparation. Would you do the Gulf War mission again, and if so would you do it differently? (Russell, West Kirby) With hindsight we wouldn't have been sent out in the first place. It's very strange when the experts talk about it. They weren't there when the decisions were made so they don't know the background. It's not a science. When people were criticising General Norman Shwartzkopf (Gulf War commander) for sending our patrol out he said 'that's all well and good but I didn't see these people when these decisions were being made.' I wouldn't do the mission now because I know it would have been a failure. There were more than 3,000 Iraqi troops in the area, effectively two armoured brigades that shouldn't have been there that intelligence hadn't picked up. They only discovered this about four days after we arrived! Is bombing Iraq an effective policy? Bombing is effective if there is an aim. If it's just to bomb for the sake of it, there's no point. During the recent raids Britain made it sound like we have a big influence. The Americans sent in about 400 aircraft and the Brits a small fraction of that. Bombing to kill people doesn't achieve anything. Now the West is beginning to say it's actively trying to get Saddam out and so the bombs might have a real purpose. Is it difficult for British troops to serve American officers? No not at all. Basically, the US and British special forces have joint operations and training. At the end of the day the Americans and the Foreign Office are our biggest employers. There's nothing new to the co-operation. Do you still suffer any lasting damage from the torture you endured under the Iraqis? How do you deal with this? (Lee Marriot, Moscow, Russia) I don't find it difficult to talk about. I have a permanent sensory and mobility problem with the left index finger and I can't open a drinks can with it. The rest of my fingers have recovered. The nerves started to form again at the base of the spine. There's obviously still scarring but kids get that from falling over. If I start drinking fluids, I do have to go straight to the toilet. I don't hold water well. That's really it. The teeth have been fixed and screwed in! Have you ever thought about helping people recover or prepare experiences of torture and interrogation? I work with the FBI on a programme called 'agent enrichment'. In the past they've had undercover people taken in Mexico and South America. I've also just finished a video for the for the Harrier pilots in the Fleet Arm who face the possibility of going down in a place like Bosnia. I'm not involved in any post-capture treatment groups, although I do know John McCarthy and Terry Waite. What they suffered during five years of confinement and all the accompanying uncertainty is much worse than my own experience. Do you ever wish you had killed the shepherd boy who accidentally discovered where your SAS unit? (Greg Hyde, Westbury) No. Emotionally, as human beings and fathers we just would not want to do that. On the technical side we couldn't kill him because soldiers operating in enemy territory are not going to last five minutes if they are captured after killing kids. If we shot him as he ran away, we would have given our position away and if we killed the kid we would have had to take the body with us too. We never leave anything behind. Basically, it would have counter-productive. Why are people so fascinated by the SAS and its operations. Much of it is built up by the media. There have always been books about the SAS even before the Iranian Embassy siege. I bought the books and the Daily Express picture special. The idea of the SAS did seem glamorous to me before I started training for selection, but the month long process is designed to weed out people who think they are going to be James Bond. Your job is to be a professional soldier. The undercover work comes at a later date. You need to learn the foundations first. When you are admitted the regiment gives you proper training. People too have different aptitudes. For example, the Fijians wouldn't be any use undercover in Northern Ireland. If the conflict resumes in Northern Ireland do you think the paramilitaries could be defeated militarily? No absolutely not. We fight, rightly, under a lot of restrictions because we have to adhere to the civil law and the paramilitaries should be treated as criminals rather than terrorist organisations. Clinically speaking, they have already won and that's why we've been there 30 years. Our opponents don't obey the same rules. If you look at the majority of terrorist actions around the world, it seems to work. How do you the compare the pressure working in Iraq with active duty in Northern Ireland? There's more stress working in Northern Ireland because there's quite a lot of political pressure. People allege there's a shoot to kill policy, but there isn't any. When you get involved in an incident you don't just come back and drink tea. Weapons go to forensics and they take statements. Sometimes your hands are bagged so your story is tested against the evidence from forensics. If it doesn't match, you will be prosecuted. On a couple of occasions as an eighteen year old soldier I was confused, but at the end of the day if you're old enough to vote, you should be old enough to fight. It's the army's job to make sure soldiers know what they're doing. How important is it to maintain your anonymity? It's not as drastic as it sounds. It's not cloak and dagger stuff. I'm just protecting my visual identity. I have had some death threats, but if they were really serious they wouldn't warn you. It's probably Irish terrorism. Some organisations know which members I have killed. If you start opening supermarkets, then you are making yourself a target and you endanger the people around you. I wouldn't ever do book signings. Explosives have been found in bookshops before. Basically, it's not something that gives me sleepless nights. Have you ever considered mercenary work? No. They don't pay enough. I don't know anyone who does it for money. There are three major security companies that hire former members of the regiment. These jobs are extremely well paid and mainly send the ex-soldiers overseas to use their knowledge and skills, but it's not about living in Bosnian trenches. You're an admirer of the First World War soldier and poet Siegfried Sassoon who faced disciplinary action for refusing to continue fighting. Have you ever felt similar conscientious objections? Not really. I know people who have. The ethos of the regiment is that if you don't want to do certain kinds of work then you're expected to leave to army. I knew a guy called Frank who became a priest and got out. However battlefield conditions do literally conflict with your life. You are scared and you don't want to be doing it. If soldiers aren't scared, then they're lying, but as a professional soldier you learn to overcome fear with training and knowledge. Understanding you're afraid actually helps you do the job. My own experience in Iraq didn't prevent me from staying another two years in the army. Nine out of ten times the SAS's job is to stay out of hand to hand combat. We're not big enough to attack other soldiers. Our job is to sabotage power supplies and communications. We have an ethic of shoot and scoot. And you don't think 'I'm doing this for Britain'. From the Korean War onwards, soldiers have been in conflicts for economic reasons, to correct political mistakes and to maintain influence. What are your future plans? I'm in talks with Hollywood about filming Remote Control and I have to finish its sequel book by the end of the month. I'm also going to be working on a new thriller with the BBC. Sunday Times (Jan 3/99) Born to live behind and between the lines Who dares cleans up, as Andy McNab, the former Special Air Service sergeant who became a multimillionaire through his book on the Bravo Two Zero patrol in the 1991 Gulf war could testify. Tonight and tomorrow Bravo Two Zero comes to our television screens in a special two-part BBC adaptation, so McNab - who also has a thriving career on the lecture circuit and as an adviser to Hollywood on what real violence looks like - will become even more famous. But just as anonymous, for, as a soldier who killed his first IRA terrorist at the age of 19, McNab considers it prudent not to be photographed. This may be a personal obsession (although those shadowy, mysterious silhouettes are great publicity), but he undeniably embodies a will-o'-the-wisp elusiveness that is not wholly contrived. McNab, of course, is not his real name, and the couple who brought him up - an Irish Catholic mother and an Anglican father - were not his real parents. His real mother left him as an infant in a Harrods carrier bag on the steps of Guy's hospital, London. He has never had any wish to discover who his real parents were. McNab is a nom de plume, wrapped in an alias, concealed in an enigma. The engima at the heart of McNab is not only what sort of man he is (married four times at the age of 38, his love life has been turbulent to put it mildly) but whether his claim on our admiration is authentic. His doggedness, whether under fire or enduring torture, is astonishing. "You've lost people, all right," he says, "but you don't sit around having tea and toast and talking about them. You just crack on." And yet his eight-man patrol (three of whom died) killed an estimated 250 Iraqi troops between them, mostly in close-range firefights. It is an awesome, if unfashionable, reminder of how warlike the British can be if the mood takes them. McNab witnessed his first death at the age of eight when a member of his schoolboy gang fell 30ft through a skylight onto a concrete floor as they played in a derelict building. His childhood in Peckham, south London, was unsettled and he moved house nine times, attending seven different schools. Although he would grow into a whippet-lean 11st, he was plump as a youngster and took to running to lose unwanted weight and avoid gibes. Not much good at school, McNab turned to petty crime. He stole car radios, dabbled in burglary in Dulwich and had a spell "tipping over Portaloos so I could nick the occupants' handbags". At 15 he was driving delivery lorries, having failed to gain entry to the masonic world of the still-powerful print unions. He got caught for breaking and entering and was sent, briefly, to a detention centre. "I really hated that," he says. "I thought there was only one way I was going to get out of my miserable life, and that was by joining the army. Don't forget that the adverts at the time told you everybody would want to employ you when you got out and there were pictures of windsurfers and sunny beaches - 'See the world!' It all sounded brilliant. I barely knew where Northern Ireland was, let alone what was going on there." McNab signed up and was posted to Northern Ireland. On patrol in Crossmaglen at the age of 18 he saw an army colleague die for the first time. His friend was trying to lower a booby-trapped Irish tricolour when 1 1/2 lb of explosive went off: "The top half of his body had been taken out completely. Bits of him were hanging off the armoured vehicle. Everyone in the town was pouring out of the pubs, cheering." The following year he killed a terrorist in south Armagh. "It was very exciting for a 19-year-old. There was the adrenaline rush, and the thought of the credibility it would bring." Afterwards, when the high had worn off, he felt scared. "I didn't like people trying to kill me. It's not a natural thing to shoot at somebody and have somebody shoot at you." The army gave structure and discipline to his life but no overweening love of traditional authority. There was a rude awakening when he was promoted. "I was thinking, 'Great, I'm a full corporal now - so in other words I'm God.' But then I was made to go grouse-beating for the brigadier and his mates. I didn't have a choice, and I really hated that." The obvious way to fulfil his individuality was to join the SAS - a glamour unit in the British public's eyes since the Iranian embassy siege of 1980, its reputation further burnished by derring-do exploits in the 1982 Falklands war. McNab joined in 1984. Formally, his specialisations were "counter-terrorism, prime target elimination, demolitions, weapons and tactics, covert surveillance and information-gathering in hostile environments and VIP protection", tasks that took him to the Middle and Far East and South and Central America as well as spending two years undercover in Londonderry. It was in Northern Ireland, however - urinating in plastic cans and wrapping his faeces in clingfilm in order to leave no trace at a surveillance point - that the strange skills of the secret commando were honed. "Nobody in the world," he says, "has the sort of continuous experience over 20 years that we have had." McNab's patrol in Iraq - ostensibly to sabotage Scud missiles - turned into an old-fashioned military cock-up. Dropped in the wrong place, the unit was discovered by a child goatherd who McNab wisely decided not to kill ("Too much noise; anyway, I wouldn't want that on my conscience for the rest of my life"). After numerous engagements one member of the patrol, Chris Ryan, escaped to Syria, three died, and the remainder - including McNab - were captured and tortured. Released at the end of the war, McNab added a Distinguished Conduct Medal to the Military Medal he had won in Northern Ireland, and Bravo Two Zero became the most decorated patrol since the Boer war. He left the SAS in 1993, but despite the amazing success of his book - £1.5m sales in the UK alone - some of civvy street's problems seemed more intractable than those posed by Saddam Hussein. His first and second marriages had ended speedily (he exited the second, in proper SAS style, by jumping out of a first-floor window) and his third, by which he had a young daughter, was on the rocks by the time he was in the Gulf. His third wife, now remarried, wrote a book claiming that SAS men were sex-mad sadists. (The SAS, reportedly, has a divorce rate of about 40%.) "I was very selfish, I admit," McNab says. "My career came before my marriages. I'm sorry for my wives. They had to put up with a lot." He also fell out with Chris Ryan, who wrote his own book about the ill-fated patrol (made into a 1996 television film), The One That Got Away. McNab was unflatteringly portrayed as a gung ho glory seeker with an obsessive hatred of "ragheads", and legal skirmishes and cutting-room amendments ensued. "It makes us look like a Mickey Mouse operation," McNab raged. Only those there at the time know the whole truth but McNab contemptuously rejected a Hollywood proposal for a movie where the patrol bungled an assassination attempt on Saddam Hussein and Mel Gibson rode to the rescue. The other civvy street problem was the military establishment, which took a dim view of the literary efforts of squaddies. Although Sir Peter de la Billière, former head of the SAS and British commander in the Gulf war, had written his memoirs, McNab was reportedly banned from the regiment's Hereford headquarters after his own book came out. "It was a class thing," he says. "Historically, it would be senior officers telling the story of a war. What I have done is give the faceworker's view of it." The class thing still irritates him, despite his wealth. He once bought a £64,000 Porsche in Park Lane because the salesman got snooty with him for wandering around the showroom in his tracksuit bottoms and motorcycle helmet. "It was 'Can I help you?' which means 'F*** off.' Really annoying. Really annoying. So I turned round and thought, 'Right, I'm gonna get one of these.' " It was a lucky day for the salesman, but you can't help thinking it was even luckier that he didn't get up McNab's nose somewhere else, such as in the middle of the Iraqi desert. Sunday Times (Culture) (Dec 6/98) Members of the famous SAS patrol whose mission to destroy Scud missile-launchers during the Gulf war so cruelly failed, have, famously, continued to give conflicting accounts of what actually happened (three so far and counting). An ITV film based on a rival account by Chris Ryan, The One That Got Away, provoked relatives of those who died to complain vehemently about alleged distortions. Now Andy McNab, leader of the patrol, has taken drastic action to make sure that the screen version of his bestseller, Bravo Two Zero, is not marred by dissenting voices when the BBC screens it next year, with Sean Bean starring. McNab has split his entire rights fee - reckoned to be £80,000 - between the survivors and the families of those who died.	i don't know
'Shining Path' is the name of the guerrilla organisation operating in which South American country?	Peru: Shining Path Guerillas Back in Action Shining Path Guerillas Back in Action By Abraham Lama LIMA, Jun 20 (IPS) - After being declared ''virtually annihilated'' in 1996 by President Alberto Fujimori, rebels of the Shining Path movement are operating again in the remote jungle areas of Peru. Dissidents within the guerrilla organisation, calling themselves "Red Path" have refused to comply with the surrender call of Shining Path's founder Abimael Guzman. Since 1993 they have been holed up in remote jungle regions, staging only sporadic incursions. For the past three weeks, however, the dissident group has launched a series of high-profile attacks apparently designed to demonstrate that it is still alive and kicking. A column of around 80 Red Path combatants appeared in the area of Alto Huallaga in Peru's central jungle region and occupied four towns for short periods. And in Viscatan, in Peru's south-central tropical mountainous region, insurgents have attacked ''peasant patrols,'' - the rural paramilitary units created and armed by the government. Over the past week, government troops were flown by air to reinforce army posts in the area of the Huallaga river and increase the number of soldiers trying to fence in the column that attacked the four towns. Uchiza, one of the larger towns in the area was occupied on May 28 for nearly one hour by some 50 rebels, who set fire to several banks and public buildings. A police officer and one guerrilla fighter were killed and four rebels were wounded in the confrontation while a teacher and two students, caught in the crossfire, also died. Police sources said the National Intelligence Service warned in March that rebels in Huallaga were preparing for action again and that they would ''possibly try to conduct large-scale operations to attract international attention.'' Farther south, an army detachment was sent to Viscatan, the starting-point for incursions by armed rebel groups into several highland villages in the area of Ayacucho in May and early this month. The rebel units sought out leaders of the ''peasant patrols,'' a few of whom were killed and their houses burned in a warning to local residents that anyone who provided the army with information or assistance would be killed. According to sociologist Flavio Solorzano, an analyst with the local non-governmental organisation ''Population and Development,'' each of the two new guerrilla fronts had its own distinct purpose. ''The political leadership of the dissident group of Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) which does not accept the party line of peace adopted by Guzman is in Viscatan, while the column operating in Huallaga is to carry out politically-oriented operations and obtain logistical resources,'' said Solorzano. He added that ''it can be deduced that Sendero Rojo (Red Path) is trying to recuperate its social bases in Ayacucho, where the peasant war led by Guzman broke out in 1980'' Since 1994, Viscatan has been considered the refuge of Oscar Feliciano Ramirez, known as ''comrade Feliciano,'' the only member of the Central Committee of Shining Path still at large. Ramirez heads the dissidents who have refused to agree to the surrender called for by Guzman from his prison cell. But government spokespersons said last week that a new rebel military-political command had emerged in Huallaga, headed by Julio Flores or Filomeno Cerron - authorities are unsure which is his real name - better known as ''comrade Artemio.'' Analysts familiar with the working of the guerrilla movement said Artemio is not following Feliciano's orders, but trying to operate on his own, taking advantage of unrest among impoverished local peasants and a slight recent rise in the price of coca, the raw material of cocaine. Others, like Solorzano, believed he was only a ''regional-level commander'' who bowed to the authority of the head of Red Path. From 1980 to 1993, the area in which Artemio is now operating was the economic base of Shining Path, which extorted or offered protection to Peruvian and Colombian drug trafficking gangs that exported a weekly average of one tonne of basic cocaine paste out of Huallaga. But the crash in the price of coca leaves and successful air interdiction efforts against clandestine flights carrying drug shipments caused traffickers to move elsewhere, leaving the insurgents without their source of cash. In Solorzano's opinion, the new outbreak of guerrilla activity in Huallaga and Viscatan was part of a coordinated, unified political plan. Fujimori agreed and described the recent rebel operations as ''the gropings of a drowning person.'' The head of the Fourth Military Region of the Army, Gen. Percy Corrales, also maintained that insurgent operations in the region of Huallaga had been carried out by ''armed gangs that want to relaunch the business of protecting drug trafficking.'' But ''these new subversive outbreaks have scant political possibilities, and will be squashed by the army,'' he charged. In 1993, after 13 years of warfare that caused more than 28,000 deaths and disappearances, Shining Path controlled a large area of Peru in ''liberated zones'' and undermined the authority of the central government in nearly 30 percent of the country. The apparent belief that conditions were ripe to topple the Fujimori administration led Guzman to Lima to personally head ''the final thrust,'' analysts said. Peru's intelligence services, however, work better in the capital than in the rugged mountain and remote jungle regions where Sendero had grown strong. Guzman and most of the members of the Central Committee of his organisation were captured, which triggered the near total political and military collapse of the insurgent organisation. But Feliciano escaped to the jungles, where for three years he worked on rebuilding the cells of the group, whose demoralised militants had scattered. In 1995 he announced that he would not lay down arms as urged by the imprisoned Guzman. So far, all efforts to find and capture Feliciano have failed. He is said to be ill and under the protection of a small group of loyal followers in the tropical mountain region of Viscatan. [LAC Editor's Note: Feliciano was successfully captured in an operation by Peruvian Marines in mid-July 1999. The dazed and ill-looking guerilla was subsequently paraded to the public on television, newspapers and other media. He is currently awaiting trial.] [c] 1999, InterPress Third World News Agency (IPS) All rights reserved	Peru
Which Italian design company, best known for its jeans, was founded by Renzo Rosso in Molvena in 1978?	shining path : definition of shining path and synonyms of shining path (English) Comrade José The Communist Party of Peru (Spanish: Partido Comunista del Perú), more commonly known as the Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso), is a Maoist organization in Peru . When it first launched the internal conflict in Peru in 1980, its stated goal was to replace what it saw as bourgeois democracy with " New Democracy ". The Shining Path believed that by imposing a dictatorship of the proletariat , inducing cultural revolution , and eventually sparking world revolution , they could arrive at pure communism .[ citation needed ] Their representatives said that existing socialist countries were revisionist , and claimed to be the vanguard of the world communist movement. The Shining Path's ideology and tactics have been influential on other Maoist insurgent groups, notably the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) and other Revolutionary Internationalist Movement -affiliated organizations. [2] Widely condemned for its brutality, [3] [4] including violence deployed against peasants , trade union organizers, popularly elected officials and the general civilian population, [5] the Shining Path is described by the Peruvian government as a terrorist organization. The group is on the U.S. Department of State 's list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations , [6] and the European Union [7] and Canada [8] likewise describe it as a terrorist organization and prohibit providing funding or other financial support. Since the capture of its leader Abimael Guzmán in 1992, the Shining Path has declined in activity. [9] Certain factions of the Shining Path now claim to fight in order to force the government to reach a peace treaty with the rebels.[ citation needed ] Similar to militant groups in Colombia , some factions of Shining Path have adapted as a highly efficient cocaine -smuggling operation, with an ostensibly paternalistic relationship to villagers. [10] Contents 11 External links Name The common name of this group, Shining Path, distinguishes it from several other Peruvian communist parties with similar names (see Communism in Peru ). The name is derived from a maxim of José Carlos Mariátegui , founder of the original Peruvian Communist Party in the 1920s: "El Marxismo-Leninismo abrirá el sendero luminoso hacia la revolución" (" Marxism–Leninism will open the shining path to revolution"). [3] This maxim was featured in the masthead of the newspaper of a Shining Path front group . Peruvian communist groups are often distinguished by the names of their publications. The followers of this group are generally called senderistas. All documents, periodicals and other materials produced by the organization are signed by the Communist Party of Peru (PCP). Academics often refer to them as PCP-SL. Origins The Shining Path was founded in the late 1960s by Abimael Guzmán , a former university philosophy professor (referred to by his followers by his nom de guerre Presidente Gonzalo)[ citation needed ]. His teachings created the foundation of its militant Maoist doctrine. It was an offshoot of the Communist Party of Peru — Bandera Roja ( red flag ), which in turn split from the original Peruvian Communist Party , a derivation of the Peruvian Socialist Party founded by José Carlos Mariátegui in 1928. [11] The Shining Path first established a foothold at San Cristóbal of Huamanga University , in Ayacucho , where Guzmán taught philosophy. The university had recently reopened after being closed for about half a century, and many students of the newly educated class adopted the Shining Path's radical ideology. Between 1973 and 1975, Shining Path members gained control of the student councils in the Universities of Huancayo and La Cantuta , and developed a significant presence in the National University of Engineering in Lima and the National University of San Marcos , the oldest university in the Americas. Sometime later, it lost many student elections in the universities, including Guzmán's San Cristóbal of Huamanga. It decided to abandon recruiting at the universities and reconsolidate.[ citation needed ] Beginning on March 17, 1980, the Shining Path held a series of clandestine meetings in Ayacucho, known as the Central Committee's second plenary. [12] It formed a "Revolutionary Directorate" that was political and military in nature, and ordered its militias to transfer to strategic areas in the provinces to start the "armed struggle". The group also held its "First Military School" where members were instructed in military tactics and weapons use. They also engaged in the " Criticism and Self-criticism ", a Maoist practice intended to purge bad habits and avoid repeating mistakes. During the First Military School, members of the Central Committee came under heavy criticism. Guzmán did not, and he emerged from the First Military School as the clear leader of the Shining Path. [13] Guerrilla war Main article: Internal conflict in Peru Shining Path poster supporting an electoral boycott When Peru's military government allowed elections for the first time in a dozen years in 1980, the Shining Path was one of the few leftist political groups that declined to take part. It chose to begin guerrilla war in the highlands of Ayacucho Region . On May 17, 1980, the eve of the presidential elections, it burned ballot boxes in the town of Chuschi . It was the first "act of war" by the Shining Path. The perpetrators were quickly caught, additional ballots were shipped to Chuschi, the elections proceeded without further incident, and the incident received little attention in the Peruvian press. [14] Throughout the 1980s, the Shining Path grew in both the territory it controlled and the number of militants in its organization, particularly in the Andean highlands. It gained support from local peasants by filling the political void left by the central government and providing popular justice. This caused the peasantry of many Peruvian villages to express some sympathy for the Shining Path, especially in the impoverished and neglected regions of Ayacucho, Apurímac , and Huancavelica . At times, the civilian population of small neglected towns participated in popular trials, especially when the victims of the trials were widely disliked. [15] Poster of Abimael Guzmán celebrating five years of war The Shining Path's credibility was helped by the government's initially tepid response to the insurgency . For over a year, the government refused to declare a state of emergency in the region where the Shining Path was operating. The Interior Minister, José María de la Jara, believed the group could be easily defeated through police actions. [16] Additionally, the president, Fernando Belaúnde Terry , who returned to power in 1980, was reluctant to cede authority to the armed forces, as his first government had ended in a military coup . The result was that the peasants in the areas where the Shining Path was active thought the state was impotent or not interested in their issues. On December 29, 1981 the government declared an "emergency zone" in the three Andean regions of Ayacucho, Huancavelica and Apurímac, and granted the military the power to arbitrarily detain any suspicious person. The military abused this power, arresting scores of innocent people, at times subjecting them to torture during interrogation [17] and rape. [18] Police, military forces and members of the Popular Guerrilla Army (Ejército Guerrillero Popular, or EGP) carried out several massacres throughout the conflict. Military personnel took to wearing black ski-masks to hide their identities and protect their safety and that of their families. But the masks were intimidating, and also hid the identities of military personnel as they committed crimes. In some areas, the military trained peasants and organized them into anti-rebel militias, called rondas . They were generally poorly-equipped, despite being provided arms by the state. The rondas attacked the Shining Path guerrillas. The first such reported attack was in January 1983 near Huata , when ronderos killed 13 senderistas; in February in Sacsamarca . In March 1983, ronderos brutally killed Olegario Curitomay, one of the commanders of the town of Lucanamarca . They took him to the town square, stoned him, stabbed him, set him on fire, and finally shot him. [19] In response, in April the Shining Path entered the province of Huanca Sancos and the towns of Yanaccollpa , Ataccara , Llacchua , Muylacruz and Lucanamarca, where they killed 69 people, in what became known as the Lucanamarca massacre . This was the first time the Shining Path massacred peasants. Similar events followed, such as the ones in Hauyllo , Tambo District . The guerrillas killed 47 peasants, including 14 children aged four to fifteen. [20] Additional massacres by the Shining Path occurred, such as the one in Marcas on August 29, 1985. [21] [22] In addition to occasional massacres, the Shining Path established labor camps to punish those who betrayed the "forces of the people." Those imprisoned were forced to work the lands and the coca fields. Hunger and deprivation were commonplace, and attempting escape was punishable by immediate execution. [23] Areas where the Shining Path was active in Peru The Shining Path's attacks were not limited to the countryside. It mounted attacks against the infrastructure in Lima , killing civilians in the process. In 1983, it sabotaged several electrical transmission towers, causing a citywide blackout , and set fire and destroyed the Bayer industrial plant. That same year, it set off a powerful bomb in the offices of the governing party, Popular Action . Escalating its activities in Lima, in June 1985 it blew up electricity transmission towers in Lima, producing a blackout, and detonated car bombs near the government palace and the justice palace. It was believed to be responsible for bombing a shopping mall. [24] At the time, President Fernando Belaúnde Terry was receiving the Argentine president Raúl Alfonsín . In one of its last attacks in Lima, on July 16, 1992, the group detonated a powerful bomb on Tarata Street in the Miraflores District , full of civilian people, adults and children, [25] killing 25 people and injuring an additional 155. [26] During this period, the Shining Path assassinated specific individuals, notably leaders of other leftist groups, local political parties, labor unions , and peasant organizations, some of whom were anti-Shining Path Marxists . [5] On April 24, 1985, in the midst of presidential elections, it tried to assassinate Domingo García Rada, the president of the Peruvian National Electoral Council, severely injuring him and mortally wounding his driver. In 1988, Constantin Gregory, an American citizen working for the United States Agency for International Development , was assassinated. Two French aid workers were killed on December 4 that same year. [27] In August 1991, the group killed one Italian and two Polish priests in Ancash Region . [28] The following February, it assassinated María Elena Moyano , a well-known community organizer in Villa El Salvador , a vast shantytown in Lima. [29] By 1991, the Shining Path had control of much of the countryside of the center and south of Peru and had a large presence in the outskirts of Lima. As the organization grew in power, a cult of personality grew around Guzmán. The official ideology of the Shining Path ceased to be 'Marxism–Leninism-Mao Tse-tung thought', and was instead referred to as 'Marxism–Leninism–Maoism-Gonzalo thought'. [30] The Shining Path fought against Peru's other major guerrilla group, the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) [31] and campesino self-defense groups organized by the Peruvian armed forces. Although the reliability of reports regarding the Shining Paths alleged atrocities remain a matter of controversy,[ citation needed ], the organization's use of violence is well documented. Lisa North, an expert on Peru at York University , noted that "the assassinations they carried out were absolutely ruthless . . . It was so extremist – absolutely, totally doctrinaire and absolutely, totally ruthless in pursuit of its aims." [32] The Shining Path brutally killed its victims and rejected the idea of human rights. A Shining Path document stated: We start by not ascribing to either Universal Declaration of Human Rights or the Costa Rica [Convention on Human Rights] , but we have used their legal devices to unmask and denounce the old Peruvian state. . . . For us, human rights are contradictory to the rights of the people, because we base rights in man as a social product, not man as an abstract with innate rights. "Human rights" do not exist except for the bourgeois man, a position that was at the forefront of feudalism , like liberty, equality, and fraternity were advanced for the bourgeoisie of the past. But today, since the appearance of the proletariat as an organized class in the Communist Party, with the experience of triumphant revolutions, with the construction of socialism, new democracy and the dictatorship of the proletariat , it has been proven that human rights serve the oppressor class and the exploiters who run the imperialist and landowner-bureaucratic states. Bourgeois states in general. . . . Our position is very clear. We reject and condemn human rights because they are bourgeois, reactionary, counterrevolutionary rights, and are today a weapon of revisionists and imperialists, principally Yankee imperialists. — Communist Party of Peru, Sobre las Dos Colinas [33] Level of support While the Shining Path quickly seized control of large areas of Peru, it soon faced serious problems. The Shining Path's Maoism never had the support of the majority of the Peruvian people; according to opinion polls, 15% of the population considered subversion to be justifiable in June 1988 while 17% considered it justifiable in 1991. [34] In June 1991, "the total sample disapproved of the Shining Path by an 83 to 7 percent margin, with 10 percent not answering the question. Among the poorest, however, only 58% stated disapproval of the Shining Path; 11 percent said they had a favorable opinion of the Shining Path, and some 31 percent would not answer the question." [35] A September 1991 poll found that 21 percent of those polled in Lima believed that the Shining Path did not kill and torture innocent people. The same poll found that 13% believed that society would be more just if the Shining Path won the war and 22% believed society would be equally just under the Shining Path as it was under the government. [35] Many peasants were unhappy with the Shining Path's rule for a variety of reasons, such as its disrespect for indigenous culture and institutions, [36] and the brutality of its "popular trials" that sometimes included "slitting throats, strangulation, stoning, and burning." [37] [38] While punishing and killing cattle thieves was popular in some parts of Peru, the Shining Path also killed peasants and popular leaders for minor offenses. [39] Peasants were offended by the rebels' injunction against burying the bodies of Shining Path victims. [40] The Shining Path became disliked for its policy of closing small and rural markets in order to end small-scale capitalism and to starve Lima. [41] [42] As a Maoist organization, it strongly opposed all forms of capitalism. It followed Mao's dictum that guerrilla warfare should start in the countryside and gradually choke off the cities. (Desarrollar la lucha armada del campo a la ciudad, San Marcos 1985 PCP speech) (citation needed). As the peasants' livelihoods depended on trade in the markets, they rejected such closures. In several areas of Peru, the Shining Path launched unpopular restrictive campaigns, such as a prohibition on parties [43] and the consumption of alcohol. [44] Government response and abuses In 1991, President Alberto Fujimori issued a law [45] that gave the rondas a legal status, and from that time they were officially called Comités de auto defensa ("Committees of Self Defence"). They were officially armed, usually with 12-gauge shotguns , and trained by the Peruvian Army . According to the government, there were approximately 7,226 comités de auto defensa as of 2005; [46] almost 4,000 are located in the central region of Peru, the stronghold of the Shining Path. The Peruvian government also clamped down on the Shining Path in other ways. Military personnel were dispatched to areas dominated by the Shining Path, especially Ayacucho, to fight the rebels. Ayacucho itself was declared an emergency zone, and constitutional rights were suspended in the area. Initial government efforts to fight the Shining Path were not very effective or promising. Military units engaged in many human rights violations, which caused the Shining Path to appear in the eyes of many as the lesser of two evils. They used excessive force and killed many innocent civilians. Government forces destroyed villages and killed campesinos suspected of supporting the Shining Path. They eventually lessened the pace at which the armed forces committed atrocities such as massacres. Additionally, the state began the widespread use of intelligence agencies in its fight against the Shining Path. However, atrocities were committed by the National Intelligence Service and the Army Intelligence Service , notably the La Cantuta massacre and the Barrios Altos massacre , both of which were committed by Grupo Colina . [47] [48] After the collapse of the Fujimori government, interim President Valentín Paniagua , established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate the conflict. The Commission found in its 2003 Final Report that 69,280 people died or disappeared between 1980 and 2000 as a result of the armed conflict. [49] About 54% of the deaths and disappearances reported to the Commission were caused by the Shining Path. [50] A statistical analysis of the available data led the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to estimate that the Shining Path was responsible for the death or disappearance of 31,331 people, 46% of the total deaths and disappearances. [49] According to a summary of the report by Human Rights Watch , "Shining Path… killed about half the victims, and roughly one-third died at the hands of government security forces… The commission attributed some of the other slayings to a smaller guerrilla group and local militias. The rest remain unattributed." [51] The MRTA was held responsible for 1.5% of the deaths. [52] Capture of Guzmán and collapse On September 12, 1992, Peruvian police captured Guzmán and several Shining Path leaders in an apartment above a dance studio in the Surquillo district of Lima. The police had been monitoring the apartment, as a number of suspected Shining Path militants had visited it. An inspection of the garbage of the apartment produced empty tubes of a skin cream used to treat psoriasis , a condition that Guzmán was known to have. Shortly after the raid that captured Guzmán, most of the remaining Shining Path leadership fell as well. [53] The capture of rebel leader Abimael Guzman left a huge leadership vacuum for the Shining Path. "There is no No. 2. There is only Presidente Gonzalo and then the party," a Shining Path political officer said at a birthday celebration for Guzman in Lurigancho prison in December 1990. "Without Presidente Gonzalo, we would have nothing." [54] At the same time, the Shining Path suffered embarrassing military defeats to self-defense organizations of rural campesinos — supposedly its social base. When Guzmán called for peace talks, the organization fractured into splinter groups, with some Shining Path members in favor of such talks and others opposed. [55] Guzmán's role as the leader of the Shining Path was taken over by Óscar Ramírez , who himself was captured by Peruvian authorities in 1999. After Ramírez's capture, the group splintered, guerrilla activity diminished sharply, and peace returned to the areas where the Shining Path had been active. [56] 21st century, resurgence, and downfall Although the organization's numbers had lessened by 2003, [56] a militant faction of the Shining Path called Proseguir (or "Onward") continued to be active. [57] It is believed that the faction consists of three companies known as the North, or Pangoa, the Centre, or Pucuta, and the South, or Vizcatan. The government claims that Proseguir is operating in alliance with drug traffickers. On March 21, 2002, a car bomb exploded outside the U.S. embassy in Lima just before a visit by U.S. President George W. Bush . Nine people were killed and 30 were injured; the attack was blamed on the Shining Path. [58] On June 9, 2003, a Shining Path group attacked a camp in Ayacucho, and took 68 employees of the Argentinian company Techint and three police guards as hostages. They had been working in the Camisea gas pipeline project that would take natural gas from Cusco to Lima. [59] According to sources from Peru's Interior Ministry, the rebels asked for a sizable ransom to free the hostages. Two days later, after a rapid military response, the rebels abandoned the hostages; according to government sources no ransom was paid. [60] However, there were rumors that US$200,000 was paid to the rebels. [61] Government forces have successfully captured three leading Shining Path members. In April 2000, Commander José Arcela Chiroque , called "Ormeño", was captured, followed by another leader, Florentino Cerrón Cardozo, called "Marcelo" in July 2003. In November of the same year, Jaime Zuñiga, called "Cirilo" or "Dalton," was arrested after a clash in which four guerrillas were killed and an officer wounded. [62] Officials said he took part in planning the kidnapping of the Techint pipeline workers. He was also thought to have led an ambush against an army helicopter in 1999 in which five soldiers died. In 2003, the Peruvian National Police broke up several Shining Path training camps and captured many members and leaders. [63] It also freed about 100 indigenous people held in virtual slavery . [64] By late October 2003 there were 96 terrorist incidents in Peru, projecting a 15% decrease from the 134 kidnappings and armed attacks in 2002. [63] Also for the year, eight [64] or nine [63] people were killed by Shining Path, and 6 senderistas were killed and 209 captured. [63] Comrade Artemio In January 2004, a man known as Comrade Artemio and identifying himself as one of the Shining Path leaders said in a media interview that the group would resume violent operations unless the Peruvian government granted amnesty to other top Shining Path leaders within 60 days. [65] Peru's Interior Minister, Fernando Rospigliosi, said that the government would respond "drastically and swiftly" to any violent action. In September that same year, a comprehensive sweep by police in five cities found 17 suspected members. According to the interior minister, eight of the arrested were school teachers and high-level school administrators. [66] Despite these arrests, the Shining Path continues to exist in Peru. On December 22, 2005, the Shining Path ambushed a police patrol in the Huánuco region, killing eight. [67] Later that day they wounded an additional two police officers. In response, then President Alejandro Toledo declared a state of emergency in Huánuco, and gave the police the power to search houses and arrest suspects without a warrant. On February 19, 2006, the Peruvian police killed Héctor Aponte, believed to be the commander responsible for the ambush. [68] In December 2006, Peruvian troops were sent to counter renewed guerrilla activity and, according to high level government officials, the Shining Path's strength has reached an estimated 300 members. [69] In November 2007, police claimed to have killed Artemio's second-in-command, a guerrilla known as JL. [70] In September 2008, government forces announced the killing of five rebels in the Vizcatan region. This claim has subsequently been challenged by the APRODEH , a Peruvian human rights group, which believes that those who were killed were in fact local farmers and not rebels. [71] That same month, Artemio gave his first recorded interview since 2006. In it he stated that the Shining Path would continue to fight despite escalating military pressure. [72] In October 2008, in Huancavelica Region , the guerrillas engaged a military convoy with explosives and firearms, demonstrating their continued ability to strike and inflict casualties on military targets. The conflict resulted in the death of 12 soldiers and two to seven civilians. [73] [74] It came one day after a clash in the Vizcatan region, which left five rebels and one soldier dead. [75] In November 2008, the rebels utilized hand grenades and automatic weapons in an assault that claimed the lives of 4 police. [76] In April 2009, the Shining Path ambushed and killed 13 government soldiers in Ayacucho. [77] Grenades and dynamite were used in the attack. [77] The dead included eleven soldiers and one captain and two soldiers were also injured, with one reported missing. [77] Poor communications were said to have made relay of the news difficult. [77] The country's Defence Minister, Antero Flores Aráoz claimed many soldiers "plunged over a cliff". [77] His Prime Minister Yehude Simon said these attacks were "desperate responses by the Shining Path in the face of advances by the armed forces", and expressed his belief that the area would soon be freed of "leftover terrorists". [77] In the aftermath, a Sendero leader called this "the strongest [anti-government] blow... ...in quite a while". [78] In November 2009, Defense Minister Rafael Rey announced that Shining Path militants had attacked a military outpost in southern Ayacucho province. One soldier was killed and three others wounded in the assault. [79] On April 28, 2010 Shining Path rebels in Peru ambushed and killed a police officer and two civilians who were destroying coca plantations of Aucayacu, in the central region of Haunuco, Peru. The victims were gunned down by sniper fire coming from the thick forest as more than 200 workers were destroying coca plants. [80] Since this attack, the Shining Path faction, based in the Upper Huallaga Valley of Peru and headed by Florindo Eleuterio Flores Hala, alias Comrade Artemio, has been operating in a survival mode, and has lost 9 of their top 10 leaders to Peruvian National Police (PNP)-led capture operations. Two of the eight leaders were killed by PNP personnel during the attempted captures. Those nine arrested/killed Shining Path (Upper Huallaga Valley faction) leaders include Mono (Aug. 2009), Rubén (May 2010), Izula (Oct. 2010), Sergio (Dec. 2010), Yoli/Miguel/Jorge (Jun. 2011), Gato Larry (Jun. 2011), Oscar Tigre (Aug. 2011), Vicente Roger (Aug. 2011) and Dante/Delta (Jan. 2012). [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] This loss of leadership coupled with a sweep of Shining Path (Upper Huallaga Valley) supporters executed by the PNP in November 2010, prompted Comrade Artemio to declare in December 2011 to several international journalists that the guerrilla war against the Peruvian Government has been lost, and that his only hope was to negotiate an amnesty agreement with the Government of Peru. [89] On the 12th of February 2012,Comrade Artemio was found badly wounded after a clash with troops in a remote jungle region of Peru. President Ollanta Humala said the capture of Artemio marked the defeat of the Shining Path in the Alto Huallaga valley – a centre of cocaine production. President Humala has stated that he would now step up the fight against the other remaining band of Shining Path rebels in the Ene-Apurimac valley. [90] On March 3, Walter Diaz, the lead candidate to succeed Artemio, [91] was captured, [92] further ensuring the disintegration of the Alto Huallaga valley faction. [91] On April 3, 2012, Jaime Arenas Caviedes, a senior leader in the group's remnants in Alto Huallaga Valley [93] who was also regarded to be the leading candidate to succeed Artemio following Diaz's arrest, [94] was captured. [93] After Caviedes, alias "Braulio," [93] was captured, Humala declared that the Shining Path was now unable to operate in Alto Huallaga Valley. [95] Links to MOVADEF The Movement for Amnesty and Fundamental Rights is an organization that tried to register as a lawful political party according to Peruvian law； however， its registration was denied by the Peruvian JNE . [1] [2] According to the organization's own website, they are "A group of grassroots leaders, intellectuals and people artists, as well as lawyers who defend political prisoners and social outcasts, who guided to serve the people with all our hearts and with absolute disinterest, have constituted the “Movimiento Por Amnistía y Derechos Fundamentales” [96] In its own website (in Spanish) they also say, among many mottos, "¡Down with the political pursuit against communists, marxists-leninists-maoists, Gonzalo Thought and the real democrats" In their publication called "General Amnesty", the openly advocate for freeing Abimael Guzmán. Notes	i don't know
Which title, referring to a story from Greek mythology, is shared by paintings by Bouguereau, Cabanel and Botticelli?	The Birth of Venus, Botticelli Botticelli , The Birth of Venus Botticelli , The Birth of Venus The Birth of Venus is a painting by Sandro Botticelli. It depicts the Goddess Venus, having emerged from the sea as a full grown woman, arriving at the sea-shore. This large picture by Botticelli may have been, like the Primavera, painted for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco's Villa di Castello, around 1483, or even before. Some scholars suggest that the Venus painted for Lorenzo and mentioned by Giorgio Vasari may have been a different, now lost, work to the painting in the Uffizi. Some experts believe it to be a celebration of the love of Giuliano di Piero de' Medici (who died in the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478) for Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci, who lived in Portovenere, a town by the sea with a local tradition of being the birthplace of Venus. Whatever inspired the artist, there are clear similarities to Ovid's Metamorphoses and Fasti, as well as to Poliziano's Verses. The classical Goddess Venus emerges from the water on a shell, blown towards shore by the Zephyrs , symbols of spiritual passions, and with one of the Ores, goddesses of the seasons, who hands her a flowered cloak. According to some commentators, the naked goddess isn't then a symbol of earthly but of spiritual love, like an ancient marble statue (which might have inspired the 18th century sculptor, Antonio Canova, by its candor), slim and long-limbed, with harmonious features. The effect, nonetheless, is distinctly pagan considering it was made at a time and place when most artworks depicted Roman Catholic themes. It is somewhat surprising that this canvas escaped the flames of Savonarola's bonfires, where a number of Botticelli's other "pagan" influenced works perished. Detail of Venus The anatomy of Venus and various subsidiary details do not display the strict classical realism of Leonardo da Vinci or Raphael. Most obviously, Venus has an improbably long neck, and her left shoulder slopes at an anatomically unlikely angle. Such details, whether artistic errors or artistic licence, do little to diminish the great beauty of the painting, and some have suggested it prefigures mannerism. Classical inspiration Mural at Pompeii The painting was one of a series which Botticelli was inspired to paint after written descriptions by the 2nd century historian Lucian of masterpieces of Ancient Greece which had long since disappeared by Botticelli's time. The ancient painting by Apelles was called Anadyomene Venus, "Anadyomene" meaning "rising from the sea"; this title was also used for Botticelli's painting, The Birth of Venus only becoming its better known title in the 19th century. A mural from Pompeii was never seen by Botticelli, but may have been a Roman copy of the then famous painting by Apelles which Lucian mentioned. In classical antiquity, the sea shell was a metaphor for a woman's vulva. The pose of Botticelli's Venus is reminiscent of the Venus de Medici, a marble sculpture from classical antiquity in the Medici collection which Botticelli had opportunity to study. Botticelli's "Birth of Venus" in literature A subplot (chapter 7) of Thomas Pynchon's novel V. (1961) centers on an attempt to steal the painting from the Uffizi gallery in Florence. Rafael Mantissa, an exile from Venezuela, is more or less in love with Venus. While some correctly argue that this is not your regular motive for stealing a painting, this is an underscored point of the novel: the paradoxical relation of men to Woman. Men are attracted to Woman, but at the same time destroyed. However, all of this is perceived by one of the characters, Herbert Stencil, in his attempt to come to terms with loss through historical imagination and historiography - the famous 'historical chapters' in V.. Botticelli's "Birth of Venus" in popular culture Reproductions and variations on Botticelli's famous painting have been numerous in popular culture, including in advertising and motion pictures: A scene in the 1962 James Bond film Dr. No with Ursula Andress rising from the sea was inspired by the painting. The scene was recreated in more detail in the 1988 film The Adventures of Baron Munchausen, with Uma Thurman as Venus. Munchausen's director Terry Gilliam had previously featured the painting in an animated sequence in Monty Python's Flying Circus, segueing into the Dead Parrot sketch. Adobe Illustrator used a stylized representation of the painting in its splash screen through version 10. A stylized face of Venus is on the 10 cent Italian euro coins. On the Simpsons episode The Last Temptation of Homer, Homer hallucinates The Birth of Venus upon first meeting his new female co-worker. In the episode The Secret Snake Club in The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy, Irwin makes a painting that has Mandy's head as a replacement of Venus's head. The "Kilgore Trout" novel Venus on the Half-Shell is titled from a jocular nickname for the painting. In the 2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony, Eva Herzigová appears as Venus from a shell. From Joni Mitchell's 1991 album "Night Ride Home." In the song "The Only Joy In Town," the opening lyrics are, "I want to paint a picture Botticelli style, Instead of Venus on a clam I'd paint this flower child" In the game Animal Crossing, a painting of Venus can be obtained as an item. WALTER PATER In Leonardo's treatise on painting only one contemporary is mentioned by name—Sandro Botticelli. This pre-eminence may be due to chance only, but to some will rather appear a result of deliberate judgment; for people have begun to find out the charm of Botticelli's work, and his name, little known in the last century, is quietly becoming important. In the middle of the Fifteenth Century he had already anticipated much of that meditative subtlety which is sometimes supposed peculiar to the great imaginative workmen of its close. Leaving the simple religion which had occupied the followers of Giotto for a century, and the simple naturalism which had grown out of it, a thing of birds and flowers only, he sought inspiration in what to him were works of the modern world, the writings of Dante and Boccaccio, and in new readings of his own of classical stories; or if he painted religious subjects, painted them with an undercurrent of original sentiment which touches you as the real matter of the picture through the veil of its ostensible subject. What is the peculiar sensation, what is the peculiar quality of pleasure which his work has the property of exciting in us, and which we cannot get elsewhere? For this, especially when he has to speak of a comparatively unknown artist, is always the chief question which a critic has to answer. In an age when the lives of artists were full of adventure, his life is almost colourless. Criticism indeed has cleared away much of the gossip which Vasari accumulated, has touched the legend of Lippo and Lucrezia, and rehabilitated the character of Andrea del Castagno; but in Botticelli's case there is no legend to dissipate. He did not even go by his true name: Sandro is a nickname, and his true name is Filipepi, Botticelli being only the name of the goldsmith who first taught him art. Only two things happened to him, two things which he shared with other artists—he was invited to Rome to paint in the Sistine Chapel, and he fell in later life under the influence of Savonarola, passing apparently almost out of men's sight in a sort of religious melancholy which lasted till his death in 1515, according to the received date. Vasari says that he plunged into the study of Dante, and even wrote a comment on the Divine Comedy. But it seems strange that he should have lived on inactive so long; and one almost wishes that some document might come to light which, fixing the date of his death earlier, might relieve one, in thinking of him, of his dejected old age. The Birth of Venus. Botticelli. He is before all things a poetical painter, blending the charm of story and sentiment, the medium of the art of poetry, with the charm of line and colour, the medium of abstract painting. So he becomes the illustrator of Dante. In a few rare examples of the edition of 1481, the blank spaces left at the beginning of every canto for the hand of the illuminator have been filled as far as the nineteenth canto of the Inferno, with impressions of engraved plates, seemingly by way of experiment, for in the copy in the Bodleian Library, one of the three impressions it contains has been printed upside down and much awry in the midst of the luxurious printed page. Giotto, and the followers of Giotto, with their almost childish religious aim, had not learned to put that weight of meaning into outward things, light, colour, every-day gesture, which the poetry of the Divine Comedy involves, and before the Fifteenth Century Dante could hardly have found an illustrator. Botticelli's illustrations are crowded with incident, blending with a naïve carelessness of pictorial propriety three phases of the same scene into one plate. The grotesques, so often a stumbling-block to painters who forget that the words of a poet, which only feebly present an image to the mind, must be lowered in key when translated into form, make one regret that he has not rather chosen for illustration the more subdued imagery of the Purgatorio. Yet in the scene of those who go down quick into hell there is an invention about the fire taking hold on the up-turned soles of the feet, which proves that the design is no mere translation of Dante's words, but a true painter's vision; while the scene of the Centaurs wins one at once, for, forgetful of the actual circumstances of their appearance, Botticelli has gone off with delight on the thought of the Centaurs themselves, bright small creatures of the woodland, with arch baby faces and mignon forms, drawing tiny bows. Botticelli lived in a generation of naturalists, and he8 might have been a mere naturalist among them. There are traces enough in his work of that alert sense of outward things which, in the pictures of that period, fills the lawns with delicate living creatures, and the hill-sides with pools of water, and the pools of water with flowering reeds. But this was not enough for him; he is a visionary painter, and in his visionariness he resembles Dante. Giotto, the tried companion of Dante, Masaccio, Ghirlandaio even, do but transcribe with more or less refining the outward image; they are dramatic, not visionary painters; they are almost impassive spectators of the action before them. But the genius of which Botticelli is the type usurps the data before it as the exponents of ideas, moods, visions of its own; with this interest it plays fast and loose with those data, rejecting some and isolating others, and always combining them anew. To him, as to Dante, the scene, the colour, the outward image or gesture, comes with all its incisive and importunate reality; but awakes in him, moreover, by some subtle structure of his own, a mood which it awakes in no one else, of which it is the double or repetition, and which it clothes, that all may share it, with sensuous circumstances. But he is far enough from accepting the conventional orthodoxy of Dante which, referring all human action to the easy formula of purgatory, heaven, and hell, leaves an insoluble element of prose in the depths of Dante's poetry. One picture of his, with the portrait of the donor, Matteo Palmieri, below, had the credit or discredit of attracting some shadow of ecclesiastical censure. This Matteo Palmieri—two dim figures move under that name in contemporary history—was the reputed author of a poem, still unedited, La Città Divina, which represented the human race as an incarnation of those angels who, in the revolt of Lucifer, were neither for God nor for his enemies, a fantasy of that earlier Alexandrian philosophy, about which the Florentine intellect in that century was so curious. Botticelli's picture may have been only one of those familiar compositions in which religious reverie has recorded its impressions of the various forms of beatified existence—Glorias, as they were called, like that in which Giotto painted the portrait of Dante; but somehow it was suspected of embodying in a picture the wayward dream of Palmieri, and the chapel where it hung was closed. Artists so entire as Botticelli are usually careless about philosophical theories, even when the philosopher is a Florentine of the Fifteenth Century, and his work a poem in terza rima. But Botticelli, who wrote a commentary on Dante and became the disciple of Savonarola, may well have let such theories come and go across him. True or false, the story interprets much of the peculiar sentiment with which he infuses his profane and sacred persons, comely, and in a certain sense like angels, but with a sense of displacement or loss about them—the wistfulness of exiles conscious of a passion and energy greater than any known issue of them explains, which runs through all his varied work with a sentiment of ineffable melancholy. So just what Dante scorns as unworthy alike of heaven and hell, Botticelli accepts, that middle world in which men take no side in great conflicts, and decide no great causes, and make great refusals. He thus sets for himself the limits within which art, undisturbed by any moral ambition, does its most sincere and surest work. His interest is neither in the untempered goodness of Angelico's saints, nor the untempered evil of Orcagna's Inferno; but with men and women in their mixed and uncertain condition, always attractive, clothed sometimes by passion with a character of loveliness and energy, but saddened perpetually by the shadow upon them of the great things from which they shrink. His morality is all sympathy; and it is this sympathy, conveying into his work somewhat more than is usual of the true complexion of humanity, which makes him, visionary as he is, so forcible a realist. It is this which gives to his Madonnas their unique expression and charm. He has worked out in them a distinct and peculiar type, definite enough in his own mind, for he has painted it over and over again, sometimes one might think almost mechanically, as a pastime during that dark period when his thoughts were so heavy upon him. Hardly any collection of note is without one of these circular pictures, into which the attendant angels depress their heads so naïvely. Perhaps you have sometimes wondered why those peevish-looking Madonnas, conformed to no acknowledged or obvious type of beauty, attract you more and more, and often come back to you when the Sistine Madonna and the virgins of Fra Angelico are forgotten. At first, contrasting them with those, you may have thought that there was even something in them mean or abject, for the abstract lines of the face have little nobleness and the colour is wan. For with Botticelli she too, though she holds in her hands the "Desire of all nations," is one of those who are neither for God nor for his enemies; and her choice is on her face. The white light on it is cast up hard and cheerless from below, as when snow lies upon the ground, and the children look up with surprise at the strange whiteness of the ceiling. Her trouble is in the very caress of the mysterious child, whose gaze is always far from her, and who has already that sweet look of devotion which men have never been able altogether to love, and which still makes the born saint an object almost of suspicion to his earthly brethren. Once, indeed, he guides her hand to transcribe in a book the words of her exaltation, the Ave and the Magnificat, and the Gaude Maria, and the young angels, glad to rouse her for a moment from her dejection, are eager to hold the inkhorn and support the book; but the pen almost drops from her hand, and the high cold words have no meaning for her, and her true children are those others, in the midst of whom, in her rude home, the intolerable honour came to her, with that look of wistful inquiry on their irregular faces which you see in startled animals—gipsy children, such as those who, in Apennine villages, still hold out their long brown arms to beg of you, but on Sundays become enfants du chœur with their thick black hair nicely combed and fair white linen on their sunburnt throats. What is strangest is that he carries this sentiment into classical subjects, its most complete expression being a picture in the Uffizi, of Venus rising from the sea, in which the grotesque emblems of the middle age, and a landscape full of its peculiar feeling, and even its strange draperies powdered all over in the Gothic manner with a quaint conceit of daisies, frame a figure that reminds you of the faultless nude studies of Ingres. At first, perhaps, you are attracted only by a quaintness of design, which seems to recall all at once whatever you have read of Florence in the Fifteenth Century; afterwards you may think that this quaintness must be incongruous with the subject, and that the colour is cadaverous, or at least cold. And yet the more you come to understand what imaginative colouring really is, that all colour is no mere delightful quality of natural things, but a spirit upon them by which they become expressive to the spirit, the better you will like this peculiar quality of colour; and you will find that quaint design of Botticelli's a more direct inlet into the Greek temper than the works of the Greeks themselves even of the finest period. Of the Greeks as they really were, of their difference from ourselves, of the aspects of their outward life, we know far more than Botticelli, or his most learned contemporaries; but for us, long familiarity has taken off the edge of the lesson, and we are hardly conscious of what we owe to the Hellenic spirit. But in pictures like this of Botticelli's you have a record of the first impression made by it on minds turned back towards it in almost painful aspiration from a world in which it had been ignored so long; and in the passion, the energy, the industry of realization, with which Botticelli carries out his intention, is the exact measure of the legitimate influence over the human mind of the imaginative system of which this is the central myth. The light is, indeed, cold—mere sunless dawn; but a later painter would have cloyed you with sunshine; and you can see the better for that quietness in the morning air each long promontory as it slopes down to the water's edge. Men go forth to their labours until the evening; but she is awake before them, and you might think that the sorrow in her face was at the thought of the whole long day of love yet to come. An emblematical figure of the wind blows hard across the grey water, moving forward the dainty-lipped shell on which she sails, the sea "showing his teeth" as it moves in thin lines of foam, and sucking in one by one the falling roses, each severe in outline, plucked off short at the stalk, but embrowned a little, as Botticelli's flowers always are. Botticelli meant all that imagery to be altogether pleasurable; and it was partly an incompleteness of resources, inseparable from the art of that time, that subdued and chilled it; but his predilection for minor tones counts also; and what is unmistakable is the sadness with which he has conceived the goddess of pleasure as the depository of a great power over the lives of men. I have said that the peculiar character of Botticelli is the result of a blending in him of a sympathy for humanity in its uncertain condition, its attractiveness, its investiture at rarer moments in a character of loveliness and energy, with his consciousness of the shadow upon it of the great things from which it shrinks, and that this conveys into his work somewhat more than painting usually attains of the true complexion of humanity. He paints the story of the goddess of pleasure in other episodes besides that of her birth from the sea, but never without some shadow of death in the grey flesh and wan flowers. He paints Madonnas, but they shrink from the pressure of the divine child, and plead in unmistakable undertones for a warmer, lower humanity. The same figure—tradition connects it with Simonetta, the mistress of Giuliano de' Medici—appears again as Judith returning home across the hill country when the great deed is over, and the moment of revulsion come, and the olive branch in her hand is becoming a burthen; as Justice, sitting on a throne, but with a fixed look of self-hatred which makes the sword in her hand seem that of a suicide; and again as Veritas in the allegorical picture of Calumnia, where one may note in passing the suggestiveness of an accident which identifies the image of Truth with the person of Venus. We might trace the same sentiment through his engravings; but his share in them is doubtful, and the object of this fragment has been attained if I have defined aright the temper in which he worked. But, after all, it may be asked, is a painter like Botticelli, a second-rate painter, a proper subject for general criticism? There are a few great painters, like Michael Angelo or Leonardo, whose work has become a force in general culture, partly for this very reason that they have absorbed into themselves all such workmen as Sandro Botticelli; and, over and above mere technical or antiquarian criticism, general criticism may be very well employed in that sort of interpretation which adjusts the position of these men to general culture, whereas smaller men can be the proper subjects only of technical or antiquarian treatment. But, besides those great men, there is a certain number of artists who have a distinct faculty of their own by which they convey to us a peculiar quality of pleasure which we cannot get elsewhere, and these, too, have their place in general culture, and have to be interpreted to it by those who have felt their charm strongly, and are often the objects of a special diligence and a consideration wholly affectionate, just because there is not about them the stress of a great name and authority. Of this select number Botticelli is one; he has the freshness, the uncertain and diffident promise which belongs to the earlier Renaissance itself, and makes it perhaps the most interesting period in the history of the mind; in studying his work one begins to understand to how great a place in human culture the art of Italy had been called. Studies in the History of the Renaissance (London, 1873). The Birth of Venus, Botticelli, Stamp Retrieved parts from "http://en.wikipedia.org	The Birth of Venus
In 'The Simsons', what is the name of Springfield's baseball team who play their home games at 'Duff Stadium'?	QUIZ MASTER skip to main \| skip to sidebar QUIZ MASTER WELCOME TO THE QUIZ MASTER'S BLOG. HERE YOU WILL FIND A TREASURE TROVE OF QUIZ QUESTIONS - UPLOADED REGULARLY. Monday, 7 February 2011 QUIZ IX - THE RESULTS Yep. the deadline's up and the results are in. As always, the standard of answering was exceptional and, as a result, just one question went unanswered (André Bloch, anybody? No? Nobody?! OK then). There was one 'solo' to announce: 28 NO GUN RI MASSACRE - Olav Bjortomt Well played Olav. 17. OLE MARTIN HALCK 107 18. ANNE HEGERTY 106 36. GEIR H. KRISTIANSEN 75 37. PAUL DAVIS 74 38. JON INGE KOLDEN 70 39. AUDREY DOYLE 68 44. INGRID SANDE LARSEN 59 45. SAM ROBERTS 55 46. MARTE STANG MIDTTUN 48 47=. MYRON MEYER 47.5 Many thanks to all who took part. Posted by QUIZ VIII - RESULTS OK. Results are in. 60 people took part this time - many thanks to all of you. As usual, some great answers. 3 questions, however, went unanswered; nobody knew (perhaps understandably!) of the Maya theatrical play Rabinal Achí, that Makobo Constance Modjadji VI was the last holder of the title Rain Queen, or that 'The Red Detachment of Women' was the name of the Chinese ballet watched by Richard Nixon. There were, as always, a number of solos: 44 - ABERDARE RANGE - Eric Wildsmith 105 - SALLY MANN - Lars Heggland 130 - LAKE ATITLAN - Gary Grant 135 - YUNGAY - David Stainer 169 - LACRIMAL BONE - Issa Schultz Well done to all those with solos. Now, to the results: 15. Ole Martin Halck 97 16. Anne Hegarty 95 48=. Ingrid Sande Larsen 43 50. Marte Stang Midttun 41 51. Brian Pendreigh 40 53. Lars André Gundersen 36.5 54=. Anne Nyhus 36 58. Vegard Eikemo Sande 24 59=. Anlaug Frydenlund 12 59=. Lesley Saunders-Davies 12 Congratulations to Olav for a terrific score and many thanks, once again, to everyone who took part. Quiz IX to follow... Posted by As some of you will know, 'Rob's Quiz VIII', the latest installment in my series, is currently available. The deadline is 11.59pm on Sunday 2ns May 2010. There are no prizes (it's just a bit of fun) and, obviously therefore, no charge for entering. Rules are simple: you have 105 minutes to complete the 200 questions without using friends, Google or any point of reference other than what's already in your head. If anyone who has not already received a copy would like to have a go at it then please e-mail me at [email protected] Once completed, the answers should be e-mailed back to me. Posted by Results are up. As always, some great answers from all concerned. There were three questions that went unanswered; no-one knew that the Spanish sport involving knocking down a wooden marro is called 'Calva', that the world's third most popular social networking website is called 'Hi5', or that the hat traditionally worn by Nigerian men is called a 'Kufi'. There were, however, a number of 'solos': 40. EKIDEN - Tero Kalliolevo 159. BOCCACCIO '70 - Peter Smith 164. SHANNON-HARTLEY THEOREM - Peter Ediss 165. POLARKRIES 18 - Thomas Kolåsæter 170. LIGHTS OF NEW YORK - Phil Duffy 180. ST. CLAIRE'S DEFEAT - Chris Jones 192. DIPROTODON - Tore Dahl 15=. Ole Martin Halck 96 15=. William De’Ath 96 18. Tore Dahl 94.5 35. Jon Inge Kolden 72.5 36. Petter Kjær 72 55. Anne Lau Revil 19 56. Lesley Saunders-Davies 17 Many thanks to all who took part. I hope you all enjoyed it!! Posted by RESULTS - ROB'S QUIZ VI The moment you've all been waiting for (perhaps). Many thanks to all who took part in Rob's Quiz VI. The standard was, as always, amazing. 198 of the 200 questions were answered correctly. No-one knew that Brer Rabbit was based, in part, on an Ojibwa god called Nanabozho or that Ingmar Bergman's only gothic horror film was entitled 'Hour of the Wolf'. After all that, only one solo emerged: Q 49: Repo! The Genetic Opera - Michael McPartland Well done, Michael!! The final scores are below - if you happened to send me your answers within about an hour of the deadline then please check your score as I'd already, by then, drunk most of a bottle of wine. Thank you. The scores: 1. Pat Gibson 158 11. William De Ath 113 12. Thomas Kolåsæter 111 13. Ole Martin Halck 110 14. David Lea 108 54=. Lars Andre Gundersen 39 54=. Paul Reeve 39 Many thanks to all who took part. Posted by My new 200 question quiz is out. The deadline is 7th June 2009. If you would like a copy then please mail me at [email protected] Posted by Where are all the quizzes? You will no doubt have noticed that I have not been posting quizzes here for quite some time. I began this blog at a time when I had just got into quiz and was writing tonnes of questions and had nowhere to put them. This blog, therefore, I used as a repository for my efforts (albeit, the desire to show off was, no doubt, also a contributing factor!). Now that I have my regular 200-question quizzes and am writing for leagues, pubs, etc. I have several appropriate outlets into which my questions can be inserted. I will continue to post questions here but such postings will, I imagine, be less frequent than once was the case. But, they will come - I assure you! Those of you who know me well may be aware that many years ago I was pursuing a 'career' as a poet. I think I had almost forgotten this 'past life' of mine but, yesterday, for the first time in several years, I receieved some 'fan mail' from a young Canadian boy who had read some poems I'd written that have, I'm told, found their way into a Canadian anthology of some description. The boy was particularly gushing about a couple of poems I wrote entitled 'If I Were Blind' and 'One Day'. I strongly doubt that the boy will ever read this blog (he will almost certainly be moping in a dark room listening to My Chemical Romance) but, if he ever does, I'd like him to know that he made me smile today. A smile is not much but it does help to make life that little more bearable, and I thank him. This incident led me to rereading some of the stuff I wrote all those years ago. 'Blind' is a poem that, on reflection, could only have been written by a teenager - I must have been 17 or 18 when I wrote it. It is sincere to the point of insincerity, emotional to the point of triteness and the narrator's massively evident insecurity grates a little. It is also clunky in parts. But there is something to it - it is more than just an angst-ridden goth boy's histrionics. Something. I could easily dismiss the work as a trite, oh so knowingly self-loathing piece of juvenilia but maturity is all too harsh a critic. I'm prepared to be generous. 'One Day' probably falls into a similar bracket as 'Blind' but is more honest and a little less whiney. Its construction leaves an awful lot to be desired but it does feel less insincere (as, indeed, I suspect it was). I neither feel inclined nor able to produce any poetry at all these days but a quick, nostalgic peek at more fecund times has brought a smile to my face. Today has been a good day - I learned a little more about myself. If I Were Blind Would you scold me for turning my head at the sight of unlawfulness and destruction? Would you berate me for perceiving not the difference between black and white? Or would you comfort me and be my eyes? If I were deaf Would you blame me for ignoring the screams of the pitiably oppressed? Would you reproach me for discerning not the difference between a tongue and a tear? Or would you soothe me and be my ears? If I were mute Would you rebuke me for failing to speak out against tyranny and cruelty? Would you censure me for knowing not the difference between the right terms and the wrong? Or would you reassure me and be my words? If I were lame Would you reprehend me for declining to rush to the aid of the dying man? Would you reprove me for feeling not the difference between the concrete and the pillow? Or would you console me and be my feet? But now I am lonely Why do you lecture me for turning away from the underprivileged and the needy? Why do you upbraid me for detecting not greater pain than my own? Why don't you cheer me and be my friend? Rob Hannah - 1999 I looked at my lover's feet As they padded nervously through crowded streets, Quickening with each hunted thought and haunting memory. Feet, ceaselessly retreating from a broken city with broken morals And manufactured tolerance. And the Fractured cobblestones are built from jagged rock and on flat lies. Feet, never having travelled, but fled. Only ever feeling part of a person upon arrival at their destination, Until which they are the gettaway car, The hounded quarry, the unsounded scream. Yesterday I looked at my lover's hands As they fumbled along the boundaries of a pale society And felt the baleful pain of rejection and abject shame. Hands, shaking upon greeting others for fear that they should incriminate With a clumsy flap or trembling flutter. Hands, leading to cramped knuckles and tired wrists No longer ready to shield eyes from accusing fingers Nor to mask a face from public view. Hands, for once not to feel But instead to soften the pain with A soothing touch and a clenched fist. Yesterday I looked at my lover's ears As they absorbed the frenzied thoughts of a million mouths, Each mimicking the words of a million more, Each miming and mouthing And regurgitating phrases and fables made true through time and repetition. Ears, ignoring the words but unable to escape the voices Of those men and women behind the lies. Ears, twitching at every noise And standing upright and alert, Collecting each scrap of sound with which To create maps of minds through second-hand bigotry And a faint hope of survival. One day I will look into my lover's eyes. Rob Hannah - 1998 THE 69th QUIZ Just a short one. 1. Which man, who died in 2004, served as chairman of the Arts Coucil of Great Britain and the advisory council of the Victoria and Albert Museum, a director of the Royal Opera House, a trustee of Glyndebourne, a member of the National Art Collections Fund committee, and treasurer of the Historic Churches Preservation Trust was made a life peer of Penn's Rocks in East Sussex in 1975? PATRICK GIBSON 2. Who is the current manager of Wolverhampton Wanderers FC? MICK McCARTHY 3. And which footballer scored on his Wolverhampton Wanderers debut in January 2008, having been signed by McCarthy from Luton Town for £675,000? DAVID EDWARDS 4. Which Scottish actress is best known for playing Tina Hunter in the popular BBC Scotland soap opera ‘River City’ and has also played Michelle in ‘Dear Green Place’? JENNY RYAN 5. Who captained the Mayflower on its transatlantic voyage that established the Plymouth Colony settlement in Massachusetts in 1620? CHRIS JONES 6. Which Scottish international footballer scored Derby County’s winning goal as Derby ran out 1–0 winners over West Bromwich Albion in the 2007 Championship playoff final? STEPHEN PEARSON 7. What was the real name of Anthony Burgess, the author of ‘A Clockwork Orange’? JOHN WILSON 8. Also the first British flag officer to become a pilot, who was commander of the Greek Navy at the outbreak of World War I? MARK KERR The deadline is up and the results have been counted. For the first time in one of my quizzes, a score of over 75% has been attained. The quality of answers was such that just 2 questions went unanswered. Nobody guessed that a British hit single must have a running time of 40 minutes or under, or that the penaque is the only genus of fish to survive largely by eating wood. A particularly notable score was attained by Michael McPartland who, on his first attempt at one of my quizzers, managed to come 5th. Amazingly, 98% of the answers he gave were correct. I don't believe I've ever seen that before. I've invited him to attend a future a GP. If this score is anything to go by, he should do very well. There were, as always, several correct answers that were given by just one person. They were: Q. 19 - Christchurch - Dom Tait Q. 29 - Vigo & La Coruña - Lars Heggland (several people got one or other but only Lars named both cities). Q. 104 - Kappa Sigma - Michael McPartland Q. 110 - Naraka - Shanker Menon Q. 170 - Kinderwhore - Michael McPartland Q. 184 - Holden - Mark Grant Q. 189 - Isabela - Keith Andrew And to the results: THE 68th QUIZ Hello, once again. 25 questions for you with a bit of an emphasis on early English history. Due to several requests (or, indeed, constant nagging) I've put the answers directly after the questions. 1. Who was the commander of the Viking force that was defeated by Alfred the Great at the Battle of Edington? GUTHRUM 2. With 31, who holds the record for winning the most Grammy Awards? GEORG SALTI 3. What was the name of the English King upon which Shakespeare based his play 'Cymbeline'? CUNOBELINUS 4. Which famous poet took boxing lessons from the celebrated pugilist John Jackson, better known as Gentleman Jackson? LORD BYRON 5. What was the name of the brother of Edward the Confessor who was murdered by followers of Harold Harefoot in 1036? ALFRED 6. Found in South Africa, which is the world's second highest waterfall? TUGELA 7. What was the name of the husband of Boudicca? KING PRASUTAGUS 8. Prior to the publication of 'Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone', which 1939 novel had been the world's best-selling fictional work of the 20th Century? AND THEN THERE WERE NONE (by AGATHA CHRISTIE) 9. As a child Alfred the Great was sent on a mission to Rome to meet with which Pope? LEO IV 10. What name did Tacitus give to the unidentified Scottish mountain upon the slopes of which 10,000 Caledonians were slaughtered by the Roman army in 79AD? MONS GRAUPIUS 11. Who was the first person to win two Academy Awards for Best Actress? LUISE RAINER 12. In 927AD, who became the first King to be officially crowned as 'King of England'? AETHELSTAN 13. After Harvard, which is the USA's next oldest university? COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY (in Virginia) 14. What is the literal meaning of the word 'Pict'? PAINTED ONE 15. Which Australian middle and long distance runner set 17 world records during the 1960s but never won an Olympic gold medal? RON CLARKE 16. Who was the father of King Cnut? SWEYN I 17. After Canada, which country has the next longest coastline? INDONESIA 18. Which English village, then an important city, was known to the Romans as Viriconium? WROXETER 19. After the USA and Israel, which country has the next largest Jewish population? FRANCE 20. What name was given to any of the 30 defensive forts built by Alfred the Great in order to keep the Vikings out of Wessex after the Battle of Edington? BURH 21. Which is Africa's largest landlocked country? NIGER 22. At which castle is Catherine of Aragon buried? PETERBOROURGH 23. Which King of East Anglia is thought to have been the king who was laid in the Viking longboat discovered at Sutton Hoo? RAEDWALD 24. Who won an Oscar in 1944 for her performance as Cary Grant's mother in 'None But the Lonely Heart'? ETHEL BARRYMORE 25. At 2,190 metres deep, the Voronya or Krubera Cave is the world's deepest. In which country is it found? GEORGIA Because my attention has been concentrated on other projects recently, I have posted very infrequently on this blog of late. From today, the quizzes will be posted more regularly. Here are 20 questions for you: 1. Which British track and field athlete lit the Olympic flame at the 1948 London Olympics? 2. With a name meaning 'corpse shore', what is the name of the place in Hel where Níðhöggr lives and sucks corpses? 3. What is the name of the monumental gateway that serves as the entrance to the Acropolis in Athens that now gives its name to any monumental gateway? 4. Who did Andy Murray defeat to win the final of the Cincinatti Masters in August 2008? 5. Which 17th Century Italian baroque painter, whose works include 'Baptism of Christ' and 'Venus and Amor', is known as 'The Anacreon of Painters'? 6. Who was the morganatic wife of Prince Rupert, Duke of Cumberland who is usually credited as the first professional actress on the English stage? Her first performance was on December 8 1660, in a production of Shakespeare's play 'Othello', when she played the role of Desdemona. 7. Which American football team play their homes games at Heinz Field? 8. Said to have been founded by a sister of Diomede and the birthplace of Democritus and Protagoras, which maritime city in Thrace is said to have become so overrun with rats that is was abandoned by its inhabitants who relocated to Macedonia? 9. Which American athlete was the first man to run the 100m in under 10 seconds? 10. According to Islamic belief, 40 of the 70 Abdals always live in which country? 11. Named after its ineffectiveness, which English Parliament of 1614 lasted no more than eight weeks and failed to resolve the conflict between King James I and the House of Commons? 12. Which horse won the 2008 Kentucky Derby? And which horse had to be put down after finishing second in the same race? * 13. Based on the stories in 'The Arabian Nights', 'Tales of the Genii' is the best remembered work of which English author? 14. First appearing in 1883, which catcher, playing for Toledo, became the first black major league baseballer? 15. What is the name of the boar of Norse mythology that was created by Eitri and Brokkr as a gift to Freyr? 16. Which English river was once known as the river Abus? 17. 'Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter', 'The Prime of Life', 'Force of Circumstance' and 'All Said and Done' are the four volumes of the autobiography of which French author? 18. In reference to seven Alexandrian poets and tragedians of the 3rd century B.C., what collective name was given to a group of 16th-century French Renaissance poets whose principal members were Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Jean-Antoine de Baïf? 19. Which city in Jiangsu Province in China, known for its gardens and silk industry, is nicknamed 'the Venice of the East'? 20. In the Bible, upon which mountain did Aaron die? *Thanks to Myron for spotting the not very deliberate mistake in the original question here. The original question stated that Big Brown both won the 2008 Kentucky Derby and was put down afterwards. I can state with confidence that Big Brown did win the race but it was, in fact, Eight Belles who was 'euthanized' (yes, I hate that word too). Big Brown is not dead - at least he wasn't until he read my quiz, at which point the shock of finding that he had been pronounced dead on such an authoritative blog as this one caused catastrophic heart failure. R.I.P. Big Brown. And Eight Belles. And the answers: RESULTS OF ROB'S QUIZ III The deadline is up and the votes have been counted. Well, the answers have been counted. Perhaps the most pleasing aspect was that the quality of answers was so high that, of the 200 questions, only 5 went unanswered. Special mentions go to the following, who were the only person, in each case, to give the correct answer to that question: Q. 15 - SAVED BY THE BELL: THE NEW CLASS - Olav Bjortomt (although plenty were awarded half a mark for 'Saved By the Bell') Q. 55 - BAHUVRIHI - Shanker Menon Q. 64 - SHED - Peter Ediss Q. 90 - GIRLICIOUS - Roger Eldegard Q. 124 - STEPHEN KUMALO - William Barrett Q. 153 - BABY FACE NELSON - Olav Bjortomt Q. 175 - QUERY - Olav Bjortomt Q. 190 - CANIS MAJOR - Thomas Kolåsæter Well done to all the above. And now to the important bit. The scores are: 1. Mark Bytheway 144 QUIZ RESULTS The deadline has closed and the results are in. 34 people have taken part (although 2 people - who assure me they have completed the quiz - have been given special dispensation to furnish me with their answers at a later date). Many thanks to all those who took part and congratulations to all those who scored over 100 on what was, it appears, a slightly harder quiz than last time. Further congratulations to the winner, who fared rather better with my questions than I usually do with his. As with my last quiz, I would like to give a special mention to three people who were, in each case, the only person (out of the 34) to give a correct answer to a particular question. They are: Question 24 - Sarabande - DIANE HALLAGAN Question 104 - Dysnomia - QUENTIN HOLT Question 130 - Chukwa - NIC PAUL And to the results: THE 66th QUIZ 1. They were discovered in 1743 and called Cyrpiniformes. Shortly afterwards, another discovery led to them being given the name by which we know them today. What name? 2. What name is given to any of a group of biennial Old World thistles in the genus Arctium, family Asteraceae, that is used in Japanese cuisine and said to have medicinal qualities? 3. Which poet, born in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1910, served as the rector of the Black Mountain College from 1951 until 1956 and left 'The Maximus Poems' unfinished at his death in 1970? 4. Aishwarya Rai starred alongside Colin Firth and Sir Ben Kingsley in which 2007 film based on a novel by Valerio Massimo Manfredi? 5. At 5' 5", which international is the shortest footballer to be on the books of a Premiership club? 6. Who was the Dutch scientist who, in 1676, became the first person to observe bacteria? 7. What was the name of the father of Rameses II who, for a time, ruled jointly with his son? 8. By what name was British Airways known when it was founded in 1924? 9. In which year were both Napoleon Bonaparte and the Duke of Wellington born? 10. The word ‘cheetah’ is derived from a Sanskrit name meaning what? 11. What was the name of the Queen of the Netherlands who abdicated in 1948 due to ill health? 12. KT Tunstall was born in which Scottish town on 23 June 1975? 13. In Graham Greene's novel 'Brighton Rock', what is Pinkie's surname? 14. Which former President was enrolled as the first Medicare beneficiary and presented with the first Medicare card? 15. What is the name of the founder of the Peruvian rebel group Shining Path? 16. What name was given to the rigidly organized military regiments commanded by Shaka Zulu? 17. How much did James Whistler receive after successfully suing the art critic John Ruskin for libel? 18. Which alternative rock group recorded the song ‘California’ that is used as the theme to ‘The O.C.’? 19. In April 2003, which American news website accidentally published premature draft obituaries of several public figures, using the Queen Mother and Ronald Reagan as draft templates? Dick Cheney was described as the 'UK's favorite grandmother', Pope John Paul II was said to have had a 'love of racing' and Fidel Castro was described as a 'lifeguard, athlete and movie star'. 20. In which country is the style of music known as zaffa traditionally used at wedding ceremonies? And the answers: THE 65th QUIZ - USA & CANADA Quizzes for your consumption: 1. Which small, uninhabited island in the Caribbean Sea, an unorganized unincorporated territory of the United States, which administers it through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, is also claimed by Haiti? 2. Washington DC is located on land donated by which American state? 3. Bryce Canyon, a giant natural amphitheater created by erosion along the eastern side of the Paunsaugunt Plateau, is to be found in which US State? 4. Deriving from the French for ‘towards Arkansas’, what name is given to the physiographic, geologic, and cultural highland region of the central United States, covering much of the south half of Missouri and an extensive portion of northern Arkansas as well as parts of Oklahoma and Kansas? 5. Which river, perhaps named for the tannic acid it contains, separates the Adirondack Mountains from the Tug Hill Plateau in New York state before emptying into Lake Ontario? 6. With a maximum depth of 594 metres, which lake in Oregon is the deepest lake in the USA? 7. Theodore Roosevelt National Park consists of 110 square miles of badlands in which American state? 8. What is the name given to the historically significant one square mile tract of land along the border between Delaware, Maryland and Pennsylvania, the ownership of which was disputed from the 17th Century until Delaware’s ownership was confirmed by Pennsylvania in 1921? 9. In 1791, which became the 14th American state and the first admitted to the Union since the original 13 colonies declared independence from Britain? 10. Signed in San Lorenzo de El Escorial on October 27, 1795, establishing intentions of friendship between the United States and Spain, its full title was Treaty of Friendship, Limits, and Navigation Between Spain and the United States and it was also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo or the Treaty of Madrid. However, the name by which it is best remembered today is that of the American statesman who negotiated the treaty for the United States. What name? 11. Taking place from 1795 to 1803, the Yazoo Land Scandal is the name given to the massive fraud perpetrated by several governors of which state by selling large tracts of land to insiders at ridiculously low prices? 12. Taking its name from a suburb of what is now Mexico City, what name is given to the treaty, signed in February 1848, that ended the Mexican-American War? 13. The land bought from Mexico in 1853 for $10 million in what is known as the Gadsden Purchase is now located in which two states? 14. Guam, Puerto Rico and American Samoa are three of the better known unincorporated territories of the Unites States. Which atoll in the Northern Pacific Ocean is the USA’s only incorporated territory? 15. What was the name of the chief of the Wampanoag Indians who led his people in the bloody war against the English colonists that would become known as King Philip’s War (1675-76)? 16. Which American jurist, statesman, and revolutionary leader from Connecticut served as a delegate to the Continental Congress where he signed the Declaration of Independence and later as the first President of the United States in Congress Assembled? 17. Although his very existence has never been proven, Tom the Tinker was the name given to the leader of which insurrection in Pennsylvania in 1794 caused by the introduction of a hated tax three years earlier? 18. In which city was George Washington inaugurated as the first US President in April 1789? 19. In 1959, Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as the 49th and 50th states. Admitted in 1912, which was the 48th state? 20. Shay’s Rebellion, led by small farmers angered by crushing debt and taxes in the immediate aftermath of the War of American Independence, was an armed uprising that occurred in which state from 1786-87? 1. NAVASSA ISLAND 19. ARIZONA 20. MASSACHUSETTS 1. Which American doctrine proclaimed, in December 1823, that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere with the affairs of the newly independent nations of the Americas. 2. The Louisiana Purchase occurred under which American President? 3. Containing approximately 80 islands, which lake between the Green Mountains of Vermont and the Adirondack Mountains of New York is drained northward by the Richelieu River into the St. Lawrence River near Montreal and fed by Otter Creek, the Winooski, Missisquoi, and Lamoille Rivers in Vermont, and the Ausable, Chazy, Boquet, and Saranac Rivers in New York? 4. Named after a disparaging phrase used by John Adams to describe agents of Foreign Minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, what name is given to the diplomatic episode of 1797 that worsened relations between France and the United States and led to the undeclared Quasi-War of 1798? 5. What was the name given to the two wars fought by the United States of America against the independent Sultanate of Morocco, and the three Regencies of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli from 1801 to 1815? 6. Mount McKinley, the tallest mountain in the USA, is to be found in which Alaskan National Park and Preserve, the name of which means "the great one" in the native Athabaskan language and refers to the mountain itself? 7. Who led the American forces against the British fleet, under the command of Sir Alexander Cochrane, at the Battle of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812? 8. The Era of Good Feelings is a much-used phrase coined by the journalist Benjamin Russell to describe a period of American history under which President? 9. In April 2007, a strong storm caused a 300 yard breach between Martha’s Vineyard and which smaller island off its eastern end that had previously been connected to the main island? 10. Sometimes known in the South as the Battle of Sharpsburg, which battle, fought in Maryland on September 17, 1862, was the first major battle in the American Civil War to take place on Northern soil and was the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, with almost 23,000 casualties? 11. What is the name of the historic village in Viriginia where the surrender of the Confederate Army under Robert E. Lee to Union commander Ulysses S. Grant took place on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the American Civil War? 12. With a population of a little over 11,500, which Floridian city is the oldest continuously occupied European-established city in the USA, and the oldest port in the continental United States? 13. It is traditionally held that the American Civil War began when which Confederate General opened fire upon Fort Sumter in South Carolina? 14. In 1848, the former Democratic President Martin van Buren was again nominated for Presidency by which short-lived political party that was active during the 1848 and 1852 elections before being largely absorbed by the Republican Party in 1854? 15. Devils Tower in Wyoming gained its name during an 1875 expedition led by Col. Richard Irving Dodge when his interpreter misinterpreted the Lakota name ‘Mato Tipila’ to mean Bad God's Tower, later to be shortened to its present name. What is the correct translation? 16. Named after an American slave who was later hanged, what name was given to the slave rebellion that took place in Southampton County, Virginia during August 31 during which over 50 people were killed? 17. What was the name of the American Commodore who compelled the opening of the Japanese ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to United States trade with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854? 18. The Pocono Mountains region is a popular tourist destination located in the northeastern part of which state? 19. Taking its name from the response expected from its members when asked about their involvement with the party, what was the popular name given to the movement that originated in New York in 1843 as the American Republican Party that was empowered by popular fears that the country was being overwhelmed by Irish Catholic immigrants? 20. Kolob Arch, the second longest natural arch in the world, can be found in which National Park in Utah? 1. MONROE DOCTRINE 16. NAT TURNER’S REBELLION 17. MATTHEW PERRY 19. KNOW-NOTHING (PARTY or MOVEMENT) 20. ZION NATIONAL PARK 1. The name Canada is taken from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning what? 2. The capital of Upper Canada from 1797 - 1841, by what name was Toronto known prior to 1834? 3. Which city in Newfoundland and Labrador is the oldest English-founded city in North America and received the first wireless trans-Atlantic message in 1901? 4. Celebrated annually on July 1st, by what name was Canada Day known prior to 1982? 5. Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec City in 1608 under the sponsorship of which French King? 6. Lucy Maude Montgomery's character, Anne of Green Gables was born in which Canadian province? 7. Who was the colonist and soldier of New France who led a French militia, allied with Huron Indians, against a much larger Iroquois army at the Battle of Long Sault in 1660? 8. Who was the Canadian-born French colonial governor who, in 1755, became the last governor of New France before it was ceded to Britain after the Seven Years’ War? 9. Canada shares its only land border with the United States. However, it shares marine borders with which two countries? 10. According to Canadian legend "Push on, brave York Volunteers" were the last words of which British Major-General, nicknamed ‘The Hero of Upper America’, who was killed at the Battle of Queenston Heights in 1812? 11. Which Canadian heroine of the War of 1812, after becoming aware of plans for a surprise attack on troops led by British Lieutenant James Fitzgibbon at Beaver Dams, is said to have walked, perhaps barefoot, approximately 32 km from present day Queenston to Fitzgibbon's headquarters to warn him of the attack? 12. Which easily recognizable twin peaked mountain with two flat-topped cylindrical rock towers, separated by a saddle, in Auyuittuq National Park in Nunavut appeared in the opening sequence of the James Bond film The Spy Who Loved Me? 13. The Red River Rebellion is the name given to the events surrounding the actions of a provisional government established by Métis leader Louis Riel in 1869 at the Red River Settlement that led to the creation of which Canadian province? 14. One of the most notorious incidents in the history of early 20th century exclusion laws in Canada designed to keep out immigrants of Asian origin, what was the name of the Japanese steam liner that sailed from Hong Kong to Vancouver in 1914, carrying 376 passengers from the Punjab, that was not allowed to land in Canada and was forced to return to India? 15. The only known nesting site of whooping cranes, which national park, located in northeastern Alberta and southern Northwest Territories, is the largest national park in Canada at 44,807 km²? 16. What was the name of the Canadian First World War flying ace, officially credited with 72 victories, the highest number for a British Empire pilot? 17. What was the name of the French munitions ship that exploded off the coast of Nova Scotia in December 1917, after colliding with the Belgian relief ship Imo, destroying most of the city of Halifax? 18. Located where the foothills of the Rocky Mountains begin to rise from the prairie near Fort McLeod in Alberta, which UNESCO World Heritage Site and museum of Native culture has, perhaps, the most unusual name of all World Heritage Sites? 19. What name is given to the formal and ceremonial uniform of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police? 20. What is the English name for the comedy festival Juste Pour Rire held each July in Montreal, the largest festival of its kind in the world? 1. VILLAGE (or SETTLEMENT) 19. RED SERGE 20. JUST FOR LAUGHS 1. Which previously independent Dominion joined the Canadian Confederation in 1948 after a bitterly fought referendum that often descended into a slanging match between Protestants and Catholics? 2. Sharing its name with a Greek goddess, which body of water separates the Queen Charlotte Islands from the mainland of British Columbia in Canada? 3. What was the name of the Belarussian cipher clerk who defected to Canada in September 1945, with 109 documents on Soviet espionage activities in the West exposing Joseph Stalin's efforts to steal nuclear secrets, and the then-unknown technique of planting sleeper agents? 4. Which is the longest river in Canada? 5. Which Polish-born Communist politician and trade union organizer became, in 1947, the only Member of the Canadian Parliament ever convicted of spying for a foreign country? 6. Which is the only Canadian province to have both French and English as official languages? 7. Which Canadian statesman, diplomat and future Prime Minister was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his role in defusing the Suez Crisis through the United Nations? 8. Which small, uninhabited barren knoll measuring 1.3 km², located in the centre of the Kennedy Channel of Nares Strait that separates Ellesmere Island from northern Greenland and connects Baffin Bay with the Lincoln Sea is claimed by both Canada and Denmark? 9. Named after a Canadian Prime Minister, what was the name of Constable Benton Fraser’s canine sidekick in the award-winning Canadian television police drama Due South? 10. Canada’s Four Corners point, located near Kasba Lake, is a point at which four political subdivisions meet, namely the Northwest Territories, Nunavut and which two provinces? 11. What was the name of the Minister of Quebec who was kidnapped and murdered by members of the terrorist group The Front de Libération du Québec during the October Crisis of 1970? 12. Cape Columbia is the northernmost point of land of Canada and is located on which island? 13. What was the name of the one-legged cancer patient who became a national celebrity after he undertook the cross-Canada run known as the Marathon of Hope in 1980? 14. Sharing its name with a now defunct American rock group, what is the name of the highest mountain in the Northwest Territories, first climbed in July 1965 by Bill Buckingham and Lew Surdam? 15. What was the name of the gunman who killed 14 women at the École Polytechnique in Montreal on December 6 1989, his actions leading Parliament to officially designate December 6 as the National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women? 16. In 2005, which Haitian-born broadcaster and film-maker became the first black person to serve as Governor General of Canada, a post she currently still occupies? 17. What name has been given to the international fishing dispute of 1995 between Canada and the European Union which ended in the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans boarding a Spanish fishing trawler, the Estai, in international waters and arresting its crew? 18. Formerly known as Frobisher Bay, what is the capital and largest town of Nunavut? 19. Canada is the world’s largest producer of which two important metallic elements? 20. What is Canada’s official national summer sport? 1. NEWFOUNDLAND I have written another 200 question quiz and am offering it free to anyone and everyone (because I'm kind like that). If you'd like to have a go than please e-mail me at [email protected]. Rules are simple: You have 90 minutes to complete the 200 questions. No Googling or reference books allowed and all that kind of stuff. I’m sure you know what to do - just answer the questions as best you can. When you’ve finished, please e-mail your completed quiz to me at [email protected] by Sunday 13th April 2008. Please feel free to pass it on to anyone you feel might enjoy taking part. Posted by 4. JESSICA LANGE PAINTINGS 1. Which title, referring to episode in the legendary history of early Rome, is shared by paintings by Nicolas Poussin, Peter Paul Rubens and Pablo Picasso? 2. Which title, the name of a Biblical King, is shared by sculptures by Donatello, Andrea del Verrocchio and Gian Lorenzo Bernini? 3. Which title, referring to an important Roman Catholic scene, is shared by paintings by Antonio da Correggio and Anabale Carracci? 4. Which title, referring to a story from Greek mythology, is shared by paintings by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Alexandre Cabanel and Sandro Botticelli? 1. RAPE OF THE SABINE WOMEN 2. DAVID 3. ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN MARY 4. THE BIRTH OF VENUS ELEMENTS 1. Which scientist is credited as the discoverer of xenon, neon, krypton and (with Lord Raleigh) argon? 2. Which scientist is credited as the discoverer of rhodium and palladium? 3. Which scientist is credited as the discoverer of uranium, zirconium, strontium, titanium and (with others) cerium? 4. Which scientist is credited as the discoverer of americium, curium and (with others) plutonium, berkelium and californium? 1. WILLIAM RAMSAY 1. Who was assassinated by Mohammed Bouyeri in November 2004? 2. Who was assassinated by François Ravaillac in May 1610? 3. Who was assassinated by Mijailo Mijailović in September 2003? 4. Who was assassinated by Dimitri Tsafendas in September 1966? 1. THEO VAN GOGH 2. KING HENRI IV OF FRANCE 3. ANNA LINDH 4. HENDRIK VERWOERD FIRST TOP TENS 1. Released in 1965, ‘I Can’t Explain’ was which group’s first top 10 hit? 2. Released in 1970, ‘Black Night’ was which group’s first top 10 hit? 3. Released in 1985, ‘Johnny Come Home’ was which group’s first top 10 hit? 4. Released in 1996, ‘Sandstorm’ was which group’s first top 10 hit? 1. THE WHO 4. HUMAN ACADEMY AWARDS 1. For his role in which 1987 film did Michael Douglas win an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Gordon Gecko? 2. For his role in which 1995 film did Nicholas Cage win an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Ben Sanderson? 3. For his role in which 1985 film did William Hurt win an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Luis Molina? 4. For his role in which 1997 film did Jack Nicholson win an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Melvin Udall? 1. WALL STREET 3. KISS OF THE SPIDER WOMAN 4. AS GOOD AS IT GETS ART MOVEMENTS 1. Its name coined by Ezra Pound, the painters Wyndham Lewis, David Bomberg and Lawrence Atkinson are associated with which artistic movement? 2. Its name coined by Guillaume Apollinaire, the painters Robert Delaunay, Sonia Terk and Frantisek Kupka are associated with which artistic movement? 3. Its name coined by Naum Gabo, the painters Alexander Rodchenko, Liubov Popova and Varvara Stepanova are associated with which artistic movement? 4. Its name coined by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, the painters Umberto Boccione, Carlo Carra and Luigi Russolo are associated with which artistic movement? 1. VORTICISM 4. BISMUTH FOOTBALLERS 1. Which Premiership footballer made his competitive debut for Welling United in 1993 and played for Birmingham City, Notts County and Fulham before joining his current club in 2003? 2. Which Premiership footballer made his competitive debut for Cardiff City in 1998 and played for Greenock Morton, West Bromwich Albion and Norwich City before joining his current club in 2007? 3. Which Premiership footballer made his competitive debut for Nottingham Forest in 1998 and played for FC Haka, Ipswich Town and West Ham United before joining his current club in 2007? 4. Which Premiership footballer made his competitive debut for Crewe Alexandra in 1994 and played for Liverpool, Charlton Athletic and Tottenham Hotspur before joining his current club in 2007? 1. STEVE FINNAN 4. FELIX MENDELSSOHN NOVELS 1. The duplicitous Julien Sorel, the son of a carpenter, is the protagonist of which 1831 novel? 2. Dr Primrose, whose seemingly idyllic life is rocked by sudden impoverishment, is the protagonist of which 1765 novel? 3. Harry Haller, who struggles to reconcile his noble aspirations with his baser instincts, is the protagonist of which 1927 novel? 4. Isabel Archer, a beautiful young American in Europe, is the protagonist of which 1881 novel? 1. LE ROUGE ET LE NOIR 2. THE VICAR OF WAKEFIELD 3. STEPPENWOLF 4. THE PORTRAIT OF A LADY PRIME MINISTERS 1. Who was British Prime Minister at the time of the Boston Tea Party? 2. Who was British Prime Minister at the time of the Peterloo Massacre? 3. Who was British Prime Minister at the time of Victoria’s ascension to the throne? 4. Who was British Prime Minister at the time of the Easter Rising? 1. LORD NORTH 4. HERBERT ASQUITH NUMBER 1S 1. “I, I love the colourful clothes she wears and the way the sunlight plays upon her hair” is the opening line of which UK number 1 hit of 1966? 2. “Friday night and the lights are low, looking out for the place to go” is the opening line of which UK number 1 hit of 1976? 3. “When I die and they lay me to rest, gonna go to the place that's the best” is the opening line of which UK number 1 hit of 1986? 4. “Slip inside the eye of your mind, don’t you know you might find a better place to play” is the opening line of which UK number 1 hit of 1996? 1. GOOD VIBRATIONS 3. SPIRIT IN THE SKY 4. DON’T LOOK BACK IN ANGER PRIMORDIAL GREEK DEITIES 1. In Greek mythology, who was the primordial god of the heavens? 2. In Greek mythology, who was the primordial god of the upper air? 3. In Greek mythology, who was the primordial god of eternal time? 4. In Greek mythology, who was the primordial goddess of the Earth? 1. URANUS THE 61st QUIZ - PAINTINGS 1. In David’s 1801 painting ‘Napoleon at the Great St. Bernard Pass’ (or ‘Napoleon Crossing the Alps’), the names of which two historical figures are etched into the rocks at the foreground of the painting along with that of Napoleon? 2. Popular with the Mannerists and Baroque artists, and particularly associated with Jacob van Ruisdael, Paolo Veronese and Peter Paul Rubens, what name is given to an object, such as a tree, along either side of the foreground of a painting, that directs the viewer's eye into the composition by bracketing the edge? 3. According to the inscription found at the top right-hand corner of Frans Hals’ ‘Laughing Cavalier’, how old was the sitter at the time of the portrait? 4. Which work, painted between 1472 and 1475 and housed at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, depicts a scene containing the Archangel Gabriel and the Virgin Mary and is thought to be Leonardo da Vinci’s earliest completed painting? 5. The dentist Dr. Byron McKeeby of Cedar Rapids, Iowa was immortalised in which 1930 painting? 6. What is the title of Henri Mattise’s painting that was left hanging upside down for 46 days at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1961 before anyone noticed? 7. The value of which of Van Gogh’s paintings is said to have rocketed after the 1956 film ‘Lust For Life’ (erroneously) portrayed it as the painting Van Gogh was working on at the time of his suicide? 8. With what is Christ grappling in Leonardo da Vinci’s famous oil painting ‘The Virgin and Child with St Anne’? 9. The full title of Henry Raeburn’s painting that is better known by the truncated title ‘The Skating Minister’ includes the name of the loch upon which The Reverend Robert Walker is shown to be skating. Which loch? 10. In painting, a remarque is the addition of a small personalized drawing or symbol near the signature of the artist and was first used by Whistler. What was Whistler’s remarque? 11. The crushing foot used by Terry Gilliam in the animated opening of ‘Monty Python’s Flying Circus’ was taken from a detail of the 1545 painting ‘Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time’ by which Florentine artist? 12. Théodore Géricault’s ‘Raft of the Medusa’ depicts the survivors of the French frigate Medusa, after it had been wrecked on the Bank of Arguin off the coast of which African country in 1816? 13. Which animal muses over the sleeping body of a woman below a moonlit night sky in Henri Rousseau’s ‘The Sleeping Gypsy’? 14. In which painting of 1866 can you view a close-up of the genitalia of Joanna Hiffernan, the lover of James McNeill Whistler? 15. Born in 1641, Titus was the only child who survived into adulthood of which painter, who used his son as a model in several of his paintings? 16. Which artistic term, deriving from the Italian for ‘scratched’, refers, in painting, to the practice of laying one colour over another and scratching the paint so that the colour underneath shows through? 17. If the first is ‘The Heir’ and the second is ‘The Levée’, then what is the third? 18. In which very famous painting of 1882 can a pair of green feet, belonging to a trapeze artist, be seen in the extreme top left hand corner of the canvas? 19. In which famous painting of 1656 can the Italian dwarf Nicolas Pertusato be seen waking a sleeping mastiff with his foot whilst the achondroplastic German, Maribarbola, looks on? 20. The snow-topped Mount Chimborazo is the highest peak in Ecuador. Its summit is also often said to be the spot on the surface farthest from the center of the Earth. Its appears, most famously, in art in a popular 1859 painting by which American artist? The answers: 1. HANNIBAL & KAROLUS MAGNUS (CHARLEMAGNE) 2. REPOUSSOIR 1. Played by Bill Moseley in the 1986 big-budget sequel 'The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2', what is the name of Leatherface’s older brother? 2. The 1978 film 'Halloween' is set in the fictional town of Haddonfield in which American state? 3. Featuring prominently in the plot of a horror movie of 1984, what is the Cantonese word for 'evil spirit'? 4. The American film score composer Jerry Goldsmith was nominated for 18 Academy Awards. His only win, however, came for his score for which 1976 film? 5. Sharing its name with a coastal town in the north-west of England, in which city in North Carolina was the 1997 film 'I Know What You Did Last Summer' both shot and set? 6. When released in 2004, which horror film, directed by Edgar Wright, described itself as a 'rom zom com' - standing for 'romantic zombie comedy'? 7. Which short story, originally published in 1839, was adapted into two horror films of 1928? One of the films was directed by James Sibley Watson and Melville Webber and starred Webber, Herbert Stern and Hildegarde Watson. The other was directed by Jean Epstein and starred Marguerite Gance, Jean Debucourt and Charles Lamy. 8. What was the surname of the title character in Roman Polanski’s 1968 film 'Rosemary’s Baby'? 9. What was the name of Captain Quint’s boat, upon which Quint, Martin Brody and Matt Hooper battle with the great white shark in the 1975 film 'Jaws'? 10. Released in 2004, and starring Jennifer Tilly, what name was given to the fifth entry in the 'Child’s Play' series of films that follows on from the events of 'Bride of Chucky'? 11. Who played Norman Bates in the 1998 Gus Van Sant remake of Hitchcock’s 'Psycho'? 12. What is the name of the inn at which Sergeant Howie stays in the 1973 film 'The Wicker Man'? 13. The 1922 film 'Nosferatu' was an unofficial adaptation of Bram Stoker’s 'Dracula'. However, as the studio could not obtain the rights to the novel, what name was given to Max Schreck’s Count? 14. What is the name of the demon who possesses Regan MacNeil in the 1973 film 'The Exorcist'? 15. How is the monstrous killer Daniel Robitaille known in the title of a 1992 horror film directed by Bernard Rose? 16. Which horror film was set in the Maryland town of Burkittsville? The town was previously known by another name that features in the title of the film. 17. For what name is Carrie a shortened form in the 1976 film starring Sissy Spacek? 18. Which 1954 novel by Richard Matheson has been adapted for three horror films, namely 'The Last Man on Earth' (1964), 'The Omega Man' (1971) and a 2007 film that shares the same name as the book? 19. The 2007 horror film 'Grindhouse' is a double feature film co-written, produced and directed by Robert Rodriguez and Quentin Tarantino. The film consists of the Rodriguez-directed 'Planet Terror' and which feature by Tarantino? 20. What is the name of Bernard Herrmann’s screeching string composition that plays during the infamous shower scene in Hitchcock’s 'Psycho'? The answers: QUIZ RESULTS The results are now in for the 200-question quiz. The answers have been e-mailed to all those who took part. Firstly, many thanks to the 29 brave souls who took the time to take part. I hope you found the quiz both enjoyable and challenging. The results are posted below. However, I also wanted to draw attention to a few answers. When you have a field of the quality that competed in this quiz then getting a question right that nobody else gets is an achievement well worthy of praise. There were just 5 such questions and shared by two quizzers. They were: Q. 118. TU BISHVAT - Barry Simmons Q. 122. KENNING - Barry Simmons Q. 173. BABY PUSS - Chris Curtis Q. 175. PONTIAC FEVER - Chris Curtis Q. 188. DIOGO CÃO (or CAM)- Barry Simmons Much respect to Barry and Chris for those answers. Scores: QUIZ You may have noticed that I haven't posted here for a while. This is because I'm currently writing a 200-question competition quiz (that will not be published here) that I will be sending out to various quiz freaks around the country. It's totally free to enter (and therefore no prizes, I'm afraid) and if you'd like to get a copy of the quiz then e-mail me at [email protected] and I'll send out a copy as soon as it's ready (in the next few days hopefully). Rules are simple - you have two hours to complete the quiz and when you've finished, send the answers back and I'll publish the scores here (probably early next month to give you some time to complete it). Please feel free to send a copy to anyone who you think may be interested in entering. Ta. P.S. It won't be quite as tough as some of the quizzes on here but it's by no means easy. Posted by THE 59th QUIZ - REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS 1. Roughly translating as ‘scaly’, which order, that includes lizards and snakes, is, with approximately 7,900 species, the largest order of extant reptiles? 2. During which geological period during the Palaeozoic Era did the first amphibians develop from fish similar to the modern coelacanth? 3. Tomistoma schlegelii is a fresh-water reptile, resembling a crocodile with a very thin and elongated snout. Although it had long been classed in the family Crocodylidae, recent immunological studies have meant it has been reclassed in the family Gavialidae. It is native to Sumatra and Malaysia and is also found in Borneo, Java, Vietnam and Thailand. What is its common name? 4. Many members of the families Bombinatoridae, Discoglossidae, Pelobatidae, Rhinophrynidae, Scaphiopodidae, and some species from the Microhylidae family are commonly, but erroneously, called ‘toads’. According to scientists, all true toads belong to which family, the only one that is exclusively given the common name ‘toad’? 5. The two species of reptiles of the genus tuatara (from which they get their common name), Sphenodon punctatus and Sphenodon guntheri are the only surviving members of the order Sphenodontia. They are found in the wild in just one country. Which one? 6. Extant amphibians fall into one of three orders - the Anura (frogs and toads), the Caudata or Urodela (salamanders and newts), and the Gymnophiona or Apoda. Found throughout Africa, Asia and South America, what is the common name given to the limbless, snake-like amphibians that comprise this last order? 7. The villain Tokka from the 1991 film ‘Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze’ was a mutated variety of which species of turtle, Macrochelys temminckii, found throughout the watershed of the Mississippi River from Florida to South Dakota, and notable as the largest species of freshwater turtle in North America? 8. It is the only species in the genus Proteus and the only European species of the family Proteidae. Also known as the proteus, what is the common name for the amphibian Proteus anguinu, notable for its blindness, caused by adaptation to a life of complete darkness in its underground habitat, that is native to the subterranean waters of the Dinaric karst that flow through the Soča river basin near Trieste in Italy, through to southern Slovenia, southwestern Croatia, and Herzegovina? 9. Which alcoholic beverage indigenous to and unique to Okinawa in Japan is alternatively known as Habu sake because of the practice of placing a venomous habu snake in it, which, it is claimed, increases its potency? 10. Recent scientific evidence put forward by East Carolina University has shown that the increasing rarity of the Rio Santiago Poison Frog can be explained by the slowing of its reproduction rates. The university researchers believe that this decrease in reproduction rates is linked to an increase in what? 11. Its common name taken from the group of islands in the Pacific Ocean where it is found but also known as Guichenot's Giant Gecko or Eyelash Gecko, which species of gecko, Rhacodactylus ciliatus, had long been thought extinct until it was ‘rediscovered’ in 1994? 12. Which labyrinthodont amphibian, of the extinct order Temnospondyli, whose fossil remains are known from the Permian of the South African Karoo Basin, has a name meaning ‘nose crocodile’ and was depicted as a crocodile-like creature in the 2005 BBC series ‘Walking With Monsters?’ 13. Deriving from the Ancient Greek χελώνα, meaning ‘tortoise’, what word is popular among veterinarians, scientists, and conservationists as a catch-all name for any member of the order Testudines, that comprises tortoises, turtles and terrapins? 14. Found almost exclusively in the Western Hemisphere, Plethodontid salamanders are unique amongst salamanders because of their lack of which bodily organs? 15. Sharing its name with a Marvel Comics supervillain, which snake, native to sub-Saharan African, is the only extant species in the genus Dispholidus and has a name meaning ‘tree snake’ in both Dutch and Afrikaans? 16. What was the common name of Lithobates fisheri, a frog species that was last recorded in 1942 and thought to have been the only North American amphibian to have become extinct in the 20th Century? 17. There are only two species of alligator. Each is native to just one country and each takes its common name from that of the country in which in lives. What are the common names of these two species? 18. Which North American aquatic salamander, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis, has been given the vernacular names ‘devil dog’ and ‘Allegheny alligator’ because folklore claims that it smears fishing lines with slime, drives game fish away, and inflicts a painful, poisonous bite? Its common name also reflects this misguided fear of an entirely harmless species. 19. This North American lizard is well known for its ability to run on its hind legs, looking like a small dinosaur. It has been recorded running in this way at speeds of up to 16 mph. It is the state reptile of Oklahoma, in which state it is often known as the Mountain Boomer. By what name is it commonly known elsewhere? 20. Cnemidophorus vanzoi is a whiptail - a species of lizard in the Teiidae family - that is found exclusively on which 239 square mile island nation of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean Sea? Answers: THE 58th QUIZ - LINGUISTICS 1. Which phrase was coined by the Polish/Austrian anthropologist Bronisław Kasper Malinowski in the 1923 work ‘The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages’ to describe any expression whose only function is to perform a social task, as opposed to conveying information? Examples include saying ‘hello’ when meeting someone, or ‘bless you’ after a person sneezes. 2. One of the earliest known masters of linguistic ‘word play’, who was the Greek poet of the 5th Century BC who wrote an epic poem of 24 books, each book entirely omitting a different letter of the Greek alphabet? 3. Which language, with a name meaning ‘being silent’, spoken by the Aboriginal Lardil and Yangkaal tribes of the Wesley Island group in the Gulf of Carpentaria, is the only click language (ie a language that regularly uses clicks instead of consonants in words) known to have existed outside Africa? 4. With a name deriving from the Polish for ‘little tail’, what name is given to the diacritic hook placed under the lower right corner of a vowel in the Latin alphabet used in several eastern European and Native American languages? Examples from Polish include ą and ę. 5. Coined by the theologian Frederic William Farrar in 1879, what is the linguistic term, sometimes also called ‘speaking in tongues’, for the fluent speech-like but unintelligible utterances that are often used as part of religious practice? 6. Arguing that other artificial languages are unnecessary as Latin is already established as the world's international language, which Italian mathematician invented the auxiliary language Latino sine flexione, essentially a simplified form of Latin? 7. There has been controversy in the method one should use to distinguish between languages and dialects since the study of language began. Perhaps the most famous distinction between the two is the Latvian-American linguist Max Weinreich’s humorous aphorism that “a language is a dialect with…” what? 8. Of what, linguistically speaking, is cherology the study? 9. Tmesis is the name given, by linguists, to the inclusion of a word within another word. But what name is given to the inclusion of sounds (or phonemes) within a word? It is divided into two types: excrescence (if the sound added is a consonant) and anaptyxis (if the sound added is a vowel). 10. Deriving from the Greek for ‘turning like oxen in ploughing’ because the hand of the writer goes back and forth like an ox drawing a plough across a field and turning at the end of each row to return in the opposite direction, what name is given to the ancient method of inscription in which, rather than going from left to right as in modern English, or right to left as in Arabic, alternate lines must be read in opposite directions? 11. Named after the American linguists who first postulated it in the early 20th Century, what name is given to the hypothesis that postulates that a particular language's nature influences the habitual thoughts of its speakers and thus different language patterns yield different patterns of thought? 12. In the 5th Century BC, Protagoras of Abdera compiled what is thought to be the world’s first glossary. It contained definitions of unfamiliar words that were to be found where? 13. From the Greek for ‘said only once’, what name is given to a word that occurs only once in the written record of a language? It can also refer to a word that appears only once in the works of an author, or in a single text. 14. Which autonomous province in northern Serbia, capital Novi Sad, is the only place outside of Romania and Moldova in which the Romanian language has official status? 15. Named after the German neurologist who discovered it in 1874, what name is given to the impairment of language comprehension and speech that results in a natural-sounding rhythm and a relatively normal syntax, but otherwise has no recognisable meaning, that results from damage to the posterior part of Brodmann area 22 in the left hemisphere of the brain where the specialized language skill areas can be found? 16. The leading Soviet linguist of the early 20th Century, Nikolay Yakovlevich Marr, named his most famous and controversial theory, that the Kartvelian languages of the Caucasus area were related to the Semitic languages of the Middle East, after which Biblical character? This theory was officially discredited as a misrepresentation of Marxist theory in an article written by Josef Stalin in 1950. 17. A phoneme is the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes meaning in spoken language. What name is given to the smallest unit of “speech” that distinguishes meaning in body language (such as a facial expression or a hand gesture)? 18. Which Sami language that was spoken in the villages of A´kkel and Ču´kksuâl, in the inland parts of the Kola Peninsula in Russia is the most recent language to have been classified as extinct, the last native speaker, Marja Sergina, dying on 29th December 2003? 19. Which British linguist coined the terms ‘U’ and ‘non-U’ in 1954 referring to the language usage of the upper classes (U) and the rest of the populace (non-U)? 20. One of the twenty two national languages of India and the official language of the state of Andhra Pradesh, which is - with approximately 76 million native speakers - the world’s most widely spoken Dravidian language and the third most spoken language in India after Hindi and Bengali? The answers: THE 57th QUIZ - TENNIS 1. Housed in the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza in Madrid, ‘The Death of Hyacinth’ (1752-1753) contains what is considered to be the first pictorial representation of tennis, containing a stringed raquet and three tennis balls. Which Venetian artist painted it? 2. James Van Alen, who died in 1991, founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame and Museum at the Newport Casino, Rhode Island, the largest tennis museum in the world, but is best remembered for introducing which rule change into the game? 3. Who was the Norwegian-born American tennis player who won a bronze medal for the women’s singles at the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm and is, to date, the only person to have won 8 US Open (then known as US Championship) singles titles? 4. Jaroslav Drobný, who won three Grand Slam singles titles between 1951 and 1954, including his defeat of Ken Rosewall in the final at Wimbledon in 1954, also represented his native Czechoslovakia in which team sport? 5. In 1988, the Australian Open moved from the grass courts at Kooyong to a new Rebound Ace hardcourt venue called Flinders Park (now Melbourne Park). Who is the only person to have won Australian Open singles titles at both venues? 6. The centre court at Roland Garros is named after Philippe Chatrier, a former head of the French Tennis Federation. After which female tennis player, nicknamed ‘La Divine’ by the French press and the winner of 31 Grand Slam titles between 1914 and 1926, is the secondary court named? 7. Which Bostonian won each of the first seven US Open men’s singles titles from 1881 to 1887, not dropping a single set in the entirety of his first three championships, and after his retirement from lawn tennis became the US real tennis champion in 1892? 8. Which Ecuadorian tennis-player of the 1940s and 1950s, born in 1921 and remembered for his bow-legged stance, a result of childhood rickets, was one of the few successful male tennis players to have used a two-handed forehand, a shot that his rival Jack Kramer later claimed was "the greatest single shot ever produced in tennis"? 9. What is the name of the tennis club in Forest Hills, Queens that was home to the US Open from 1915 until it moved to its current home at Flushing Meadows in 1978? 10. Which doubles specialist was the oldest of the ‘Four Musketeers’ who led France to six successive Davis Cup triumphs between 1927 and 1932 and the only one of the four never to win a Grand Slam singles title? 11. Who was John McEnroe’s partner when he won his only mixed-doubles grand slam title at the French Open in 1977? 12. Which sportsman won the Australian Open Mixed Doubles title with fellow Australian Samantha Stosur in 2005 and went on to win his first professional golf title in February this year when he triumphed at the New South Wales PGA Championship on the Von Nida Tour? 13. Fred Perry is famously is the last British player to win the Wimbledon men’s singles title in 1936, but which player, who reached the final the following year before losing to Don Budge, was the last British player to compete in a Wimbledon men’s singles final? 14. What is the name of the Hampshire-based company that developed the Hawk-Eye ball tracking technology, used in tennis and other ball sports, in 2001? 15. Only two qualifiers have ever reached the semi-final stage in the men’s singles at Wimbledon. The first was John McEnroe in 1977. Which Belarusian, who had won the Wimbledon Juniors title in 1996, became the second person to do so in 2000 before losing to the eventual winner, Pete Sampras? 16. Won by Tomáš Berdych in 2007, the Gerry Weber Open is considered one of the most important warm up tournaments in the run-up to Wimbledon. In which German town is it contested? 17. The only person to represent Nazi Germany in a Grand Slam final, which male tennis player was the losing finalist in three successive Wimbledon tournaments between 1935 and 1937, but was jailed in 1938 after being found guilty of a homosexual relationship with a young Jewish actor and singer? 18. What was the name assumed by the professional tennis player Richard Raskind after undergoing a sex change operation in 1975? As a woman she reached the ladies’ doubles final at the US Open in 1977 with Betty Ann Stuart. 19. Although he never reached the Wimbledon men’s singles final, Tim Henman did compete in the final of the warm-up competition, the Queen’s Club Championships, on three occasions. He was defeated by Pete Sampras in the 1999 final and by which player in both the 2001 and 2002 finals? 20. Prior to Mary Pierce in 2000, which Algerian-born tennis player, who defeated the Australian Lesley Turner Bowrey in the 1967 final, was the last person representing France to win the ladies’ singles title at the French Open? The answers: THE 56th QUIZ - ANCIENT ROME 1. Upon his death in 133BC, Attilus III bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Empire in an attempt to avoid dynastic disputes between his heirs. However, Rome was slow to claim the kingdom and the pretender Aristonicus, the brother of Attilus, claimed the throne as Eumenes III. He was eventually defeated and captured in 129 BC by a Roman force under Marcus Perperna and executed. What was the name of this Greek kingdom that was subsequently absorbed into the Roman Republic? 2. Fought in November of 82 BC and named after the landmark near which it was fought, what was the name of the final battle at which Sulla secured control of Rome by routing the Samnites led by Pontius Telesinus? 3. Regularly appearing in the Asterix comics, what was the name, perhaps meaning ‘Superior warrior King’, of the chieftain of the Arverni who led the Gauls in their ultimately unsuccessful war against Roman rule under Julius Caesar, being executed some five years after his defeat at the Battle of Alesia? 4. ‘Odysseia’, a Latin version of Homer's ‘Odyssey’, is the best-known work of which Greco-Roman dramatist and poet, regarded as the father of Roman drama and epic poetry? 5. Meaning ‘Greatest Sewer’, what was the Latin name given to the early sewage system of Ancient Rome that was, according to tradition, constructed around 600 BC under the orders of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus? 6. The period following the death of Nero in 68AD is known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Who, on 8th June 68AD, was proclaimed the first of those Emperors? 7. After Emperor Tiberius withdrew to Capri in 26AD, he left which soldier and commander of the Praetorian Guard in control of the state as the de facto ruler of the Empire until his arrest and execution in 31AD on charges of conspiracy against the Emperor? 8. With a name deriving from the Germanic for 'watchful of wealth', who was the Roman general and the first barbarian King of Italy, who deposed the Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476AD? 9. In Ancient Rome, what name was given to the amulet, often made from cotton, leather or gold or silver depending on the wealth of the family, that was given to newborn children to wear around the neck to protect against evil spirits? 10. The popular Roman board game Tabula was played on a board almost identical to that of which modern game, and is therefore considered its direct ancestor? 11. The Pontifex Maximus was the title given to the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. Originally very much a religious position it was gradually subsumed into the Imperial office and was last held by which Christian Emperor (who came to power in 367AD) who refused to wear its insignia, which he saw as a sign of paganism? 12. According to Suetonius in ‘Lives of the Twelve Caesars’, the Roman Emperor Caligula, best remembered for his mental instability, possibly brought about by encephalitis, once ordered his soldiers to invade Britain in order to fight which Roman god? 13. Who was the Emperor of Rome when the famous eruption of Vesuvius destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79AD? 14. What was the name of the Jewish leader who led the eponymous revolt against the Roman Empire under Hadrian in 132AD and established a Jewish state of Israel before it was conquered by the Romans three years later? 15. First used by Constantine I, what name was given to the Roman military standard that displayed the Greek letters χ (chi) and ρ (rho), the first two letters of the name of Christ in Greek? 16. Ben Jonson and Henrik Ibsen both wrote plays about which politician of the Roman Republic, best remembered for the conspiracy that bears his name? 17. What was the name of the edict issued by the Roman Emperor Caracalla in 212AD that granted full Roman citizenship to all free men in the Empire, thus removing the long-standing legal distinction between Italians and those from the provinces? 18. Signed in 85BC by Lucius Cornelius Sulla of Rome and the King of Pontus, the Treaty of Dardanos brought which war to an end? 19. Upon finding his body after his death at the Battle of Carrhae in 53BC, the Parthians are said to have poured molten gold down the throat of which Roman general and politician, supposedly symbolising his unhealthy obsession with money? 20. Which son of Marcus Aurelius became Roman Emperor in 180AD making him the first direct successor in a century, breaking the scheme of adoptive successors that had served Rome so well during the period known as the Five Good Emperors? The answers: 2. BATTLE OF THE COLLINE GATE 3. VERCINGETORIX	i don't know
Which breed of dog is 'Scooby Doo'?	7 dogs that look like a real-life Scooby Doo 7 dogs that look like a real-life Scooby Doo 1 week ago Image: Hanna-Barbera Productions via WENN.com Print Scooby Dooby, meet your doppelgängers Share Tumble Combined comments & shares on social media Are there Scooby Doo look-alike contests out there in the world? If so, these dogs should enter and take home all of the prizes. Not only are these Great Danes the same breed as the beloved cartoon character, but they also have that special je ne sais quoi that is Scooby. It's impossible to look at these guys without without cracking a smile. 1. Scooby in transit It's Scooby! It's Scooby Doo, and he's all buckled up ready to solve some supernatural mystery. Velma probably took this photo. Actually, you're right, it was most likely Daphne. She seems like she'd be into Instagram. 2. Successful Scooby This picture was taken after Scooby and Shaggy made the big bucks on their reality TV show. Their days now include lots of lounging, lots of boats and lots of photos of the whole adventure. 3. Classic Scooby Here's the Scooby we know and love. Tongue out, tail wagging, ready to jump for joy and solve a mystery or three. 4. Sleeping Scooby More: 12 dog breeds first-time owners should think twice about 5. Scooby on an adventure Here we have Scooby on location, solving the great mystery of the supernatural creature in the rocks. He's ready to go, folks. (Also, he looks quite dashing, no?) 6. Scooby the Great This photo was taken from Scooby's promo for his latest show. He was going for the "sophisticated canine" look, and it works. Mainly, everything works on Scooby. 7. Serious Scooby Scooby is thinking about Scooby snacks in this photo, and he asks that you don't bother him.	Great Dane
In 'The Simpsons', what is the name of the shop owned by 'Ned Flanders' that caters for left-handed people?	what breed of dog is scooby doo what breed of dog is scooby doo 1 1 Don't know the source of this site's info, but I found this when I Googled your question: One of the most famous Great Danes was Scooby-Doo, a Hanna-Barbera character. Creator Iwao Takamoto based this famous animal character on a Great Dane based on sketches given by a Hanna-Barbera employee who bred this dog. Technically speaking, Scooby Doo would be a female. answerbag.com Is this page helpful to you? Your anonymous feedback will help us improve. Related Videos 0 He's a rare breed of Talking Great Dane, with upward mobility capability, meaning he can walk on his hind legs like a human. answerbag.com Write a comment... 0 I think Scooby Doo is a mixed breed, aka a mutt. Got to love them. Mutts are proven to be starter then most pure breed dogs. more answers.yahoo.com Write a comment... 0 great dane, it says in the films, i never knew that till then, i just thought it was a made up cartoon dog regards x kitti x more answers.yahoo.com Write a comment... 0 scooby is supposed to be a great dane lets ask scoobs 'i ront row' he says he dont know, but i do think its a great dane more answers.yahoo.com Write a comment... -1 " 1. Irish Wolfhound 2. Great Dane 3. Beagle 4. Poodle Do you know the answer? Do you care to know the answer? How about this one? "Who was Riddick Bowe fighting in a heavyweight title bout when a parachutist landed in the ring?" 1. Evander Holyfield 2. Lennox Lewis 3. Mike Tyson 4. Larry Holmes Would you like some more questions? Believe it or not, most people answer, "Yes." Perhaps some of you are even a bit upset because I am not providing you with the answers to these two compelling questions. I know this because I recently journeyed to California on a Delta Song flight. One of the special features of this airline (besides discount prices), is the opportunity (opportunity?) to play an electrifying trivia game against your fellow passengers. You press Start on the screen in front of you, enter your name (real or fake) and Eureka -- you're in on the ACTION. One at a time, 20 questions pop up and you score points for accuracy and yes, even speed. How long would it take you to ... more aish.com	i don't know
Founded by Thomas Stemberg in Massachusetts in 1985, it now has over 2,000 stores in 27 countries. Which is the world's largest office supply company?	Thomas G. Stemberg, Who With a Partner Founded Staples, Dies at 66 \| www.bullfax.com Thomas G. Stemberg, Who With a Partner Founded Staples, Dies at 66 Fri, 10/23/2015 - 16:09 EDT - NY Times Thomas Stemberg, founder of Staples office superstore, dies BOSTON (AP) — Thomas Stemberg, a former grocery business executive who founded Staples Inc. and revolutionized the office supplies retail business, died Friday at his home in Massachusetts. He was 66.Venture capital firm Highland Capital Partners, which Stemberg joined in 2005, said he died of cancer.Stemberg was a New England grocery executive but left after a dispute with his bosses. He came up with the idea of Staples after driving around the Boston area searching unsuccessfully for printer ribbon on July 4th weekend in 1985 when stores were closed. Tom Stemberg's Advice to Young Entrepreneurs Tom Stemberg Tom Stemberg is a Managing General Partner of the Highland Consumer Fund at Highland Capital Partners. For his current investments, he focuses on retail and consumer services companies and has a interest in how technology can be applied to impact existing businesses. Tom is the original founder of Staples, the [...] Banker Suicides Return: DSK's Hedge Fund Partner Jumps From 23rd Floor Apartment The summer, thankfully, has been largely bereft of the dismal trend of bankers committing suicide, but as Bloomberg reports, Thierry Leyne, a French-Israeli banker and partner of Dominique Strauss-Kahn, the disgraced former chief of the IMF, was found dead Thursday after apparently taking his own life by jumping off the 23rd floor of one of the Yoo towers, a prestigious residential complex in Tel Aviv.	Staples Inc.
The 'Haber Process' is a reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen in order to produce which gas?	The 50 Wealthiest Bostonians \| Boston Magazine The 50 Wealthiest Bostonians There are more than 58,000 millionaires in the Boston area. Meet our town’s richest fat cats. By Francis Storrs \| Boston Magazine \| March 2006 Massachusetts has always had more than its fair share of millionaires. It’s been that way for two centuries, ever since Salem’s Elias Hasket Derby’s profits from the China trade made him America’s first. Today nearly one in 20 families here is worth at least $1 million. That’s more per capita than in Los Angeles, Chicago, even New York City. In Weston, the ratio is one in four. And they’re getting richer. Over the past two decades the wealthiest households in this state have seen their incomes rise five times faster than the poorest and twice as fast as those in the middle class. Not everybody at the top has fared so well since we last produced this list. David Wetherell of CMGI, for example, saw his stake in the company plummet from $2.1 billion to $100 million in less than a year. Others took their green to greener pastures. Viacom’s Sumner Redstone, now worth $8.4 billion, moved to Beverly Hills. Casino baron Sheldon Adelson, who once drove his purple Rolls-Royce home to Newton, took his $15.6 billion to Las Vegas, where he owns the Venetian. Buyout king Thomas Lee ($1.2 billion) made like Johnny Damon and split for New York. But most of our entrepreneurs endure—and profit. There clearly are still fortunes to be made in such necessities as real estate and healthcare. Unlike the virtual billionaires, titans of manufacturing continue to prosper. Money managers who help the rich get richer are doing pretty well themselves. More than ever, the people on this year’s list accumulated their fortunes by making products or deals bigger, faster, riskier, and smarter than their rivals—not, as used to be the case here, by inheriting their money. Experts say another 30,000 households will hit the $1 million mark in Boston in the next four years. We’ll be keeping score. How we compiled the list. 1. Abigail P. Johnson 44, Milton; president, Fidelity Employer Services $13.5 billion The sixth-wealthiest woman in America, Johnson last year abruptly left the Fidelity funds’ board of trustees and was transferred from her job at the head of the underperforming mutual-funds division. But don’t worry: She’ll be okay. Johnson is reportedly the company’s single-biggest shareholder, and the fast-expanding employer services division she now oversees represents more than half its assets under management. And she is still widely expected to succeed her father, Edward “Ned” Johnson III, at the top of the world’s largest mutual fund company, which manages $1.2 trillion. 2. Edward C. Johnson III 75, Nahant; CEO and chair, Fidelity Investments $6.5 billion Some speculate that Johnson will finally go out to pasture within five years. But make no mistake: The old lion still roars. When the SEC said it would bar executives who chair mutual fund companies from having a financial interest in the funds they manage, Johnson fired off a scathing op-ed piece to the Wall Street Journal (he chairs all 377 Fidelity funds and his family owns nearly half the company). “Any darn mule can kick down a barn,” Johnson wrote to investors. And Fidelity, worth an estimated $40 billion, is the biggest barn around. 3. John E. Abele 69, Concord; director, Boston Scientific $3.3 billion After meeting at their kids’ soccer game, Abele and Peter Nicholas (No. 4) cofounded Boston Scientific in 1979 and together still own about a third of the medical equipment leader, which stands to become the state’s largest publicly held company with its $27 billion acquisition of Guidant. Abele and Nicholas have always taken risks. Their drug-coated stent, Taxus, introduced in 2004, sold faster than Viagra. And, despite paying out $750 million in an embarrassing trade-secrets settlement last year, their company still controls some 60 percent of the U.S. market in drug-coated stents. Most of the rest is controlled by archrival Johnson & Johnson—which lost the ruthless fight for Guidant. 4. Peter M. Nicholas 64, Boston; chair, Boston Scientific $2.8 billion The businessman to cofounder John Abele’s scientist, Nicholas knows exactly what money can buy. At his alma mater, Duke, for example, $20 million got him the Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences in 1995 (he’s gone on to donate another $100 million to the university). Boston Scientific is playing with even higher stakes: Its $27 billion acquisition of Guidant will make it the world’s leading cardiovascular device maker. And give Nicholas more money to spend. 5. Amos Barr Hostetter Jr. 69, Boston; chair, Pilot House Associates $2.3 billion Hostetter saw the potential of cable TV when everybody else was still struggling with rabbit ears. Foresight like that pays off: He sold Continental Cablevision, which he cofounded with Celtics CEO Wyc Grousbeck’s father, Irv, for $11.6 billion. Now he lives on Beacon Hill, near the Kerrys and one of the ex–Mrs. Stembergs, and is busy behind the scenes of several companies. He has used a large part of his fortune to endow the state’s biggest philanthropic organization, the $800 million Barr Foundation, while his wife heads the board of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum as it undertakes its first-ever expansion and a fundraising campaign whose target is reportedly some $60 million to $100 million. 6. (Tie) Herb Chambers 64, Boston and Old Lyme, CT; president, the Herb Chambers Companies $1.8 billion Chambers, who never went to college, was a Dorchester boy just out of the Navy when he talked his way into a job fixing copy machines in Cambridge. By the time he was 22, he had started his own copier distribution company, which he eventually sold for $80 million. Chambers’s rise to the top of the world of auto sales has been just as fast, and even more profitable. His chain of 30 dealerships, begun in 1985, now accounts for one out of every three luxury cars sold in eastern Massachusetts, reaping more than $1.4 billion a year in sales. Among his own 15 cars, Chambers has a $1.7 million McLaren F1, purportedly the fastest car in the world and one of the rarest (Jay Leno once begged for a test drive, then bought his own). His other assets include a $60 million, 188-foot yacht, the Excellence III; a $34 million Gulfstream G450 jet; a helicopter; a Connecticut marina; and a condo at the Mandarin Oriental, where preconstruction prices started at $2 million. 57, Boston; CEO and president, Boston Capital $1.8 billion Manning’s company is the fifth-largest owner of apartments in America, with 147,000 of them in 48 states. His wealth and his role as a Democratic fundraiser also make him very well connected; if his friend John Kerry had been elected president, Manning might now be our ambassador to Ireland. Bill Clinton occasionally stops by for lunch at Manning’s office or to golf with him and Kerry on the Vineyard. Manning also serves on the boards of Beth Israel Deaconess and the JFK Library Foundation. His toughest decision: which of his two Bentleys to drive to the meetings. 8. (Tie) James S. Davis 62, Newton; CEO and chair, New Balance $1.6 billion Davis hustled to put together the $10,000 down payment for New Balance, which he bought on Marathon Monday in 1972. Good deal. Now New Balance and Reebok are neck and neck for the title of America’s second-largest athletic shoe brand (Nike is first). Arthur S. Demoulas 47, Concord; director, Demoulas Super Markets $1.6 billion The longest (15 years), costliest (at least $13 million) civil litigation in state history whittled away at the Demoulas fortune as two sides of the family struggled for control of their $2 billion-a-year Market Basket chain. But the Supreme Court has now put an ostensible end to the saga by declining to hear another installment of Demoulas versus Demoulas. That seemingly means Arthur S.’s family will hang on to the controlling interest in the Demoulas Super Markets company a judge took away from cousin Arthur T.’s side. What it doesn’t mean is that they’re going to kiss and make up: They’ll be furious to be even mentioned together here. Stephen R. Karp 65, Weston; CEO and chair, New England Development $1.6 billion A few years after making his way through BU by working summers in construction, Karp convinced his then employer, a real estate development firm, to go in with him on a shopping center in Danvers. The Liberty Tree Mall became the first in a string of 20 malls he would develop, before selling most of them for $1.75 billion. Karp still owns the CambridgeSide Galleria and much of downtown Nantucket, where he bought about $75 million worth of property last year alone. Now he’s setting his sights on Newburyport, where he spent $38 million on commercial space last year. His Westin Boston Waterfront hotel, codeveloped with Joe O’Donnell (No. 24), is scheduled to open in July. 11. (Tie) Richard J. Egan 70, Hopkinton and Boca Raton, FL; cofounder, EMC $1.3 billion When the blunt-spoken, Dorchester-born ex-Marine teamed up with fellow Northeastern grad Roger Marino to get in on the ground floor of the data storage business, their office was his living room, his wife was their first employee, and they sold office furniture on the side to make ends meet. Now that company, EMC, is the state’s second largest based on market capitalization (nudged out of first in January by the Boston Scientific–Guidant deal). And even though Egan resigned as ambassador to Ireland after only 18 months, he is still one of George W.’s top guys. A 2003 fundraiser at his Hopkinton home, attended by Dick Cheney, Mitt Romney, and 700 others, raised $1.4 million for the GOP. Thomas J. Flatley 74, Milton; CEO and chair, the Flatley Company $1.3 billion Flatley arrived from Ireland in 1950 with $32 and made himself into one of the nation’s wealthiest real estate moguls. Now, at 74, he’s slowly taking himself out of the game. He sold his chain of hotels for $470 million, and thousands of apartments for $500 million—the biggest deal ever in this state. But Flatley’s not slowing down altogether: He’s working on a multimillion-dollar deal in Quincy’s Crown Colony Office Park. 13. (Tie) Amar G. Bose 76, Wayland; founder and chair, Bose $1.2 billion If Massachusetts had a state genius the way it has a state bird (the chickadee), Bose would be it. For the past 25 years, the MIT Ph.D. has been developing an ultrasmooth car suspension system (code name: Project Sound) that promises to pimp your ride the way his high-end speakers pimp your family room. Dr. Bose—as his employees unfailingly call him—puts all the profits from his privately held company’s estimated $1.8 billion in annual sales back into research. If he led a public company, Bose has joked, that would have gotten him fired. Instead, he’s gotten richer. Go figure. John W. Childs 64, Chestnut Hill; president, J. W. Childs Associates $1.2 billion The notoriously media-shy Childs remains a cipher, but the brands his private equity firm has bought into are well known: Brookstone, NutraSweet, Meow Mix. He spearheaded one of the most successful deals in buyout history while still learning his trade at Thomas H. Lee Partners, buying Snapple for $135 million and flipping it two years later for $1.7 billion. Some predict Childs will do it again with Sunny Delight, which he bought for an estimated $300 million two years ago. Nicknamed the Republican ATM, he has given lavishly to GOP causes. 15. (Tie) Ernest Boch Jr. 48, Norwood; CEO and president, Boch Enterprises $1.1 billion Higher profile than archrival Herb Chambers (No. 6), Boch has become a fixture on the charity circuit and in commercials for his six car dealerships (four of which his late father made famous). He obviously got the salesmanship gene: Ernie Jr. sold 900 cars last Presidents’ Day weekend alone. He inherited his father’s sense of humor, too, pledging $500,000 to Caritas Norwood Hospital and asking that the morgue be named for him. Last year he sold his four Cape Cod radio stations for $21.3 million. That will buy a lot of gas for his $15 million Citation Sovereign private jet and the $100,000 stretch Subaru that takes him home at night to the $7 million compound he’s building for himself in Norwood. Paul B. Fireman 62, Brookline; former CEO and chair, Reebok International $1.1 billion When Brockton native Fireman mortgaged his house to buy distribution rights for an unknown brand of athletic shoes in 1979, his wife had to sell encyclopedias door-to-door to help pay the bills. The risk paid off: The couple stands to make $800 million from the $3.8 billion sale of Reebok to Adidas. An avid golfer, Fireman already has a second career teed up: His New Jersey golf course, said to be the most expensive ever built, is scheduled to open July 4. Robert K. Kraft 64, Brookline; owner, CEO, and chair, New England Patriots $1.1 billion After graduating from Harvard Business School in 1965, Kraft went to work at his father-in-law’s paper company, Rand-Whitney. Less than three years later, he took over half the company in a leveraged buyout (no doubt making for some uncomfortable family Thanksgivings), then built it and his own International Forest Products into one of the world’s largest paper conglomerates. Of course, he assumed a higher profile in 1994 with his then record $172 million purchase of the Pats (his former Brookline neighbor Jeffrey Lurie broke the record later the same year by buying the Philadelphia Eagles for $185 million). Twelve years and three Super Bowls later, the Patriots franchise alone is worth an estimated $1 billion (we’ve deducted the value of that $15,000 Super Bowl ring now sitting in Vladimir Putin’s sock drawer). Now Kraft, who also owns the Revolution, is said to be developing Patriots Place, a “man mall” anchored by a Bass Pro Shops, on his 500 acres around Gillette Stadium. And Kraft’s mom wanted him to be a rabbi . . . 18. James J. Pallotta 47, Wellesley; vice chair, Tudor Investment $1 billion Head of the $9 billion Raptor Fund, Pallotta is consistently ranked among the 20 top hedge-fund managers in the nation (and is the 11th-highest-paid, earning a reported $195 million in 2004). He’s known for his philanthropy—he gives millions each year through his charitable trust—and personal investments including stakes in Via Matta and the Celtics (for which he ponied up a reported $20 million). Plus, he’s cool enough to hang with U2, as he did at Radius last December and in a private box at the then FleetCenter. When Pallotta’s not hobnobbing in town with celebrities or working at his office in Rowes Wharf, he’s bound to be comfortable in the $19 million, 33,528-square-foot compound he’s building on 27 acres in Weston. 19. Edward G. Watkins II 70, Concord; philanthropist $950 million The first Edward G. Watkins founded fire- and security-equipment manufacturer Simplex Time Recorder in 1902, shortly after inventing the first practical time clock. Under Edward II’s reign, the company made a fortune in institutional fire alarms. After selling Simplex for $1.2 billion, Watkins no longer has to worry about money. But time is still on his mind: He reportedly owns an impeccably landscaped, 9,200-square-foot section of Crystal Lake Cemetery in Gardner. 20. Kenan E. Sahin 64, Boston; founder and CEO, TIAX $904 million Sahin owned 100 percent of his billing software company, which he sold to Lucent Technologies for a cool $1.48 billion (he gave $100 million to his alma mater, MIT, tied for the largest gift ever received by the school). Now he is the sole owner of Tiax, a technology research and development firm that operates 50 labs in Cambridge and California. The company’s researchers are tinkering with everything from better-tasting pediatric antibiotics to smart fabrics that can withstand the rigors of outer space. Closer to home, Tiax owns the PlaceLab condominium near MIT, where it studies how technology can improve home life. 21. John W. Henry 56, Brookline and Boca Raton, FL; principal owner, New England Sports Ventures; founder and chair, John W. Henry & Company $840 million After leading the group that bought the Red Sox in 2002 for $700 million—more than twice the highest previous price for a sports team—Henry has become our most famous snowbird. Sure, his $3.1 billion investment firm’s funds reportedly lost $400 million in December alone, capping off its worst year ever. But Henry can spend the off-season in comfort on his $6.5 million Florida estate. During baseball season he docks his $34 million, 164-foot yacht, the Iroquois, at Rowes Wharf. And when he asks his guests to remove their shoes to protect the teak deck, he gives them red socks to wear. 22. Teresa Heinz Kerry 67, Boston; philanthropist $750 million John Kerry may be America’s wealthiest senator, with an estimated personal fortune of at least $164 million, but even that’s not enough to get him onto this list. As Kerry himself has joked, he married up. His wife, Teresa—after whose name inevitably come the words “heir to her late husband’s ketchup fortune”—has so much money that the wealthy senator had to sign a prenup before they walked down the aisle on Nantucket. (It’s no big deal, Mrs. Kerry has remarked: “Everybody has a prenup.”) And since Kerry couldn’t use any of Teresa’s considerable assets in his presidential bid, he was reduced to taking out a $6.4 million mortgage on their 170-year-old Beacon Hill townhouse (five bedrooms, eight baths, 169 light fixtures). 23. William I. Koch 63, Osterville and Palm Beach, FL; founder, the Oxbow Group $735 million Last year’s MFA show “Things I Love: The Many Collections of William I. Koch” was both cheered and jeered (“monumentally egomaniacal,” one critic called it). It featured nearly 200 masterpieces from Koch’s art collection, including works by Monet, Cézanne, and Picasso, and two of his yachts—the one he skippered to victory in the 1992 America’s Cup, and the one that came in second, which he bought after the race. (Sadly, the exhibit didn’t include any specimens from his 35,000-bottle wine collection.) Koch is perhaps equally famous for his collection of ex-wives—he agreed to pay his second one $16 million in their acrimonious 2001 divorce. He’s now married to Bridget Rooney, who previously had a son with Kevin Costner. Koch’s fortune began with his father, an oil industry tycoon, but he sued two of his brothers for more money after they paid him and another brother $1 billion for their shares of the company, and his mother over her distribution of a trust fund. Koch later founded his own energy firm, the Oxbow Group. 24. Joseph J. O’Donnell 61, Belmont; founder and chair, Boston Culinary Group; owner, Allied Advertising $725 million The son of an Everett cop, Joe O’Donnell started in business renting out tuxes for the Malden Catholic prom. A speaker at a Boston event would later quip, “I want to thank my friend Joe O’Donnell for renting a tie for the night.” Okay, it wasn’t a particularly funny joke, but the speaker was O’Donnell pal President George W. Bush. O’Donnell has a lot of friends in high places (so many that we’ve named him Boston’s most powerful person), and while we’re sure it’s largely on account of his unassuming personality, the money doesn’t hurt (he raised at least $200,000 for Bush in the last election). He built concessions giant Boston Culinary Group into a company whose 11,000 employees provide food services to stadiums and other venues, and owns Allied Advertising, the third-largest print advertiser in the country. He also has stakes in movie theaters, ski resorts, and restaurants including John Harvard’s Brew House. And he’s a partner, with longtime friend Steve Karp (No. 8), in the $200 million Westin set to open in July at the convention center. 25. John F. “Jack” Welch 70, Boston; retired CEO, GE; principal, Jack Welch LLC $720 million Welch made $10,500 in his first year as a young chemical engineer at GE. In his last year as CEO, he made $16 million. Though investors balked at his estimated $50 million retirement package, he did increase GE’s worth by $400 billion during his two decades as CEO, making it for a time the most valuable corporation in the world. Now Welch lives with his third wife, Suzy Welch, née Wetlaufer, in a leased 20,000-square-foot townhouse overlooking Boston Common. He owns four other homes, including one in Nantucket, where he has paid for college scholarships for caddies from the island’s Sankaty Head Golf Club (Welch always gets the best caddies). He’s unapologetic about falling for Suzy—whose ring finger carries 10.8 carats of diamonds—while still married to his second wife, though said wife is rumored to have diminished his fortune by more than $100 million in the divorce (the settlement remains sealed). 26. (Tie) Stephen R. Weiner 64, Boston and Palm Beach, FL; founder, S. R. Weiner & Associates $700 million Like Boston real estate’s other Steve—Steve Karp (No. 8)—Weiner has profited nicely from New Englanders’ irresistible need to shop in temperature-controlled comfort: He helms 70 shopping centers, including his new crown jewel, the Derby Street Shoppes in Hingham. Weiner and longtime mentor Julian Cohen (No. 41) are partners with man-about-town Robin Brown in the ultraluxurious $278 million Mandarin Oriental hotel and residences, where many of the other überwealthy people on this list will live. Weiner is forward-thinking in another way, too: He and his wife just gave $6 million to Beth Israel Deaconess to fund stem-cell research. Margot C. Connell 64, Swampscott; chair, Connell Limited Partnership $700 million Before industrialist William F. Connell died in 2001, he told Forbes: “People are rich when you have what you need in the world. A nice family, a good education, to participate in the community. That is rich.” Now his widow, Margot, chairs the more-than-$1-billion family business. She also carries on her husband’s philanthropy. In 2003, for example, she gave $5 million to Caritas St. Elizabeth’s Medical Center. 28. John A. Kaneb and family 71, Manchester-by-the-Sea; chair and CEO, H. P. Hood; president, the Catamount Companies $600 million John Kaneb knows you can make a fortune selling life’s necessities—in his case, milk and oil. A specialist in buying stakes in struggling or underperforming companies, cutting their costs, and improving their efficiency, Kaneb bought a controlling interest in Gulf Oil, then more than tripled its sales to $4.6 billion before quietly selling the stake last year. The Kanebs acquired Hood in 1995 and increased its annual sales from $600 million to around $2.3 billion, due in large part to their willingness to spend money on new products. He’s also a part owner of the Red Sox, over whose home games often hovers the Hood blimp. 29. David G. Mugar 66, Boston and Cotuit; CEO, Mugar Enterprises $550 million This heir to the Star Market fortune is the epitome of old-money Boston. He gives generously to such charities as the Boston Pops Fourth of July Esplanade concerts, which he famously bankrolled for 27 years, and he seems to have a stake in everything: residential developments including the under-construction Mandarin Oriental (where he has bought a luxury condo to add to his collection of expensive homes in Cotuit and St. John’s), shopping centers, and his Brownfields Recovery Corporation, which cleans up contaminated industrial sites and builds new office parks. 30. Edward H. Linde 64, Weston; cofounder, CEO, and president, Boston Properties $546 million Trained at MIT as an engineer, Linde was smart enough to go into commercial real estate instead. He founded Boston Properties 36 years ago with publishing magnate Mort Zuckerman and focused on iconic buildings in the country’s three priciest markets: New York (the $654 million Times Square Tower), San Francisco (the $1.2 billion Embarcadero Center), and Boston (the $519 million Prudential Center). Linde is also chairman of the board of trustees at the BSO. And Wall Street is playing his tune: His company’s stock price has nearly doubled in the last two years. 31. Jeffrey N. Vinik 46, Weston; Founder, Vinik Asset Management $515 million Like Peter Lynch (No. 40) before him, Vinik made his name running Fidelity’s Magellan Fund. He started his own company in 1996 and made investors a reported 93.8 percent return in his first 11 months (and about 50 percent a year for each of the three years after that). Then he gave them back their $4.2 billion to focus on his own portfolio. Vinik, who also owns a piece of the Red Sox, just sold his $2 million Weston colonial and moved into a $12.5 million Weston mansion. He can afford it. 32. Richard A. Smith 81, Chestnut Hill; cochair, the Richard and Susan Smith Family Foundation $500 million Smith’s father gave him a head start on his bank account by founding a small chain of theaters in the 1920s that would become General Cinema. Smith used to play tennis with Bob Kraft (No. 15) and is the uncle of Philadelphia Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie. But it wasn’t his connections that made Smith his fortune. Now in his eighties, he built—and has been selling off—an empire that included a soda bottler, a major publishing company, and department stores. In 1989, Smith sold his independent soda-bottling company to PepsiCo for $1.88 billion, then the highest price ever paid for a bottler. He used some of the proceeds to buy Harcourt Brace Jovanovich for $1.5 billion. Then Harcourt sold in 2001 for nearly four times that. Finally, he and his family grossed more than $600 million in the $5.1 billion sale of Neiman Marcus. That adds up to a very comfortable retirement. 33. John F. Fish 46, Milton; CEO and president, Suffolk Construction $425 million When he took over the embryonic Suffolk from his father at 22, Fish didn’t even make as much as a good plumber. Meanwhile, the older and larger family business, Peabody, went to his brother Ted. Twenty-four years later, Suffolk is the biggest construction company in New England, with an estimated $1.1 billion in annual revenue, competing regularly with the smaller Peabody for jobs (and usually winning). Fish’s fingerprints are all over the state: He put up the $10.7 million Seiji Ozawa Hall at Tanglewood, managed the $147 million John Adams Courthouse renovation, and is building the $278 million Mandarin Oriental and the $150 million Westin Boston Waterfront hotel. Now he’s plowing some of his fortune back into causes including the Boston Pops, whose big Presidents at Pops event he chaired last year. 34. Gururaj “Desh” Deshpande 55, Andover; founder and chair, Sycamore Networks $412 million Deshpande has had a long fall from the heady days when he started Cascade Communications with $1,000 and sold it for $3.7 billion, then founded Sycamore Networks, which boasted the fourth-largest IPO of all time. Those successes pushed his net worth to a peak of $13 billion, making him the wealthiest Indian on earth. Sycamore’s share price has since plummeted from a high of about $200 to less than $5, and Deshpande and his CEO, Dan Smith (No. 38), are stuck with 32 percent of the stock. Of course, that’s one-third of a company still valued at almost $1 billion. Meanwhile, he continues to invest in other startups. 35. Stephen G. Pagliuca 51, Weston; managing director, Bain Capital $410 million Pagliuca, who chairs three local children’s charities, spends his rare free time rooting for his kids’ sports teams—he goes to as many as 10 games in a weekend—or shooting hoops on the regulation court at his $6.4 million Weston home. When he’s not doing that, he’s rooting for the Celtics, in which he and the team’s three other managing partners reportedly invested $140 million toward the $360 million total purchase price (he was brought in on the deal by Wyc Grousbeck, who he knew because their kids went to the same school). A leveraged-buyout artist, Pagliuca came into money like that by helping engineer more than 30 acquisitions at Bain Capital, Governor Mitt Romney’s old firm. Its $3.5 billion pitch last year to buy the entire NHL is the rare Bain idea that didn’t work out. Too bad for hockey. 36. Swanee G. Hunt 55, Cambridge; director, Women and Public Policy Program, Harvard University $407 million Hunt may have been born with the proverbial silver spoon in her mouth—her late father, oil baron H. L. Hunt, was once reportedly the richest man in the world—but she’s spent most of her life trying to give it away. An advocate for women and a former ambassador to Austria, she gives half her income to charity through her two foundations. That adds up to about $60 million so far. 37. Ronald M. Druker 62, Boston; president, the Druker Company $400 million Druker is exceptional, his competitors say, because he carries little debt on the 50-odd hotels and apartment buildings he owns or manages. Druker, whose father built the Colonnade, has added to the family portfolio with the Heritage on the Garden and the Colonnade Residences, once home to Kevin Millar and Trot Nixon. And he sold all 103 luxury condos in his critically acclaimed Atelier 505 (at prices of up to $3.3 million per) five months before it opened. Druker also chairs the Rose Kennedy Greenway’s proposed New Center for Arts and Culture, which he persuaded architect Daniel Libeskind to design. 38. Daniel E. Smith 56, Wellesley; CEO and president, Sycamore Networks $392 million Think you’ve lost money in the market? The value of the Smith family’s stake in Sycamore has fallen from a peak of $2.7 billion to about $210 million. Of course, that still makes for a soft landing. The Harvard M.B.A. sold some of his shares in happier times, letting him stash away a few tens of millions for a rainy day. And he and cofounder Desh Deshpande (No. 34), who jointly led Cascade Communications to a $3.7 billion payoff, are seeing black ink on the books again. Sycamore’s revenue last quarter was up 92 percent over the same period the year before. 39. Patrizio Vinciarelli 59, Boston; chair, CEO, and president, Vicor $370 million Vinciarelli founded Vicor, which makes power supply devices, after an antiquated power converter set his stereo on fire. He had no business experience, his laboratory was his basement, and his startup investors were his relatives and friends. Lucky for them. Today, though Vicor’s share price has yo-yoed since its 1991 IPO—Vinciarelli once lost $408 million in a week—the company’s stock is rebounding. So is Vinciarelli’s net worth. He’s planning to sell up to a million shares in the coming months, which stands to add at least $18 million to his bank account. 40. Peter S. Lynch 62, Boston; vice chair, Fidelity Management & Research $352 million If you’d invested $1,000 in Fidelity’s Magellan Fund on Lynch’s first day as manager, you’d have had $28,000 on his last day, 13 years later. He didn’t do so badly for himself, either. Now he monitors his $74 million charitable foundation and lends his magic to the portfolio of his alma mater, BC, which grew 18.8 percent in 2004—outperforming Harvard’s. He’s also dabbling in real estate. Last year the Lynchs bought a $6.1 million condo overlooking the Public Garden, and—together with their daughter and son-in-law—a $5.1 million house on Beacon Hill. They also picked up two nearby parking spaces for $340,000, presumably as a housewarming gift. 41. Julian Cohen 81, Boston and Palm Beach, FL; partner, CWB Boylston $350 million Called Julie by his friends, Cohen hired protégé Steve Weiner (No. 26) just after Weiner graduated from BU to help him run his real estate development business. They’ve worked together ever since on projects including the new Mandarin Oriental. Cohen has given millions toward the $31 million Cohen Pavilion at Palm Beach’s ritzy Kravis Center for the Performing Arts, $2 million toward the Cohen Galleria at the MFA, and $13 million to the BSO, including $1 million toward the Cohen Wing at Symphony Hall. 42. Henri A. Termeer 60, Boston and Marblehead; CEO, chair, and president, Genzyme $342 million In 1981, Genzyme, which develops treatments for rare diseases, employed 14 people in an office in Chinatown. Eighteen months later it hired the Dutch-born Termeer. Now the biotech firm has a payroll of more than 8,000 in 70 offices and plants worldwide, making it the third-largest company of its kind. Not really a surprise, then, that Termeer was the area’s highest-paid CEO in 2004, raking in a total compensation package worth at least $37.9 million. 43. Landon T. Clay 79, Brookline; Peterborough, NH; and Providence, RI; chair, East Hill Management $316 million Clay’s expensive hobbies have kept him busy since he stepped down as chair of the financial services company Eaton Vance in 1997. An armchair mathematician—even though he majored in English at Harvard—he underwrote the Clay Mathematics Institute in Cambridge, which is offering $1 million for each answer to seven of the most significant unsolved math problems (a Russian mathematician is said to be close to solving one). He’s also helped finance observatories for Harvard (to which he has given at least $14 million over the years) and the Dexter and Southfield schools in Brookline. 44. Douglas A. Berthiaume 56, Andover; CEO, chair, and president, Waters Corporation $314 million Berthiaume, who has run lab-equipment maker Waters since it was spun off from Millipore in 1994, collected just $650,000 in salary in 2004. But on a single day that year, he exercised more than 1.8 million stock options at $4.07 a share, according to SEC filings. Then he turned around and sold them all, grossing roughly $16 million. Don’t begrudge Berthiaume his wealth; his investors don’t. His company’s stock price has grown more than 1,000 percent since its 1995 IPO. He’s also a big giver to Mitt Romney. 45. (Tie) Steven B. Belkin 58, Weston; chair, Trans National Group $300 million Belkin invented affinity marketing—selling branded credit cards and travel packages to such groups as professional associations and alumni clubs. But money can’t buy everything. What Belkin really wants is to own a major-league sports team. After twice trying to buy the Celtics, he finally became principal owner of the Atlanta Hawks and Atlanta Thrashers, only to be bought out by his partners in an ugly dustup. In January he asked a court to either award him the value of his 30 percent stake in the franchises—which he estimates to be worth $500 million—or force his former partners to sell them back to him. Just in case, he’s still in the market for another team. Jerome Lyle Rappaport Sr. 78, Lincoln and Stuart, FL; cofounder, New Boston Fund; Philanthropist $300 million The legacy of Rappaport’s Charles River Park (“If you lived here, you’d be home now”) is still up for debate. But it’s not his problem anymore: He and his partners sold off the Emerson Place complex for $72 million, the Longfellow Place towers for $240 million, and Charles River Plaza for an estimated $80 million. Most of his time is now spent helping direct his $10 million charitable foundation from his homes in Lincoln, Nantucket, Florida, and Vermont. 47. Timothy P. Horne and family 67, Andover and Naples, Fl; director, Watts Water Technologies $283 million North Andover–based Watts Water was founded in 1874 to build steam regulators for New England textile mills. It still builds similar equipment in 50 plants worldwide, including some as far afield as China and Tunisia. And though Horne retired in 2002, his family still controls more than 40 percent of the company’s stock. 48. Raymond S. Stata 71, Dover; cofounder and chair, Analog Devices $269 million In 1996 Stata stepped down as CEO of semiconductor maker Analog, a company he cofounded. The next year he and his wife gave $25 million to MIT, his alma mater, which named its new Frank Gehry–designed center for computer science for them. Then in 1999 the Statas gave $10 million to the BSO, endowing the music directorship—now held by James Levine—in perpetuity. If those gifts trimmed the couple’s fortune, it was only temporarily. In 2000, Stata refilled his coffers with $68 million (before taxes) from further Analog stock sales. 49. Barbara Lee 60, Cambridge; philanthropist $213 million Her 1996 divorce from buyout king Tom Lee made Barbara Lee a very wealthy woman. (Her net worth got another boost when she sold their Brookline home for $18.5 million, then a city record.) She’s since started a foundation to support women in politics, hosted a $500,000 fundraiser in October for Hillary Clinton and the three other women U.S. senators up for reelection, and given the first $5 million toward the new $62 million ICA, whose capital campaign she cochairs. 50. Thomas G. Stemberg 57, Boston; venture partner, Highland Capital Partners $202 million Venture behemoth Bain Capital floated him $3 million when he was starting Staples. Now Stemberg, who says he was forced out of the company he founded, is a venture capitalist himself. Along the way, he’s invested some of his own money in KaBloom florists, Zoots dry cleaners, and Olly Shoes, a chain of children’s shoe stores he helped finance in partnership with a woman who later became his mistress—thanks to which a chunk of Stemberg’s estimated $202 million net worth shown here may already belong to his ex-wife. How We Did This: We combed through 18,000 pages of documents to calculate these estimates, including annual reports, proxy statements and other SEC filings, court papers, and real estate records. Taxes were subtracted from stock sales when that information was available. To determine the wealth of people associated with privately held companies, we spoke to colleagues, competitors, fundraisers, public relations representatives, attorneys, and gossips, and estimated the value of some private companies by comparing them with similar public ones. You May Also Like:	i don't know
Who was the legendary king of Greek mythology who changed all he touched into gold?	Midas \| Greek mythology \| Britannica.com Greek mythology Athena Midas, in Greek and Roman legend , a king of Phrygia , known for his foolishness and greed. The stories of Midas, part of the Dionysiac cycle of legends , were first elaborated in the burlesques of the Athenian satyr plays. The tales are familiar to modern readers through the late classical versions, such as those in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Book XI. According to the myth , Midas found the wandering Silenus, the satyr and companion of the god Dionysus . For his kind treatment of Silenus Midas was rewarded by Dionysus with a wish. The king wished that all he touched might turn to gold , but when his food became gold and he nearly starved to death as a result, he realized his error. Dionysus then granted him release by having him bathe in the Pactolus River (near Sardis in modern Turkey), an action to which the presence of alluvial gold in that stream is attributed. In another story the king was asked to judge a musical contest between Apollo and Pan . When Midas decided against Apollo, the god changed his ears into those of an ass. Midas concealed them under a turban and made his barber swear to tell no living soul. The barber, bursting with his secret, whispered it into a hole in the ground. He filled in the hole, but reeds grew from the spot and broadcast the sibilant secret—“Midas has ass’s ears”—when the wind blew through them. Learn More in these related articles:	Midas (disambiguation)
On which Filipino island is the capital city, Manila, located?	Midas - definition of Midas by The Free Dictionary Midas - definition of Midas by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Midas (mī′dəs) n. The fabled king of Phrygia to whom Dionysus gave the power of turning to gold all that he touched. [Latin Midās, from Greek.] (ˈmaɪdəs) n 1. (Classical Myth & Legend) Greek legend a king of Phrygia given the power by Dionysus of turning everything he touched to gold 2. the Midas touch ability to make money MIDAS (Firearms, Gunnery, Ordnance & Artillery) Missile Defence Alarm System Mi•das (ˈmaɪ dəs) n. a legendary Phrygian king endowed by Dionysus with the power to turn whatever he touched into gold. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. Midas - (Greek legend) the greedy king of Phrygia who Dionysus gave the power to turn everything he touched into gold legend , fable - a story about mythical or supernatural beings or events Ellas , Greece , Hellenic Republic - a republic in southeastern Europe on the southern part of the Balkan peninsula; known for grapes and olives and olive oil Translations	i don't know
Which 2010 3D computer-animated fantasy film follows a young teenager called 'Hiccup' in a mythical Viking world?	World Top 10 Animated Films of All Time - YouTube World Top 10 Animated Films of All Time Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Mar 30, 2014 World Top 10 Animated Films of All Time 10. How to Train Your Dragon- How to Train Your Dragon is a 2010 American 3D computer-animated fantasy film by DreamWorks Animation loosely based on the English 2003 book of the same name by Cressida Cowell. The story takes place in a mythical Viking world where a young Viking teenager named Hiccup aspires to follow his tribe's tradition of becoming a dragon slayer. 10. The Iron Giant - The Iron Giant is a 1999 American animated science fiction children's fantasy film. This film using both traditional animation and computer animation. It produced by Warner Bros. Animation and directed by Brad Bird. 9. The Incredibles- The Incredibles is a 2004 American computer-animated action-comedy superhero film written and directed by Brad Bird, released by Walt Disney Pictures. Produced by Pixar Animation Studios. The story follows a family of superheroes living a quiet suburban life, forced to hide their powers. When father Bob Parr's yearning for his glory days and desire to help people drags him into battle with an evil villain and his killer robot, the entire Parr family is forced into action to save the world. 8. Wall-E- Wall-E is a 2008 American CGI science-fiction romantic comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and directed by Andrew Stanton. The story follows a robot named WALL-E, who is designed to clean up a waste-covered Earth far in the future. He falls in love with another robot named EVE, who also has a programmed task, and follows her into outer space on an adventure that changes the destiny of both his kind and humanity 7. The Triplets of Belleville- The Triplets of Belleville is a 2003 animated comedy film written and directed by Sylvain Chomet. It was released as Belleville Rendez-vous in the United Kingdom. The film is Chomet's first feature film and was an international co-production between companies in France, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and Canada. It tells the story of Madame Souza, an elderly woman who goes on a quest to rescue her grandson Champion 6. Monsters, Inc.- Monsters, Inc. is a 2001 American computer-animated comedy film directed by Pete Docter, released by Walt Disney Pictures, and produced by Pixar Animation Studios. the film tells the story of two monsters who work for a company named Monsters, Inc. top scarer James P. Sullivan and his one-eyed assistant and best friend, Mike Wazowski. 5. Princess Mononoke- A 1997 Japanese animated epic historical fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki, and produced by Toshio Suzuki. Princess Mononoke is a period drama set specifically in the late Muromachi period of Japan but with numerous fantastical elements. The story concentrates on involvement of the outsider Ashitaka in the struggle between the supernatural guardians of a forest and the humans of the Iron Town who consume its resources 4. Beauty and the Beast- Beauty and the Beast is a 1991 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. The film is based on the fairy tale La Belle et la Bête by Jeanne-Marie Le Prince de Beaumont. 3. Toy Story- Toy Story is a 1995 American computer-animated family buddy comedy film produced by Pixar and directed by John Lasseter. Distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Toy Story was the first feature-length computer-animated film and the first film produced by Pixar. Toy Story follows a group of anthropomorphic toys who pretend to be lifeless whenever humans are present, and focuses on the relationship between Woody, a pullstring cowboy doll (Tom Hanks), and Buzz Lightyear, an astronaut action figure (Tim Allen). 2. The Lion King- An American animated epic musical drama film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 32nd animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series. The story takes place in a kingdom of anthropomorphic lions in Africa, and was influenced by the biblical tales of Joseph and Moses, and the William Shakespeare plays Hamlet and Macbeth. The film was produced during a period known as the Disney Renaissance. 1. Spirited Away- Spirited Away is the most successful Japanese film of all time, with box office receipts totalling nearly $275 million. This animated fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki and produced by Studio Ghibli. The film tells the story of Chihiro Ogino, a sullen ten-year-old girl who, while moving to a new neighborhood, enters an alternate reality inhabited by spirits and monsters	How to Train Your Dragon
Caroline Lucas became which party's first MP when she won the Brighton Pavilion seat in last week's General Election?	How To Train Your Dragon - Dramastyle How To Train Your Dragon This Video is about the licences. For the organization, see Creative Commons license 144727\|1 144727\|3 144727\|4 Reporting the video problem? Share Video : How to Train Your Dragon is a 2010 computer-animated fantasy film by DreamWorks Animation loosely based on the 2003 book of the same title. The film stars the voice talents of Jay Baruchel, America Ferrera, Jonah Hill, Gerard Butler, Christopher Mintz-Plasse, Craig Ferguson, and David Tennant. The story takes place in a mythical Viking world where a young Viking teenager named "Hiccup" aspires to follow his tribe's tradition of becoming a dragon slayer. After finally capturing his first dragon, and with his chance at finally gaining the tribe's acceptance, he finds that he no longer has the desire to kill it and instead befriends it. The film was released March 26, 2010, to highly favorable reviews. In the village of Berk, fighting dragons is a way of life. Stoick's son, Hiccup, is not big and strong like the other Vikings. Instead, he is weak and gangly, has a weird sense of humor, and always thinks things through instead of charging blindly. His Dad is the leader of the village, and is horribly disappointed in his weedy son. Trying to console Hiccup, a Viking friend remarks "Don't worry, it's not what you look like, it's what's inside that he can't stand" .Trying to prove himself to his father and the others, Hiccup decides to kill the extremely rare and never captured before Night Fury. He manages to shoot one down during the raid, but is unable to convince the other Vikings of that. Attempting to get proof, he sneaks off and manages to find the dragon he shot down, which is indeed a Night Fury. But, Hiccup can't bring himself to kill the helpless creature and frees the Night Fury instead. After a tense standoff, the dragon flees. Following this, Hiccup is enrolled in dragon fighting classes, which are taught by Gobber the Belch (Craig Ferguson), Hiccup's armory teacher. The class includes five other teenage Vikings: Astrid (America Ferrera) (who Hiccup has a crush on), Snotlout (Hiccup's cousin) (Jonah Hill), Fishlegs (Christopher Mintz-Plasse), and twins Ruffnut and Tuffnut (Kristen Wiig and T. J. Miller). Elsewhere, Stoick gathers and leaves with another search party that is attempting to find the Dragon's Nest, the apparent stronghold of the dragon race. As he learns more about dragons, Hiccup again finds the Night Fury trapped in a small canyon. Hiccup soon sees that one half of the dragon's tail wings was ripped off during his crash landing and has left him unable to fly. Trying to make things right, Hiccup slowly gains the dragon's trust and names him Toothless (his teeth retract back into his gums when he's not eating, so he appears "toothless"). As the two continue to learn about each other, Hiccup constructs an artificial tail and saddle for Toothless, enabling him to fly again, but only with Hiccup's aid. Meanwhile, back in Hiccup's dragon fighting classes, Hiccup begins to have great success. He appears to have an almost supernatural control over the practice dragons that the students have to fight. The secret that the other students don't know is that Hiccup is using facts he gleaned from Toothless to control the other dragons. Or another where he finds "cat nip" but for dragons to fight a gronckle. On one flight with the Night Fury, Toothless gets in a small quarrel with some smaller dragons called Terrible Terrors, but easily incapacitates them by spitting fire into their mouths. Meanwhile, Astrid begins to get jealous of Hiccup's success and suspicious of his escapades into the forest to see Toothless. After a hard journey, Stoick's search party returns, suffering light damage and having no luck finding the Nest. He discovers his son's natural talent with the dragons and congratulates him by giving him a helmet made from his mother's breastplate, like his own. Hiccup eventually becomes the top student in his class using everything he has learned about dragons from observing Toothless and gets the chance to slay a Monstrous Nightmare, one of the most dangerous dragons. However, Hiccup doesn't want to kill any dragons, so he plans to leave Berk with Toothless. However, Astrid follows him to their hideout and discovers Hiccup's friendship with the dragon. She tries to run back to the village, but Toothless kidnaps her and Hiccup asks for a chance to explain. They take her for a ride and Astrid begins to see how amazing dragons really are as well as Hiccup's extraordinary talents. During their flight, they get caught in a herd of dragons carrying food and follow them to their nest. There, they discover that the dragons steal food to feed a much larger and more threatening dragon that eats them if they do not provide enough food. After they leave, Astrid wants to inform the village of the nest's location, but Hiccup decides against it in order to protect Toothless from the other vikings. Astrid agrees to keep quiet and then punches Hiccup on the shoulder for kidnapping her but then kisses him on the cheek for the ride. The next day, during Hiccup's battle with the Nightmare, he throws down his weapons, saying he's not one of them and tries to show everyone that dragons are not as bad as they seem. Stoick shouts to stop the battle before Hiccup can continue, and the Nightmare attacks Hiccup in reaction to Stoick's rage. Meanwhile, Toothless hears Hiccup scream from his hiding place on the island and and races off to Berk to save him. Just before the Nightmare can finish Hiccup off, Toothless comes in and defeats the Nightmare. Hiccup pleads Toothless to flee, but he ignores him, fearing that the other vikings pose a threat to Hiccup. Toothless almost kills Stoick, but Hiccup begs him to stop, and Toothless immediately becomes more docile. In this peaceful state, Toothless is quickly overpowered and captured. Stoick confronts his son angrily at learning about his son's friendship with a dragon. Hiccup accidentally tells him that he has been to the nest, and Stoick decides to use Toothless to lead them there. Hiccup begs him not to hurt Toothless and warns them of the giant dragon that they likely stand no chance against, but Stoick ignores him. The vikings set sail with Toothless, chained, to finish off the dragons for good. Back at Berk, Astrid comforts Hiccup and asks him what he is going to do. Hiccup decides to use the dragons that the vikings use for dragon fighting practice to fly to the nest. Meanwhile, Astrid has gathered Ruffnut, Tuffnut, Fishlegs and Snotlout to help. Each mount on the dragons and set off after the vikings. As the other vikings arrive, they prepare for battle, but all the dragons flee the island. Stoick discovers the even bigger dragon, Seadragonus Giganticus Maximus, which sets all of the boats on fire, including the one Toothless is chained up on. Hiccup and the others arrive, and while he goes to free Toothless, the others try to learn of any blind spots or shot limits of the giant dragon. The boat collapses and Toothless sinks, still chained. Hiccup tries to free him but nearly drowns. Stoick saves his son and jumps back in to save Toothless. Hiccup and Toothless then lead the giant dragon into the air and shoot at its wings. They then dive into the ground and set fire to the dragon's insides. The giant dragon tries to pull up, but the shots fired previously have torn holes in his wings, sending him crashing into the ground and exploding in a thunderous inferno. After crashing into the bigger dragon's tail, Hiccup is knocked out and falls off Toothless and into the fire. Toothless dives in to save him, despite his saddle damaged and artificial tail destroyed. Stoick searches the rubble for his son and only finds Toothless. At first everyone thinks Hiccup died in the fire but Toothless reveals that he had wrapped Hiccup up in his wings to shield him. Hiccup reawakens in his home and finds Toothless by his bedside. He also finds that his left foot had been lost in the battle with the giant dragon, replaced with a spring loaded prosthetic by Gobber using the boy's designs. With Toothless' help, Hiccup slowly makes his way outside and sees that vikings have invited dragons into the village and are constructing shelters and giant feeding bowls for them. Everyone welcomes Hiccup back as a hero. Astrid then appears and kisses Hiccup. Hiccup is then given new equipment for Toothless built by Gobber. Hiccup and Astrid ride their dragons through the newly reformed Berk as the long war between Vikings and dragons is put to an end. Cast Jay Baruchel as Hiccup Horrendous Haddock III: Hiccup is going to become a Viking warrior his own way. Unfortunately, in the crude world of the Vikings, Hiccup's sophisticated observations and wry humor make him an outsider. When Hiccup befriends his vicious enemy, an injured wild dragon, he begins a complicated double life. Gerard Butler as Stoick the Vast: Stoick is the chieftain of the Viking tribe. A reluctant and confused parent, he doesn't understand his clever son. Hoping to bring out the man in his boy, Stoick sends Hiccup into dragon training. Craig Ferguson as Gobber the Belch, the seasoned warrior appointed to drill the new recruits. Gobber dispenses bad advice, and is missing a foot and a hand. America Ferrera as Astrid Hofferson: Striking, energetic and tough, Astrid embodies the Viking way. Her competitive, determined persona makes her hard to impress, but Hiccup can't help but be smitten. When Hiccup begins to show the strain of leading his double life, Astrid is the first to be suspicious. Astrid at first dislikes Hiccup, but befriends him after riding Toothless, and eventually becomes his love interest. Jonah Hill as Snotlout Jorgenson: Initially, makes fun of Hiccup for being so weak, but by the end of the movie he comes to respect Hiccup's intuitive and brave attitude. T. J. Miller and Kristen Wiig as Tuffnut and Ruffnut Thorston. Tuffnut, a boy, and Ruffnut, a girl, are fraternal twins. Both are fiendish thugs with ferocious intents and foul tempers, especially regarding each other. Christopher Mintz-Plasse as Fishlegs Ingerman: Fishlegs is nervous and frightened to do perilous things. He is smart and expresses his knowledge in role-playing game terms. He memorized the manual of dragons, and figured out the weak points of the giant dragon in the end. David Tennant as Spitelout: A Viking who is not named in the movie, he appears to be Stoick's Second-in-Command, and bears a striking resemblance to Snotlout. Tennant has previously narrated a series of Hiccup adventures on audio book.	i don't know
Which element takes its name from the Greek word for 'light bearer'?	The Meanings Behind 20 Chemical Element Names \| Mental Floss The Meanings Behind 20 Chemical Element Names filed under: chemistry , language Like us on Facebook On December 30, 2015, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry announced the discovery of four new chemical elements—numbers 113, 115, 117, and 118—the first new elements added to the periodic table since 2011 . For the time being, they have the fairly clunky Latin and Greek numerical names ununtium (Uut), ununpentium (Uup), ununseptium (Uus), and ununoctium (Uuo), but, by IUPAC rules, their discovers now get the chance to officially name them. Online, there’s growing support to name one of these new “heavy metal” elements lemmium in honor of Motörhead frontman Lemmy (who died two days before they were announced), and another octarine after the fictional “color of magic” in the late Sir Terry Pratchett’s Discworld novels (Pratchett died in March 2015). Whether these two petitions will come to fruition remains to be seen—the final names are not likely to be announced until later in the spring—but as IUPAC rules demand all new elements be named after either a mythological concept or character, a mineral, a place, a property of the element itself, or a scientist [ PDF ], it seems unlikely we’ll be seeing lemmium on the walls of chemistry classes any time soon. The stories behind 20 other chemical element names are explained here. 1. LITHIUM (3) Despite being the least dense metal, lithium takes its name from the Greek word for “stone,” lithos, because it was discovered in a rock (as opposed to the other alkali metals potassium and sodium, which were discovered in plants and animals). 2. CARBON (6) The name carbon comes from the Latin word carbo, meaning “coal” or “charcoal.” A small carbo, incidentally, was a carbunculus, which is the origin of carbuncle. 3. NEON (10) Neon takes its name from neos, the Greek word for “new” (it was “newly” discovered in 1898). 4. PHOSPHORUS (15) Phosphorus literally means “light-bearer” or “light-bringing,” as the first compound of the element glowed in the dark. A century before it became the name of element 15 in the late 1600s, Phosphorus was an alternative name for the planet Venus, whose appearance in the sky was once believed to strengthen the light and heat of the Sun. 5. VANADIUM (23) One of the transition metals, pure vanadium is a harsh steel-grey color, but four of its oxidation states produce a rainbow of solutions, colored purple, green, blue, and yellow . Because he was so impressed with how beautiful and varied these solutions were, the Swedish chemist Nils Sefström chose to name vanadium after Vanadís, an alternate name for the Norse goddess of beauty, Freya. Vanadium’s next door neighbor, chromium (24), also produces a variety of colored compounds and so takes its name from the Greek word for “color,” chroma. 6. COBALT (27) Cobalt is often naturally found alongside or in minerals combined with arsenic, and when smelted, cobalt ore can emit noxious arsenic-laden fumes. Long before the poisonous qualities of minerals like these could be explained by science, copper miners in central Europe had no better explanation than to presume these toxic effects were supernatural, and were caused by devious underground goblins called kobolds who lived inside the rock—and it's from the German word kobold that cobalt gets its name. 7. COPPER (29) The chemical symbol for copper is Cu, which derives from the metal’s Latin name, cuprum. In turn, cuprum is descended from Kyprios, the Ancient Greek name for the island of Cyprus, which was well known in antiquity for its production of copper. Some other chemical elements named after places include germanium (32), americium (95), berkelium (97), californium (98), and darmstadtium (110), while the elements ruthenium (44), holmium (67), lutetium (71), hafnium (72), and polonium (84) take their names from the Latin names for Russia (Ruthenia), Stockholm (Holmia), Paris (Lutetia), Copenhagen (Hafnia), and Poland (Polonia). 8. GALLIUM (31) A brittle, silvery-colored metal with a melting point just above room temperature, at 85ºF—meaning that a solid block would quite easily melt in your hand —gallium was discovered in 1875 by the French chemist Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran. He chose to name it after Gaul, the Latin name for France, but soon after his discovery was announced, de Boisbaudran was forced to deny allegations that he had actually intended the name gallium to be a self-referencing pun on his own name: Lecoq means “the rooster” in French, while the Latin word for “rooster” is gallus. Despite explicitly writing in a paper in 1877 that France was the true namesake, the rumor dogged de Boisbaudran his whole life and has endured to today. 9. BROMINE (35) One of just two elements that are liquid at room temperature (the second being mercury), bromine usually appears as a rich, dark red-brown liquid, similar to blood, that emits fumes and has a characteristically harsh smell. Ultimately, it takes its name from a Greek word, bromos, meaning “stench.” 10. KRYPTON (36) Because it is colorless, odorless, and so difficult to discover, krypton takes its name from the Greek word for “hidden,” kryptos. 11. STRONTIUM (38) The only chemical element named after a place in Britain, strontium takes its name from its mineral ore strontianite, which was in turn named after the town of Strontian in the Scottish Highlands near where it was discovered in 1790. 12. YTTRIUM (39) In 1787, a Swedish Army officer and part-time chemist named Carl Axel Arrhenius came across an unusually heavy, black-colored rock in the waste heap of a quarry near the village of Ytterby, 15 miles outside Stockholm. He named his discovery ytterbite, and sent a sample of the mineral to his colleague, Professor Johan Gadolin (the namesake of element number 64, gadolinium), at Åbo University in modern-day Finland . Gadolin found that it contained an element that was entirely new to science, which he called yttrium; since then, many more elements have been discovered in Ytterby’s mine, and three more—terbium (65), erbium (68), ytterbium (70)—have been given names honoring the village in which it was discovered. Consequently, the tiny Swedish village of Ytterby remains the most-honored location on the entire periodic table. 13. ANTIMONY (51) To etymologists, antimony is probably the most troublesome of all chemical element names, and its true origin remains a mystery. Instead, various unproven theories claim that it might derive from Greek words meaning “floret” (a reference to the spiky appearance of its ore, stibnite), “against solitude” (a reference to the idea that it never appears naturally in its pure form), and even “monk-killer” (as antimony is poisonous, and many early alchemists were monks). 14. XENON (54) Like xenophobia, xenon takes its name from a Greek word, xenos, meaning “strange” or “foreign.” 15. PRASEODYMIUM (59) Because of the greenish color of its mineral salts, the lanthanide metal praseodymium takes its name from a Greek word meaning “green,” prasios—which in turn takes its name from the Greek word for a leek, prason. The dymium part is more complicated . In 1842, a new “element” was discovered called didymium, from the Greek for "twin," so named because it was always accompanied with cerium and lanthanum (and possibly because the namer had two pairs of twins of his own). Forty years later, scientists split didymium into two different elements, praseodidymium (green twin) and neodidymium (new twin). The di- was dropped almost instantly, leaving neodymium and praseodymium. 16. SAMARIUM (62) Several famous names are commemorated on the periodic table, including Albert Einstein (einsteinium, 99), Niels Bohr (bohrium, 107), Enrico Fermi (fermium, 100), Alfred Nobel (nobelium, 102), and Pierre and Marie Curie (curium, 96). The earliest eponymous element, however, was the little-known metal samarium, which indirectly took its name from an equally little-known Russian mining engineer called Vasili Samarsky-Bykhovets. In the early 1800s, Samarsky was working as chief clerk of the Russian mining department when he granted a German mineralogist named Gustav Rose access to a collection of samples taken from a mine in the Ural Mountains. Rose discovered a new mineral in one of the samples, which he named samarskite in Samarsky’s honor; decades later, in 1879, de Boisbaudran found that samarskite contained an element that was new to science, which in turn he named samarium. 17. DYSPROSIUM (66) Eleven years after discovering gallium and 7 years after discovering samarium, de Boisbaudran discovered the rare earth element dysprosium in 1886. It took him 30 attempts to isolate a pure sample—and consequently he named it after dysprositos, a Greek word meaning “hard to get at.” 18. TANTALUM (73) Ten times rarer than gold in the universe, tantalum is a hard, silvery metal known for its resistance to corrosion and its chemical inertness, both of which make it extremely useful in the manufacture of laboratory equipment and medical implants. Although it’s sometimes said to have been named for the “tantalizing” frustration early chemists experienced in trying to obtain a pure sample, it’s tantalum’s unreactiveness that is the real origin of its name: Because it appears unaffected by practically anything it is submerged in or brought into contact with, tantalum is named for Tantalus, a character in Greek mythology who was punished by being forced to stand knee-deep in a pool of water below a fruit tree, both of which drew away from him whenever he reached out to eat or drink (a story which is also the origin of the word tantalize). Incidentally, Tantalus’s daughter Niobe also features on the periodic table as the namesake of element 41, niobium. 19. URANIUM (92) Uranium was discovered by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in 1789, who named it honor of the planet Uranus, which had also only recently been discovered. When elements 93 and 94 were discovered in 1940, they were named neptunium and plutonium so as to continue the sequence of planets. 20. MENDELEVIUM (101) The invention of the periodic table is credited to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, whose organization of the table allowed him not only to predict the existence of elements that had yet to be discovered at the time, but to correct what was generally understood about the properties of some existing elements. Element number 101, mendelevium, is appropriately named in his honor.	Phosphorus
What name is given to the traditional Welsh dish made from boiled seaweed rolled in oatmeal and fried in bacon fat?	Lucifer the Light Bearer - Occult World Lucifer the Light Bearer Posted by: Occult World in Lucifer November 1, 2012 16 Views “I form the light, and create darkness…” One of the favorite rumors that fundy Christians like to spread against the Gnostics is that they supposedly worship Lucifer the light-bearer. Supposedly Gnostics worship this secret fallen angel of light who also challenged Jehovah in the form of the Serpent in the Garden of Eden. Now it is true that Gnostics typically don’t regard the Serpent in Eden in a negative light: but this is based on philosophical considerations and not on the literalistic proposition that the serpent in the garden should be venerated . But of course I don’t expect fundies to understand issues of such intellectual complexity. In the eyes of fundies if you don’t simply believe their way then you’re a Satanist. And if you happen to believe in something that is really complex, then they’ll label you a Luciferian. The Luciferian label is often reserved for those people who are not overtly evil the way Satanists aspire to be. The Luciferians are those people who maintain a form of virtue and piety that is directed in opposition to the “Creator” i.e. Jehovah. In the eyes of fundies Luciferianism is like Satan Lite; it’s Satanism for clean people. (I have personally had these rationalizations and categories used on me by ‘fundy’ Christians.) Certainly I cannot speak for all Gnostics in regard to the “Lucifer” issue. I can only speak for myself and for what I know about the Gnostic tradition and the history of religious ideas. I know for a fact that “Lucifer” originally was the name of a god in ancient Roman mythology. Lucifer was the son of the dawn goddess named Aurora; and the Romans named the planet we call “Venus” after him. Among the Romans Lucifer was identified with the morning star; and the word Lucifer literally means “light-bearer.” Among the Greeks Lucifer corresponded to Eosphoros in classical Greek, and to “Phosphoros” in later common Greek; again both names mean “light-bearer.” Eosphoros was the son of the dawn goddess whom the Greeks called Eos. (Note: I suspect that “Eos” is the source of the name for the Germanic dawn goddess festival “Eostre” which was celebrated in the spring. This in turn was the source of our word “Easter.” Webster’s New World Dictionary specifically identifies the word “Easter” as a name for the “dawn goddess.” If all this is correct then it appears that “orthodox” tradition has inadvertently named its Paschal observance after the mother of Eosphoros, a.k.a. Lucifer.) The biblical origin of Lucifer begins in Isaiah 14:12, “How you are fallen from heaven O Lucifer, son of the morning!” This quote is from the King James, but the Hebrew text says “How you have fallen from heaven O morning star, son of the dawn!” Note that the Hebrew text does not contain the proper name of any god. I have been unable to determine if the ancient Israelites actually identified the morning star with any angel or god. Among Semitic cultures in general the morning star was identified with the god Azizos (Azazel?). It is in the Greek Old Testament that the morning star was first identified with the name of a god. Apparently the words “son of the dawn” reminded the Hellenistic Jewish translators of Eosphoros in Greek tradition. Eosphoros is the Greek equivalent of Lucifer, and this was the source from which “Lucifer” entered into both Latin and English translations of the Bible, in both the Old and New Testaments (see below). Having set forth some basic historical facts (and theories) regarding this name, I want to talk about the role of Lucifer in ancient Gnostic theology and myth. The simple fact here is that the Gnostics never used the names “Lucifer” or “Eosphoros” (or Phosphoros) in the age in which they lived. More important is that in the Gnostic scheme of the cosmos, Lucifer, the planet “Venus”, was identified with the seven celestial archons that governed the cosmos. The Gnostics regarded these as little more than fallen angels or demons. This is a common pattern shared by all Gnostic systems. Various Gnostic treatises provide lists of the seven powers that govern the cosmos (e.g. Apocryphon of John, 10-11, On the Origin of the World, 101). These names are meant to imply that the godhead of the Old Testament is divided into seven powers that correspond (like the pagan gods) to the seven days of the week. In the varying Gnostic lists it appears that the sixth power is named after “Adonin” or “Oraios”, or also: Oreus (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 1.30.11). The Anglican scholar Wigan Harvey identified the name Oreus as meaning “Light” (Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1, pg. 355, fn. 1; cf. Origin of the World, 101). If this is correct then I believe it’s probable that the names Oreus/Oraios may be an obscure reference to the “light-bearer.” In the Apocryphon of John this may correspond to “Adonin” which is given as the name of the sixth power (ibid., 10-11). The essential point I’m trying to make is that “Lucifer” is a name for one of the planets which the Gnostics identified with the celestial archons. The Gnostics did not identify these archons with the Godhead. In Gnostic myth these powers guarded the celestial spheres that the soul had to travel through in order to return to the Pleroma. These archons were considered to be the servants of the cosmic villain Yaldabaoth. Later, in the Middle Ages, the Gnostic Cathars identified the Rex Mundi (world ruler) as Lucifer. It is highly significant that the Cathars regarded Lucifer as the Enemy, and as the evil god behind the papal theocracy (Edward Peters, Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe, pg. 133f. W. Barnstone, M. Meyer, The Gnostic Bible, pg. 733f.). Historically the Gnostics had no concept of the “morning star” in their symbolism. There is no “light-bearer” in ancient Gnostic tradition. I Gnostics today refer to Lucifer or the “light-bearer” then this is pure hyperbole. In modern Gnostic circles Lucifer is often equated wit Prometheus. In Greek mythology Prometheus was a light-bearer who brought the knowledge of fire to humans in order to raise them from their impoverished condition. Zeus became jealous because the knowledge of fire-making, and other skills and arts, had been given to Humans. This is the common motif that is behind the concept of Lucifer today among Gnostics and atheists. Hence Lucifer-Prometheus is not an evil being. He is an enlightened rebel who opposes the jealousy and severity of Zeus/Jehovah. In this context Jesus, in the Gnostic tradition, can be compared to Lucifer-Prometheus. In like manner Jesus brings the Light/Knowledge of the Pleroma down to human kind. Now again, in comparing Jesus to Lucifer-Prometheus I’m describing a modern metaphor that I have heard used by other Gnostics. The ancient Gnostics never made this comparison in any extant text; nor do the Catholic Fathers ever accuse the Gnostics of revering Lucifer, or of identifying Jesus with Lucifer – either as a metaphor, or as literal doctrine. Now some fundies may answer me by saying that the ancient Gnostics did not mention Lucifer because they kept it secret and that this was the Gnostic “arcanum arcanorum.” I have two answers to this: 1) The Gnostic contempt for Jehovah was a poorly kept secret; and I think that the case can be made that the Gnostics did a poor job of keeping any of their secrets. 2) My second answer is that the Gnostics would have no reason to keep anything secret that their “orthodox” Christian counterparts used openly anyway. And this is where we come to the real irony of the history of Lucifer. In contrast with the Gnostics, the “orthodox” Christians did have their own “morning star” and “light bearer.” And these symbols appear in sources that were not used in Gnostic tradition. If fundies want to use the name “Lucifer” as the name of Satan, and as a label for people like me, then it is only fair to point out that this label works both ways. Incredibly, Lucifer the light-bearer does appear in “orthodox” Christian tradition, and in the canon. He appears in the Latin and Greek texts of 2 Peter 1:19. Here is the Latin text of the passage side by side with Isaiah 14:12 where the word “Lucifer”–the name of Satan–also occurs. Isaiah 14:12, “Quomodo cecidisti de caelo LUCIFER qui mane oriebaris corruisti in terram qui vulnerabas gentes.” 2 Peter 1:19b, “… quasi lucernae lucenti in caliginoso loco donec dies inlucescat et LUCIFER oriatur in cordibus vestris.” (See below for English translation.) These passages can be accessed online at this link http://www.drbo.org/lvb/ Now, in making sense of this issue I am raising questions about how Fundies read and translate the scriptures, and not the history behind what these scriptures say. Fundies call Gnostics “Luciferians” and that “Lucifer” is the name of Satan. Fundies will even cite Isaiah 14:12 which for them proves that “Lucifer” is the name of Satan. And yet here this same evil name is used in a positive way in the New Testament. The reason we find the name Lucifer in the Latin text of 2 Peter 1:19 is because it was translated from the earlier Greek text which contains the name “Phosphoros.” Again, Phosphoros is the later form of Eosphoros in Hellenistic Greek. At this link the readers can see where Phosphoros is the name of a pagan god in Greek mythology. (In the sources cited note that Eosphoros and Phosphoros are used interchangeably.) The fact that Greeks and Romans identified Lucifer and Phosphoros as the same god can be seen most dramatically in this passage from the famous Roman statesman and orator Cicero, from his treatise On the Nature of the Gods: “The lowest of the five wandering stars, and the one nearest the earth, is the planet of Venus, which is called F?s????? (Phosphoros –jw) in Greek, and Lucifer in Latin, …it completes its course in a year, traversing the zodiac both latitudinally and longitudinally, as is also done by the planets above it, and on whichever side of the sun it is, it never departs more than two signs’ distance from it. (21) This constancy, then, among the stars, this marked agreement of times through the whole of eternity, though the movements are so various, I cannot understand as existing without mind and reason and forethought, and since we find that these qualities are possessed by the heavenly bodies, we cannot but assign to those bodies themselves their place among the number of divine beings.” (De Natura Deorum, 2:20-21) Cicero identified Phosphoros with Lucifer, whom he presumed to be a “divine” being. Phosphoros is the very name that appears in the Greek text of 2 Peter 1:19, which I will quote here in English. The Greek text can be seen at the link below. “We have also a more sure word of prophecy; whereunto ye do well that ye take heed, as unto a light that shineth in a dark place, until the day dawns, and the day star (Phosphoros) arise in your hearts. (20) Knowing this first, that no prophecy of the scripture is of any private interpretation. (21) For the prophecy came not in old time by the will of man: but holy men of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy Ghost.” http://www.greekbible.com/index.php This passage warns against the method of reading private esoteric interpretations into scripture, as is done through the allegorical method. I believe this passage is aimed at Gnostics; and the verse which follows appears to be an attack on the Gnostics “But there were false prophets also among the people, even as there shall be false teachers among you, who secretly shall bring in damnable heresies, even denying the Lord that bought them…” (2 Peter 2:1; emphasis added.) 2 Peter portrays “Phosphoros” as a symbolic adversary of the heretics (Gnostics) who secretly brought in heretical teachings. Here “Phosphoros” is the light bearer who symbolizes the true understanding of prophecy, and the proper use of the prophetic spirit (i.e. the “Holy Ghost”). It is incredible to me that this name “Phosphoros”, which is a name for Satan, can be used in a passage as a symbol of the truth of the Holy Spirit. What can the name of a pagan celestial deity possibly have in common with the Holy Spirit? The meaning is that if the Christian reads Bible prophecy in light of the Holy Ghost who inspired those scriptures, then “Phosphoros” will rise in the hearts of the readers. I don’t know of any Gnostic writings that blaspheme this bad! I’m a Gnostic, and this is offensive even to me! Now in fairness to all Christians, including fundies, I do want to point out that 2 Peter was widely rejected among early “orthodox” Christians. This fact is reported by the Church historian Eusebius of Caesarea (Church History, 3.3.1). Any intelligent reader can see that this text was not written by Peter, and is a poorly contrived forgery. The fraudulent nature of the text appears most obvious in chapter 3, where the author addresses a crisis which could have occurred only after all the Apostles had died – and Jesus had not yet returned before the end of the age as prophesied. In the Gospel of Matthew Jesus repeatedly promises Peter and the other disciples that he will return before the end of their “generation” (e.g. Matthew 10:23, 16:8, 24:34); whereas in 2 Peter, “Peter” tells his readers that a “day with the Lord is as a thousand years” meaning obviously that the end is not coming at the end of Peter’s generation (2 Peter 3:8, cf. Mt. op. cit.). Certainly this is not what Jesus promised to Peter in Matthew. Our author “Peter” also refers to Paul’s letters as “scripture” (2 Peter 3:15-16) which is also highly dubious, and obviously refers to later Gnostics or Marcionites who had made a canon of Paul’s letters. In Eusebius’s day many “orthodox” Christians believed that 2 Peter was a forgery that did not belong in the Canon. This text is not quoted in any Gnostic tradition at all. (On the historical record 2 Peter does not appear until the third century with Cyprian and Origen, and the latter mentions that the epistle was disputed; Eusebius, ibid., 6:25; Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers, vol. 1, pp. 133 fn. 4, 273.) There is yet another book in the New Testament that makes subtle references to Lucifer, and with stunning theological implications. I refer to the Revelation of John. This book has a significant theme regarding the “morning star.” Here “Jesus” says cryptically to his readers among the seven churches that He will give them the “morning star” (Rev. 2:28). And then, at the end, in Revelation 22:16, Jesus reveals himself to be the “root of David” and the “bright morning star.” This interpretation is confirmed in the following conservative Christian sources: The New Living Translation of the New Testament, published by Tyndale House (1996), quotes Jesus as saying “I am the bright morning star” (NLT). Matthew Henry’s Whole Bible Commentary says of this passage: “He is the fountain of all light, the bright and the morning star, and as such has given to his churches this morning light of prophecy, to assure them of the light of that perfect day which is approaching.” (Numerous commentaries at this link agree that Jesus is identified with the morning star.) The liberal “history of religions” scholar Wilhelm Bousset also believed that Jesus was identified with the morning star “Lucifer” in Rev. 22:16 (Kyrios Christos, pg. 349, fn. 410). Helena Blavatsky, the modern occultist and founder of the Theosophical society, also believed that Jesus was identified with the morning star, i.e. “Lucifer”, in Rev. 22:16. http://www.blavatsky.net/blavatsky/arts/WhatsInAName.htm From these diverse sources, whether evangelical Christian, liberal scholarship, or modern occult, there is agreement that in Revelation 22:16 Jesus proclaims to be the “bright morning star.” This is the last great lesson that is revealed to us in the “orthodox” canon: Jesus, the Son of God, is the bright morning star. Of special note is that the words “bright morning star” run parallel to the terminology in the Hebrew text of Isaiah 14:12 where the word “Heylel” is used (??????). Heylel literally means bright morning star (Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance, Hebrew/Chaldee Lex. #1966, cf. #1984). Among the Greek speaking Christians in the Greek cities such as Ephesus and Pergamos the “bright morning star” would right away bring to mind the god “Lucifer” or Phosphoros (cf. Plutarch, Moralia, 925A, 927C). And the fact that the Revelation of John is an esoteric book clothed in symbolism only serves to make this interpretation all the more obvious. Jesus is revealing a secret to John: He is the “bright morning star”; He is identifying himself with Lucifer. This is the inevitable consequence of the fact that this writer chose to identify his savior with the “bright morning star.” (We need not assume that the Revelation of John is an authentic message from Jesus. I’ll leave that to the fundies.) So, in the Revelation (Apocalypse) of John “Jesus” is revealing an important secret to this writer: He is essentially saying to him that “I am Lucifer.” Again, in the time period and culture in which the Revelation of John was written, it was common knowledge that the morning star was named Lucifer or Phosphoros. The Revelation of John makes a connection between Jesus and Lucifer. And the Greek wording for “bright morning star” runs parallel with the Hebrew, as I have shown above. Compound this with the fact that in the Latin Vulgate the translator Jerome has no scruple about using the name “Lucifer”–the name of Satan–in both Isaiah 14:12 and 2 Peter 1:19. This leads me to raise the question of whether, perhaps, there was some Luciferian cabal within early Christianity. On top of this is that there was an “ultra-orthodox” Catholic priest named after Lucifer (i.e. Lucifer of Cagliari http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09410b.htm ). And then, later, the Catholic Church adopted “Easter” as the name for its Paschal observance. Again, “Easter” is believed to originate from the worship of the dawn goddess, who is the mother of Lucifer. Why is early Christian “orthodoxy” so at ease with the name of Lucifer? Can all this simply be a coincidence? It seems to me that the name and legacy of Lucifer is branded on both the “orthodox” canon and the “tradition” that follows it. By comparison I search in vain for references to Lucifer in ancient Gnostic writings or traditions. This whole predicament is created by the fact that Fundy Christians believe that there is an evil being named “Lucifer.” And this is compounded by the fact that Fundies place their faith and hopes on dubious books like 2 Peter and the Revelation of John. The Church historian Eusebius points out that the Revelation of John was also rejected by many early Catholics (Church History, 3.25, 28; 5.25). Scholar Bruce Metzger documents the fact that the Revelation of John was absent from many early canon lists in the Catholic Church (B. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament, pg. 209f.). Anyone with common sense would of course reject and condemn the Revelation of John. The most obvious reason is that the Revelation of John contains prophecies which are obviously false. This problem appears right away in the opening sentence: “The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants the things which must shortly come to pass…for the time is at hand” (Rev. 1:1-3. Emphasis added). Let us note also the words of “Jesus” in Rev. 22:12 and 20 “Behold, I come quickly” and also “Surely, I come quickly.” Yeah right! I thank God that this book of dark prophecies is false. But that doesn’t make the threat go away. Fundies believe in this book, and with all their hearts they want the terrible events in this book to come to pass. They believe that this fulfillment will validate their beliefs and somehow add something to their empty lives. The Fundies will no more let go of this book, and the lies that are in it, then they will let go of the delusion that “Lucifer” is the name of the devil. The reality of course is that there was no wicked “Lucifer” in early Christianity. This is why Lucifer’s name appears in Christian tradition: because the gentile church assigned no significance to it – and neither did the Gnostics. Thus when fundies rant about “Lucifer” today, they are in fact casting a shadow on the “orthodox” Christians who came before them. Now of course I am telling only one side of the story. It would seem simple enough for an intelligent person to admit that there is no evil being named Lucifer. Lucifer is just a name from ancient Roman mythology. Lucifer is not even one of the major gods; he is a minor god. This being said, there is another crowd of people out there, profoundly different from the fundies, but who also profess some belief or doctrine regarding Lucifer. Here is an example from the famous New Age pioneer and founder of the Theosophical Society, Helena Blavatsky: “In this case it is but natural–even from the dead letter standpoint–to view Satan, the Serpent of Genesis, as the real creator and benefactor, the Father of Spiritual mankind. For it is he who was the “Harbinger of Light”, bright radiant Lucifer, who opened the eyes of the automaton created by Jehovah…” And also: “And now it stands proven that Satan, or the Red Fiery Dragon, the “Lord of Phosphorus” [2 Peter 1:19]…and Lucifer, or “Light-Bearer”, is in us: it is our Mind – our tempter and Redeemer, our intelligent liberator from pure animalism.” (H. Blavatsky, The Secret Doctrine, vol. II, pp. 243, 513) My personal opinion regarding this passage is as follows: I believe that the most dangerous lies are the ones that have some element of truth in them. Blavatsky’s statements above are a dangerous misrepresentation of something that is true. On the other hand, I don’t see anything in Blavatsky’s remarks that are any worse than what is said in 2 Peter 1:19. In 2 Peter 1:19 “Phosphoros” is the morning star and light-bearer who rises in the hearts of “orthodox” Christians with the light of intelligence and understanding. This is similar to what Blavatsky says of Lucifer above: like 2 Peter 1:19 Blavatsky states that Lucifer is in us: Lucifer, the “Lord of Phosphorus”, is the light of intelligence within. And then in Revelations 22:16 “Jesus” claims to be the “bright morning star” and he claims that he will give the “morning star” to his disciples (Rev. 2:28). In 2 Peter 1:19 the morning star is identified specifically with Phosphoros or Lucifer. Together, 2 Peter 1:19 and Revelation 2:28 confirm that the morning star is Phosphoros or Lucifer. Jesus likewise identifies himself with the “morning star” which 2 Peter calls “Phosphoros” or Lucifer. The implications of these passages become even more interesting when we look at them in light of the “orthodox” Apostolic Tradition. According to Tradition Peter and John were fellow Apostles, and Paul names them as the “pillars” of the Jerusalem Church (Gal. 2). Orthodox tradition insists that Peter wrote 2 Peter, and that John wrote the Revelation. If this is so, then we must acknowledge that both Peter and John share a doctrine regarding the morning star. John mentions the “morning star” and Peter acknowledges that the morning star is “Phosphoros” or, again, Lucifer. Thus you fundy Christians must acknowledge that your own Apostles had ties to Lucifer. As I look over these facts, and how fundies want to interpret them, I must admit that Christian fundamentalism can be regarded as a species of Theosophy on par with the Theosophical Society. The Theosophists believe that Satan is really a good entity whose real name is Lucifer. In a similar way, fundy Christians refuse to accept the good Father of Jesus Christ and proclaim instead that the supreme God is Jehovah, who in turn admits himself to be the creator of evil: “I form the light and create darkness, I make peace, and create evil…” (Isaiah 45:7) Yet in the Apostles we read: “God is light, and in him is no darkness at all” (1 Jn. 1:5); and Jesus himself proclaimed: “O righteous Father, the world hath not known you.” Both John the Apostle and John the Baptist agree that “No man has seen God at any time.” (Jn. 1:18, 1 Jn. 4:12) When all of this information is put together what else can we do but conclude that fundy Christians themselves reject the truth of the Gospel and worship Lucifer? It is not my belief that Lucifer exists. This is what the fundies and the Theosophists agree on. Fundies also insist on believing in the false prophecies of Revelation and wishing for the most ugly things. Fundy Christians willfully believe in lies, and their Savior is Lucifer. I think there is room for criticism of the Theosophists as well. I find it incredible that Helena Blavatsky believes that she can do justice to the truth with names like “Satan” and “Lucifer” and the “Lord of Phosphorus.” It is ironic to see this thread of spiritual poverty that runs through the center of Blavatsky’s tremendous erudition. The lesson to be learned in all this is that Lucifer is a false-god. Lucifer is a symbol of misguided dreams, false hopes, and intellectual vanity. –jw Note on the Naassenes 1] There was one Gnostic sect which was known for revering the “serpent.” This sect was known as the “Ophites” or the Naassenes (NAAS is transliterated from the Hebrew word for “serpent” nachash: ????). The Catholic Father Hippolytus reported at length on the Naassenes in his treatise The Refutation of All Heresies, 5:1-5. In this lengthy report Hippolytus could provide no evidence that the Naassenes derived their doctrine of the Serpent from Genesis. Hippolytus reports on another sect called the Peratea, which based its doctrine of the serpent on John 3:14 where Jesus said “As Moses lifted up the Serpent, so the Son of man must be lifted up; that whoever shall believe in him shall have eternal life” (ibid., 5:11). In Irenaeus’s account of the Naassenes he reports that they believed that the serpent in Eden was a rebellious son of Yaldabaoth, and was distinguished from the “Christ who is above” (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 1.30.5, 11). Among Gnostic systems in general there is no consensus that the serpent in the garden is divine or good. This is a popular myth that is based on the scurrilous accusations of the Catholic Fathers who compare Gnostic systems, and gnosis, with the Serpent and the Tree of Knowledge in Eden. Last updated: September 3, 2014 at 8:52 am	i don't know
Which former Cabinet Minister lost her Redditch parliamentary seat in last week's General Election?	General Election 2010: Disgraced MPs are driven out by angry voters - Telegraph General Election 2010 General Election 2010: Disgraced MPs are driven out by angry voters More than 10 former MPs embroiled in the expenses scandal went down to defeat in the election as voters showed their anger at the ballot box. Jacqui Smith, the former home secretary, lost her seat to Karen Lumley of the Conservatives. Photo: GETTY IMAGES By Holly Watt 8:15AM BST 08 May 2010 Jacqui Smith, the former Home Secretary, was the most high-profile casualty and looked close to tears at the declaration in Redditch as she was defeated by the Conservative Karen Lumley. Last year, Miss Smith was ordered to apologise to Parliament after claiming expenses on her family home in Redditch, while designating her sister’s home in London as her main residence. She also submitted claims for adult films viewed by her husband, Richard Timney. Labour’s Phil Hope, who repaid £41,709 in taxpayer-funded expenses that he claimed for furniture, fittings and other items for his London flat, was dislodged by Louise Bagshawe, the new Conservative MP for Corby. Ann Keen, a health minister who, with her husband, was nicknamed Mr and Mrs Expenses, was thrown out when Brentford & Isleworth fell to the Tories. Related Articles £750 claim for losing right to vote 07 May 2010 Her husband, Alan Keen, survived in Feltham & Heston, despite criticism for claiming thousands of pounds on a flat in Waterloo 10 miles from his main home. In Harrow East, the Conservative candidate Bob Blackman defeated former minister Tony McNulty. Mr McNulty had admitted claiming expenses on a second home, occupied by his parents, which was eight miles from his main property. David Heathcoat-Amory lost his seat in Wells to the Liberal Democrats after 27 years as a Conservative MP. He repaid £29,691.93 in expenses, which included more than 550 sacks of manure for his garden. Shahid Malik, the Communities Minister whose claims included £730 for a massage chair and £2,600 for a home cinema system, was defeated by the Tories in Dewsbury. Despite Nick Clegg’s repeated insistence that the Liberal Democrats had not been affected by expenses claims, the party lost vital seats when several of their candidates involved in the scandal were thrown out by voters. Lembit Opik, who tried to claim £2,499 for a plasma television, lost his seat in Montgomeryshire. Mr Opik’s claim was rejected because he bought the television while Parliament was dissolved before the 2005 election. Lib Dem Richard Younger-Ross, Sandra Gidley and Paul Holmes were dislodged after John Lyon, the parliamentary standards commissioner, criticised them for taking large windfall payments from the developers of the Dolphin Square flats in Pimlico to give up their right to cheap rents. Tony Wright, who was defending the Great Yarmouth seat, and who was paid £10,000 by the developers, lost to the Conservatives’ Brandon Lewis. Several other figures criticised for their expenses held their seats. Eric Illsley, who faces a police inquiry over his council tax claims, held on for Labour in Barnsley Central. He claimed more than £10,000 over four years, although the council tax on his London flat was £3,966 over the period. John Bercow, the Commons Speaker, retained his large majority in Buckingham, after repaying £6,508 in capital gains tax that he saved when he sold two properties in 2003. The Conservative Eleanor Laing survived in Epping Forest despite repaying £25,000 in capital gains tax after making £1 million profit on a second home subsidised by the taxpayer. Hazel Blears, a former Cabinet minister, survived in Salford and Eccles, despite enraging Labour activists when she walked out of the Government the day before last year’s local elections. Miss Blears had claimed expenses on three properties in a year. Conservative Anne Main held on in St Albans after surviving a deselection attempt by her local party and being ordered to apologise to Parliament for letting her daughter live rent-free at her taxpayer-funded home. Conservative Nadine Dorries, who is under investigation by Mr Lyon, was re-elected in Mid Bedfordshire. Another Tory, Bill Cash, won at Stone after repaying £15,000 he claimed to rent his daughter Laetitia’s flat. During this period, Mr Cash owned a flat in Pimlico, which was closer to Parliament than his daughter’s property. Alan Duncan, the shadow prisons minister, held onto the safe seat of Rutland and Melton, despite claiming thousands of pounds for gardening costs. Mr Duncan was removed from the Conservative front bench last year after he said that MPs had been “forced to live on rations” and “treated like ****” since the expenses scandal. A record number of more than 140 MPs, including the Tory couple Andrew MacKay and Julie Kirkbride, did not contest their seats, nor did Labour’s Elliot Morley, David Chaytor and Jim Devine, who are facing fraud trials over their expenses.	Jacqui Smith
What name for the Devil is taken from the Latin word for 'light bearer'?	UK ELECTION RESULTS 2010: Jacqui Smith and expenses cheat MPs lose their seats \| Daily Mail Online comments Brazen MPs who attempted to defy public anger over their expenses abuses were punished at the ballot box. Disgraced former Home Secretary Jacqui Smith was among those who finally paid the prize for the sleaze which engulfed the Commons. The clear-out heralded a record influx of new MPs, with 231 preparing to descend on Westminster - the highest number of untried parliamentarians since World War II. Humiliated: Jacqui Smith crashed to defeat against her Tory rival in the wake of the expenses scandal [caption] LABOUR MINISTERS WHO LOST THEIR SEATS Shahid Malik: Communities and cohesion minister. Voted out in Dewbsury by the Conservatives Phil Hope: Care services minister. Fell in Corby to Tory author Louise Bagshaw Bill Rammell: Armed Forces minister. Lost to the Tories in Harlow Mike O'Brien: Health minister. Lost seat in Warwickshire North to Conservatives Vera Baird: Solicitor General. Lost in Redcar to the LibDems Chris Mole: Transport minister lost his Ipswich seat to the Conservatives Gillian Merron: Public health minister. Lost in Lincoln to the Conservatives Ann Keen: Health minister. Lost in Brentford to the Tories Jim Knight: Employment minister. Lost out to the Tories in South Dorset Angela Smith: Third sector minister. Lost in Basildon to the Conservatives David Kidney: Energy and climate change minister. Lost to the Tories in Stafford Mike Foster: International Development minister. Voted out for the Conservatives in Worcester Paul Clark: Transport minister. Lost his seat in Gillingham and Rainham Jonathan Shaw: Minister for disabled people. Lost in Chatham and Aylesford Miss Smith crashed to an embarrassing defeat in her Redditch constituency despite enlisting the last-minute support of former Prime Minister Tony Blair. The Labour MP claimed more than £116,000 over six years designating her sister's spare room in London as her main home and had to make a public apology after her husband Richard Timney claimed two porn films on her taxpayerfunded expenses. Miss Smith fought back tears after her humiliating defeat to the Conservatives was announced. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share Hers was the most high-profile of the expenses scalps, but former ministers Tony McNulty, Shahid Malik, Phil Hope, Vera Baird and Ann Keen also found themselves out of office after making controversial claims. All of the MPs will be entitled to controversial 'golden goodbyes' worth up to £65,000 to help them adjust to life in the real world. Former Health Minister Mr Hope, who handed back £42,000 to taxpayers after making excessive claims on his small London flat, lost his Corby seat to Tory chick-lit author Louise Bagshawe. Mr McNulty, who used his parliamentary expenses to allow his parents to live rent-free in his constituency home, was ousted from Harrow by Tory Bob Blackman. Communities Minister Mr Malik - who was forced to repay public money he had claimed for council tax, a 40in plasma television and a £730 massage chair - saw his 4,500 majority wiped out by the Conservatives' Simon Reevell in Dewsbury. Mrs Keen, a former Health Minister, lost her Brentford and Isleworth seat to Conservative Mary MacLeod. Mrs Baird, who tried to charge taxpayers for the cost of a Christmas tree and decorations, lost to Liberal Democrat Ian Swales in Redcar with a massive 22 per cent swing. For the Tories, David Heathcoat-Amory - who was forced to pay back £30,000 for excessive gardening and cleaning claims following the audit of MPs' expenses - narrowly lost out to the Liberal Democrats in Wells. Liberal Democrat Richard Younger-Ross, forced to pay back more than £4,000 he claimed for a stereo system - was defeated by the Tories in Newton Abbot. However, Hazel Blears was comfortably re-elected as an MP in Salford and Eccles after standing down last year as Communities Minister. She had been ordered to pay £13,332 capital gains tax she had avoided on the sale of her second home after Gordon Brown called her behaviour 'totally unacceptable'. Ousted: Former employment minister Tony McNulty, left, communities and cohesion minister Shahid Malik, centre, and care services minister Phil Hope, right, all lost their seats to Tory candidates Casualties: Former home secretary Charles Clarke, left, and Solicitor General Vera Baird, centre, show the strain of being punished by voters, while 'Mrs Expenses' Ann Keen, right, also lost her seat TRIUMPH FOR ZAC BUT A-LISTERS FALTER Millionaire environmentalist and Tory poster boy Zac Goldsmith won his acrimonious battle with the Liberal Democrats in Richmond Park. Mr Goldsmith, 35, overturned sitting MP Susan Kramer's prized 3,700 majority to take the affluent South-West London seat comfortably with a 4,091 majority. The old Etonian, a divorced father of three, survived the disclosure that he had been a 'non-dom' to win the seat after one of the most illtempered clashes of the general election. His supporters shouted 'Zac, Zac, Zac' when the result was announced at 6am. Mr Goldsmith hugged his socialite sister Jemima - former wife of Pakistan cricketer Imran Khan - and was cheered by his mother Lady Annabel, widow of the billionaire Sir James Goldsmith. However, other aspirant Tory highflyers hand-picked by David Cameron suffered humiliating defeats. Annunziata Rees-Mogg - whom Mr Cameron once urged to change her name to Nancy Mogg in an attempt to 'de-toff ' her - failed to win the West Country seat of Somerton and Frome. Victory: Zac Goldsmith (left) was cheered by his sister Jemima Khan at the election count The daughter of former Times editor Lord Rees-Mogg lost out to Liberal Democrat MP David Heath. But her brother Jacob won Somerset North East with a majority of nearly 5,000. Two prominent black candidates lost out. Shaun Bailey failed to win the key marginal seat of Hammersmith and farmer Wilfred Emmanuel-Jones was unsuccessful in Chippenham. The party was, however, celebrating the election of its first female Asian and first openly lesbian candidate. Priti Patel won the safe seat of Witham in Essex with a massive 15,000 majority and businesswoman Margot James won Stourbridge. A spokesman said that 48 Tory female MPs would be entering Parliament - nearly triple the party's previous 18 women MPs. The number of ethnic minority candidates has also risen from two to 11. AND IT'S GOODBYE FROM THE CHEEKY BOY A string of high-profile MPs lost their seats in shock results - including the LibDem Lembit Opik. He was ousted from 'safe' Montgomeryshire by just over 1,000 votes --a swing of nearly 14 per cent to the Tories. Mr Opik, 45, had perhaps become best known for his relationships with weather presenter Sian Lloyd and later to Cheeky Girl Gabriela Irimia. Miss Irimia said in an email: 'I was very sad to hear that Lembit has lost his seat. This Should Never Have Been Allowed To Happen!!!!' Voters turned on Peter Robinson, leader of the Democratic Unionist Party and Northern Ireland's First Minister, over the scandal of his wife's affair with a 19-year-old. Mr Robinson, 61, lost Belfast East after a stunning 22.9 per cent swing to the Alliance Party. Labour heavyweight Charles Clarke, 59, was booted out of Norwich South by the LibDems. The former Home Secretary, a fierce critic of Gordon Brown, lost to Simon Wright by 310 votes. But Mr Brown's closest Cabinet ally narrowly avoided becoming the night's biggest casualty. Rumours were rife that Ed Balls, 43, would lose Morley and Outwood. But the Children's Secretary beat his Tory rival by just over 1,100 votes --a result met with boos and chants of 'off, off'.	i don't know
Which English dish, originating in India, consists of smoked haddock, boiled rice, eggs and butter?	Cookbook:Kedgeree - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Cookbook:Kedgeree 20-30 minutes Difficulty Kedgeree (or occasionally kitcherie, kitchari or kitchiri) is a dish consisting of flaked fish (usually smoked haddock), boiled rice , eggs and butter . It originated amongst the British colonials in India hence was introduced to the United Kingdom as a popular English breakfast in Victorian times, part of the then fashionable Anglo-Indian cuisine. During that time, fish was often served for colonial breakfasts so that fish caught in the early morning could be eaten while it was still fresh. It is rarely eaten for breakfast now, but is still a popular dish. 6 hard boiled eggs , chopped fairly fine 1-2 cups Basmati (preferably) or long-grain white rice 2-4 cups decent chicken stock , canned low-sodium at a minimum, cartoned organic is much superior, but home-made still beats all comers. 1 bay leaf Liberal amounts of unsalted butter 3 medium shallots , or a medium onion , chopped fairly fine As much garlic as you can handle, chopped very fine or squished through a garlic press At least 3 tsp of prepared English mustard (1½ tsp of dry mustard). Enough finely-chopped parsley or cilantro (coriander) to add interest and colour. Procedure[ edit ] A rice cooker is not essential, but makes the whole thing brainless. One cup of rice will yield a dish that is dense with egg and haddock; Two cups will give you a dish with a more Asian proportion of rice. Cook the rice in one and a half the amount of chicken stock with the bay leaf. When it is done and keeping warm, toss out the bay leaf, fluff the rice with chopsticks and place the raw smoked haddock slab on top. Close the lid and let the haddock steam on warm for 15 minutes. Remove the haddock, and flake with forks to get rid of every last trace of bone. Place the haddock back in the rice cooker. Sauté the shallots until light brown, in excess butter. Add the garlic for one minute more, making sure to not brown it. Place it all in with the rice. Add the chopped-up eggs, mustard, parsley, pepper, and throw in enough cream to make everything just slightly creamy. Mix it all up, gently and thoroughly (chopsticks are perfect for this). Add salt. Serve, now or later — it keeps well. Leftovers may be served in kedgeree omelettes with a dribble of soy sauce or Worcestershire Sauce (Lea and Perrins) Variants[ edit ] The addition of 3 or 4 cloves (depending on quantity of rice) and a few cardamom seeds to the rice whilst it is cooking and the addition of a level teaspoon of cumin powder to the finished product gives the rice a wonderful and authentic aroma.	Kedgeree
Which British cyclist won the Men's Individual Pursuit at the 2008 Olympics in Beijing?	≈ 7 Comments Tags Breakfast , Brunch , Downton Abbey , Downton Abbey Food , Downton Abbey recipes , easy brunch dishes , kedgeree , smoked haddock , traditional english breakfast , using up leftovers Welcome to Downton Abbey (ITV) I often wonder whether my degree in History has any practical application in life, particularly since I ended up not pursuing law (sorry, Cousin Matthew) and became a corporate marketer. I do think though, that studying history has impacted the way I view the world; I tend not to take things at face value and strive to understand how things came into being. So when Mrs. Patmore places that first wonderful silver dish into the hands of the footmen to take upstairs, I had to learn more about what was in that pot and where it came from. The Brits love the dish, that they now serve as a weekend brunch item. It is simple to make, uses up leftovers and tastes amazing. Mrs. Patmore was very clever indeed. My understanding is that the dish originated in India, based on khishri, and brought back to the UK by the British Colonials, introducing it as a breakfast dish in the Victorian era. The Brits do love their indian cuisine, I can attest to that. If you wish to delve deeper, you can read more at the British Food Trust site, an authority on all foods British. Rather. It is a practical dish which, before refrigeration, allowed cooks to use leftovers from the night before to make into hearty and appealing breakfast dishes. Essentially the ingredients are boiled rice, chopped hard-boiled egg, cold minced fish, fried in one pan and flavored with your favorite herbs. I should think this will be great for us to have on hand up at the cottage. Updated Versions Here are other versions you might want to try. It is a British dish so call upon your favorite Brit celeb chef to help fuel your imagination. My family and I go fishing for Pacific Salmon each year so often have lots of wild salmon on hand to use:	i don't know
What was the pen-name used by the short-story writer H.H. Munro?	H. H. Munro : About the Author @ Classic Reader Member Login About the Author Scottish-born writer whose stories satirize the Edwardian social scene, often in a macabre and cruel way. Munro's columns and short stories were published under the pen name 'Saki', who was the cupbearer in The Rubayat of Omar Khayyam, an ancient Persian poem. Saki's stories were full of witty sayings - such as "The cook was a good cook, as cooks go; and as cooks go she went." Sometimes they also included coded references to homosexuality. "A little inaccuracy sometimes saves tons of explanations." (from The Square Egg, 1924) Saki was born Hector Hugh Munro in Akyab, Burma (now Myanmar), the son of Charles Augustus Munro, an inspector-general in the Burma police. Munro's mother, the former Mary Frances Mercer, died in 1872 - she was killed by a runaway cow in an English country lane. Munro was brought up in England with his brother and sister by aunts who frequently used the birch and whip. He was educated at Pencarwick School in Exmouth and Bedford Grammar School. From 1887 he traveled with his family in France, Germany and Switzerland. In 1891 his father settled in Devon, where he worked as a teacher. In 1893 Munro joined the Burma police. Three years later he was back in England and started his career as a journalist, writing for the Westminster Gazette. In 1900 Munro's first book, The Rise of the Russian Empire, appeared. It is a historical study modelled upon Gibbon's famous The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. The book was received with hostile reviews in America. It was followed in 1902 with a collection of short stories, Not-so-Stories. From 1902 to 1908 Munro worked as a foreign correspondent for The Morning Post in the Balkans, Russia and Paris, and then returned to London. In 1914 his novel When William Came appeared, in which he portrayed what might happen if the German emperor conquered England.� "Only the old and the clergy of Established churches know how to be flippant gracefully,'' commented Reginald; "which reminds me that in the Anglican Church in a certain foreign capital, which shall be nameless, I was present the other day when one of the junior chaplains was preaching in aid of distressed somethings or other, and he brought a really eloquent passage to a close with the remark, 'The tears of the afflicted, to what shall I liken them---to diamonds?' The other junior chaplain, who had been dozing out of professional jealousy, awoke with a start and asked hurriedly, 'Shall I play to diamonds, partner?' (from Reginald in Russia, 1910) After the outbreak of World War I, although officially too old, Munro volunteered for the army as an ordinary soldier. He was killed by a sniper's bullet on November 14, 1916 in France, near Beaumont-Hamel. Munro was sheltering in a shell crater. His last words, according to several sources, were: "Put that damned cigarette out!" After his death, his sister Ethel destroyed most of his papers and wrote her own account of their childhood. Like her brother, Ethel never married. Saki's best fables are often more macabre than Kipling's. In his early stories Saki often portrayed eccentric characters, familiar from Oscar Wilde's plays. Among Saki's most frequently anthologized short stories is 'Tobermory', in which a cat, who has seen too much scandal through country house windows, learns to talk and starts to repeat the guests' vicious comments about each other. 'The Open Window' was a tale-within-a-tale. In the short story 'Sredni Vashtar' from The Chronicles of Clovis (1911) a young boy makes an idol of his illicit pet ferret. It kills his oppressive cousin and guardian, Mrs. De Ropp, modelled on Saki's aunt Agnes. "Sredni Vashtar went forth, His thoughts were red thoughts and his teeth / were white. / His enemies called to peace, but he brought / them death. Sredni Vashtar the Beautiful." Saki was a misogynist, anti-Semite, and reactionary, who also did not take himself too serious. His stories, "true enough to be interesting and not true enough to be tiresome", were considered ideal reading for schoolboys. However, Saki did not have any interest in safeguarding the Edwardian way of life. "Saki writes like an enemy, " said V.S. Pritchett later. "Society has bored him to the point of murder. Out laughter is only a note or two short of a scream of fear." In 'Laura' the title character is first reincarnated as a destructive otter after her death, and then as a naked brown Nubian boy. Reginald and Clovis, two of his most famous heroes, appeared in a series of stories in which the two soul mates of Wilhelm Busch's Max and Moritz shock the conventional world or leave the reader to read between the lines. When Amabel asks Reginald's help to supervise "the annual outing of the bucolic infants who composed the local choir", Reginald's eyes start to shine "with the dangerous enthusiasm of a convert." Once Reginald states: "People may say what they like about the decay of Christianity; the religious system that produced green Chartreuse can never really die." Most author biographies courtesy of Author's Calendar . Used with permission.	Saki
Which BAFTA Award winning TV series stars Kenneth Branagh as the eponymous Swedish police inspector?	Short story writer H.H. Munro's pen name - crossword puzzle clue Help Clue: Short story writer H.H. Munro's pen name Short story writer H.H. Munro's pen name is a crossword puzzle clue that we have spotted 2 times. There are related clues (shown below). Referring crossword puzzle answers Likely related crossword puzzle clues Sort A-Z	i don't know
In which European capital city did an earthquake kill around 30,000 people on All Saint's Day in 1755?	The Lisbon earthquake of 1755: the catastrophe and its European repercussions \| Lisbon Pre 1755 Earthquake The Lisbon earthquake of 1755: the catastrophe and its European repercussions / Helena Murteira Published in Economia Global e Gestão (Global Economics and Management Review), Lisboa, vol. 10 (2004), p. 79-99. This paper is based on a section of the author’s PhD thesis: A Place for Lisbon in Eighteenth Century Europe: Lisbon, London and Edinburgh a town-planning comparative study (PhD in Architecture, Faculty of Social Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, 2004). Helena Murteira In November 2005, Lisbon will recall a momentous event in its history: two hundred and fifty years before, a powerful earthquake (estimated magnitude of 9 using the Mercali scale) ruined most of its city centre, killed a significant number of its inhabitants and curtailed its wealth and its historical legacy. The scale of the seismic shocks and the damage it caused in the capital city were cause of bewilderment and astonishment not only in Portugal but also everywhere in Europe. Newspapers rapidly developed throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries benefiting from an increasing number of readers interested in what was happening all over Europe as well as in other regions of the recently “discovered” world (which had gradually been incorporated in the “known world” by the imperial expansion of the European nations). Apart from being a source of wide-ranging information at a time when the means were scarce and the demand was rising, the most renowned newspapers were used to swiftly and thoroughly assist the cultural and scientific European elite and, more specifically, to keep the European commercial and financial network up to date. The Lisbon earthquake made the European newspapers’ headlines for several months not only due to its dramatic consequences but also because of its commercial and political implications. Let us examine the catastrophe and its repercussions on European society at the time in greater detail. The earthquake A major earthquake shook Lisbon in the morning of November 1, 1755. According to various accounts, the city had wakened up to a bright and warm day and the citizens’ mood on All Saints’ Day was, on the whole, cheerful. The first shock was felt at approximately 9.40 a.m. when most of the people were gathered in the city churches attending All Saints’ Day mass. The ruin of these large stone buildings was responsible for the death of a great number of people. At 10 a.m. and noon two other shocks were felt reducing most of the city to ruins. The vast number of candles burning at the time in churches and house chapels were the main cause of the raging fire that followed the earthquake. Lisbon burnt for a whole week. The fire was kept active by strong winds, which blew for several days, rendering it almost impossible to rescue the people and salvage the goods trapped in the ruins. This fire was even more devastating than the earthquake itself. At the time, some estimates indicated that in Lisbon alone between 30,000 and 70,000 people died. The first attempts to calculate the number of victims are in the main not reliable: the destruction of almost all of the city records, the general confusion that took place after the earthquake and the lack of information about visitors and other people from out of the city made this task extremely difficult (1). However, some more trustworthy sources reduced the number to approximately 10,000 (2). This latter estimate has been used in recent studies on the subject (3). According to the same source, roughly 10% of the buildings were ruined and two thirds suffered such destruction that they were unsafe for habitation. Only twelve of the seventy-two convents of the city were spared and all the hospitals and thirty-three palaces were destroyed. The material loss was huge and the foreign traders lost approximately twelve million pounds sterling, of which, more than half represented British losses(4). Downtown Lisbon, the large valley extending between the two main city squares, Terreiro do Paço and Rossio, suffered the most. S. Paulo, the area to the west alongside the river was also severely damaged. There the tidal waves, which followed the first shocks, were a powerful force of destruction. The hill to the west up to the gates of Santa Catarina, the Chiado area where the large convent of S.Francisco was located, was also badly damaged. The eastern area of the city, the oldest part of Lisbon, resisted diversely to the earthquake; the area near the Tejo (Tagus) river and the Castle Hill suffered some destruction, whilst Alfama, the medieval neighbourhood to the East of the Cerca Moura (Muslim Wall) seems to have resisted the earthquake shocks better. The vast survey of the destroyed city, ordered by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo (b.1699 – d.1782), Secretary of State of the new king D.José (1750 – 1777, b. 1714) is the best document of the extensive devastation caused by the earthquake to Lisbon. It is a thorough measurement of the city centre properties, also providing information about the extension and type of damage suffered by each one, the layout and name of all of the streets, alleys and squares of the areas destroyed by the earthquake. This vast survey, known as the Tombo da Cidade de Lisboa (Survey of the City of Lisbon) is kept in the National Archives (Torre do Tombo) in Lisbon. There is a concise copy of this survey made by Valentim de Freitas in the nineteenth century, which is kept in the National Library in Lisbon (Biblioteca Nacional). The book by Joaquim Moreira de Mendonça is also a valuable source of information (5). In 1909, the engineer Luís Pereira de Sousa published a detailed study of the effects of the earthquake on the buildings of Lisbon: using the Mercalli scale as the basis of his own measuring system, he mapped Lisbon according to the different levels of destruction (6). The Terreiro do Paço was completely destroyed vanishing in the flames of the Royal Palace and all of the other important adjacent buildings: the New Cathedral (Patriarcal), the Opera House, the Custom House, the City Hall and the Tribunal. The Quay (Cais das Pedras) near the Royal Palace was engulfed by the tidal waves, killing approximately a hundred people who were seeking refuge from the fire. The Rossio also suffered severe destruction, as did the whole area between the two main squares. All the waterfront districts were also ruined and the effects of the earthquake reached most of the nearby areas from the Castle Hill to the west of Bairro Alto. The earthquake and, more specifically, the fire that followed consumed not only part of the city and its inhabitants but also truncated its history as it destroyed city records, monuments and other noble buildings, magnificent libraries and artistic and scientific collections: “The palace of the Marquês of Louriçal stood well clear to the north of the main area of the fire; but the rich contents of his home, all destroyed, show the kind of thing this loss of property meant: 200 pictures, including works by Titian, Correggio and Rubens, a library of 18,000 printed books, 1,000 manuscripts, including a history written by the Emperor Charles V in his own hand, a herbal formerly belonging to King Matthias Hunyadi (1440-90) of Hungary, a huge family archive, and a great collection of maps and charts relating to the Portuguese voyages of discovery and colonization in the East and in the New World” (7). A network of information: letters, newspapers and illustrations Abraham Castres, the British special Envoy to the King of Portugal, survived the catastrophe and wrote the following account: “You will, in all likelihood, have heard before this of the inexpressible calamity befallen the whole maritime coast and in particular this opulent city, now reduced to a heap of rubbish and ruins, by a tremendous earthquake on the 1st of this month, followed by a conflagration, which has done ten times more mischief than the earthquake itself. I gave a short account of our misfortune to Sir Benjamin Keene, by a Spaniard, who promised, as all intercourse by post was at a stand, to carry my letter, as far as Badajoz, and see it safe put into the post-house. It was merely to acquaint his excellency, that, God be praised, my house stood out the shocks, tho’ greatly damaged; and that happening to be out of the reach of the flames, several of my friends, burnt out of their houses, had taken refuge with me, where I have accommodated them, as well as I could, under tents in my large garden” (8). The first news of the earthquake in Lisbon were confusing and, sometimes, contradictory. The Caledonian Mercury reports an earthquake in Madrid in its edition of November 27, 1755 and publishes soon after (on December 2) some letters written just after the earthquake stating that the news of the earthquake was only a French fabrication: “These letters further add, that the whole Story was invented at Paris, to disconcert the London Merchants, and that by this time it is looked upon there as a Piece of French Finesse” (9). By this time the first reliable news of the earthquake in Lisbon had already reached British soil. Sir Benjamin Keene, at the time at the Court of Madrid, received the first news of the catastrophe. Keene wrote then to his friend Sir T. Robinson in London. According to Sir Richard Lodge, this letter, dated November 10, 1755, first informed England of the terrible events in Lisbon (10). Keene’s letter seems in fact to be the source of the news published by The London Gazette on November 29, 1755. It refers to a letter dating from November 10 which reveals information issued by the Spanish Embassy at Lisbon: “On the 8th Instant, a Messenger dispatched by the Secretary of the Spanish Embassy at Lisbon, with Letters of the 4th Instant, brought an Account of the terrible Effects of the Earthquake which happened there, on the 1st, (the same day we felt it here, but without any considerable Damage) between the Hours of Nine and Ten, and which in five Minutes, destroyed the Palace, Churches, and most of the stately buildings; and that the Flames were still destroying the Remains of the City, from one extremity of it to the other, when the Courier came away”. The Caledonian Mercury also published this same news (11). According to The Scots Magazine: ”No accounts of the earthquake at Lisbon arrived at London till the 24th. By these people’s hopes and fears were greatly affected; we shall therefore give them without interruption” (12). The Gentleman’s Magazine issued the following news dating from November 29, 1755: “A confirmation has been received of a most dreadful earthquake at Lisbon on the Ist inst. at 9 in the morning that continued about eight hours, by which the greatest part of the publick edifices and houses of that superb capital were destroyed, and upwards of 100,000 persons were buried in the ruins: To add to the horror of this scene, the remains of the city was set on fire, in several places, … and continued burning from one extremity to the other, at the departure of the couriers to the cours of France and Spain” (13). These first reports of the earthquake in Lisbon were followed by several descriptions of the event, which were published in Britain up until April 1756. The British accounts of the earthquake, found in the many letters addressed to their families in Britain, are the source of some of the most important and picturesque testimonies of the occurrence. They are particularly interesting as they give us a rich and diversified picture not only of the event but also of the city that disappeared on that day. Despite some occasional and understandable confusion with regard to street names, significance and function of some city areas and overstated estimates of the general human and material loss, these accounts are always very lively and therefore they represent an extraordinary source of information. From all these we choose to quote an extract from a letter sent by a British merchant to his brother in London: “On Saturday the 1st instant, about half an hour past 9 o’ clock, I was retired to my room after breakfast, when I perceived the house begin to shake, but did not apprehend the cause, but as I saw the neighbours about me all running down stairs, I also made the best of my way, and by the time I had crossed the street, and got under the piazzas of some low houses, it was darker than the darkest night I ever saw, and continued so for about a minute, occasioned by the clouds of dust from the falling of houses on all sides. After it cleared up, I ran into a large square adjoining [the Terreiro do Paço], the palace to the west, the street I lived in to the north, the river to the south, and the custom house and warehouses to the east. But this dismal earthquake had such an influence upon the sea and river, that the water rose, in about ten minutes, several yards perpendicular; in that time I ran up into my room, got my hat and wig, and cloak, locked up the doors, and returned; but being alarmed with a cry that the sea was coming in, all people crowded forward to run to the hills, I among the rest, with Mr. Wood and family. We went near two miles through the streets, climbing over ruins of churches, houses, &c., stepping over hundreds of dead and dying people, killed by the falling of buildings; carriages, chaises and mules, lying all crushed to pieces …” (14). Eighteenth century Europe was discovering the powerful unifying force of information: newspapers offered Europeans the opportunity to directly follow what was happening all over the world. The Lisbon earthquake was perhaps the first event to become major news. In Britain, Lisbon was suddenly catapulted to the first pages of the newspapers: its history, its location and chief urban features were the subject of extensive reports. During the first few weeks after the catastrophe more than twenty accounts of the earthquake in Lisbon were published in London (15). At the time, Lisbon was mostly known for its active role in the maritime trade network, its colonial riches and the extreme religious character of its society: “But Lisbon itself was justly famous for its wealth, and because of its commercial activity it was one of the best-known cities in the world. (…) Wealth, the Inquisition, and the worship of images: to an appreciably large section of the outside world Lisbon was famous for these three things” (16). The Scots Magazine pictured Lisbon as following: “Lisbon, one of the richest and best situated cities in the world, contained, with its environs, about 500,000 inhabitants, till the fatal 1st of November …” (17). In his text regarding the earthquake in Lisbon, Ponce-Dénis Écouchard le Brun wrote: “Lisbon was full of pride; but now Lisbon, Queen of the seas, is not anymore …” (18). The effect of the calamity on European commerce was a fundamental element of concern for all involved. The most enterprising commercial nations felt the Lisbon earthquake as a very close disaster: “This dreadful calamity befallen this city, next to the miserable inhabitants, the Brasilians and the English may probably be the greatest sufferers; next to them, the Genovese, and merchants of Leghorn, who supplied this city and the Brasils, with silks, velvets, &c. The French, Dutch, Hamburghers, and indeed most commercial nations, were concerned in the trade here, and must needs be affected by a calamity which extends itself to all Europe” (19). Apart from the written accounts of the event, a considerable number of views and plans of Lisbon was printed trying to portray the city before the destruction and the earthquake itself. Despite the fantasist character of most of these images, especially with regard to the pictures of the earthquake, they represent another interesting element of its impact on eighteenth century thought (20). A city with a seismic history Lisbon is situated on a seismic area and had suffered before the devastating effects of earthquakes. There are some accounts of other strong seismic episodes in the thirteen and fifteen hundreds. However, none had the impact of the 1755 earthquake. Based on the works of Robert Mallet and Perry Byerly, Charles Davison displays a list of the most damaging earthquakes known to have struck Lisbon before 1755 (21). According to this list, from 1009 to 1750 there were fourteen earthquake shocks worthy of mention. Of special notice was the earthquake of January 26, 1531, which, following the same sources, ruined approximately 1500 houses and all of the churches in the city and was accompanied by the rising of the Tagus’ waters. There are, in fact, some accounts of this earthquake, which seems to have been the most destructive to take place before the earthquake of 1755 (22). The area directly struck by the 1755 earthquake was very extensive: “The first great shock was felt over an area of between 1,200,000 and 1,400,000 sq. miles” (23). The earthquake was felt across Portugal and Spain, especially in the south and in the north of Africa. Apart from some cities in the south of Portugal, namely Setúbal and Évora, some areas in the south of Spain and in the north of Africa were also considerably affected: Seville, Cordoba, Granada, Cadiz, Algiers, and Mequinez (24). This could only have happened if we were in presence of more than one earthquake: “Over this vast area, there was no gradual decline in the intensity of the shock from some central point. There seems rather to have been a succession of earthquakes, in what order they occurred we cannot now say, the principal earthquake no doubt in the Lisbon centre, another of less but still great strength near Mequinez, and perhaps a third near Algiers” (25). According to the same author, all these seismic centres are independent and have since had their own specific seismic history. More difficult to establish is the link between these shocks and similar disturbances felt at the time all over Europe. Several seismic phenomena were reported in different areas of Europe when the earthquake took place in Lisbon and during the following days (26). The London Gazette, when first reporting the earthquake in Lisbon, states the following: “… the terrible effects of the Earthquake which happened there, on the 1st, (the same Day we felt it here, but without any considerable damage)…” (27). Again according to Davison, it is very difficult today to establish the accuracy of all of these accounts: their connection with the Lisbon earthquake does not seem credible. However, other phenomena were reported at the time: the unusual rising of waters in lakes and rivers across Europe (28). The impact on European thought All these related incidents gave the 1755 earthquake both an important scientific dimension and also added to its sensationalist impact, which was well documented at the time. The intensity of the earthquake shocked European public opinion. The first reports were often inaccurate and understandably fantasist: “To add to the horror of this scene, the remains of the city was set on fire, in several places, by flames which issued from the bowels of the earth, and continued burning from one extremity to the other, at the departure of the couriers to the cours of France and Spain” (29). An array of philosophical and literary texts was published all across Europe aiming to find an explanation for the event. Most of them were of a religious nature: “Of all divine Visitations, this is the most terrible Vindictive. The Whirlwind is flow in its Progress; War is gentle in its Assaults; even the raging Pestilence is a mild Rebuke, compared with the inevitable, the all-overwhelming Fury of an Earthquake. When it begins it also makes an End; puts a Period in a few Minutes to the Work of Ages; ruins all, without Distinction; and there is no Defence from its destructive Stroke” (30). Superstition had a prominent role in the extensive religious reaction to the event. In Portugal, on the very day of the earthquake, priests and monks were walking around the ruined city exhorting people to confess their sins in order to pacify God’s assumed anger against Lisbon. These individuals increased the hysterical mood of the earthquake’s suffering survivors. Most of these texts pointed out the alleged sinful life of Lisbon’s population as the cause of the catastrophe. According to these publications, the earthquake was a sign of God’s rage against the freethinkers and atheists living in the Portuguese capital city. Obviously, the British and other Protestant foreigners were targeted in these texts. All over Europe texts were issued following this type of argumentation. It was, precisely, this atmosphere of religious hate and persecution that the future Marquis of Pombal, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, wanted to avoid. In Britain some were published naming, in turn, the non-Christians and the Catholic and Inquisitorial Portuguese church as the cause of God’s supposed wrath: ”Surely so extensive a signal from the king of heaven, and so wide-wasting a devastation amongst our unhappy neighbours, and so levelling a stroke in the ranks of mankind, on the European Idolaters and the false prophets too on the coast of Africa, makes this affair so very remarkable (…) that I would charitably hope it could not fail to work is due and proper effect on the minds of all the reformed part, at least, of the Christian world …” (31). The earthquake also occupied Enlightened European minds. There was the search for a scientific explanation for the catastrophe. Pombal supported this approach, both as a means to calm down a terrified population, and as a statement of his own ideas and attitude. He sent a questionnaire to each parish in Portugal in an attempt at an overall estimate of the human losses and property damage throughout the country and to record specific information relating to the earthquake: “In addition to its great strength and its varied phenomena, the Lisbon earthquake is remarkable as the first to be investigated on modern scientific lines. By order of the Marquez of Pombal, a list of questions was sent to every parish in the country. If it had been drawn up at the present day, it could hardly have been more complete. The questions refer to the time at which the earthquake began and the duration of the shock, its direction, the effects of the earthquake on the sea, on springs and rivers, the height of the seawaves and the time for which they lasted, fissures in the ground, and even the times and intensities of the after-shocks” (32). The Prime Minister’s attitude conforms to the pragmatic actions he undertook just after the earthquake and the promptitude with which they were taken: the punishment of thieves and other criminals, the installation of tents and other facilities for the homeless, the fixation of prices for essential goods and the redirection of fleeing citizens to the city (33). In this way, a few cultured Portuguese tried to see the earthquake from the enlightened point of view of science. Amongst them we name the Doctor José Alvares da Silva (34), the army officer Miguel Tibério Pedegache Brandão Ivo (35), the brothers Veríssimo António Moreira de Mendonça and Joaquim Moreira de Mendonça, author of an important book on earthquakes (36) and the estrangeirado António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches (37). Their approaches may differ but all of them had in common the search for an explanation based on natural causes rather than on superstitious beliefs. Kendrick points out the attention that the Portuguese authorities gave to medical matter: “They dreaded the outbreak of a plague, a calamity well-known to Lisbon, and their frantic concern about getting rid of the corpses and restoring some sort of drainage system was a sensible expression of this fear. The medical men available in Lisbon were no doubt far too few in numbers and were not properly trained to deal with this emergency; but they did their best and understood the danger that threatened the city” (38). But the 1755 earthquake also stimulated a European scientific research of seismic phenomena. Soon after some important studies were published giving a special mention to the earthquake in Lisbon: “…an important series of papers or letters was read before the Royal Society [in London], and a number of accounts written by residents in Lisbon and elsewhere were published in the Gentleman’s Magazine and others. Many of these notices were collected by John Bevis in ‘The History and Philosophy of Earthquakes’, a series of memoirs edited by him in 1757: the last chapter of this work is entitled ‘Phaenomena of the great earthquake of November I, 1755, in various parts of the globe” (39). Immanuel Kant also wrote a small pamphlet on the causes of earthquakes, mentioning in particular the earthquake of Lisbon: “The first observation to be immediately made is that the ground above which we live has to be hollow and that the vaults that form it are linked together, even beneath the sea. (…) For example, Lisbon and Iceland, which are distanced more than four hundred and a half German miles, suffered an earthquake on the same day. (…) the ruins of Lisbon should remind us that no building should be erected along the Tagus, as the river points in the direction that, naturally, the earthquakes will follow in this country” (40). The fact that such a wealthy and populated city of the “civilised world” could be destroyed within two hours without possibility of defence made the optimistic enlightened Europe shiver. Enlightenment reacted to this event with shock but also promptly tried to find some comforting answers: its scientific causes, as already mentioned above, and solutions to minimize its impact on urban structures. Apart from all of the efforts of the Portuguese military engineers in conceiving an architectural structure able to resist the destructive effect of seismic forces, some texts published at the time reveal this concern: e. g., Ribeiro Sanches’s work Consideraçoins sobre os Terremotos, com a noticia dos mais consideraveis, de que faz mençaõ a Historia, e dos ultimos que se sintiraõ na Europa desde o 1 de Novembro 1755 (41) and a letter published in the Gentleman’s Magazine by a reader giving advice on the subject: “1st. Let the new city be built upon as even ground as possible, and the seven hills, mentioned in a late description, …left free from all kinds of buildings, and entirely open, as to many areas, instead of those squares, which the people ran to, as the street from danger; because they will not only secure the fugitives from falling houses, but from the overflowing of the water upon the swell of the sea. 2dly, Let the houses be built low and broad, for it is evident, that a low and broad house will bear more shaking than a high one, and that the centre of gravity will be longer preserved within the walls. 3dly, Let the streets be three times as wide as the houses are high; that supposing the houses to be thrown down on both sides, the materials of which they are built may not meet in the middle of the street. 4thly, Let the roofs be flat, and the diminishings of the walls in the different stories all on the outside, that they may be perpendicular within from top to bottom” (42). The 1755 earthquake also contributed to the change of perspective with regard to Optimism, which characterized late eighteenth century thought. The enlightened formula “All’s for the best in the best of all possible worlds” was suddenly shaken by Nature’s potential of destruction and Man’s fragility in these circumstances. Voltaire produced two important texts on this subject: Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne ou examen de cet axiome: tout est bien and Candide ou l’Optimisme. Both works reveal the extent of the effect of this catastrophe on Voltaire’s thought: “Unhappy mortals! Dark and mourning earth! Affrighted gathering of human Kind! Eternal lingering of useless pain! Come, ye philosophers, who cry, ‘All’s well’, And contemplate this ruin of a world” (43). To Voltaire, Lisbon’s devastation was the evidence that Optimism, as presented by Alexander Pope, could no longer serve its intent. He used the events in Lisbon to support his ideas on Nature’s imperfections, stating that evil, as a fundamental part of it, would sometimes prevail: “The author of the poem on The Disaster of Lisbon is not an adversary of the illustrious Pope, whom he has always admired and loved: he thinks like him on practically all matters; but, pierced to the heart by the misfortunes of mankind, he wishes to attack the abuse that can be made of that ancient axiom ‘All is for the best’. He adopts in its place that sad and more ancient truth, recognised by all men, that ‘There is evil upon the earth’; he declares that the phrase ‘All is for the best’, taken in a strict sense and without hope of a future life, is merely an insult to the miseries of our existence” (44). In Candide ou L’Optimisme, Voltaire voices his disbelief in Enlightenment Optimism through Candide’s reactions to his misfortunes. After being struck by the earthquake in Lisbon, Candide exclaims – “Si c’est ici le meilleur des mondes possibles, que sont donc les autres?” (“If this is the best of all possible worlds, what are then the others?)” (45). The 1755 earthquake represented an important argument for the detractors of Pope’s optimistic vision of the world. Voltaire’s works were not the sole early attacks on Optimism. In 1757, Samuel Johnson published “A Review of Soame Jenyns’s: A Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil”, supporting the same perspective with regard to the Enlightenment concept of perfection. Johnson writes: “Life must be seen before it can be known. This author [Soame Jenyns] and Pope perhaps never saw the miseries which they imagine thus easy to be borne” (46). Rousseau, on the other hand, remained faithful to Pope’s theory. He criticised Voltaire’s poem in a letter written on August 18, 1756: “Do not be deceived, Sir. For quite the opposite has occurred. The optimism which you find so cruel, nevertheless consoles me in the very suffering that you depict for me as insupportable. Pope’s poem softens the pain and leads me to patience. Your poem aggravates my suffering and incites me to complain and, by taking away everything – outside of shattered hope – reduces me to despair” (47). Lisbon’s catastrophe took place at a crucial moment for eighteenth–century thought as it shook the confidence in some of the soundest postulates of the Enlightenment. The controversy on the pursuit of perfection and happiness, which was inevitable, gained a more genuine dimension with the events in Lisbon: “After the earthquake pessimism became a more familiar and understandable mood, while the undefeatably hopeful minds occupied themselves more and more with the idea of perfectibility, a gradual progress by man under God’s providence towards a full happiness and perfection. In effecting this change, the influence of Candide played a significant part (…) ” (48). A web of solidarity A strong network of aid was established between Portugal and its European counterparts. From Spain, France, Great Britain and the German States help was sent in the shape of currency, food, building supplies, human expertise and labour force. Benjamin Keene informs Castres in a letter sent from Madrid on November 10, 1755: “Their Catholic Majesties have been affected with this news as souls like [theirs] should be affected in such terrible calamities. They send as much ready money every day as a messenger can carry, and the King’s letter to his sister offers all her King can ask and he can send. The douanes are open on the frontiers for all necessaries to pass free without duties, and the administrator general for the customs at Badajoz will send you whatever you write for” (49). The London Gazette reports that from Hamburg and Danzig building materials were sent for the rebuilding of Lisbon: “Dantzick, March 10 – Within these few Days part, a great Quantity of Timber, for building Houses, &c. has been shipped off from this Port to Lisbon” (50). The same newspaper informs of the arrival in Lisbon on March 30 of “The two ships from Dublin, which have been so long detained by contrary Winds … and have brought the Remainder of the whole Quantity of Provisions for the Court of Portugal, which were expected from Ireland” (51). British aid was swift and very significant: it included apart from food and money, the sending of artisans and builders (52). The message sent from king George II (1727-1760; b. 1683) to the House of Commons, on November 28, regarding the earthquake in Lisbon was soon published in the British newspapers: “His Majesty having received, from his ambassador at Madrid, ascertain account of the fatal and deplorable event …and his Majesty, being moved with the greatest concern for so good and faithful an ally the King of Portugal, … recommends his faithful Commons the consideration of this dreadful and extensive calamity…; and desires to be enabled by the house of Commons to send such speedy and effectual relief, as may be suitable to so afflicting and pressing exigency. G.R.” (53). The Portuguese king expressed his sincere gratitude for the prompt British aid but offered it first to the British citizens residing in Lisbon. The British newspapers reported the occurrence: “Lisbon, Feb. 11. Five of the Irish transports are arrived. Dispositions are making for the distribution of the beef and butter among the poor, but this court has insisted upon the English subjects being first served” (54). Restoring normality: the first measures Several earthquake shocks were felt in Lisbon and Portugal on the days following the catastrophe; this was also extensively reported in the British newspapers. The population fled the ruined city and settled on the other bank of the river and in the outskirts of the city. Pombal and his office promptly set up a plan of action in order to prevent chaos in Lisbon after the earthquake. Obviously, the first aim was to renew the confidence of the citizens in their city, in order to restart its regular activities and proceed swiftly to the rebuilding. Therefore, it was vital to reinstall civic order in Lisbon. To this end, Pombal’s first task was the severe punishment of all thieves and other outlaws operating in the deserted city. Again, these events were news all over Europe. The Gentleman’s Magazine published the following report: “Lisbon, Nov. 20. Several villains have been apprehended and executed, mostly foreigners, and to our reproach, among other nations, some English sailors, for robbing and plundering the palace and king’s chapel of a great deal of rich plate. The others were French and Spanish deserters, and some from the common prisons, which, in the general havock, let forth their contents in common with other edifices” (55). Pombal wanted to re-establish the normal city activities as soon as possible in order to prevent a further social and economic disaster. At the beginning of the new year, the first steps were taken to start an efficient and controlled rebuilding process: the survey of the ruined city was decided, the first legislation on the reconstruction was issued and a strong team of military engineers led by Manuel da Maia (b. 1672 – d. 1768) began to consider a plan for the new city. If the process of creating the technical and legal basis for the rebuilding was expeditious, the reconstruction itself was somewhat slow. Also, in the years after the catastrophe, the fear of a new earthquake led the population to prefer living in wooden buildings, following the example of the royal family. However, Pombal’s first purpose was achieved: the quick reanimation of Lisbon’s economic activities following a clear and determined project of reconstruction on the same site. The first resolutions with regard to this matter were also news at the time: “Lisbon, Jan. 25. The King and Royal Family are still obliged to reside in Tents, notwithstanding the Severity of the Weather, as do most of the Inhabitants; but his Majesty has declared his Intention of having the City rebuilt on the same Spot it stood before our late Misfortune, and the same will be begun in the Spring, …” (56). Although these reports did not have the same sensationalist impact as the accounts of the earthquake, they would certainly have been of interest to the cultured European society. However, apart from some concern in preventing the effects of earthquakes on architectural structures and the sketches of the famous Scottish architect, Robert Adam, for the new Lisbon, the rebuilding of Lisbon did not deserve the same widespread attention as the catastrophe itself. The foreign accounts of Lisbon after 1755 probably represented the only source of information (57). The dream of a Scottish architect Robert Adam (b.1728 – d.1792) was only a promising young architect, travelling in Italy, when the Earthquake struck Lisbon in 1755 (he was in Rome, at the time). The impact of the news and the auspicious opportunity of creating a newly planned city, made Robert Adam fantasize about the possibility of performing such a task: “And now let me descant a little on my private incitements to a scheme which is a thousand chances to one never will take place. The being called by a Prince as the prosperest person in the universe to build a whole city is no unflattering idea, but still more so when one considers the éclat, the elevated appearance and the fortune that may be made in a few years by it (…)” (58). Robert Adam was immediately aware of the magnitude and importance of the rebuilding enterprise in Lisbon. His interest in the matter went beyond the mere dream. In April 1756, when the first news regarding the plans for Lisbon reached Europe, Robert Adam made an attempt to be appointed as the architect of the new city: “The report spreading of my being candidate for an affair of that consequence would be of infinite service to me even though I should be too late of applying and not chosen to put it in practice” (59). Adam’s enthusiasm about this enterprise balanced between hope and true commitment. He even considered the advantages of being in such position and the possibility of having his family in Lisbon with him with some detail and confidence: “I should, if things succeeded, be made noble by the King and have money to support the dignity of it without competition or rival and after a few years spent in an honourable way, in a fine climate and where reside many of our countrymen, return to England with all these honours on my head (…). I don’t suppose any of you would object to passing the seas and finishing my happiness by my having you all about me?” (60). In his letter, Adam reveals some knowledge of the importance of Lisbon in eighteenth century Europe: he shared the illusory European belief that pictured the Portuguese king D.José – “as the properest person in the universe”; he was informed of the importance of Lisbon in the British trade network – “where reside many of our countrymen”. Also, he seems to be aware of Lisbon’s most caricatured image: “the stinking Lisbon”, as this city was pictured by the many foreign accounts written from the seventeenth century. It is interesting to note that in this judgement, Robert Adam traces a parallel with Edinburgh, revealing thus his own opinions on the deficiencies of his hometown. Robert Adam’s letters to his family in Edinburgh portray a very confident individual who was clearly struck by the emergent fascination for Antiquity, expressed in the various Romantic views of ancient monuments and cities. He sees in the rebuilding of Lisbon a privileged opportunity to exercise his skills and his newly acquired taste as an urban planner (61). Robert Adam’s sketches for Lisbon are today kept at the Sir John Soane Museum in London: they represent a plan for a new city (with an explanation in French) and a bird’s eye view of the same project (62). The city proposed by Robert Adam is firmly structured on a symmetric and monumental composition following an architectural and spatial approach, which combines baroque and neo-classical elements. The urban space is divided according to specific functions: residential area, religious and political areas, commercial area and leisure area. The residential area is also divided according to a social hierarchy: the Nobility and the Bourgeoisie quarters. This compartmentalization of space is reinforced by the use of different geometrical shapes (triangle, square, semicircle, circle, quadrant and octagon) and is organised as a spatial movement that extends from the river, which is connected to the city by a Grand Basin, to the semicircular residential plaza at the end of the city. A hierarchy of architectural forms marks the hierarchy of space: Adam chooses formal baroque elements for the great public square near the river and the nearby public gardens and uses the classical contribution of Antiquity for the private royal residential area (63). Worthy of mention is the original use of the triangle in the religious areas at each end of the residential quarter. The highly elaborated geometric design gives the plan an ultimate utopian character. In fact, Adam’s sketches seem more an exercise of architectural shapes than of a town planning program. As such, he disregards vital features of a capital city with the political, social and commercial importance of Lisbon: the royal palace and the State headquarters. Epilogue For a brief but significant moment, Lisbon was the centre of attention of Enlightenment Europe: newspapers gathered and issued a variety of accounts portraying Lisbon as more than merely a busy trade centre. The Portuguese fifteenth century maritime enterprise was remembered and Lisbon was pictured as a cosmopolitan, wealthy and magnificent city. However, soon after, the Lisbon earthquake was replaced by other news coming from various parts of the world in the newspapers’ headlines. Portugal did not stand still. Lisbon’s city centre was rebuilt by the Portuguese military engineers (Manuel da Maia, Eugénio dos Santos and Carlos Mardel, amongst others) whose town planning ideas were consonant with Pombal’s projects for Lisbon: a city built for the convenience of citizens and commerce. The rebuilding of the city centre gave shape to an innovative spatial and architectural setting, whilst irrevocably burying an important area of the old city. The image of Lisbon changed. As such, the earthquake and the rebuilding can be considered as the embodiment of a transitional period: the physical passage to a new era. The new city centre, known to Lisbon’s citizens today as the Pombaline downtown (Baixa Pombalina), was used as the headquarters for the development of a vast program of reforms carried out by Pombal. This program of reforms irreversibly changed the course of Portuguese ancien-régime society. Notes 1. See Kendrick, The Lisbon Earthquake, Methuen & Co. Ltd. (1956), p. 34. 2. Mendonça, Joaquim Moreira de, História Universal dos Terremotos (Lisboa,1758). 3. See França, José-Augusto, Lisboa Pombalina e o Iluminismo, Bertrand Editora (Lisboa, 1983) 4. Kendrick, op. cit., p. 32. 5. Mendonça, Joaquim Moreira de, op. cit. 6. See Sousa, Luís Pereira, Efeitos do terramoto de 1755 nas construções de Lisboa (Lisboa, 1909) and O terramoto do 1º de Novembro de 1755 em Portugal e um estudo demográfico (Lisboa, 1919-1932), 4 vols. and Kendrick, Idem, pp. 29-32: “The area of severe shock that included Lisbon, as mapped by Pereira de Sousa …, extended along the north shore of the Tagus at the Lisbon bend from a point close to the present Santos station on the Cascais line to Braço de Prata, half-way between Lisbon and Sacavem, and is a belt of country six or seven miles long extending inland to a depth of about one and a half miles. Inside this area there were districts in which shocks were of greater intensity and did more damage than elsewhere”. 7. Kendrick, Idem, p. 32. 8.Lisbon, Nov. 6, 1755 – Castres, Abraham “Letter from Abr. Castres, Esq; Envoy Extraordinary to the King of Portugal”, The Gentleman’s Magazine, London, November 1755, vol. XXV, pp. 556-558. 9. The Caledonian Mercury, Numb. 5302, December 2, 1755. 10. Lodge, Sir Richard (edit.), The Private Correspondence of Sir Benjamin Keene (1933), p. 435, n.1. 11. 4 December 1755, nº 5303. 12.The Scots Magazine, Nov. 1755, vol. 17, p. 554. 13.The Gentleman’s Magazine, November 1755, p. 521. 14. The Gentleman’s Magazine, December 1755, vol. XXV, pp. 558-559. The British accounts of the earthquake were published soon after the event by the various contemporary British newspapers. The British Historical Society of Portugal compiled some of these accounts in two publications: The Lisbon earthquake of 1755, (Lisbon, 1987) and An account by an eye-witness of the Lisbon earthquake of November 1, 1755, (Lisbon, 1985). 15. Cheke, Marcus, Dictator of Portugal: A life of the Marquis of Pombal 1699-1782 (London, 1938), p. 73. 16. Kendrick, Ibidem, p. 29. 17. The Scots Magazine – A letter from a merchant at Lisbon, February 1756, vol. 18. 18. Le Brun, Ponce-Denis Écouchard, Odes sur Lisbonne et sur les causes physiques des tremblements de terre de 1755, par M. le Brun, suivies d’un Examen physique adressé à l’auteur sur les mêmes revolutions, 2nd edition, La Haye (Paris, 1756). 19. The Scots Magazine, vol. 17 November 1755, p. 563. 20. Probably the most impressive of all of these illustrations and also the most accurate are the engravings by Jacques Philippe Le Bas, chief engraver to King Louis XV of France, based on the drawings of M.M. Paris and Pedegache, which picture the ruins of some of the most significant Lisbon buildings. 21. Davison, Charles, Great Earthquakes, Thomas Murby & Co (London, 1936), p. 2. 22. Throughout its history, Lisbon suffered numerous earthquakes. From the fourteenth century there are records of these events. On the 7 January 1531, a violent earthquake shook Portugal. Nineteen days later, Lisbon suffered another earthquake which seems to have caused destruction parallel to that of 1755: more than one thousand five hundred houses were destroyed and many people were buried underneath the debris. In 1551, another earthquake killed two thousand people in Lisbon. There are records of earthquakes in Portugal and in Lisbon dating from 1575, 1597, 1598 and 1722 (a severe earthquake was also felt in the seventeenth century): see Serrão, Joel (direction), Dicionário de História de Portugal, Livraria Figueirinhas (Porto, 1985), vol. VI. 23. Davison, Charles, op. cit., p. 5. 24. See Davidson, Idem, p. 6: “The distance that separates Lisbon from Mequinez is 400 miles, Mequinez from Algiers 690 miles, and Lisbon from Granada 317 miles”. 25. Davison, Charles, Ibidem, p. 6. 26. See Davison, Ibidem, p. 3. The author gives us an important bibliography on this matter, namely, Bevis, John, The History and Philosophy of Earthquakes (1757). 27. The London Gazette, 29 November 1755. 28. Goethe, who was six years old at the time of the earthquake of 1755, recalls this occurrence in his autobiography: Dichtung und Wahrheit. 29. The Gentleman’s Magazine, November 1755, p. 521. 30. Extract of Mr. Harvey’s speech with regard to the earthquake published in The Caledonian Mercury, Num. 5310, Saturday, December 20, 1755. 31.The Gentleman’s Magazine, February 1756, p. 68. 32. Davison, Ibidem, p. 3. See also Sousa, Luís Pereira de, Efeitos do terramoto de 1755… (1909) and O terramoto do 1º de Novembro de 1755 em Portugal e um estudo demográfico (1919 -1932), 4 vols. In this work, Pereira de Sousa bases his analysis on the parish survey of Portugal. 33. “For several days he lived in his carriage, scribbling proclamations and orders, despatching and receiving courtiers, reassuring the populace, and exhorting them to the work of rescue” – Quoted in Boxer, Charles, “Pombal’s Dictartoship and the Great Lisbon Earthquake, 1755” History Today, vol. 1, November (1955), p. 732. 34. Investigação das causas proximas do Terremoto, succedido em Lisboa no anno de 17 11/1 55 (Lisboa, 1756) and Precauções Medicas contra algumas remotas consequencias, que se podem excitar do Terremoto de 17 11/1 55 (Lisboa, 1756). 35. Nova e Fiel relação do terremoto que experimentou Lisboa e todo Portugal no 1 de Novembro 1755, com algumas observações curiosas e a explicação das suas causas (Lisboa, 1756). 36. História Universal dos Terremotos (Lisboa, 1758). 37. See Kendrick, Ibidem, pp. 58 -118. 38. Kendrick, Ibidem, p. 59. 39. Davison, Ibidem, p. 3. The author also names the study by E. Bertrand “Mémoires Historiques et Physiques sur les tremblements de Terre”, published in 1757; John Michell’s memoir “Conjectures concerning the cause and observations upon the phenomena of earthquakes …” and the works of Alexis Perrey and Sir Charles Lyell which also consider in detail the earthquake of 1755. 40. Silveira, Luís (translation), Ensaios de Kant a propósito do terremoto de 1755, Câmara Municipal de Lisboa (Lisboa, 1955). 41. Published in Paris (1756). 42. The Gentleman’s Magazine, February 1756, p. 71. 43. Voltaire, Poéme sur le désastre de Lisbonne (Paris, 1756) (extract). 44. Voltaire, op. cit., Preface. 45. Voltaire, Candide ou l’Optimisme, electronic version: perso.wanadoo.fr/dboudin/VOLTAIRE/candida.htm (1st edition: Paris, 1759) chap. V. 46. Johnson, Samuel, “On Optimism – Review of Soame Jenyns’s: A Free Enquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil”, Literary Magazine, May, June and July 1757; Lynam, Robert (edit.) The Works of Samuel Johnson, George Cowie and Co. (London, 1825), vol. 5, p.113. See also Eliot, Simon and Stern, Beverley(edit.), The Age of Enlightenment, The Open University (London, 1979), vol. I, pp. 108-120. 47. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, Lettre à Monsieur de Voltaire (Sur la Providence), August 18, 1756, http://gallnar.net/rousseau/lettreavoltaire.html and http://www.missouri.edu/~histzut/voltaire.html – “Ne vous y trompez pas, Monsieur, il arrive tout le contraire de ce que vous proposez. Cet optimisme que vous trouvez si cruel me console pourtant dans les mêmes douleurs que vous me peignez comme insupportables. Le Poëme de Pope adoucit mes maux & me porte à la patiente; le vôtre aigrit mês peines, m’excite au murmure, & m’ôtant tout hors une espérance ébranlée, il me réduit au désespoir”. 48. Kendrick, Ibidem, p. 139. 49. Lodge, Sir Richard, op. cit., p. 434. The sister of the Spanish king, Ferdinand VI, was Queen Mariana de Bourbon wife of the Portuguese king D.José I. However, according to contemporary sources, the Portuguese king declined the Spanish aid: see França, José-Augusto, op. cit. 50. The London Gazette, Sat. January 31 to Tuesday February 3 1756, numb. Numb. 9566, “From Tuesday March 23, to Saturday March 27, 1756”. 51. The London Gazette, Numb. 9574, “From Tuesday April 13, to Saturday April 17, 1756”. 52. See Cheke, op. cit., Estorninho, Carlos, O Terramoto de Lisboa e a sua repercussão nas Relações Luso-Britânicas (Lisboa, 1956) and Kendrick, Ibidem. 53. The Scots Magazine, vol. 17, November 1755, p. 557. This news also refers to Sir Benjamin Keene’s letter of 10 November which was read, the 28 November, in the House of Lords. Boxer states that the House of Commons agreed to send to Portugal £ 100,000 distributed equally in specie and goods – “Pombal’s Dictatorship …”, p. 734. 54. The Scots Magazine, vol. 18, March 1756, p. 138. “Lisbon, Feb. 22. On the 19th Instant, his Britannick Majesty’s Ships the Hampton Court and the Greyhound arrived here with several Merchantmen under their Convoy. There are now ten Ships with Provisions arrived from London, one from Dartmouth, and five from Ireland”. – The London Gazette, numb. 9562, “From Tuesday March 9, to Saturday March 13, 1756”. See also Boxer, Charles, “Pombal Dictactorship …” and “Some contemporary reactions to the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755”: “Offers of help came from all over Western Europe, but the most substantial relief came from Britain and Spain”, p. 11. 55. The Gentleman’s Magazine, November 1755, p. 593. 56. The London Gazette, numb.9556, “From Tuesday February 17, to Saturday February 21, 1756”. 57. See França, José-Augusto, Idem, p. 58. 58. Letter to his sister in Edinburgh. Fleming, Robert, Robert Adam and his Circle (1978), p. 205. 59. Quoted in Fleming, Robert, op. cit., pp. 204-205. According to the author, Robert Adam was hoping for the support of Lord Hopetoun and Sir William Stanhope. Allan Ramsay proposed to write to the Duke of Argyll “to see what step he would take in it”. 60. Quoted in Fleming, Idem. 61. See Fleming, Ibidem, pp. 230-231. 62. Sir John Soane Museum, London, vol. 9, nos. 56 and 60. 63. See Delaforce, Angela, “The Dream of a young Architect. Robert Adam and a Project for the rebuilding of Lisbon in 1755”, Portugal e o Reino Unido: A Aliança Revisitada (1994) and Pimentel, António Filipe, “O laboratório da reconstrução: reflexões em torno do pensamento e da prática do urbanismo português” Propaganda e Poder – Congresso Peninsular de História da Arte (1999), pp. 347-364. THIS IS A VERY DETAILED AND THEREFORE VERY INFORMATIVE ARTICLE ON THE GREAT LISBON EARTHQUAKE OF 1755. VERY WELL DONE AND MUCH APPRECIATED! KIND REGARDS, Eu sou portuguesa mas estou actualmente na Australia a estudar. Currentemente, estou a fazer um trabalho de historia sobre o terramoto de Lisboa 1755. Este artigo é muito informativo e extremamente bem estruturado. Adorava saber se você/s me podiam recomendar outros trabalhos (vosso/s ou de outros autores que você/s admiram) sobre o terramoto. Especialmente, trabalhos que destacam como o terramote afetou a cultura portuguesa e como de uma maneira ou outra até ajudou a moldar a nossa cultura moderna. Obrigada,	Lisbon
Which BAFTA Award winning TV series stars Peter Firth as the head of MI5's counter-intelligence unit?	Read The Economic Impact of the Lisbon 1755 Earthquake The Opportunity of a Disaster: The Economic Impact of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake ALVARO S. PEREIRA The Opportunity of a Disaster The Economic Impact of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake Alvaro S. Pereira Department of Economics University of York York, YO10 5DD United Kingdom [email protected] Abstract By combining new archival and existing data, this paper provides estimates of the economic impact of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, the largest ever-recorded natural catastrophe in Europe. The direct cost of the earthquake is estimated to be between 32 and 48 percent of the Portuguese GDP. In spite of strict controls, prices and wages remained volatile in the years after the tragedy. The recovery from earthquake also led to a rise in the wage premium of construction workers. More significantly, the earthquake became an opportunity for economic reform and to reduce the economic semi-dependency vis-à-vis Britain. JEL Codes: N13, Q54, O52 Keywords: Lisbon 1755 earthquake; natural disasters, economic development 2 1. Introduction "Sometimes miracles are necessary, natural phenomena, or great disasters in order to shake, to awaken, and to open the eyes of misled nations about their interests, [nations] oppressed by others that simulate friendship, and reciprocal interest. Portugal needed the earthquake to open her eyes, and to little by little escape from slavery and total ruin 1 ." In the early hours of November 1, 1755, the pious population of Lisbon was attending the celebrations of All Saints Day when a powerful earthquake violently shook the western and southern parts of the country. The earthquake was centered southwest of the Algarve region (about 300 km away from the Portuguese capital), and it was felt in a wide area, from southern Spain and northern Africa, to several regions in Europe 2 . The earthquake was composed of three distinct jolts that started at 9:30 am and lasted for about 9 minutes, being one of the most violent and longest earthquakes on record 3 , with an estimated intensity between 8.7 and 9 in the Richter scale. After the earthquake, many of the survivors fled to the streets in panic just to be swallowed by a giant wave that swept the harbour some minutes later. Effects from the tsunami were felt all across the Atlantic Ocean, from western Europe to North America, the coasts of Brazil and the Caribbean Islands. In Lisbon, the final blow came when the debris in many of the buildings was ignited by the remains of candles and by looters, giving rise to an intense fire that lasted for five days and destroyed most of the Portuguese capital 4 . When all was done, one of the largest and richest European cities was almost completely destroyed. In the eyes of the contemporaries, the destruction was of apocalyptic proportions, sparking a vigorous debate in Europe on the causes of the earthquake in the years that followed, in which many of the most influential thinkers of the European Enlightenment intervened, such as Rousseau, Voltaire, Kant, among others. Russell Dynes 5 argues that the 1755 Lisbon earthquake can be characterized as the first "modern" disaster, because of the unprecedented Vandelli "Modo de Evitar." The estimated area affected by the earthquake varies immensely, from 800,000 km2 (Chester "The 1755 Lisbon") to 35 million km2. Recently, Johnston ("Seismic") updated the estimates to around 15 million km2. 3 Records show that the intensity of the 1755 earthquake was only surpassed by the 1960 Chile earthquake and the 1964 in Alaska. 4 There were also 250 aftershocks in the 6 months after the tragedy, which, according to the Pope representative in Lisbon, led to the collapse of many unstable buildings (Pinto Cardoso "O Terrivel"). 5 Dynes "The Lisbon earthquake", p. 1. 1 2 3 coordinated state emergency response, being also a "turning point in human history which moved the consideration of such physical events as supernatural signs toward a more neutral or even secular, proto-scientific causation." In spite of its magnitude and repercussions, the existing literature has tended to downplay the role of the disaster for Portugal's economic woes and subsequent reforms in the late eighteenth century. Estimates of the earthquake are mostly sketchy and somewhat relying on anecdotal data. Using new archival and existing data, this paper tries to remedy this lacuna in the literature by providing estimates of the economic impact of the 1755 earthquake. The paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 examines the main direct effects of the disaster, and provides new estimates of casualties and of the total GDP loss. The section also presents the impact of the earthquake on both prices and wages. Section 3 analyzes the long-term impact of the disaster, focusing on the institutional changes that followed the economic woes caused by the tragedy. This section argues that the 1755 Lisbon earthquake contributed to the implementation of several institutional changes and provided an opportunity to reform the economy. The long-term performance of the Portuguese economy benefited accordingly, and the situation of economic semi-dependency vis-à-vis Britain was reduced. All in all, the conclusions of this paper suggest that some natural hazards have long-term economic effects, corroborating the findings of recent works by Mark Skidmore and Hideki Toya and by Kerry Odell and Marc Weidenmier 6 . 2. The Direct Effects This section estimates the direct effects of the earthquake. New estimates of casualties are presented and the impact of GDP is assessed through a decomposition of the main damages of the disaster. In addition, the earthquake's impact on prices is analyzed at the regional level, and new data on builders' wages are presented. 6 Skidmore and Toya "Do Natural", Odell and Weidenmier "Real Shock". 4 2.1. Impact on Population Estimates of the death and casualty tolls of the 1755 earthquake vary tremendously, ranging from 10,000 to almost 100,000 in Lisbon alone 7 . The widely divergent figures are partly due to the lack of reliable estimates of the Portuguese population before 1755. The uncertainty surrounding casualties also persists because, fearing the advent of plague and disease, the government ruled that the corpses should be disposed swiftly, many of them being thrown out in the sea. Many people also changed parish after the earthquake. 8 The uncertainty surrounding the casualty toll makes it difficult to assess the real human impact of the earthquake and the corresponding damages. In order to get a better picture of the casualty toll, new estimates were obtained by combining several sources and by correcting some of the existing estimates. The sources used were the 1758 "Parish Memories" (Memórias Paroquiais), as well as the works of Alfredo de Matos and Fernando Portugal and Pereira de Sousa 9 . These sources were combined to produce Table 1, which shows the number of dwellings and residents before and after 1755 in all Lisbon parishes plus 7 others 10 that were later incorporated into the city. The last two columns of table 1 present the degree of intensity in the modified Mercalli scale (MMS) and the damage sustained as estimated by Pereira de Sousa. From table 1, we can see that the number of dwellings before the earthquake was above 33,000, whereas, after the earthquake, the number of dwellings in the 38 parishes falls to less than 20,000. This loss of about 13,000 houses is similar to that reported by José A. França 11 . Some of the most influential studies of the disaster report the following death figures in Lisbon: Moreira de Mendonça (1758) 10,000; Manuel Portal (1758) 12,000-15,000; Matos and Portugal ("Lisboa") 12,000; Kendrick ("Lisbon") and Maxwell ("Pombal") 15,000; Haug (cited in Pereira de Sousa "O terremoto") 30,000; Pereira de Sousa ("O terremoto") 15,000-20,000. According to Pereira de Sousa, the number of injured was between 40,000 and 50,000. Most of the deaths and casualties were directly related to the earthquake, although Pereira de Sousa reckons that there were 2,000-3,000 deaths caused by the fire, and Baptista et al. ("The 1755") estimate that the number of tsunami casualties was about 900, and that the penetration of the waters was 250 meters. 8 It also seems likely that the government tried to downplay the casualty toll, while it overestimated the economic losses, to provide a rationale for the urgency and the need to intervene in the economy. 9 Matos and Portugal Lisboa, Pereira de Sousa O Terremoto 10 Ameixoeira, Benfica, Campo Grande, Carnide, Charneca, Lumiar, Torre do Lumiar, and Olivais 11França Lisboa. Still, before 1755, França's guess-estimates suggest 20,000 dwellings and not 33,000. 7 5 Even so, 13,000 should be seen as a lower-bound estimate, since many of the reported dwellings after the disaster were either wooden huts or were in precarious conditions. Table 1 _ Earthquake Damage by Parish (freguesia) Parish Ameixoeira Anjos Benfica Campo Grande Carnide Chagas de Jesus Charneca Encarnação Loreto Lumiar Martires Nossa Sra. Ajuda Nossa Sra. Da Conceição Nossa Sra. Da Pena Nossa Sra. Das Mercês Olivais Patriarcal S. André S. Bartolomeu S. Catarina S. Cristovão S. Cruz do Castelo S. Engrácia S. Estevão S. Isabel S. João da Praça S. Jorge S. José S. Julião S. Justa S. Lourenço S. Mamede S. Maria Madalena S. Maria S. Marinha do Outeiro S. Martinho S. Miguel S. Nicolau S. Paulo S. Pedro S. Sebastião da Pedreira S. Tiago S. Tomé S. Vicente de Fora Sacramento Salvador Santos Socorro Torre de Lumiar Sum Sources' Disparities Total Totals without 7 parishes Before 1755 dwellings residents 2146 8441 After 1755 dwellings residents 88 338 612 2117i 805 3962 225 1650 255 1390 258 851ii 450 7 1000 84 377vi 807 647 270 51 1778 230 60viii 1262 878 2415 10 72 1160 394xiii 361 143 12 93 150 165 50 666 575 220 150 862 60 250 552 137 300 1836 830 442 22,900 21,934 19,730 1154 4000 2226 46iii 4730iv 438v 1432 3483 1770 663 170 8160vii 834 251 6362ix 3724x 11605 50xi 376 6000xii 1719xiv 3441 725xvi 60xvii 434xviii 730 782 910xix 2300xx 1534 1350xxi 700 3425 240 909 2485 1064xxii 800 8403 3330 2182xxiii 104,747 9,644 114,391 89,782 MMS IX IX IX IX IX / X n.a. IX IX n.a. IX X VIII / IX IX IX / X IX VIII / IX n.a. IX X X IX X IX / X IX / X VIII / IX X IX IX / X X IX / Xxv IX X IX / X IX IX / X X IX X X X VIII IX/X VIII / IX X X X VIII / IX X / IX IX Damage ruined ruined less ruined less ruined ruined burnt less ruined burned burned less ruined burned less ruined burned ruined ruined less ruined burned ruined burned ruined ruined burned less ruined less ruined less ruined burned burned less ruined burned burned ruined burned burned burned less ruined less ruined ruined burned burned ruined less ruined less ruined less ruined ruined burned ruined less ruined ruined less ruined (A) (B) (C) (D) 2027 1531 1059 850 1403 840 85 146 148 1874 432 322 1327 1108 1289 305 69 1035 1608 1156 152 318 805 911 200 56 869 2333 755 350 604 120 260 544 642 268 1807 1556 33,310 33,310 33,310 9516 6557 4748 3783 5371 3800 1261 575 574 8255 1901 1352 5753 4353 5357 1359 335 5005 7016 7782 619 1420 3743 4255 715 837 3429 9859 3958 1550 2835 662 1186 2368 3119 1046 7870 5774 148,339 148,339 148,339 ________________________ Table 1 notes: i No numbers available from Memórias, only from Pereira de Sousa ("O terremoto"). Since the inhabitants/dwellings ratio was 3.9 before 1755, we can estimate that the number of dwellings after 1755 was around 612. 6 ii Only the number of residents is available after 1755. The number of dwellings is found by taking into account the pre1755 dwellings/inhabitants ratio. iii The numbers from Pereira de Sousa probably include people living in huts. The report from the parish's priest is fairly detailed, in which we learn that "Currently there are in this parish seven dwellings in which reside forty six people, since due to the earthquake it lost all its houses" (Matos and Portugal, op. cit., p. 185). iv No numbers available. However, the Memórias reveal that this was "the one that suffered the least". v The numbers of Pereira de Sousa seem more credible since this parish was burned. The numbers of the Memórias are not likely, since they were even higher than before the earthquake. vi Only the number of people after 1755 available. Dwellings found by keeping the pre 1755 dwellings/inhabitants ratio vii The numbers of the Memórias are accepted since there is a good description. Pereira de Sousa's are similar to these. viii Only the number of people after 1755 is available. Dwellings found by keeping pre-1755 dwellings/inhabitants ratio. ix The figures from Pereira de Sousa are similar, but they do not include the number of inhabitants. x This parish was not severely damaged, and did not seem likely that it lost 250 dwellings. However, the 1780 figures reveal that there were 938 dwellings. Pereira de Sousa's numbers are accepted, instead of those in the Memórias (977). xi Great disparity in the number of dwellings (300 in Pereira de Sousa, 10 in the Memories). The numbers in the Memórias are probably more reliable, since it is not likely that a burned parish only lost one dwelling. Also, the parish's priest provides great detail of the devastation in his description. xii Dwellings from Matos and Portugal, inhabitants from Pereira de Sousa. xii Only the number of people after 1755 is available. Dwellings found by keeping the pre 1755 dwellings/inhabitants ratio. xiv Pereira de Sousa states that an account from Bautista de Castro gives the same number of dwellings before and after the earthquake. However, this is not very likely, since this is a burned parish. xv In most of this parish the intensity of the earthquake was IX, but around the Rossio it was X. xvi Pereira de Sousa reports 143 dwellings, whereas the Memórias 196. Pereira de Sousa's numbers seem more credible since the parish was ruined. Also, the numbers of the Memórias are from 1760. xvii The values of Pereira de Sousa are preferred, since the numbers of the Memórias are from 1760. xviii The number of dwellings is estimated from the pre-1755 inhabitants/dwellings ratio. xix The numbers of Pereira de Sousa do not take into account the Limoreiro part of this parish. xx The numbers in the Memórias (666) are probably more accurate than Pereira de Sousa's (435). xxi Pereira de Sousa reports 1000 dwellings and 4000 inhabitants after 1755, which entails no damages or losses. This does not seem possible, since the degree of intensity in this parish was X. The values of the Memórias seem better, since there is also a good description of the losses. The number of protestants living in 25 dwellings is also included. xxii From the number of dwellings, 180 huts were deducted since they were built after the earthquake. xxiii Although there was no parish called Torre do Lumiar, in the Memórias the priest details the dwellings and residents of Torre do Lumiar and its surroundings. xxiv Post-1755 data were missing for both the number and dwellings and residents only in 4 parishes: Loreto (a small parish made up of Italian residents), Patriarcal (which was inhabited by the religious contingent that served the Royal Household), Chagas de Jesus, and Nossa Senhora da Ajuda. Of all 4 parishes, only the last had a substantial number of dwellings and residents before 1755 (1059 and 4748, respectively). From the reports of Manuel Portal this was the least damaged parish and that there was only a "few deaths". ___________________________________________________________________________________ According to a 1758 account by Moreira de Mendonça, two-thirds of the city were uninhabitable after the tragedy. Thus, besides the 13,000 destroyed, an additional 10,000 dwellings also sustained substantial damage. Our sample consists of 15 burned parishes, 12 severely ruined, and 11 less ruined. The greatest fall in population (about 50,000 people) occurred in the burned parishes, which were also the most densely inhabited before 1755. Ruined parishes also had a considerable loss both in terms of dwellings (at least 3,500) and of people (minus 15,000). In contrast, the least affected parishes witness a gain both in terms of the number of houses (plus 3,500) and of the number of residents (almost 8,000 more). These 7 figures are consistent with contemporary reports that suggest a big influx of new residents into the less ruined parishes. From table 1, we are able to get a more accurate account of the human losses related to the earthquake and its aftermath. We should emphasize that the total number of residents does not include children less than 7 years old, since the data from the parishes correspond to the number of confessed people (rol de confessados). Thus, 148,339 residents of Lisbon correspond to about 200,000 inhabitants 12 . What is most striking about the human losses is that even after we take into account the disparities between the different sources (row B in table 1) and even if we take into account the possibility that many of the survivors left to less ruined parishes or to the surrounding areas of Lisbon, the highest estimate for the post-1755 population of Lisbon is 114,684 people (row C). Even if we assume that, say, 10,000 to 20,000 people left Lisbon altogether (which is not likely, since the records of the time do not suggest such an exodus) or even if we take into account the sketchiness of the data, there would be still more than 25,000 people missing from the figures. Knowing that the children casualty rate was around one-fifth of the total deaths, these calculations suggest that the number of deaths in Lisbon alone was between 30,000 and 40,000 13 . Besides Lisbon, there were many other towns and villages that were greatly affected by both the earthquake and the tsunami, such as the harbour towns of Cascais (514 deaths), Setúbal (more than 1,000 deaths), and Peniche (more than 50 people engulfed by the sea 14 ). In the Algarve, the closest region to the epicenter of the earthquake, the devastation was even Even if the number of confessions underestimates the true number of residents, it is not likely that the number of inhabitants would surpass the 250,000, which conforms to the estimates of some of the contemporaries. 13 Although the most credible contemporary accounts (those of the archivist Moreira de Mendonça and the priest Manuel Portal) point out the number of deaths to be around 15,000, their estimates do not seem to be based on the casualty toll for all the parishes, since they were based on an estimated number of dwellings of 20,000. If we adjust their casualty figures to the real number of dwellings before 1755 (more than 33,000), the death toll rises to about 25,000. If we add to this the probable deaths of children, their estimates would also be around 30,000 thousand deaths. These new estimates are also of the same order of magnitude of those presented by the Papal Nuncio in Lisbon (Pinto Cardoso "O Terrivel") . Thus, they do not seem to be out of order. 14 The number of casualties from Peniche and Setúbal are from the parish memories reported in Pereira de Sousa, op. cit. Cascais's are from Andrade ("A Vila"). Setúbal was particularly devastated, not only by the earthquake, but also by the tsunami and a fire that wrecked three whole neighborhoods. 12 8 greater. There are several reports stating that Albufeira, Faro, Lagos, Alvor, Quarteira and Portimão were almost totally destroyed by the tsunami and the earthquake, which in many places in the Algarve reached X and XI in the Medvedev-Sponheuer-Kárnik scale. More than 2,000 people died in the Algarve alone. The regions of the Alentejo, Ribatejo and the Lisbon outskirts also reported hundreds of deaths 15 . All in all, the total death toll outside Lisbon is likely to have been between 2,500 and 4,000. In Spain, the number of deaths was much lower than in Portugal. There are 1,214 deaths reported, although the number was likely considerably higher 16 . Nevertheless, in contrast to what happened in Portugal, the great majority of Spanish deaths were caused by the tsunami. From the existing reports, only 61 deaths were attributed to the earthquake. Information about the impact on Morocco is a lot sparser and often contaminated by another earthquake that affected the region in late November 1755. Some authors estimate that the Lisbon earthquake and the resulting tsunami might have killed about 10,000 people, and destroyed the cities of Fez and Tanger. All in all, the 1755 earthquake and the resulting tsunami and fires caused between 40,000 and 50,000 deaths in Portugal, Spain and Morocco. 2.2. Impact on GDP The impact on GDP is harder to assess, since very often the estimated losses are either not credible or exaggerated. In Lisbon alone, the losses were dramatic. Not only two thirds of the city became uninhabitable, but also virtually all of its big buildings were destroyed: 87 percent of its 40 churches and 86 percent of its 75 convents and monasteries were ruined, and the remaining ones were extensively damaged. Additionally, 33 palaces, the Arsenal, the For the degree of damage, see Chester "The 1755", p. 266. The death toll in the Algarve reported by several sources in Pereira de Sousa (op. cit.) is: Albufeira 500, Boliqueime 150, Castro Marim 150, Faro 700, Lagos 400, Loulé >150, Lagoa "many people", Portimão "many people", Silves 200, and Tavira 250. For Lisbon and Alentejo: Sintra 24, Penha Verde 73, Ericeira "several people", Ribatejo >14, Alenquer 35, Santarém "many deads", Palmela 14, Évora 1, Odivelas > 40. 16 Martínez Solares and López Arroyo "The Great Historical" 15 9 Patriarchal Palace and the Royal Library were completely ruined. All this destruction took place in one of the richest and opulent cities of eighteen-century Europe 17 . The riches of Lisbon were not only from the wealth accumulated during Portugal's geographical discoveries, but also from the massive gold and diamond inflows coming from Brazil since the early 1700s. Therefore, in face of these immense riches, it is not surprising that the reports of the losses were nothing less than catastrophic. An anonymous French witness of the disaster estimates the following losses (all values in livres): 12,000 houses lost and 5,000 severely damaged, 32 parochial churches, 60 small private churches, 22 men convents, 21 women convents, 53 palaces, 9 Public Buildings with an estimated value of 20 million, furniture lost 1,200 million, interiors of Churches (sacred vases, ornaments, furniture, statutes, etc) 32 million, diamonds lost and jewelry 80 million, and the losses incurred by foreigners at 260 million (of which the English lost 160 million). According to this account, around 1,500 million livres tornois (more than 266,000 contos) were lost to the disaster 18 . Another anonymous source estimates the overall losses at about 120,000 contos 19 , although no detailed amounts are presented. One of the most popular works in the 1750s assessed the losses as follows 20 : 12,000 dwellings each valued at 960,000 reis (0.96 contos); the Terreiro do Paço area 4,000 contos; money lost 4,000 contos; gold, silver, diamonds, libraries and furniture valued at 210,000 contos; losses sustained by foreigners 38,400 contos (of which the British lost more than 25,600 contos). More recent estimates decrease the losses, although the values are still very considerable. Carlos Estorninho uses British consular sources to estimate a total loss of about 86,000 contos, of which more than 40 percent belonged to foreigners. José Luís Cardoso combines the estimates from the 17 As (Kendrick Lisbon, p. 28) emphasizes: "[T]he most important thing about Lisbon was that it was staggeringly rich, rich in the almost fabulous contents of its palaces and churches, rich in the great stores of bullion and jewels and costly merchandise in its wharves and business premises, rich in its tremendous commercial importance". 18 Pereira "O terramoto de 1755" 19 França Lisboa p. 68. Most of the values presented in this paper are in contos de reis. The rei was the basic monetary unit in Portugal in the 18th century, and 1 conto de reis = 1,000,000 reis. Cruzados were also often used. The corresponding exchange rates are: 1 cruzado = 400 reis; 1 livre tornois = 160 reis; £1 = 3600 reis. 20 Reported in França Lisboa, p. 68 10 contemporary accounts with trade data for 1755 to get an estimate of around between 100 and 150,000 contos 21 . Since the estimates for Portuguese GDP in the 1750s are between 150,000 contos and 200,000 contos 22 , the total direct losses vary between 43%-57% (Estorninho "O Terramoto"), 75% (Cardoso "Pombal"), 115-153% (França "Lisboa") and 133-178% (Pereira "O Terramoto") of Portuguese GDP. In face of such wide estimates and since other losses were not taken into account for these calculations (e.g. the palaces and the churches), new estimates were found by using different sources. The losses of dwellings were calculated from table 1, and its average value was established at 0.96 contos. This value was also confirmed by archival work from records of houses demolished in the city center 23 . In addition, although the wealth of the churches and convents varied dramatically 24 , an average value for convents and churches was guessestimated from the reports of the losses in the Memórias Paroquiais and in Pereira de Sousa's classic work. Convents/monasteries were estimated to be worth an average value of 300,000 cruzados (120 contos), nun convents 200,000 cruzados, hospitals 250,000 cruzados, and churches 200,000 cruzados. These guess-estimates seem consistent with the estimated losses in Church interiors and damages to buildings reported by Ângelo Pereira 25 , which totaled around 5,000 contos. These values were adjusted for the degree of damaged sustained. Palaces also varied tremendously in their riches, but were estimated at 300 contos each. The total losses in the Terreiro do Paço include the Royal Palace, the Patriarchal, a brand new sumptuous opera house, the Customs House, a new Stone Quay, and several storage buildings. The total value for the Terreiro do Paço is estimated by some contemporaries' accounts reported in Pereira de Sousa at 4,000 contos. Cardoso "Pombal" . Valério "Portuguese". 23 Ministério do Reino, lv. 416 "Registo de Correspondência e providências sobre o terramoto de 1755". This value is also used by França in Lisboa. 24 For instance, the biggest Lisbon convent, the Carmo, had 20 chapels, 25 altars, 4 church organs valued at 50,000 cruzados (20 contos) each, a library worth more than 200,000 cruzados (80 contos), among many other riches, whereas other convents and recolhimentos were a lot more modest. Pereira de Sousa "O terremoto" 25 Pereira "O Terramoto" 21 22 11 According to the historical accounts, some of the greatest damages were in term of diamonds, gold, silver and furniture lost, as well as losses to foreigners. Consequently, especial attention was given to them. In terms of diamonds, one of the few reliable contemporary sources, the priest Manuel Portal argues that just in the earthquake- and tsunami-ravaged India House (Casa da India) there were "11 to 12 million in diamonds" from Brazil. Since these reports are not explicit which currency is used. Since there were several currencies and different units of account utilized at the time (reis, cruzados, livres, etc), it is fairly difficult to get accurate estimates of the values lost. França 26 assumes that the 11 or 12 million are in cruzados, which is equivalent to 30 million livres or 1,920 contos. If these estimates were correct, 1.5% of Portuguese GDP was lost just with the diamonds from the India House. Even more dramatic, other contemporary accounts 27 claim that the total losses in diamonds alone were around 18,000 contos, which is equivalent to 10-15 percent of Portuguese GDP. In face of these colossal losses claimed by the contemporaries and the inexistence of reliable statistics for the period, the only feasible way to check these numbers is to confront them with the existing figures for the diamond extraction and sale. Diamonds were discovered in Brazil in the 1720s, and in 1734 a formal diamond region (the Tijuco) was created. In order to control the extraction and disposal of diamonds, from 1740 onwards, the Portuguese government granted monopoly rights for its exploitation based on a series of contracts. From 1740 to 1755, the total value of diamonds extracted amounts to 6,447 contos 28 . Even if we allow for smuggling, it is likely that only a small part of this would end up in Portugal. From the total value extracted, we should subtract the diamonds sold in Europe, which amount to at least 857 contos. Assuming that the quantity of diamonds from non-Brazilian sources was not very significant, the total value of the diamonds did not exceed 5,000 contos, which is substantially lower than the claims of the contemporaries of the earthquake. Even the figures for the India House are certainly França Lisboa. Cited in França Lisboa and Pereira "O Terramoto". 28 Marques and Serrão, vols. 7 and 8. 26 27 12 overestimates, since the total extracted value for 1754 and 1755 is only about 1,000 contos, of which more than 800 contos were sold to European traders. All in all, even if we assume that indeed the Royal household, the Church and other individuals lost a great part of their diamonds to the earthquake, tsunami and fire, it is very unlikely that these losses totaled more than one or two fifths (1,000 to 2,000 contos) of the total value of the diamonds that existed in the whole of Portugal. Additionally, although we do not have reliable figures for the losses of gold, silver and furniture by private individuals, it is extremely unlikely that the estimates by the contemporaries of the disaster are credible. In fact, there are plenty of reports of robberies during this period, and hence it is probable that most of the gold and silver just changed hands. Therefore, and since many of these losses are already covered by the damages in palaces and religious buildings, a guess-estimate of 10,000 to 15,000 contos is given to these damages. The same reasoning applies for the money lost. It is usually assumed by the historical accounts that the losses included those of the Mint of about 2 million (of what?) worth of bullion. However, it is known that the Mint escaped from the earthquake, the fire and the mob, due to the prompt intervention of some dedicated soldiers 29 . The Pombal government also acted swiftly to protect it by issuing an order on November 3, in which guards were placed in the royal treasuries. The path-breaking work by Rita Martins de Sousa on the Portuguese money supply in the 18th century 30 also reveals that, in spite of the large fire, there was only a small amount of recoinage (0.09 contos in 1755, and 40 contos in 1756 31 ). All in all, it is likely that the bulk of the money lost mostly changed hands and/or was overestimated, and hence a value between 1,000 and 2,000 contos seems more reasonable. Similarly, the amount lost by foreigners is also greatly exaggerated. Although the losses were high, they were not as catastrophic as the initial reports from the British merchants Boxer "Some Contemporary", p.8 Sousa Moeda. 31 Information provided by Rita M. Sousa, calculated from the Archives of the Portuguese Mint. 29 30 13 indicate. Two months after the disaster, British consul Edward Hay reports that "the loss of our trade has sustained is very great, but I am very far from thinking it total 32 ". Namely, many of the ships and some storage buildings owned by foreigners in Lisbon were not destroyed by the disaster. According to Hay, the British losses were mostly in the cargoes and gold in the Customs House and some warehouses near the Tagus river, whereas the money lost was recovered by many of the merchants. Charles Boxer argues that the main financial losses sustained by the British merchants in Lisbon were the "unavoidable repudiation of their debts by many Lisbon shopkeepers, who were completely ruined by the earthquake. But this local trade was not the most profitable part of the British investment". The same idea is defended by Estorninho 33 . Even Hay contends that most of the debts could still be recovered, especially those pertaining to the merchants involved in the Brazilian trade. Obviously, unrecoverable debts should not be included in the final calculations of the earthquake aggregate losses, since, in this case, the British lost while the Portuguese gained. From the accounts by Boxer and Estorninho, it is likely that the losses sustained by the foreign community in Lisbon was about a third of what is reported in some of the historical accounts. Finally, the number of dwellings and convents lost outside Lisbon is also included in the estimated losses. Table 2 summarizes the new damages' estimates. The direct damage of the 1755 earthquake is estimated between 32 and 48 percent of Portuguese GDP, a considerable amount that reflects the opulence and the riches of eighteenth century Lisbon, giving credence to the idea that the losses of the disaster were very substantial, although not as catastrophic as many contemporary reports and existing estimates indicate 34 . Cited in Boxer "Some Contemporary". Boxer "Pombal's", p. 15. Estorninho "O Terramoto" 34 In Spain, Fernando VI ordered an inquiry into the effects of the earthquake (as Pombal did for Portugal). The surviving information from this inquiry pertains to 1273 towns, of which 1216 reported signs of seismic intensity values. Martínez Solares and López Arroyo ("The Great") estimate that the total Spanish losses from the earthquake and tsunami amounted to about 70 million realles de vellón or 536 million 2002 euros. They argue that the tsunami would have caused only about 5% of the total damage in Spain, and that this was equivalent to 20 percent of state expenditure in 1755. Unfortunately, the sketchy data from Morocco do not allow us to estimate the damage caused by the 1755 November 1 earthquake in that region. 32 33 14 Table 2 _ Losses from the Earthquake, Fire and Tsunami (in contos) Quantity Dwellings burned parish ruined parish Damaged Convents monks Burned+ruined Only Ruined Less ruined Convents nuns Ruined Less ruined Recolhimentos Burned Ruined Less ruined Churches destroyed Burned parish Other parish Damaged Interiors of Churches Hospitals Palaces Ruined + burned Terreiro do Paço Diamonds Crown Private Church Gold, Silver+Furniture Money Lost Losses by foreigners Outside Lisbon Dwellings 35 Convents Grand total Losses as % of GDP Estimated damage per unit 0.960 0.960 0.1-0.2 (22) 8 22 9 24 2 3 3 1 17 16 59 6 28 120 80 20 (21) 80 10 60 40 10 (92) 80 80 20 5,120 100 300 53 3,200 12,800 4,000 17,927 4,802 8,003 5,122 210,000 4,000 38,400 n.a. n.a. 229,520 115-153% 600 11,200 4,000 1,000-2,000 1,360 1,280 1,180 1,920 20 180 120 10 960 1,760 180 Hist. Accounts (Estorninho 1956) Historical accounts II (Pereira 1953) Historical accounts I (França 1983) 11.520 Total New estimates 11,173 3,71 500-1,000 11639 3865 ~ 5000 192,000 36000 5,000-7,000 5-10 0.640 50 n.a. n.a. 85,800 43-57% 41,600 n.a. n.a. 266,240 133-178% 10-15,000 1,000-2,000 12,800 3200-4480 250-500 63,693-72,193 32-48% Source: Pereira de Sousa "O Terremoto"; Matos et al. "Lisboa", Conceição "Noticia"; Pereira "O terramoto" 2.3. Prices One of the most important short-term impacts of the 1755 earthquake concerned the dramatic changes in absolute and relative prices, both at the national and regional level. In general, the changes in prices were only transitory, but substantial volatility remained for some time. This is especially true for some of the main staples, like wheat, in the most affected regions, such as Lisbon and the Algarve. Table 3 summarizes the main effects of these price changes at the city or town level. In the first year after the earthquake, price controls imposed 35 Since wages in Coimbra are about two-thirds to those in Lisbon, it is assumed that property values have the same differential between Lisbon and the rest of Portugal. 15 by the government seem to have had an effect, at least in the most affected areas from the earthquake. In fact, in Lisbon, prices of wheat and barley decreased, probably due to the price controls, which were most effective in the perimeter around the city. In contrast, in important cities and towns such as Porto, Coimbra and Aveiro, wheat prices increased by more than 20 percent, whereas in more remote areas like Bragança and Évora wheat prices declined. In general, the prices of other cereals declined between 1755 and 1756. In contrast, in the second year after the earthquake, the price ceilings were no longer effective, and cereal prices increased substantially in most markets. Table 3 _ Annual Price Changes by city, 1755-1758 (%) 1757-1758 City 1755-1756 1756-1757 Lisbon Aveiro Wheat 36 - 20 + 83 - 15.7 Wheat + 26.7 0 + 18.4 Barley - 30 + 171.4 - 36.8 Bragança Millet n.a. + 89.1 + 5.1 Wheat - 20 + 50 - 33.3 Olive oil -8 + 7.4 -2.6 Barley - 33.3 + 50 - 33.3 Rice + 25 - 4.8 + 15.3 Rye - 36 + 75 + 50 Porto Wine 0 - 40 0 Wheat + 22.2 + 9.1 + 8.3 Coimbra Corn -16.1 + 15.4 + 26.7 Wheat + 20 + 25 0 Rye -13.3 + 46.2 + 5.3 Corn + 26.3 + 33.3 - 15.6 Olive oil - 3.6 - 7.4 -8 Rye + 33.3 - 18.8 + 15.4 Green Wine + 50 - 20 0 Beans + 46.7 - 15.9 - 24.3 Poultry - 16.7 0 + 20 Olive oil + 3.8 - 15.7 - 14.3 Mutton 0 0 0 Wine + 116.7 - 53.8 - 20 Butter 0 0 0 Évora Oak wood 37 0 0 + 63.3 Wheat -19.4 + 106.9 + 6.7 Linen - 25 0 0 Viseu Braga Wheat + 9.5 +21.7 + 3.6 Wheat + 35.4 -4.6 +3.2 Beans - 8.4 - 18.1 + 41.9 Corn 0 0 +15.4 Chickpeas - 5.6 + 7.9 + 21.5 Green Wine + 187 - 60 + 25 Chestnuts 56.6 -27.4 + 22.6 Calculated from: Amorim "Aveiro", Lopes "Pobreza", Godinho "Prix", Oliveira "A Beira", and Oliveira "Elementos" City 1755-1756 1756-1757 1757-1758 In Lisbon, this is particularly noticeable, since wheat prices rose by 83 percent, barley's by 171.4 percent and the price of millet increased by 89 percent. In all other regions, wheat prices rose substantially, as did the prices of other cereals. By the third year after the earthquake cereal prices started to decline with respect to their previous levels. In the following years, the amplitude of the price changes declined. The price of wood is the exception, 36 37 The prices of wheat in Lisbon remained volatile until the early 1760s. The price of oak wood was subsequently revised downward by 38.7% between 1758 and 1759. 16 increasing dramatically in the third year after the initial clean up of debris was completed in the center of Lisbon. Prices of construction materials also rose substantially after the disaster. The archives of the Lisbon Inquisition show that there was a dramatic increase in the price of wood and of whitewash. The average price of whitewash was between 1200 and 1300 reis per moio between 1740 and 1755. In contrast, in 1756 and 1757, the average price of whitewash was between 1900 and 2000 reis per moio, a 60 percent increase relative to its pre-earthquake level. Aware of the supply shortage of this building material, on the November 3, 1756 the Pombal government gave William Stephens a license of exploration of a whitewash factory, for which he was granted a privileged position in exchange of the promise to sell it at a reasonable price. Additional rulings on that factory followed on February 17, 1757, and on July 29, 1757, in which the government issued orders to buy any remaining whitewash and wood that could not find buyer. Boosted by the rise in supply, the price of whitewash fell, and by early 1758 it had returned to its pre-earthquake level of around 1250 reis per moio. Throughout the 1760s, the average price of whitewash oscillated between 1200 and 1500 reis per moio, with the highest level occurring in 1769. Finally, the earthquake also had a substantial effect on price volatility. In Lisbon, in the immediate years after the earthquake price volatility became greater than even in more inflationary periods such as the 1760s and the early 1800s (figure 1). Figure 1 _ Annual Price Changes in Lisbon, 1728-1800 (%) Source: Calculated from Godinho "Prix" 17 All in all, the earthquake had a substantial, albeit transitory, effect on prices, leading to an increase in their volatility during the immediate years after the disaster. 2.4. Wages The earthquake also had a significant, albeit temporary, effect on wages, increasing the wage premium to construction workers. In the early days after the disaster, several accounts report an acute shortage of stonemasons and, especially, carpenters. The letters of the Pope representative in Lisbon suggest that for several months there was a dire need for carpenters, and it was difficult to find someone willing or able to work even to build a hut for the royal family to live. Thus, wages rose sharply in the immediate days after the disaster. In Lisbon, in the decades prior to the earthquake carpenters' and masons' wages were nominally fixed at 300 reis per day, whereas masters earned a daily wage of 350 reis. After the earthquake, the supply of carpenters and masons shrunk, while there was a huge increase in demand for builders' services, since in the months following disaster more than 9,000 wooden huts were built around Lisbon. Not surprisingly there were reports that: "In the first days [after the tragedy] one could not find a mason or a carpenter but soon enough there were double the number than those that existed before, since all wanted to learn such a job, mainly that of carpenter, and even if he were paid at 400 and 500 reis per day they could not be found" (translated from a manuscript cited in Pereira de Sousa, "O terremoto", pp. 518-19) In spite of these anecdotal accounts, there is no consistent report on how wages behaved after the earthquake. Since we have no wage data for the period before 1766, new original data had to be obtained from the archives of several institutions. Although the earthquake destroyed a huge amount of records 38 , there are still many data sources available. For Lisbon, construction data were obtained from both the archives of the Royal Household (Casa Real) and the Lisbon Inquisition. After 1766, the archival data are combined with the existing data from the Misericórdia de Lisboa gathered by Nuno Madureira 39 . All series were 38 39 Due to the destruction, many series start only in 1755 or 1756. Madureira Mercados e Privilégios 18 consistent with each other, and were combined to create a series of nominal wages for construction workers (Figure 2). Fig. 2_ Wages for Construction Workers in Lisbon, 1722-1800 (reis per day) Source: Arquivo da Casa Real and Arquivo da inquisição, Portuguese National Arquives: Builders expenses. Madureira ("Mercados") In Lisbon, we have strong evidence of the impact that the earthquake had on the daily wages of the workers associated with the reconstruction, especially builders and carpenters. In the archives of the Inquisition, there are hundreds of weekly records of reconstruction orders and work from November 15, 1755, onwards providing detailed information on the wages of the workers involved in the reconstruction. From those records, we can see that, initially, posted wages did not change, since carpenters and builders continued to earn 300 reis per day, whereas workers were paid 200 reis. In April 1756, the shortage of workers temporarily increased their wage to 240 reis a day, but by November their wages had returned to their initial level of 200 reis. In contrast, the wages of skilled workers did not increase initially, remaining at 300 reis for both carpenters and builders until the first weeks of June 1756. Master carpenters and stone masons were still paid 350 reis a day. However, by June of 1756, the records of the Lisbon Inquisition show that the wages of these skilled workers started to increase. In the second week of June carpenters were paid 330 reis, and from the third week onwards they were paid 350 reis. By August, wages keep rising and several carpenters and stonemasons were already paid 400 reis per day, which is more than what masters earned before the earthquake. Wages between 350 and 400 reis became the norm for skilled 19 construction workers until about the mid 1760s. In contrast, unskilled workers saw their wages remain at 200 reis per day. Similar figures also appear in several construction works in the properties of the Royal Household. Carpenters and stonemasons earned 300 reis until around June/July 1756, and from then onwards they started to earn 350 and 400 reis. Therefore, even in the royal household the wage controls on construction workers were not enough to stop the rise in wages. However, the Royal Household tried to disguise this rise in nominal wages until at least November 1756. Wages remained at 300 reis, but were supplemented by granting exceptional bonus to construction workers, such as siestas (an additional 100 reis) and money for lunch (50 reis). By the end of the year, these supplements were fully incorporated in the construction workers' wages. Again, wages remained at this higher level until about mid 1760s, after which they went back to their pre-earthquake level. In addition, real wages were also calculated by adjusting nominal wages with an aggregate price index from Nuno Valério 40 . Real wages for skilled builders also had a temporary improvement in the years following the disaster, but declined afterwards (figure 3). Fig. 3_ Real Wages for Construction Workers in Lisbon, 1722-1800 Source: Figure 1 for wages, Valério ("Portuguese") for prices There are several reports that indicate that the shortage of builders was felt for some time in the capital. In 1759, the Chief Cardinal in Lisbon penned himself a religious decree 40 Valério "Portuguese" 20 (pastoral), in which carpenters and masons were mandated to abstain themselves from work on Sundays and Holy Days. In turn, the premium on skilled workers in the medium term led to a rise in the number of carpenters and masons. The number of carpenters remained above average until the reconstruction work was done in the early decades of the 19th century 41 . Outside Lisbon, this temporary increase in wages does not seem to have been replicated in regions less affected by the earthquake. In Coimbra, 200 km north of Lisbon, wages for regular construction workers remained almost unaltered. Archival work from the University of Coimbra and the Misericórdia of Coimbra (an institution of welfare support) shows that there was only a small increase in nominal wages for master carpenters in 1756 and 1757. The wages of regular carpenters and stonemasons were unaffected. By 1758, wages were back to their previous levels (figure 4). Fig. 4_ Construction Workers' Wages in Coimbra, 1687-1782 (in reis) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 16 91 16 96 17 01 17 06 17 11 17 16 17 21 17 26 17 31 17 36 17 41 17 46 17 51 17 56 17 61 17 66 17 71 17 76 17 81 carpenter worker master Finally, we should mention that one of the economic consequences of the earthquake was to temporally disrupt the nominal rigidity of nominal wages, at least in the most affected regions, such as Lisbon. Before 1755 there was a high degree of nominal wage rigidity, since wages for carpenters and stonemasons remained at 300 reis per day from 1722 to 1755, whereas masters earned between 350 and 400 reis. Thus, in the most affected regions, the earthquake temporally disrupted the secular rigidity of nominal wages. 41 21 3. Indirect Effects and Long-Term Impact Although economic theory tends to characterize natural disasters as mere exogenous shocks that temporarily disrupt an economy, recent studies have shown that natural hazards can have long-term effects on economic performance. For instance, Skidmore and Toya (2002) use a sample of 89 countries for the 1960-90 period and find that impact of natural hazards on economic growth varies by type of disaster. They argue that climate-related disasters tend to have a positive effect on growth, whereas geologic disasters have either a negative or insignificant impact. In turn, Odell and Weidenmier (2004) argue that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake had a substantial impact on financial markets, contributing to permanent changes in the institutional structure of the United States. In similar fashion, the 1755 Lisbon earthquake also had a considerable long-term impact, which significantly affected the long-run performance of the Portuguese economy. It is more or less consensual that the earthquake had a long-lasting effect politically, due to the rise of influence and power of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, better known as the Marquis of Pombal, who became the dominating figure in Portuguese politics until the death of the king, D. José I, in 1777. The mythology surrounding Pombal portrays him as an enlightened dictator that rescued Portugal from the asphyxiating influence of the triad of the Church (including the Inquisition), a rent-seeking nobility, and the economic dependency from Britain. In reality, Pombal is controversial figure, who defies any kind of simplistic characterization 42 . The earthquake was the defining moment in Pombal's political life, during which he was able to show his organizing and leading abilities. It is very likely that without the prestige and political capital gathered during the recovery and relief efforts, Pombal would have not had the political support necessary for many of the reforms he undertook during the 27 years of his reign. Although he showed unequivocal vision in the aftermath of the tragedy and was instrumental for many economic and social reforms, Pombal was a fearful dictator responsible for the torture and killing of many of his political opponents, and who also profited immensely from several shady deals involving the State as well as with the reconstruction of Lisbon. 42 22 Namely, without the reputation and status obtained in the disaster, it would have been virtually impossible for him persecute to the Jesuits and to reduce the shadowing influence of the Church. In the same way, Pombal's centralization of the State would have faced a lot more opposition, and his nationalistic commercial and industrial import-substituting policies would have been virtually impossible. Under the strong hand of Pombal, the state was reorganized into an active and reformist administration, which tried to centralize economic operations in order to improve the control of the State in the economy. In order to understand the prestige and power gathered by Pombal, we need to analyze the prompt response in the aftermath of the 1755 disaster. This section reviews the main impact of the earthquake on the policy-making process in Portugal as well as its long-term legacy. 3.1 The Immediate Response and Reconstruction An unprecedented disaster in Western Europe demanded an unparalleled response. The latter included several vigorous and strict measures not only to maintain public order and to avoid the looting of many of the public treasures and private goods, but also to avoid plague, disease and starvation. The most impressive feature of the response to the disaster was the speed and the degree of centralization that was attained 43 . From the outset of the relief effort, Pombal assumed a prominent position in the immediate response to the disaster. Of the three secretaries of state in the government, Carvalho e Melo (later better known as Pombal) was the only able or willing to face the dimension of the tragedy. Seizing the opportunity provided by the earthquake, Pombal coordinated and organized the relief effort from his carriage traveling around the devastated capital. 44 The main features of the recovery and relief efforts were summarized and celebrated in a luxurious book published in 1758 by Amador Patricio de Cardoso ("Pombal") analyzes in more detail the response of the authorities to the disaster. As Boxer ("Pombal's Dictatorship", p. 732) puts it: "For several days he lived in his carriage, scribbling proclamations and orders, despatching and receiving courtiers, reassuring the populace, and exhorting them to the work of rescue. During twenty-four hours on end he took no nourishment except a bowl of broth which was brought to him by his wife, who picked her way to his carriage through the debris in the streets". 43 44 23 Lisboa, which was clearly sponsored by the government 45 . The most important immediate policy measures include: i) Prevent pestilence (emphasizing the urgency to dispose of the corpses), ii) Avoid hunger and starvation (policies that included the elimination of duties on foodstuffs, the distribution of food to the homeless and the destitute, and price controls), iii) to cure the ill and injured (e.g. establishment of temporary hospitals), iv) repopulation of the city, v) prevent stealing and punish robbers, vi) to avoid stolen goods to leave by the sea or river, vii) to remedy the needs of the Algarve region and Setúbal, viii) bring troops to the capital to help the recovery effort and reconstruction, ix) to reestablish public goods in order to help inhabitants of the city (water sanitary measures, removal of debris, and rent controls for homes, shops and storage buildings, x) to reestablish religious cult in the remaining churches, xi) to collect and reunite homeless nuns in Lisbon, and the Algarve, xii) religious acts to diminish the Wrath of God and to thank God many graces, xiii) to relieve the people from several necessities, xiv) to arrange the means to rebuild the city (orders to measure and assess all streets, buildings, houses, and public buildings in the ruined parishes, including demotion, grade assessment, and leveling of several parts of the city center. The alignment of the new streets was proclaimed on June 12 and July 12, 1758 and the reconstruction plan was approved on June 16, 1758). In Lisbon, the reconstruction efforts focused mainly in the city center. Before 1755, Lisbon resembled a medieval town with small and disorganized streets 46 . Since the city centre was almost completely destroyed by the earthquake, Pombal and several military architects regarded this as an opportunity to redesign the city and to transform it into a modern metropolis, which was also less prone to earthquake damage. All temporary rebuilding was forbidden until all the debris was cleared from the land and until the plans for rebuilding were finished. In addition, to increase the speed of the reconstruction, pre-fabrication was promoted, and there were incentives to standardize the quality of work materials and the 45 46 Cardoso "Pombal" França Lisboa. 24 façades of buildings 47 . A new construction technique (the gaiola) was introduced to increase the elasticity of houses, and the new streets were made in straight lines, being wide enough to reduce potential earthquake damage. Benefiting from a wide variety of funds from both the private sector and public institutions 48 , reconstruction in the city centre was relatively swift, starting at the end of the 1750s and ending in the 1780s 49 . However, in other parts of the city and in the less populous parishes rebuilding was often painfully slow. There were about 340 decrees, proclamations, regulations and laws (decretos, alvarás, portarias and editais) concerning reconstruction work from 1755 to 1838 50 . In spite of the death casualties and the initial exodus from the city, the repopulation of Lisbon occurred more or less swiftly and by 1780, the number of dwellings in the same territory of the old 38 Lisbon parishes had surpassed that of 1755. The recovery was faster in the less ruined parishes, and slower in the ruined and burned parishes. Reconstruction was considerably slower outside Lisbon. In Setúbal, ravaged by the tsunami and also devastated by a fire that followed the earthquake, the city center was also rebuilt relatively fast, but many building in some neighborhoods were still to be recovered by the mid-nineteenth century. In Faro, the capital of the Algarve region and one of the most affected, many buildings destroyed in 1755 were still in ruins in the first decades of the twentieth century 51 . Therefore, in spite of a prompt and decisive immediate response in the most populous parts of Lisbon, the reconstruction rates differed widely according to the regions affected and their own economic importance for the Portuguese economy. 3.2. The Long-Term Impact on Economic Policy Although the earthquake had a substantial, albeit short-lived, influence on the main macroeconomic variables, the long-lasting legacy of the earthquake was a deterioration of the Maxwell Pombal, p. 24 Financing was also done by Pombal himself, who was later accused of abusing his position to benefit from the reconstruction of the city. 49 Madureira Cidade. 50 Gomes de Brito cited in Madureira "Cidade", p. 25 51 Diniz "Arquitectura" 47 48 25 public finances and of the external trade balance, providing both a stimulus and an excuse for an agenda of economic reforms and institutional change introduced by the Pombal-led reformist group that seized power after the disaster. As argued before, the prestige gained from the response to the earthquake gave Pombal an unprecedented political capital in the Portuguese court, which he used in order to implement a series of policies designed not only to enhance the centralization of the (absolutist) state, but also to reduce the dependency vis-à-vis Portugal's main trading partner, Britain. In many ways, the earthquake was not directly responsible for these developments. After all, many of Pombal's policies and reforms had already been pondered when he had been an ambassador to Britain in the 1740s 52 . However, until the earthquake, Pombal did not have the power to implement these reforms 53 . It is impossible to know whether Pombal would have gone ahead with these reforms if the earthquake had never occurred. Nevertheless, during his first five years in office (from 1750 to 1755) his only major policy was the establishment of the big monopolistic companies for the colonial trade 54 . Thus, the 1755 earthquake was at least indirectly responsible for a change of course in the direction of economic policy. The relief and recovery efforts also showed the need for a centralization of operations, so that the performance of the State could be improved. 3.2.1. Public Finances and International Trade In terms of public finances, the tremendous losses caused by the earthquake and the large reconstruction effort (of buildings, roads, infrastructures, and so forth) contributed to a turnaround in the financial situation of the State. To make things worse, after decades in which the seemingly unending supplies of Brazilian gold fuelled public expenditures and the construction of sumptuous monuments and churches, in the 1760s the gold remittances started Cardoso "Política Económica" Many of these reforms had been advocated in the early 1700s by D. Luís da Cunha, the political mentor of Pombal. Mercantilist policies had also been tried, timidly, in the late seventeenth century with relative success. 54 Macedo A Situação Económica 52 53 26 to plunge, adding strain on the public finances. According to Álvaro F. Silva 55 , the sources of the financial crisis were mostly related to the reduction in the colonial revenues (especially gold and tobacco), external threats (most notably the Seven Years War), and the 1755 earthquake. The earthquake greatly aggravated the financial situation, and both the reports of the Papal Nuncio in Lisbon 56 as well as those of other contemporaries suggest that the public finances were in dire straights in the years following the disaster. Although we do not have detailed accounts of the state of the public finances in Portugal before 1762, the finances of the Royal Household can be used as indirect proxies for this period. Figure 5 presents the Royal Household's expenditures and revenues obtained from archival work for the 1742-1757 period. Fig. 5_ Total Expenditures and Revenues of the Royal Household (thousand reis) 50000 45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 1742 1744 1746 1748 Revenues 1750 1752 1754 1756 Expenditures Source: Arquivo da Casa Real, Portuguese National Archives, livros 1383-1386 Figure 5 suggests that, in the immediate years after the earthquake, crown revenues declined substantially, causing the Royal Household to cut down expenditures. The public finances got to such a deplorable state that in 1762, the Portuguese government had to ask for a substantial loan from Britain in order to face a military threat from Spain. The loan was denied 57 . In 1762, the first year that we have reliable figures for the period, Fernando Tomás estimates that governmental revenues and expenditures were clearly below average, increasing in the ensuing years due to the military threat from Spain during the Seven Years Silva "Finanças Públicas" Pinto Cardoso O Terrível Terramoto 57 Rocha and Sousa "Moeda e Crédito" 55 56 27 War and the improvement in revenue collection enabled by the creation of the Royal Treasury 58 (see below). The burden of the reconstruction effort was shared by the State, the Church and by private individuals. Shortly after the earthquake, the merchants offered a donation of 4% of all their transactions to the reconstruction of the capital, and Pombal ordered the newly formed Junta do Comércio (an association of businessmen which aimed to supervise all commercial and industrial activities) to take charge of the operations concerning the collection and disposal of the funds raised. Between 1762 and 1776, the revenues of the 4% donation totaled around 5,000 contos. For the same period, additional colonial donations to the reconstruction of the capital (mostly from Rio de Janeiro) added up to 2,720 contos 59 . The Junta do Comércio had vast powers to inspect all commercial activity in Portugal, and all the merchants (national or foreign) were subject to its supervision. In one of its first regulations, the Junta introduced an extraordinary 4% duty on all imports for the reconstruction of Lisbon. The British traders asked for their dispensation from the duty, in light of the 1654 Treaty between Britain and Portugal, which secretly established that British products would be subject to a 23% ad valorem duty 60 . Pombal denied the request, becoming the first strain in Anglo-Portuguese relations. 3.2.2. International Trade and the Decline of the British Trade The earthquake had also substantial short- and medium-term consequences for the Portuguese trade balance. In the short run, there was a substantial increase in the volume of imports both from Portugal's main trading partner (Britain) as well as from other countries (such as Sweden and Russia), and a considerable decline in exports (Figure 6). After 1755, Portugal's imports included not only aid-related items, but also commodities needed for the Tomás "As Finanças" Tomás, idem. 60 Estorninho "O Terramoto", p. 27 58 59 28 reconstruction, especially wood and iron. According to H. E. S. Fisher 61 , there was a clear change in the pattern of imports from Britain. Textiles imports declined sharply from an average of about £1 million in the 1750s to £709,000 in 1761-65 and about £460,000 in 1766-70. During this period, the only imports from Britain that increased in value were wrought iron wares. In turn, the sharp increase in imports (needed for both the reconstruction effort and to maintain the supply of essential goods) led to a very substantial increase in the Portuguese trade deficit, enhancing the gold outflow from the country to its main trading partners, especially Britain, which absorbed more than 80 per cent of the total gold outflows 62 . Figure 6_ Trade between Portugal and Britain 1699-1780 (`000 £) Source: Fisher ("The Portugal Trade") Between 1740 and 1755, Portugal exported an annual average of 3,260 contos (equivalent to £906,000) of gold (figure 8b). In the five years after the earthquake, gold exports increased to an average of about 5,000 contos (£1.4 million), with a peak in 1756 and 1757 in which gold exports exceeded 6,300 contos or £1.75 million 63 . Since Portugal was at the time mostly a gold economy 64 , the rise in the exports of bullion led to a considerable decline in the money supply (Figure 7a). Even so, as we saw in section 2, the prices of the main commodities increased in the immediate years after the disaster. These large exports of bullion were also Fisher "Anglo-Portuguese Trade" Sousa Moeda 63 Sousa Moeda 64 Gold accounted for about 90% of the total money supply at the time. 61 62 29 supplemented by a flourishing illegal contraband of gold out of the country 65 . In order to sustain the reconstruction effort and to reduce the rate of the gold outflow, the government was forced to redirect its imports, from Britain to countries that exported wood and iron, such as Sweden and Russia. This is confirmed by a prominent British merchant, who among other factors, attributed the decline in trade with Portugal to "the very considerable sums... annually paid since the Earthquake to Russia, Denmark, Sweden & Holland for Timber & Iron to rebuild the City [which] had a great Effect upon the sale of our Goods by drawing off ... Money 66 ". Although bilateral trade statistics are not complete for the period, this increase in imports from other countries is confirmed by Preceptor Hildebrand 67 , who showed that not only Portugal was the second largest importer of iron from Sweden, but also that these imports increased steadily during the 1755-1785 period, rising from an average 2400 tons per annum in the late 1750s to about 5,250 tons per year in the mid 1780s. Although after 1785, bar iron imports declined somewhat, they remained large until the start of the Napoleonic wars. Fig. 7a _ Total Gold Supply (in contos) Fig. 7b _ Exports of Gold (in contos) 68 Source: Sousa ("Moeda") and Fisher ("Anglo") 65 Lynn Sunderland ("A London Merchant") argues that, after 1755, besides the unprecedented gold outflows to Britain, there was a substantial smuggling of bullion. Thus, many of the British merchants that sustained losses with the earthquake changed the nature of their trade from, say, woolen imports to Portugal to bullion exports to Britain, which allowed for a substantial increase in their profit margins. 66 Cited in Fisher The Portugal Trade, p. 48. 67 Hilderbrand "Foreign Markets". 68 The figures of Sousa were corrected for the period 1761-1770, according to the information on the imports of Brazilian gold available in Fisher ("Anglo-Portuguese). 30 In sum, the relief and reconstruction efforts induced a massive increase of the trade balance deficit, a sharp increase in the gold outflows, and a marked change in the pattern of imports. 3.2. The Opportunity to Reform The greater fiscal restraint and the burgeoning trade deficit led to an unsustainable economic situation for the government, providing Pombal with the perfect excuse to implement a mercantilist policy that promoted the import substitution of manufactured products and statesponsored industrial development 69 . The main objective of this mercantilist policy was to reduce the dependency on foreign manufactured goods, which was the main cause of the massive gold exports to Portugal's main trading partners. More specifically, the main aim of Pombal's policy was to reduce Portugal's overwhelming economic dependency from Britain, by transferring some of the sectors of the Portuguese economy to the control of its own nationals 70 . Although a nationalist at heart, Pombal did not want to completely antagonize Britain, since he was well aware that Portugal's independence from Spain was greatly dependent from the old trade and military alliance with Britain. Nevertheless, by imposing a 4% duty on all imports (including the British) to the reconstruction of Lisbon, by granting monopoly rights to Portuguese nationals in the Brazilian trade, and by protecting national industries from foreign competition, the trade with Britain was severely affected, declining more than 40% in the 1760s and even further in the decades following the earthquake. The British merchants blamed the mercantilist policies pursued by the Portuguese government for their difficulties 71 . However, Pombal's typical justification for these polices was that the earthquake had ruined the According to Jorge Pedreira ("A Indústria", p. 197): "The arrival to power of ... Pombal... and the afflictions caused by the earthquake of 1755, by the fall in the inflows of Brazilian gold and by the general difficulties of the colonial commerce, combined to make approve a set of measures that aimed for a reinforcement of the State, the increase of revenues and the reduction of the unbalances of the trade balance" 70 Maxwell Pombal. 71 Fisher The Portugal Trade, Maxwell Pombal. 69 31 State and the economy, and hence they were strictly necessary for the economic survival of Portugal. Consequently, notwithstanding the British protests, the policies remained in place. In terms of import substitution, although the main package of policies of industrial promotion was implemented after 1770, when the financial crisis became more acute, the first measures directed to the industrial sector appeared already in 1757 with the reform of the State-sponsored Lisbon silk factory. In the following 20 years, until the death of the king and Pombal's subsequent dismissal from his post, the government sponsored industrial development by investing directly with its own funds or by using new and existing taxes. For instance, the 4% donation from merchants to the reconstruction of Lisbon and the similar 4% duties imposed on imports were both used by Pombal in his policy of industrial development. In addition, the government also granted several monopoly privileges to industrialists carefully picked by the overseeing hand of the Junta do Comércio, in order to promote its importsubstitution policies. From 1755 until 1769, 15 new industries or "factories" were established (including sugar refining, ceramics, paper, textiles, cotton, and linen), and 56 others were introduced from 1770 to 1777. After Pombal left government in 1777, the policy was maintained for a while, and 238 new factories were established from 1778 until 1788. 72 The second set of reforms implemented by the Pombal government focused on the reorganization the State. Before 1755, the revenues of the central government were collected by a plethora of organisms and institutions, including the Conselho da Fazenda (responsible for the Crown revenues), the Conselho Ultramarino (collector of the tax revenues from the colonies), the Junta do Tabaco (which controlled the tobacco revenues), as well as several political and economic courts, mostly attached to the military orders 73 . These institutions had additional layers of bureaucrats, which included provadores and contadores (monitors and tax inspectors), corregedores (in charge of important taxes like sisas and other local government's 72 73 Pedreira "A Indústria", p. 201 Subtil "Instituições". 32 functions), almotacés (responsible for all matters related to foodstuff), customs officials (who dealt with the internal and external trade), and many other central and local government officials. This multiplication of institutions and individuals bred inefficiency in revenue collection, fomented the waste of resources, and did not allow the Crown to have an accurate picture of all its own revenues and expenditures 74 . The earthquake not only struck a lethal blow to this chaotic situation, but also (together with the fire) was also directly responsible for the total destruction of the main arm of the Treasury, the Casa dos Contos, leaving its services in a truly anarchic state. The loss of the Casa dos Contos and the financial difficulties were contributing factors to the biggest reorganization of the State finances in the modern era 75 . Following similar trends in Europe, the movement towards the centralization of the central government was announced in a law (alvará) dated from November 13, 1756, which stated that "Common Good should precede everything else", and thus established the principle of the primacy of the State vis-à-vis the rest of the society. On December 16 the statutes of the Junta do Comércio were approved, an institution constituted by merchants who worked together with the government in setting up economic policies for the commercial and industrial sectors. In December 1761, a new law created the Royal Treasury (Erário Régio), the institution around which all royal financial services were centralized. The Royal Treasury was under the direct supervision of Pombal himself, who also became its first inspector general. According to Kenneth Maxwell 76 , the creation of a centralized Treasury was likely inspired in the British model and became "the key element in Pombal's overall effort of rationalization and centralization", in which the jurisdiction of all fiscal matters were centralized and all Crown's income was concentrated and recorded. The centralization of the operations not only Subtil, idem, p. 273. Tomás "As Finanças", Subtil "Instituições". 76 Maxwell Pombal, p. 90. 74 75 33 dramatically improved efficiency, but also allowed for the introduction of new taxes, including the décima in 1762, which became one of the most "modern" taxes in Europe 77 . In short, earthquake-related financial difficulties, the large trade imbalances, and the rise to power to the Pombal-led reformist group, all contributed to the sweeping institutional changes that enabled a revitalization of the Portuguese economy in the second half of eighteenth century. Even so, and although the post-1755 reforms were unequivocally instrumental to improve the performance of the Portuguese economy and were important to promote an indigenous path of development, they were not enough to break the traditional structures of the ancién régime 78 . The final blow to these structures only occurred after the French invasions and, most notably, after the 1820 Liberal revolution. 4. Concluding Remarks By combining new archival and existing data, this paper is the first thorough study of the economic impact of the 1755 earthquake. This paper presents new estimates for death casualties and damages of the Lisbon 1755 earthquake. The direct cost of the 1755 earthquake is estimated to be between 32 and 48 percent of the Portuguese GDP. Prices and wages rose after 1756 and remained fairly volatile in the years afterwards, and the reconstruction effort led to a rise in the wage premium of skilled construction workers. The earthquake was also crucial for the implementation of a mercantilist policy aimed at improving the trade deficit and the public finances. All in all, the findings of this paper suggest that the earthquake had a greater impact on the Portuguese economy than the existing literature indicates 79 . In spite of a terrible casualty toll and significant wealth losses, in the long run the 1755 earthquake was beneficial to the Portuguese economy. The disaster was an exogenous Silva "As Finanças". Castro "A Política". 79 The earthquake also struck with tremendous force one of the most stable and enduring institutions of eighteenth century Portugal, the Church and the Inquisition. The heavy losses and Pombal's policy of secularization of the society were other enduring consequences of the 1755 earthquake. Future research will be devoted to this theme. 77 78 34 shock, which provided an opportunity to reform the economy. The long-term economic performance benefited accordingly, and the situation of economic semi-dependency vis-à-vis Britain was reduced. 35 References Amorim, Inês (1996) Aveiro e a sua provedoria no Séc. XVIII (1690-1814), Porto. Andrade, Ferreira de (1964) A Vila de Cascais e o Terremoto de 1755, C. M. Cascais. Baptista, M.A., S. Heitor, J.M. Miranda and L. Mendes Victor (1998) "The 1755 Lisbon Tsunami: Evaluation of the Tsunami Parameters", J. Geodynamics, 25(2): 143-157. Boxer, Charles R. (1956) "Some Contemporary Reactions to the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755", Separata da Revista da Faculdade de Letras, 2.ª série, no. 2. Boxer, Charles R. (1955) "Pombal's Dictatorship and the Great Lisbon Earthquake, 1755", History Today, 5(11): 729-736. Cardoso, José Luís (2005a) "Pombal, o Terramoto e a Política de Regulação Económica", Technical University of Lisbon, mimeo. Cardoso, José Luís (2005b) "Política Económica", in História Económica de Portugal 1700-2000, vol. I, edited by Pedro Lains and Álvaro F. Silva, Lisbon; Instituto Ciências Sociais. Castro, Armando de (1982) "A Política Económica do Marquês de Pombal e a Sociedade Portuguesa do séc. XVIII", Revista de História das Ideias, IV: 41-49. Chester, David K. (2001) "The 1755 Lisbon Earthquake", Progress in Phys. Geog., 25(3): 363-83. Diniz, Marcos Blanch (1981) Arquitectura Civil em Faro Após o Terramoto de 1755, Faro. Dynes, Russell R. (2000) "The Lisbon Earthquake in 1755: Contested Meanings in the First Modern Disaster", TsuInfo Alert 2(4): 10-18. Estorninho, Carlos (1956) "O Terramoto de 1755 e a sua Repercussão nas Relações LusoBritânicas", Separata da Revista da Faculdade de Letras, XXIII: 5-40. Fisher, H. E. S. (1970) The Portugal Trade, London: Methuen & Co. Fisher, H. E. S.(1963) "Anglo-Portuguese Trade, 1700-1770", Economic History Review, 16(2): 219-233. França, José-Augusto (1983) Lisboa Pombalina e o Iluminismo, Lisboa: Bertrand. Godinho, Vitorino Magalhães (1955) Prix et Monnaies au Portugal 1750-1850, Paris . Hildebrand, Preceptor K.-G. (1958) "Foreign Markets for Swedish Iron in the 18th Century", Scandinavian Economic History Review, 6: 3-52 . Johnston, A. C. (1996) "Seismic Moment Assessment of Earthquakes in Stable Continental Regions", Geophys. J. Int., 126: 314-44. Kendrick, T. D. (1956) The Lisbon Earthquake, London: Methuen & Co. Lopes, Maria A. Figueiredo (2000) Pobreza, assistência e controlo social em Coimbra, Viseu. Macedo, Jorge Borges de (1982[1956]) A Situação Económica no Tempo de Pombal, Lisboa. Madureira, Nuno Luís (1997) Mercados e Privilégios, Lisbon: Editorial Estampa. 36 Madureira, Nuno Luís (1992) Cidade: Espaço e Quotidiano, Lisbon: Livros Horizonte. Matos, A and F. Portugal (1974) Lisboa em 1758: Memórias Paroquiais de Lisboa, Coimbra Editora Martínez Solares, J. M. And A. López Arroyo (2004) "The Great Historical 1755 Earthquake: Effects and Damage in Spain", Journal of Seismology, 8: 275-294. Maxwell, Kenneth (1995) Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment, Cambridge University Press. Odell, Kerry A. and Marc D. Weidenmier (2004) "Real Shock, Monetary Aftershock: The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and the Panic of 1907", THIS JOURNAL, 64(4): 1002-1027. Oliveira, Aurélio de (1971) "Elementos para a História dos Preços na Região Bracarense (16801830)", Bracara Augusta 25/26: 125-141. Oliveira, João Nunes de (1999) A "Beira Alta" de 1700 a 1840, Viseu: Palimage Ed. Pedreira, Jorge (2005) "A indústria", in História Económica de Portugal 1700-2000, vol. I, edited by P. Lains and A. F. Silva, Lisbon; Instituto de Ciências Sociais. Pereira, Ângelo (1953) "O Terramoto de 1755: Narrativa de uma Testemunha Ocular", Lisbon Pinto Cardoso, Arnaldo (2005) O Terrível Terramoto da Cidade de Lisboa: Correspondência do Núncio Filippo Acciaiuoli, Lisbon: Aletheia Editores. Rocha, Maria M. and Rita M. Sousa (2005) "Moeda e Crédito", in História Económica de Portugal 1700-2000, vol. I, edited by P. Lains and A. F. Silva, Instituto Ciências Sociais. Skidmore, Mark & Hideki Toya (2002) "Do Natural Disasters Promote Long-Run Growth?,", Economic Inquiry, vol. 40(4): 664-687. Silva, Álvaro Ferreira da (2005) "Finanças Públicas", in História Económica de Portugal 1700-2000, vol. I, edited by Pedro Lains and Álvaro F. Silva, Lisbon; Instituto Ciências Sociais. Sousa, F. Pereira de (1931) O Terremoto de 1º de Novembro de 1755, Lisboa, 4 volumes Sousa, Rita Martins de (1999) Moeda e Metais Preciosos no Portugal Setecentista, 1688-1797, PhD dissertation, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa Subtil, José (2005) "Instituições e Quadro Legal", in História Económica de Portugal 1700-2000, vol. I, edited by P. Lains and Álvaro F. da Silva, Lisbon; Instituto Ciências Sociais Sutherland, Lucy S. (1962) A London Merchant, 1695-1774, Oxford University Press Tomás, Fernando (1988) "As Finanças do Estado pombalino, 1762-1776", in Estudos e Ensaios em Homenagem a Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, Lisboa Valério, Nuno (2002) "Portuguese economic performance 1250-2000", 13th International Congress of Economic History, Buenos Aires Vandelli, Domingos (1796) "Modo de evitar a ruína do reino ameaçado pelos ingleses com os contrabandos, e pelos franceses com as suas excessivas pretensões", in Aritmética Política, Economia e Financas, edited by José Vicente Serrão, 1994 37	i don't know
The British archaeologist Arthur Evans was responsible for the excavation of which ancient Minoan palace-city?	Athena Review, 3,3: Minoan Crete: Sir Arthur Evans and the Excavation of the Palace at Knossos Athena Review, Vol.3, no.3: Minoan Crete Sir Arthur Evans and the Excavation of the Palace at Knossos Before work began in Crete by the British archaeologist Evans at Knossos (1900), and his American contemporary Harriet Boyd at Gournia (1901-1904; see Box 1), knowledge of the Bronze Age Minoan culture was only faintly reflected in a few Classical Greek myths. By the time this pioneering work was finished several decades later, the Minoan periods on Crete had been defined well enough to identify them as a major civilization from ca. 1900-1300 BC. Evans was born in 1851 in Nash Mills, Hertfordshire, England. Studying history at the Universities of Oxford and Göttingen, Evans later became Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. During this period (1884-1908), he became interested in seals (tiny carved stones) as sources of inscriptions from ancient, pre-Classical Mediterranean civilizations. [Fig.1: Arthur Evans holding Minoan vase.] Evans was particularly drawn to Crete as one such source of seals containing undeciphered early inscriptions. The ancient town site of Kafala (Knossos) on the northern coast of Crete, next to the capital city of Herakleion, was well-known to local inhabitants, who plowed up ancient objects, including pottery, coins, and seals, as they cultivated their fields. Knossos had been occupied up through the Roman period, and during the Classical and Hellenistic eras (500-200 BC) had issued its own coinage, which interestingly showed pictures of labyrinths, Minotaurs, and Ariadne, the stuff of later interpretations (fig.2). First to excavate at Knossos was an Herakleion merchant and antiquarian, aptly named Minos Kalokairinos, who in 1878 uncovered foundations of store rooms filled with large pithos jars. Documentation of Kalokairinos' work by William Stillman, US Consul in Crete at the time, identifies the finds as being from the west magazine of the palace. Stillman also (somewhat prophetically) provides a sketch of the "Labyrinth of Daedelus," a portion of the foundations also dug up by Kalokairinos, and later identified as the Throne Room (Shaw 1990). [fig.2: Classic-era silver coin from Knossos (425-330 BC). At left, the obverse shows a Minotaur, while the reverse at right shows the head of Ariadne, surrounded by a meander pattern representing the labyrinth (CNG; SG-3211).] Turkish landowners, however, soon stopped the Kalokairinos investigations. Shortly thereafter, the famed German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, excavator of Troy and Mycenae, attempted to purchase the "Kefala hill" - actually a "tell," or artificial, mound caused by long-term occupations at Knossos since the Neolithic (see Macdonald , this issue) - but refused to pay prices he considered exorbitant. Evans first visited Crete in 1894 to study and decipher two types of unknown scripts appearing on Cretan seals. A year later he published the results in the Ashmolean publication Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script (Evans 1895), therein identifying both the enigmatic Minoan hieroglyphs ("Pictographs"), and the syllabic or pre-alphabetic ("Prae-Phoenician") scripts, now called Linear A and B. Political fortunes then played a part in assisting Evans to excavate in Crete, after the island had won its independence from Turkey. In 1899, Evans used money from a family inheritance to buy the site at Kefala. Using a sizable local work force, Evans began large-scale, systematic excavations at Knossos in 1900, and by the end of 1903 had uncovered many of the foundations of the large, sprawling structures he designated as the Palace. Restorations and reconstructions of portions of the walls and foundations often used reinforced concrete (fig.3), with reconstructed timber frames and other wooden structures painted in a pink or buff color. Numerous examples of the now famous frescoes, discovered mainly as small fragments, were boldly restored. Evans is also responsible for restoring many of the now famous rooms within the palace, such as the Throne Room, with its pair of griffins in a fresco flanking a gypsum stone seat. These restoration methods have been often criticized for both over-interpretation of sometimes scanty remains, and for using materials foreign to Minoan architecture. [Fig.3: Reconstructed pillars and shield fresco at Knossos (photo: Athena Review). In his decisive (and highly controversial) site interpretations, Evans drew heavily from post-Bronze Age, ancient Greek mythology to postulate the site as the palace of the legendary King Minos. This conclusion is now much disputed (as suggested in several of the articles in this section), but early on gained solid footing among many archaeologists as well as in the popular imagination (cf. Cottrell 1962). In legends from sources varying from Herodotus to Hellenistic coins, Knossos was thought to be the palace site of Minos, king of the Cretan Minoans whose labyrinth contained the mythic Minotaur. Evans interpreted the complex layout of the palace at Knossos as "labyrinthine," and connected this with the double-axe symbol or labrys found engraved on columns at the palace. Thus, his identification of Knossos' civilization as Minoan made a compelling if (at times) somewhat strained metaphor, given the associated myths of King Minos, the labyrinth, and the Minotaur. Besides his pioneering work in excavating the main palace site, among Evans' most significant discoveries at Knossos was the recovery of about 3000 ancient Linear A and B writing tablets . Linear B eventually proved to be an early form of ancient Greek from a later, Mycenaean occupation of the site. Linear A, a script representing the language of the Minoans, still remains largely undeciphered. Evans continued his research until 1931, with an interruption for the First World War. He published his monumental work in four volumes entitled The Palace of Minos at Knossos (1921-1935). When Arthur Evans died in 1941, the British School of Archaeology took up further investigations at Knossos, continued to this day (see Macdonald , this issue). Despite many detractors, Evans stands as a major archaeologist whose creative imagination, motivation, and scholarship led him from an initial interest in inscriptions on tiny, carved seals to the discovery and documentation of Knossos, largest site of the Minoan civilization. [Note: This is article appears in the printed issue of Vol.3, no.3 of Athena Review (p.19). Copyright 2003, Athena Publications, Inc.]	Knossos
In which American city were 250,000 people left homeless after a major earthquake in 1906?	The Palace of Minos at Knossos in Ancient Crete Throne Room, Palace of Knossos, Crete, Greece. Ed Freeman / Getty Images Updated June 27, 2016. The Palace of Minos at Knossos is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world. Located on Kephala Hill on the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Greece, Knossos palace was the political, social and cultural center of the Minoan culture during the Early and Middle Bronze Age. Founded at least as early as 2400 BC, its power was greatly diminished, but not completely dissipated, by the eruption of Santorini about 1625 BC. What's perhaps more important, perhaps, is that the ruins of Knossos Palace are the cultural heart of the Greek myths Theseus fighting the Minotaur , Ariadne and her ball of string, Daedalus the architect and doomed Icarus of the wax wings ; all reported by Greek and Roman sources but almost certainly much older. continue reading below our video Test Your General Science Knowledge The earliest representation of Theseus fighting the minotaur is illustrated on an amphora from the Greek island of Tinos dated 670-660 BC Palaces of the Aegean Culture The Aegean culture known as Minoan is the Bronze Age civilization that flourished on the island of Crete during the second and third millennia BC. The city of Knossos was one of its main cities--and it contained its largest palace after the shattering earthquake that marks the beginning of the New Palace period in Greek archaeology, ca. 1700 BC . Palaces of the Minoan culture were likely not simply residences of a ruler, or even a ruler and his family, but rather held a public function, where others could enter and use (some of) the palace facilities where staged performances took place. The palace at Knossos, according to legend the palace of King Minos, was the largest of the Minoan palaces, and the longest-lived building of its type, remaining throughout the Middle and Late Bronze Ages as the focal point of the settlment. Knossos Chronology In the early 20th century, Knossos excavator Arthur Evans pegged the rise of Knossos to the Middle Minoan I period, or about 1900 BC; archaeological evidence since then has found the first public feature on Kephala Hill--a deliberately leveled rectangular plaza or court--was constructed as early as the Final Neolithic (ca 2400 BC, and the first building by Early Minoan I-IIA (ca 2200 BC). This chronology is based in part on that of John Younger's plain-jane Aegean chronology , which I highly recommend. Late Helladic (Final Palatial) 1470-1400, Greek take over of Crete Late Minoan/Late Helladic 1600-1470 BC Middle Minoan (Neo-Palatial) 1700-1600 BC (Linear A, eruption of Santorini, ca 1625 BC) Middle Minoan (Proto-Palatial) 1900-1700 BC (peripheral courts established, heyday of the Minoan culture) Early Minoan (Pre-Palatial), 2200-1900 BC, court complex started by EM I-IIA including the first Court building Final Neolithic or Pre-Palatial 2600-2200 BC (first central courtyard of what would become the palace at Knossos begun in FN IV) The stratigraphy is difficult to parse because there were several major episodes of earth-moving and terrace building, so much so that earth moving must be considered a nearly constant process that began on Kephala hill at least as early as EM IIA, and probably starts with the very end of the Neolithic FN IV. Knossos Palace Construction and History The palace complex at Knossos was begun in the PrePalatial period, perhaps as long ago as 2000 BC, and by 1900 BC, it was fairly close to its final form. That form is the same as other Minoan palaces such as Phaistos, Mallia and Zakros: a large single building with a central courtyard surrounding by a set of rooms for various purposes. The palace had perhaps as many as ten separate entrances: those on the north and west served as the main entry ways. Around 1600 BC, one theory goes, a tremendous earthquake shook the Aegean Sea, devastating Crete as well as the Mycenaean cities on the Greek mainland. Knossos' palace was destroyed; but the Minoan civilization rebuilt almost immediately on top of the ruins of the past, and indeed the culture reached its pinnacle only after the devastation. During the Neo-Palatial period [1700-1450 BC], the Palace of Minos covered nearly 22,000 square meters (~5.4 acres) and contained storage rooms, living quarters, religious areas, and banquet rooms. What appears today to be a jumble of rooms connected by narrow passageways may well have given rise to the myth of the Labyrinth; the structure itself was built of a complex of dressed masonry and clay-packed rubble, and then half-timbered. Columns were many and varied in the Minoan tradition, and the walls were vividly decorated with frescoes. Architectural Elements The palace at Knossos was renowned for its unique light emanating from its surfaces, the results of the liberal use of gypsum (selenite) from a local quarry as a building material and ornamental element. Evans' reconstruction used a grey cement, which made a huge difference to the way its seen. Restoration efforts are underway to remove the cement and restore the gypsum surface, but they have moved slowly, because removing the greyish cement mechanically is detrimental to the underlying gypsum. Laser removal has been attempted and may prove a reasonable answer. The main source of water at Knossos initially was at the spring of Mavrokolymbos, about 10 kilometers away from the palace and conveyed by way of a system of terracotta pipes. Six wells in the near vicinity of the palace served potable water beginning ca. 1900-1700 BC. A sewer system, which connected toilets flushed with rainwater to large (79x38 cm) drains, had secondary pipelines, lightwells and drains and in total exceeds 150 meters in length. It has also been suggested as the inspiration for the labyrinth myth. Prev	i don't know
What was the pen-name used by the short-story writer William Sydney Porter?	William Sydney Porter (1862 - 1910) - Genealogy William Sydney Porter "O. Henry", "Olivier Henry", "Oliver Henry", "William Porter" Birthdate: in New York, New York, New York, United States Cause of death: complications of cirrhosis of the liver Place of Burial: Asheville, Buncombe, North Carolina, United States Immediate Family: Added 2013-06-14 02:23:55 -0700 by Private User Collection: Sep 11 1862 - Greensboro, Guilford County, NC Death: June 5 1910 - New York, New York County, NY Parents: Algernon Porter, Mary Jane Virginia Porter (born Swain) Wife: Circa 1858 - Hereford Canon Pyon, Herefordshire Residence: Apr 2 1911 - Old Forge Pontrilas Hereford, Llancillo, Herefordshire, England Wife: Sep 11 1862 - Greensboro, Randolph, North Carolina, United States Death: Apr 2 1911 - Wansfield Margaretting, Essex, England Wife: Circa 1865 - Brierley Hill, Staffordshire Residence: Apr 2 1911 - 31. Simpson Street, Oldbury, Staffordshire, England Wife: Sarah Porter Children: John William Porter, Elsie May Porter, Beatrice Porter, Gwendafine Porter, Alfred Edward Porter, Sarah Porter, Albert Edward Porter Sep 11 1862 - Greensboro, Randolph, North Carolina, United States Death: June 5 1910 - New York, New York Parents: Algernon Sidney Porter, Mary Jane Virginia Porter (born Swaim) Spouses: Sarah Lindsay Porter (born Coleman), Annie Athol Porter (born Estes) Children: Margaret Worth Sartin (born Porter), Porter Siblings: ... T«na*BBSBBB by Frank E. Campbell, Undertakers. No. 341 c -^ i PORTER -William Sydney Porter a "- w S^ ah D A i, N - De. Forest. Julia B ... New York, New York, New York, USA Date: Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, 1836-1922 Text: ... I . m: v-york, MONDAY, JUNIi 6f6 f •" 1910.-TWELVE" PAGES. WILLIAM SIDNEY PORTER (O. HENRY) Who died yesterday. EXTENSIVE MURDER AGENCY ... Publication: New York, New York, New York, USA Date: Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, 1836-1922 Text: ".... Simple but impressive services marked the funeral of William Sidney Porter, who. under the name of O. Henry, became known as one of... Publication: New York, New York, New York, USA Date: Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, 1836-1922 Text: ... international che=s trophy bearing hi? narm 1 . died in London. William Sydney Porter, known under the pen name of O. Henry, as one of t... Publication: New York, New York, New York, USA Date: May 1858 - Georgia, United States Residence: 1900 - New York City, Kings, New York, USA Wife: Sep 11 1862 - Greensboro, North Carolina Death: June 5 1910 - New York City Parents: Dr. Algernon Sidney Porter, Mary Jane Virginia Porter Wife: Athol Estes Porter, Sarah Lindsay Porter Child: About O. Henry William Sydney Porter, best known as O. Henry Birth: 11 September 1862 - "Worth Place", a plantation in Guilford County near Greensboro, North Carolina, United States Parents: Dr. William Algernon Porter, Mary Jane Virginia Swaim Married: Athol Estes, Sarah (Sallie) Lindsey Coleman Children: Margaret Worth Porter Death: 5 June 1910 - New York, New York, United States Funeral Services: Little Church Around the Corner, New York, New York, United States Burial: Riverside Cemetery, Ashville, Buncombe, North Carolina, United States O. Henry (1862-1910) was a prolific American short-story writer, a master of surprise endings, who wrote about the life of ordinary people in New York City. A twist of plot, which turns on an ironic or coincidental circumstance, is typical of O. Henry's stories. Pen name Porter gave various explanations for the origin of his pen name. In 1909 he gave an interview to The New York Times, in which he gave an account of it: It was during these New Orleans days that I adopted my pen name of O. Henry. I said to a friend: "I'm going to send out some stuff. I don't know if it amounts to much, so I want to get a literary alias. Help me pick out a good one." He suggested that we get a newspaper and pick a name from the first list of notables that we found in it. In the society columns we found the account of a fashionable ball. "Here we have our notables," said he. We looked down the list and my eye lighted on the name Henry, "That'll do for a last name," said I. "Now for a first name. I want something short. None of your three-syllable names for me." "Why don’t you use a plain initial letter, then?" asked my friend. "Good," said I, "O is about the easiest letter written, and O it is." A newspaper once wrote and asked me what the O stands for. I replied, "O stands for Olivier, the French for Oliver." And several of my stories accordingly appeared in that paper under the name Olivier Henry. In the introduction to The World of O. Henry: Roads of Destiny and Other Stories (Hodder & Stoughton, 1973), William Trevor writes that when Porter was in the Ohio State Penitentiary "there was a prison guard named Orrin Henry, whom William Sydney Porter . . . immortalised as O. Henry". The writer and scholar Guy Davenport offers another explanation: "[T]he pseudonym that he began to write under in prison is constructed from the first two letters of Ohio and the second and last two of penitentiary [bold added]." Sources Connie Patterson, "PORTER, WILLIAM SYDNEY," Handbook of Texas Online ( http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fpo20 ), accessed June 14, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. Links	O. Henry
With 127 goals, who is the top scoring Dutchman in Premier League history?	Porter, William Sydney (O. Henry) \| NCpedia Porter, William Sydney (O. Henry) by Edgar E. Macdonald, 1994 See also: Porter, William Sidney (University of Texas at Arlington) 11 Sept. 1862–5 June 1910 William Sydney (O. Henry) Porter, american author of short stories, was born in Greensboro of English and Dutch ancestry. He was the son of Algernon Sidney, a physician, and Mary Jane Virginia Swaim Porter. Porter's great-uncle, Jonathan Worth, was governor of North Carolina from 1865 to 1868. Born of a respectable middle-class stock, he was reared and educated by Miss Evelina Porter, his aunt. At age fifteen, he quit school and began work as a clerk and as a pharmacist's apprentice in his Uncle Clark's drugstore. For reasons of unsatisfactory health and unfavorable home conditions, he left for La Salle County, Tex., in 1882, where he identified with the robust life of ranching that was to give an atmosphere and flavor to some of his later writings. Within two years, he was in Austin working as a book-keeper for a real estate firm. At the end of two years he accepted the position of assistant compiling draftsman for the General Land Office (January 1887–January 1891); later he became a paying and receiving teller in the First National Bank of Austin (1891–94). As a supplementary source of income during these years, he began writing free-lance sketches. Before resigning his position at the bank, he became editor and co-owner of a humorous weekly, The Rolling Stone . After its demise in 1895, he joined the Houston Daily Post staff as the columnist of "Some Postscripts," as a reporter, and as an occasional cartoonist. In February 1896, after being indicted for the alleged embezzlement of bank funds during his employ as a teller at the First National Bank, he left Houston for Austin to stand trial. En route, he fled to New Orleans and later to Honduras. News of his wife's terminal illness in 1897 prompted his immediate return to Austin. His trial was postponed until after her death on 25 July 1897. The following February he was tried, convicted, and sentenced to imprisonment in the Ohio Penitentiary at Columbus for five years. He entered the prison on 25 Apr. 1898 and was released, after three years and three months for good behavior, on 24 July 1901. During his confinement, his jobs as a night druggist in the prison hospital and later as a secretary to the steward offered him spare time for writing. While in prison, his first short story, "The Miracle of Lava Canyon," was published by S. S. McClure and Company of New York on 18 Sept. 1898. For this and the stories that followed, he used such pen names as Oliver Henry, S. H. Peters, James L. Bliss, T. B. Dowd, and Howard Clark to conceal his identity. But upon release from prison, William Sydney Porter chose to emerge as O. Henry. With confidence in himself as a writer, he arrived in New York during the spring of 1902. His chief quest was to obtain first-hand material of the city for his short stories, but it was not until 1904 that his stories were to reflect in a marked degree his new environment. The intervening tales continued to deal with the West or Southwest as well as Central or South America. His first book, Cabbages and Kings (1904), was a collection of stories that revealed a first-hand acquaintance with coastal Latin America. During his most prolific period (1904–5), he published a total of 115 short stories. All but 21 appeared in the columns of the New York World, and all but 16 dealt in some manner with New York City. With the publication of his second book, The Four Million (1906), he was hailed as the discoverer of romance in the streets of New York. Like most of his stories, the tales in this collection deal with the commonplace and arrive at a surprise ending through sheer coincidence. Each succeeding year until 1911 was marked by the publication of two collections of his stories. Heart of the West (1907) presented a fascinating collection of 19 stories about the West and the Texas range. The Trimmed Lamp (1907) established his right to be called the knight of the shop girl. Following these came The Voice of the City and The Gentle Grafter (1908), Roads of Destiny and Options (1909), and Strictly Business and Whirligigs (1910). Strictly Business contains "A Municipal Report," the last story published before his death. Whirligigs, published posthumously, contains "The Ransom of Red Chief," perhaps his funniest story. Later posthumous volumes included Sixes and Sevens (1911), Rolling Stones (1912), Waifs and Strays (1917), O. Henryana (1920), and O. Henry Encore (1936). Sixes and Sevens contains his last complete work, "Let Me Feel Your Pulse," which is the most autobiographical. In the O. Henry Encore, a collection of his Houston Post sketches, are to be found his two favorite motifs: the situation of the impostor or wearer of a disguise, and the idea of fate as the one unavoidable reality of life. Porter died of diabetes and cirrhosis of the liver in the Polyclinic Hospital in New York. Interment followed on 7 June in Asheville. He was married twice: on 5 July 1887 to Athol Estes and on 27 Nov. 1907 to Sara Coleman of Asheville . Athol bore him one daughter, Margaret Worth, in 1889. As a tribute to Porter's contributions to American literature, the Society of Arts and Letters, in 1918, founded the O. Henry Memorial Award to be awarded annually to the author of the best American short story. References: Eugene Current-Garcia, O. Henry (1965). Robert H. Davis and Arthur B. Maurice, The Caliph of Bagdad (1931). Addison Hibbard, ed., Stories of the South (1931). Gerald Langford, Alias O. Henry (1957). C. Alphonso Smith, O. Henry Biography (1916). Additional Resources: Connie Patterson, "PORTER, WILLIAM SYDNEY," Handbook of Texas Online ( http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fpo20 ), accessed June 02, 2013. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. Arnett, Ethel Stephens. 1962. O. Henry From Polecat Creek. Greensboro: Piedmont Press. Bloom, Harold. 1999. O. Henry: Bloom’s Major Short Story Writers. Broomall: Chelsea House Publishers. Henry, O. and Mabel Wagnalls. 1999. Letters to Lithopolis from O. Henry to Mabel Wagnells . Austin: Eakin Press. Smith, C. Alphonso. 1916. O. Henry Biography . New York: Doubleday, Page & Company. Smith, C. Alphonso. 1916. "The Strange Case of Sydney Porter And ‘O. Henry’ " . In The World’s Work: A History of Our Time, ed. by Walter Hines Page and Arthur Wilson Page, vol 33, 54-64. New York: Doubleday, Page & Company. Stuart, David. 1990. O. Henry. Chelsea: Scarborough Publishers. Walser, Richard Gaither, and Mary Reynolds Peacock. 1981. Young Reader's Picturebook of Tar Heel Authors. Raleigh: North Carolina Dept. of Cultural Resources, Division of Archives and History. The O. Henry Portal - Research the life and legacy of William Sidney Porter and his hometown, Greensboro, North Carolina, through hundreds of letters, documents, photographs, and news articles. Created by the Greensboro Public Library O. Henry in Austin Collection – Learn about O. Henry’s time in Austin. First edition books, correspondence, manuscripts, autograph albums, photographs, sketches, maps, paintings, and furniture are available for viewing at the Austin History Society .	i don't know
Charlotte is the largest city in the 'Tar Heel State'. Which state?	5 Biggest Cities in North Carolina: How Well Do You Know The Tar Heel State? 5 Biggest Cities in North Carolina: How Well Do You Know The Tar Heel State? By Karan Moses Robinson \| Monday, 13 Apr 2015 03:49 PM Close A A There are a couple of reasons why North Carolina may be referred to as the Tar Heel State. According to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , during the Revolutionary War, British troops crossed a river in a shallow area and got tar on their heels that may or may not have been dumped there by North Carolinians to slow the British. Another story from the Civil War states that North Carolina soldiers threatened to put tar on the heels of their comrades to keep them from retreating in battle. Today, if you're a North Carolina resident, you're a Tar Heel. VOTE NOW: Is North Carolina Gov. Pat McCrory Doing a Good Job? Here are the five biggest cities in North Carolina: 1. Charlotte: With a population of 751,999, Charlotte is the state's largest city. Before it was settled by European immigrants in 1750, the area was home to the Catawba Indians. It was established as a city in 1768, and grew rapidly during the Civil War because its many cotton mills were often built near railroad lines. 2. Raleigh: This city of approximately 412,311 people is the capital city of North Carolina and is the home to many cultural and historical sites, including the North Carolina Museum of History, North Carolina Museum of Art, and North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences. The capital city was named after Sir Walter Raleigh, who sent the first colonists to North Carolina. 3. Greensboro: This city has a population of 270,063 and is the third largest city in North Carolina and was not always the county seat. It was changed from Martinsville to Greensboro in the early 19th century because the populace desired a more central location. The first co-educational school, New Garden Boarding School, was founded by Quakers there in 1837. By 1888, it became Guilford College. VOTE NOW: Should the Government Be Doing More to Promote Tourism in America? 4. Winston-Salem: The fourth largest city in North Carolina, Winston-Salem boasts a population of 232,143. The county seat of Forsyth County was formed by combining the towns of Winston and Salem, established 1849 and 1766, respectively. Winston was named for Colonel Joseph Winston, who fought during the Revolutionary War and who would become a senator and United States House of Representatives member. The name Salem means "peace," originating from the Latin "Shalom." 5. Durham: This is the fifth largest city in North Carolina, with a population of 231,730. Tobacco was important to Durham. The Duke Family founded the American Tobacco Company, which spurred economic growth in the area and has impacted higher education, with an ongoing endowment benefiting Duke University. The North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Co., founded in 1898, was the first African-American owned company in the nation.	North Carolina
'Italian' and 'Reformation' are the popular names given to symphonies by which composer?	A Brief History of North Carolina Homophobia \| Advocate.com A Brief History of North Carolina Homophobia By Trudy Ring Tar Heel Homophobes We would never suggest that all North Carolinians are homophobic or transphobic. In fact, we believe the vast majority are not. But a few prominent anti-LGBT types were sullying the state's reputation long before the passage of the infamous House Bill 2, and some of them, along with some new faces, lobbied for that legislation, signed into law by Gov. Pat McCrory (top right) in March. Click through to read about the hateful actions of Jesse Helms, Franklin Graham, Patrick Wooden, and more from the Tar Heel State. The Greensboro Gay Purge With a population of about 270,000, Greensboro is North Carolina's third largest city (Charlotte is the largest, and Raleigh, the state capital, is second), and is generally a liberal place, being home to a University of North Carolina campus and North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University. But liberalism did not extend to gay people in the closeted 1950s. When Paul Calhoun became Greensboro's police chief in the summer of 1956, he sought to purge the city of gays. He claimed his purpose was to "remove these individuals from society who would prey upon our youth," but his effort resulted in arrests almost exclusively for sexual activity that took place in private between consenting adults. "There had always been homosexuals, but the police never pursued them with such intensity, never before and never since," defense attorney Lawrence Egerton told the Greensboro News & Record in 2007. "The truth? It was a long, hot summer, and the police had nothing to do." The investigation finally ended when informants began naming prominent people in the city — those whose prosecution would offend the politically powerful. The less prominent were not so fortunate. In February 1957, a grand jury in Guilford County, which includes Greensboro, indicted 32 men on charges of engaging in "the abominable and detestable crime against nature" — that is, having gay sex. The trials that went on that winter and spring saw them all convicted, with 24 receiving prison terms of five to 20 years, some of them spending time on chain gangs. In the process, lives were ruined; as an example, the News & Record article noted, one of the defendants was cut off from his son for the rest of his life and dishonorably discharged from the Army. He also never registered to vote, because he was afraid that it would bring up his criminal record. "The legacy of the trials," the News & Record concluded, "was denial and fear." Sodomy Law Still on the Books The men in the Greensboro "gay purge" were charged under the state's sodomy law, enacted in 1836. It outlawed "the abominable and detestable crime against nature, not to be named among Christians, with either man or beast." Until 1868, it included a provision calling for the death penalty as punishment. That was replaced with 20 to 60 years in prison, then with five to 60. Courts held that the law covered oral as well as anal sex. Drew Pearson, who would grow up to be a famous political columnist, was arrested under the law as a teenager in the early 20th century but was acquitted. Originally a liberal, he became, in the 1960s, noted for using his columns to accuse politicians of being gay — which had negative implications in his mind and the minds of most of his readers. North Carolina legislators voted down attempts to repeal the sodomy law, but it finally, like those in other states, was struck down as unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in Lawrence v. Texas in 2003. Some North Carolina police and sheriff's departments, though, continued to enforce the law for a time, claiming that Lawrence applied only to sex in private, so they could arrest people seeking sex in parks, for instance. There haven't been reports of attempts to enforce it in recent years, but it does remain on the books, which is the case in several other states as well. “Court rulings can prevent enforcement of a statue, but it doesn’t wipe the statute off the books,” said Maxine Eichner, a law professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, told the campus newspaper, the Daily Tar Heel, this year. “For this statute to be wiped off the books, it has to be repealed by the legislature, and they sometimes repeal outdated laws, but certainly not always.” Flip Benham: Gay Agenda Is Devil's Agenda Among the most prominent anti-LGBT activists based in North Carolina is Philip "Flip" Benham, director of Operation Save America, which grew out of the anti-abortion group Operation Rescue. Benham, a former minister, moved the organization's headquarters to Concord, N.C., in 2002. Benham is not only fiercely opposed to abortion rights; he is devoutly anti-Muslim and anti-LGBT. In 2003, for instance, Benham screamed at participants all the way through a mass commitment ceremony at Charlotte Pride. He descended on Charlotte Pride again in 2011, preaching over a loudspeaker about the sin of homosexuality. In 2014, after marriage equality came to North Carolina, he disrupted several same-sex couples' weddings. Just last year, he accosted a young transgender woman as she was leaving a restroom at the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Government Center, calling her "young man," "punk," and "pervert," and claiming she was endangering children by using the women's bathroom. And he has claimed "the homosexual agenda" is "the devil's agenda." Not surprisingly, Benham has endorsed Ted Cruz in the 2016 presidential race. Also not surprisingly, he has passed his views on to his sons. Read on. Benham Brothers: LGBT Folks 'Vile,' 'Depraved' Flip Benham's telegenic twin sons, David and Jason, are real estate entrepreneurs who famously had an HGTV show pulled out from under them in 2014 because of their history of anti-LGBT activism. It's quite a history, and they're still adding to it. In 2004 they sought to persuade the Charlotte City Council to deny a permit for an LGBT Pride parade. "This is filth, this is vile and should not be allowed in our city,” David said at the time. (The brothers are actually based in nearby Concord.) In 2015, when Charlotte first considered an LGBT-inclusive public accommodations ordinance, David called it “depraved” and the latest example of “the radical gay agenda’s plan to change America.” The ordinance failed to pass then, but it came up again this year and passed — despite the efforts of the Benhams and other far-right types, In the wake of its passage, the twins posted a Facebook video in which Jason said the two could now “declare ourselves women” and play in the WNBA. David termed the ordinance “ungodly,” said it was the “direct result of God’s judgment” for legal abortion, and asserted that it would lead to “young women and girls” being “victimized.” The state legislature quickly passed HB 2 to prevent the ordinance from going into effect and to block other cities from adopting similar ones. The brothers have, naturally, praised that move. "North Carolina is showing the nation what operating under God looks like," Jason said at a rally this month. Franklin Graham: Charlotte Law Was 'Wicked' The Rev. Billy Graham is not particularly known for anti-LGBT activism; although, as a biblical literalist, he has said homosexuality is a sin, he never made that a hallmark of his preaching. Not so with his son and heir, Charlotte-based Franklin Graham, who took over as CEO of the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association in 2000. He has said that when gays and lesbians adopt children, they're "recruiting." He has praised Russia's "gay propaganda" law. He has said President Obama is promoting "immorality" by calling on nations abroad to treat their LGBT residents as first-class citizens. He pulled his association's bank accounts from Wells Fargo because of the company's LGBT-inclusive advertising, only to move them to another LGBT-friendly institution, BB&T, and he gave a convoluted explanation, saying Wells Fargo's ads amounted to advocacy. He spoke out against the Charlotte LGBT rights ordinance before it was adopted this year, calling it "wicked" and "filthy." Amid the outcry over HB 2's revocation of the ordinance, he has not backed down. “Men have no business using women’s bathrooms and locker rooms. Period,” he posted to Facebook Friday. “It’s not up to us to decide our sex—God determines that.” Patrick Wooden, Minister Obsessed With Gay Sex Another North Carolina–based minister, Rev. Patrick Wooden, gives Flip Benham and Franklin Graham a run for their money when it comes to homophobia. In 2012, as the state prepared to vote on Amendment One, which wrote a ban on same-sex marriage into the North Carolina constitution, he made many graphic and inflammatory comments about anal sex. In an interview with antigay activist Peter LaBarbera, he claimed that many gay men must wear diapers for incontinence as a result of anal sex and offered undocumented anecdotes about objects including cell phones and baseball bats being removed from gay men’s rectums. He has also said, “The God of the Bible made the human sperm, the God of the Bible designed it, and it was not designed to be emptied into an area that is filled with feces,” and that gay sex would “most certainly mean the extinction of the human race.” Amendment One And about Amendment One: Wooden and his ilk succeeded in persuading voters to approve it. North Carolina had banned same-sex marriage by statute in the 1990s, when it looked like Hawaii would be the first state with marriage equality. But antigay forces in the state felt the need for a stronger ban, so they sought to put it in the state's constitution; North Carolina was the only Southern state without a constitutional ban. Its approval by voters came a hard-fought battle that even saw the aforementioned Billy Graham make a rare political statement by taking out a full-page newspaper ad supporting it; with Graham being in his 90s and largely retired, some wondered if he actually authored the ad, or if it came from his more outspokenly homophobic son, Franklin. At any rate, despite opposition throughout the nation, including from the likes of President Obama and Vice President Biden, Amendment One passed by a margin of 61 percent to 39 percent. At a rally celebrating the vote, Tami Fitzgerald, chairwoman of Vote for Marriage NC, said, “We are not antigay — we are pro-marriage. And the point, the whole point is simply that you don’t rewrite the nature of God’s design for marriage based on the demands of a group of adults.” Resisting Marriage Equality Despite Amendment One, North Carolina couldn't avoid the marriage equality juggernaut for long. In 2014, two federal judges found the state's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional. Its attorney general had ceased defending the ban, but North Carolina's two highest-ranking legislators — Senate President Phil Berger (right) and House Speaker Thom Tillis — sought to intervene in the case and appeal. One of the judges OK'd their request, but they still couldn't stop marriage equality from coming to the state. A Marriage Equality Opt-Out After the courts brought marriage equality to North Carolina, some public employees objected. Some magistrates, county officials who among other things are empowered to perform marriages, didn't want to provide the service to same-sex couples. The legislature responded by passing a law that allows magistrates to opt out of all marriage ceremonies if they have faith-based objections. Gov. Pat McCrory (pictured) actually vetoed the measure, but legislators overrode his action. The exemption lasts for six months for a given magistrate but is renewable. The law is now being challenged in court by couples who say the magistrates' religious beliefs shouldn't interfere with their government duties. No Legal Protections North Carolina lawmakers have turned back attempts to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, or to include crimes based on these traits in hate-crimes law. Of a late-'90s attempt to expand the hate-crimes statute, Bill Brooks of the far-right Family Policy Council told The Charlotte Observer, "It’s an attempt by [gays] to gain legitimacy, a legal legitimacy, for their lifestyle." This year, amid the backlash over HB 2, Gov. McCrory issued an executive order banning anti-LGBT discrimination — covering employees of state government only. It was cold comfort to other LGBT North Carolinians. Jesse Helms, King of Homophobes No discussion of homophobia emanating from North Carolina would be complete without a mention of Jesse Helms, the late U.S. senator who's in the running for king of all homophobes. In the 1980s and 1990s, Helms used his national platform to demonize gay men with AIDS, saying at one point, "It's their deliberate, disgusting, revolting conduct that is responsible for the disease." He fought federal funding for AIDS research and managed to get the U.S. to block entry into the county by HIV-positive visitors and immigrants, a policy that remained in place until President Obama's administration. Helms's hostility led activists to famously tent his home with a giant condom. He was also known for condemning homoerotic art and its funding by the federal government. Helms, who got his start as a right-wing TV and radio commentator in his native North Carolina, served 30 years in the Senate, from 1973 to 2003; in addition to being antigay, he espoused anti-abortion, anti-Communist, and often outright racist views. He died in 2008 at age 86, lionized by many conservatives but unmourned by most LGBT Americans. related slideshows	i don't know
Bridgeport is the largest city in the 'Nutmeg State'. Which state?	Bridgeport, Connecticut Travel and Vacation Guide - Visitor Information Searchable list of Bridgeport tour companies, guides and outfitters, rental companies and more. Full information on Bridgeport Tourist Attractions, Scenic Drives and other easy vacation activities… Detailed information on active pursuits in Bridgeport such as biking, hiking, golfing and much more. Searchable lists of Bridgeport museums, parks, galleries, and more. Introduction to all the things to do in Connecticut. Searchable list of tour companies, guides and outfitters, rental companies and more. Full information on Tourist Attractions, Scenic Drives, Sightseeing Tours and easy vacation activities.. Detailed information on active pursuits such as biking, hiking, golfing and much more. Museums, parks, galleries, zoos, and everything else you could want to do in Connecticut. Atlantic Ocean edged Connecticut is a small state but a particularly pretty place to enjoy a scenic drive when fall foliage peaks or a spot of sailing during summer months. Photo Gallery Bridgeport is on the upswing from a period of economic difficulties. New venues for arts and recreation have been introduced and are showing a positive effect. If the trend continues, Bridgeport may make a full come-back as a vibrant New England metropolis. A hot spot in town is the Arena at Harbor Yard. This sports and entertainment complex attracts crowds back to the city for AHL Sound Tigers hockey, Fairfield University NCAA basketball, and live family entertainment. The theater-going crowd thrills to the Downtown Cabaret Theater where award-winning musicals are performed before audiences sitting at tables enjoying brown bag picnics. Other points of interest include: The Barnum Museum, Beardsley Zoo, and the Discovery Museum. Besides spectator sports, there are a number of participatory activities in the area. At the 678-acre John A. Minetto State Park, there are facilities for fishing and hiking. Carol Marie Charters carries anglers out on a 29-foot boat for fishing expeditions. They also offer scuba diving charters. And, Wonderland of Ice offers year-round public ice skating. Lessons are also available. Within a short distance, there are several excellent golf courses. The closest is Brooklawn Country Club. Other greens within five miles are South Pine Creek Golf Course, H. Smith Richardson Golf Course, and Smith Richardson Golf Course. Bridgeport, the largest city in the Nutmeg State, is in the southwestern section of Connecticut on I-95.	Connecticut
Which duo had number one hits during the 1990's with 'Block Rockin' Beats' and 'Setting Sun'?	Connecticut: Map, History, Population, Facts, Capitol, Flag, Tree, Geography, Symbols Connecticut Governor: Dan Malloy, D (to Jan. 2019) Lieut. Governor: Nancy S. Wyman, D (to Jan. 2019) Senators: Richard M. Blumenthal , D (to Jan. 2017); Christopher Murphy (D), I (to Jan. 2019) Secy. of State: Denise W. Merrill, D (to Jan. 2019) Treasurer: Denise Nappier, D (to Jan. 2019) Atty. General: George Jepsen, D (to Jan. 2019) Entered Union (rank): Jan. 9, 1788 (5) Present constitution adopted: Dec. 30, 1965 Motto: Qui transtulit sustinet (He who transplanted still sustains) Nickname: Constitution State (official, 1959); Nutmeg State Origin of name: From an Indian word (Quinnehtukqut) meaning “beside the long tidal river” 10 largest cities (2014): Bridgeport , 146,425; New Haven , 130,741; Stamford , 125,109; Hartford , 124,893; Waterbury, 109,915; Norwalk, 87,190; Danbury, 82,807; New Britain, 73,153; West Hartford, 63,268; Greenwich, 61,171 Land area: 4,844 sq mi. (12,545 sq km) Geographic center: In Hartford Co., at East Berlin Number of counties: 8 Largest county by population and area: Fairfield, 916,829 (2010); Litchfield, 920 sq mi. State forests: 94 (170,000 ac.) State parks: 94 (32,960 ac.) 2015 resident population: 3,590,886 2010 resident census population (rank): 3,574,097 (29). Male: 1,739,614 (48.4%); Female: 1,834,483 (51.6%). White: 2,772,410 (77.6%); Black: 362,296 (10.1%); American Indian: 11,256 (0.3%); Asian: 135,565 (3.8%); Other race: 198,466 (5.6%); Two or more races: 92,676 (2.6%); Hispanic/Latino: 479,087 (13.4%). 2010 population 18 and over: 2,757,082; 65 and over: 506,559; median age: 40.0. Map of Connecticut The Dutch navigator, Adriaen Block , was the first European of record to explore the area, sailing up the Connecticut River in 1614. In 1633, Dutch colonists built a fort and trading post near present-day Hartford but soon lost control to English Puritans from the Massachusetts Bay Colony . English settlements established in the 1630s at Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford united in 1639 to form the Connecticut Colony under the Fundamental Orders , the first modern constitution. Connecticut played a prominent role in the Revolutionary War , serving as the Continental Army's major supplier. Sometimes called the “Arsenal of the Nation,” the state became one of the most industrialized in the nation. Today, Connecticut factories produce weapons, sewing machines, jet engines, helicopters, motors, hardware and tools, cutlery, clocks, locks, silverware, and submarines. Hartford has the oldest U.S. newspaper still being published—the Hartford Courant, established 1764—and is the insurance capital of the nation. Connecticut leads New England in the production of eggs, pears, peaches, and mushrooms, and its oyster crop is the nation's second largest. Poultry and dairy products also account for a large portion of farm income. Connecticut is a popular resort area with its 250-mile Long Island Sound shoreline and many inland lakes. Among the major points of interest are Yale University 's Gallery of Fine Arts and Peabody Museum. Other famous museums include the P. T. Barnum , Winchester Gun, and American Clock and Watch. The town of Mystic features a re-created 19th-century New England seaport and the Mystic Marinelife Aquarium. See more on Connecticut:	i don't know
What was the first name of Mr. Fahrenheit, after whom the temperature scale was named?	Thermometer from 300 years ago made by Mr Fahrenheit sells for a whopping £67,000 at auction \| Daily Mail Online Next Thermometer from 300 years ago made by Mr Fahrenheit sells for a whopping £67,000 at auction It was thought to have been lost to history but has been in private ownership for more than 40 years Fahrenheit invented the mercury thermometer in 1714, but it is unknown exactly how many he made Invention: The top of one of Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit's thermometers that has been in a private collection for 40 years One of the original thermometers made by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit has sold for more than £67,000. The 300-year-old brass instrument is one of only three known examples of Fahrenheit’s work in existence today. It was thought to have been lost to history until it emerged for sale at Christies in London having been in private ownership for more than 40 years. The 4.5ins tall item got bidders hot under the collar when it went under the hammer, eventually going to an anonymous telephone buyer who paid £67,250 for it. Fahrenheit invented the mercury thermometer in 1714, but it is unknown exactly how many he made. It divided the freezing and boiling points of water into 180 degrees. 32°F was the freezing point of water and 212°F was the boiling point of water, set by Fahrenheit himself. 0°F was based on the temperature of an equal mixture of water, ice, and salt. Fahrenheit based his scale on the temperature of the human body. The Fahrenheit scale was the first widely used temperature scale. His other great invention was the Fahrenheit scale that is still used today, and which the thermometer is annotated with. Fahrenheit was born in Danzig, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, into a German Hanse merchant family. His parents died from mushroom poisoning when he was just 15, and he later moved to the Dutch Republic where he spent the rest of his life. He began training as a chemist, and his personal interest in natural science led to his studies and experimentation in the field. They culminated in his inventing the alcohol thermometer, for which he mastered glass blowing, and then the mercury version. The scale on the newly-discovered thermometer is marked from '0' to '132' degrees F and it is so small that the numbers had to be written on both sides of the mercury tube. The device is signed 'Fahrenheit Amst', from the time the inventor worked in Amsterdam, where he made it. Signed by the inventor: He has marked the thermometer with 'Amst', short for Amsterdam, where he made it Great inventor: Fahrenheit had a strong interest in natural science and was fascinated by new inventions This example has been in a private collection for over 40 years and it was unknown to scientific historians until now. James Hyslop, from auctioneers Christie’s, said in August when the auction was announced: 'Until now, only two originals were thought to exist. 'And these are both in the Boerhaave Museum in the Netherlands. 'So to have this one emerge is very exciting. 'It is impossible to pinpoint exactly when it was made, but one in the museum is dated 1718, and this was probably made between 1715 and 1730. 'He made barometers with thermometers on the side, but this was one was a special scientific thermometer. 'It is only 4.5 inches long and is made of brass and has the Fahrenheit scale down the sides. 'The mercury tube is not the original and has been replaced, but it was clearly designed so the tubes could be taken out. 'It was a thermometer for scientific purposes perhaps for measuring the temperature of liquids. 'Originally it was probably owned by a great scientist of the day.' LIFE AND TIMES OF DANIEL GABRIEL FAHRENHEIT Roemer (pictured) whom Fahrenheit visited in 1708 and then improved on his scale, the result being the Fahrenheit temperature scale Fahrenheit was born in Danzig, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, into a German merchant family in 1686. He began training as a merchant in Amsterdam after his parents died on August 14, 1701, when he was just 15, from eating poisonous mushrooms. He later moved to the Dutch Republic where he spent the rest of his life and married Concordia Schumann, daughter of a well-known business family. However, Fahrenheit had a strong interest in natural science and was fascinated by new inventions such as the thermometer. He began training as a chemist, and his personal interest in natural science led to his studies and experimentation in the field. In 1717, Fahrenheit became a glassblower, making barometers, altimeters, and thermometers. From 1718 onwards, he was a lecturer in chemistry. He visited England in 1724 and was the same year elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. His interests culminated in him inventing the alcohol thermometer, for which he mastered glass blowing, and then the mercury version. The mercury thermometer, with a standardised Fahrenheit scale, was invented in 1714. The Fahrenheit scale was the first widely used temperature scale. It divided the freezing and boiling points of water into 180 degrees. 32°F was the freezing point of water and 212°F was the boiling point of water, set by Daniel himself. 0°F was based on the temperature of an equal mixture of water, ice, and salt. Daniel Fahrenheit based his scale on the temperature of the human body. Originally, the human body temperature was 100° F on the Fahrenheit scale, but it has since been adjusted to 98.6°F. The thermometer was inspired by Olaus Roemer, a Danish astronomer, in Copenhagen. Roemer had invented a wine thermometer. Roemer's thermometer had two points, 60 degrees as the temperature of boiling water and 7.5 degrees as the temperature of melting ice. At that time, temperature scales were not standardised and everybody made up their own scale. Fahrenheit modified Roemer's design and scale, and thus, invented the new mercury thermometer with a Fahrenheit scale. Fahrenheit died in The Hague in 1736 and was buried there at the Cloister Church. After his death, in 1742, the Celsius scale was invented by Swedish Astronomer Anders Celsius. Also known as the 'centigrade' scale, centigrade means 'consisting of or divided into 100 degrees.' The Celsius scale has 100 degrees between the freezing point (0°C) and boiling point (100°C) of pure water at sea level air pressure. The term 'Celsius' was adopted in 1948 by an international conference on weights and measurements. The simplicity of the Celsius scale led to it superseding the Fahrenheit as the universal temperature scale.	Gabriel (disambiguation)
Bishopthorpe Palace is the official residence of the holder of which position?	Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit Biography (1686-1736) Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit Biography (1686-1736) Nationality Occupation physicist Fahrenheit invented the first truly accurate thermometer using mercury instead of alcohol and water mixtures. In the laboratory, he used his invention todevelop the first temperature scale precise enough to become a worldwide standard. The eldest of five children born to a wealthy merchant, Fahrenheit was in Danzig (Gdansk), Poland. When he was fifteen his parents died suddenly, and he was sent to Amsterdam to study business. Instead of pursuing this trade, Fahrenheit became interested in the growing field of scientific instruments and their construction. Sometime around 1707 he began to wander the European countryside, visiting instrument makers in Germany, Denmark, and elsewhere, learning their skills. He began constructing his own thermometers in 1714, and it was in these that he used mercury for the first time. Previous thermometers, such as those constructed by Galileo and Guillaume Amontons, used combinations of alcohol and water; as the temperature rose, the alcohol would expand and the level within the thermometer would increase. These thermometers were not particularly accurate, however, since they were too easily thrown off by changing air pressure. The key to Fahrenheit's thermometer was a new method for cleaning mercury that enabled it to rise and fall within the tube without sticking to the sides. Mercury was an ideal substance forreading temperatures since it expanded at a more constant rate than alcoholand is able to be read at much higher and lower temperatures. The next important step in the development of a standard temperature scale was the choosing of fixed high and low points. It was common in the early eighteenth century to choose as the high point the temperature of the body, and asthe low point the freezing temperature of an ice-and-salt mixture--then believed to be the coldest temperature achievable in the laboratory. These were the points chosen by Claus Roemer, a German scientist whom Fahrenheit visitedin 1701. Roemer's scale placed blood temperature at 22.5° and the freezing point of pure water at 7.5 °. When Fahrenheit graduated his own scale he emulated Roemer's fixed points; however, with the improved accuracy of a mercury thermometer, he was able to split each degree into four, making the freezing point of water 30° and the temperature of the human body 90°. In 1717 he moved his points to 32° and 96° in order to eliminate fractions. These points remained fixed for several years, during which time Fahrenheit performed extensive research on the freezing and boiling points of water. He found that the boiling point was constant, but that it could be changed as atmospheric pressure was decreased (such as by increasing elevation to many thousand feet above sea level). He placed the boiling point of water at 212°,a figure that was actually several degrees too low. After Fahrenheit's deathscientists chose to adopt this temperature as the boiling point of water andto shift the scale slightly to accommodate the change. With 212° as theboiling point of water and 32° as the freezing point, the new normal temperature for the human body became 98.6°. In 1742 Fahrenheit was admitted to the British Royal Society despite having had no formal scientific training and having published just one collection ofresearch papers. User Contributions:	i don't know
Which English Civil War General later led the English forces at the 'Sieges of Limerick' and was made Lord Deputy of Ireland by Oliver Cromwell in 1650?	Oliver Cromwell \| Military Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 – 3 September 1658) [N 1] was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland . Born into the middle gentry, Cromwell was relatively obscure for the first 40 years of his life. After undergoing a religious conversion in the 1630s, he became an independent puritan, taking a generally (but not completely) tolerant view towards the many Protestant sects of his period. [1] An intensely religious man—a self-styled Puritan Moses —he fervently believed that God was guiding his victories. He was elected Member of Parliament for UK Parliament constituency in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640–49) Parliaments. He entered the English Civil War on the side of the " Roundheads " or Parliamentarians. Nicknamed "Old Ironsides ", he was quickly promoted from leading a single cavalry troop to become one of the principal commanders of the New Model Army , playing an important role in the defeat of the royalist forces . Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles I 's death warrant in 1649, and, as a member of the Rump Parliament (1649–53), he dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England . He was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–50. Cromwell's forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country – bringing to an end the Irish Confederate Wars . During this period a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics (a significant minority in England and Scotland but the vast majority in Ireland), and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651. On 20 April 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament , before being invited by his fellow leaders to rule as Lord Protector of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland from 16 December 1653. [2] As a ruler he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. After his death in 1658 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, but after the Royalists returned to power in 1660 they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded . Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in the history of the British Isles , considered a regicidal dictator by historians such as David Hume , [3] a military dictator by Winston Churchill , [4] but a hero of liberty by Thomas Carlyle and Samuel Rawson Gardiner . In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time . [5] However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, [6] and in Ireland his record is harshly criticised. [7] Contents Edit Cromwell was born at Cromwell House in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599, [8] to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward . He was descended from Katherine Cromwell (born c. 1482), an elder sister of Tudor statesman Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485–1540), a minister of Henry VIII, whose family acquired considerable wealth by taking over monastery property during the Reformation. Katherine was married to Morgan ap William , son of William ap Yevan of Wales. The family line continued through Richard Williams , alias Cromwell, (c. 1500–1544), Henry Williams , alias Cromwell, (c. 1524–6 January 1604), [9] then to Oliver's father Robert Cromwell (c. 1560–1617), who married Elizabeth Steward (c. 1564–1654) on the day of Oliver Cromwell's birth. Thomas thus was Oliver's great-great-great-uncle. [10] At the time of his birth, Cromwell's grandfather, Sir Henry Williams, was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwell's father Robert was of modest means but still inside the gentry class. As a younger son with many siblings, Robert's inheritance was limited to a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes. [11] Cromwell himself in 1654 said "I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity". [12] Records survive of Cromwell's baptism on 29 April 1599 at St John's Church, [13] and his attendance at Huntingdon Grammar School . He went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge , which was then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos. He left in June 1617 without taking a degree, immediately after the death of his father. [14] Early biographers claim he then attended Lincoln's Inn , but there is no record of him in the Inn's archives. Fraser (1973) concludes it was likely that he did train at one of the London Inns of Court during this time. His grandfather, his father, and two of his uncles had attended Lincoln's Inn, and Cromwell sent his son Richard there in 1647. [15] Cromwell probably returned home to Huntingdon after his father's death, for his mother was widowed and his seven sisters were unmarried, and he, therefore, was needed at home to help his family. [16] Marriage and family Edit Portrait of Cromwell's wife Elizabeth Bourchier, painted by Robert Walker On 22 August 1620 at St Giles-without-Cripplegate , London, [13] Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier (1598–1665). They had nine children: Robert (1621–1639), died while away at school. Oliver (1622–1644), died of typhoid fever while serving as a Parliamentarian officer. Edit Cromwell became the Member of Parliament for UK Parliament constituency in the Parliament of 1628–1629, as a client of the Montagu family of Hinchingbrooke House . He made little impression: records for the Parliament show only one speech (against the Arminian Bishop Richard Neile ), which was poorly received. [21] After dissolving this Parliament, Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next 11 years. When Charles faced the Scottish rebellion known as the Bishops' Wars , shortage of funds forced him to call a Parliament again in 1640. Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as member for UK Parliament constituency, but it lasted for only three weeks and became known as the Short Parliament . Cromwell moved his family from Ely to London in 1640. [22] A second Parliament was called later the same year, and became known as the Long Parliament. Cromwell was again returned as member for Cambridge. As with the Parliament of 1628–29, it is likely that Cromwell owed his position to the patronage of others, which might explain why in the first week of the Parliament he was in charge of presenting a petition for the release of John Lilburne , who had become a puritan cause-celebre after his arrest for importing religious tracts from Holland. For the first two years of the Long Parliament Cromwell was linked to the godly group of aristocrats in the House of Lords and Members of the House of Commons with whom he had established familial and religious links in the 1630s, such as the Earls of Essex , Warwick and Bedford , Oliver St John, and Viscount Saye and Sele . [23] At this stage, the group had an agenda of reformation: the executive checked by regular parliaments, and the moderate extension of liberty of conscience. Cromwell appears to have taken a role in some of this group's political manoeuvres. In May 1641, for example, it was Cromwell who put forward the second reading of the Annual Parliaments Bill and later took a role in drafting the Root and Branch Bill for the abolition of episcopacy . [24] Military commander: 1642–46 Main article: First English Civil War Failure to resolve the issues before the Long Parliament led to armed conflict between Parliament and Charles I in late 1642, the beginning of the English Civil War . Before joining Parliament's forces Cromwell's only military experience was in the trained bands, the local county militia. He recruited a cavalry troop in Cambridgeshire after blocking a valuable shipment of silver plate from Cambridge colleges that was meant for the king. Cromwell and his troop then rode to, but arrived too late to take part in the indecisive Battle of Edgehill on 23 October 1642. The troop was recruited to be a full regiment in the winter of 1642 and 1643, making up part of the Eastern Association under the Earl of Manchester . Cromwell gained experience in a number of successful actions in East Anglia in 1643, notably at the Battle of Gainsborough on 28 July. [25] He was subsequently appointed governor of Ely and a colonel in the Eastern Association. Marston Moor 1644 Edit By the time of the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of Lieutenant General of horse in Manchester's army. The success of his cavalry in breaking the ranks of the Royalist cavalry and then attacking their infantry from the rear at Marston Moor was a major factor in the Parliamentarian victory. Cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was slightly wounded in the neck, stepping away briefly to receive treatment during the battle but returning to help force the victory. [26] After Cromwell's nephew was killed at Marston Moor he wrote a famous letter to his brother-in-law . Marston Moor secured the north of England for the Parliamentarians, but failed to end Royalist resistance. The indecisive outcome of the Second Battle of Newbury in October meant that by the end of 1644 the war still showed no signs of ending. Cromwell's experience at Newbury, where Manchester had let the King's army slip out of an encircling manoeuvre, led to a serious dispute with Manchester, whom he believed to be less than enthusiastic in his conduct of the war. Manchester later accused Cromwell of recruiting men of "low birth" as officers in the army, to which he replied: "If you choose godly honest men to be captains of horse, honest men will follow them ... I would rather have a plain russet-coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else". [27] At this time, Cromwell also fell into dispute with Major-General Lawrence Crawford , a Scottish Covenanter Presbyterian attached to Manchester's army, who objected to Cromwell's encouragement of unorthodox Independents and Anabaptists. [28] He was also charged with familism by Scottish Presbyterian Samuel Rutherford in response to his letter to the House of Commons in 1645. [29] Cromwell's differences with the Scots, then allies of the Parliament, developed into outright enmity in 1648 and in 1650–51. Oliver Cromwell c. 1649 by Robert Walker New Model Army Edit Partly in response to the failure to capitalise on their victory at Marston Moor, Parliament passed the Self-Denying Ordinance in early 1645. This forced members of the House of Commons and the Lords, such as Manchester , to choose between civil office and military command. All of them—except Cromwell, whose commission was given continued extensions and was allowed to remain in parliament—chose to renounce their military positions. The Ordinance also decreed that the army be "remodelled" on a national basis, replacing the old county associations; Cromwell contributed significantly to these military reforms. In April 1645 the New Model Army finally took to the field, with Sir Thomas Fairfax in command and Cromwell as Lieutenant-General of cavalry and second-in-command. By this time, the Parliamentarians' field army outnumbered the King's by roughly two to one. Battle of Naseby 1645 Edit At the critical Battle of Naseby in June 1645, the New Model Army smashed the King's major army. Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing the Royalist cavalry. At the Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizeable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory, and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England. In October 1645, Cromwell besieged and took the wealthy and formidable Catholic fortress Basing House , later to be accused of killing 100 of its 300-man Royalist garrison after its surrender. [30] Cromwell also took part in successful sieges at Bridgwater , Sherborne, Bristol, Devizes , and Winchester, then spent the first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in Devon and Cornwall. Charles I surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646, effectively ending the First English Civil War . Cromwell and Fairfax took the formal surrender of the Royalists at Oxford in June. Cromwell's military style Edit Cromwell had no formal training in military tactics, and followed the common practice of ranging his cavalry in three ranks and pressing forward, relying on impact rather than firepower. His strengths were an instinctive ability to lead and train his men, and his moral authority . In a war fought mostly by amateurs, these strengths were significant and are likely to have contributed to the discipline of his cavalry. [31] Cromwell introduced close-order cavalry formations, with troopers riding knee to knee; this was an innovation in England at the time, and was a major factor in his success. He kept his troops close together following skirmishes where they had gained superiority, rather than allowing them to chase opponents off the battlefield. This facilitated further engagements in short order, which allowed greater intensity and quick reaction to battle developments. This style of command was decisive at both Marston Moor and Naseby. [32] Politics: 1647–49 Edit In February 1647 Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month. By the time he had recovered, the Parliamentarians were split over the issue of the king. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a Presbyterian settlement of the Church. Cromwell rejected the Scottish model of Presbyterianism, which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another. The New Model Army, radicalised by the failure of the Parliament to pay the wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. In May 1647 Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in Saffron Walden to negotiate with them, but failed to agree. In June 1647, a troop of cavalry under Cornet George Joyce seized the King from Parliament's imprisonment. After the King was in arm's reach of Cromwell, he was eager to find out what conditions the King would be willing to compromise on if his authority was restored. The King appeared to be willing to compromise, so Cromwell employed his son-in-law, Henry Ireton, to draw up proposals for a constitutional settlement. Proposals were drafted multiple times with different changes until finally the "Head of the Proposals" pleased Cromwell in principle and would allow for further negotiations. [33] It was designed to check the powers of the executive , to set up regularly elected parliaments, and to restore a non-compulsory Episcopalian settlement. [34] Many in the army, such as the Levellers led by John Lilburne , thought this was not enough and demanded full political equality for all men, leading to tense debates in Putney during the autumn of 1647 between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and radical Levellers like Colonel Rainsborough on the other. The Putney Debates ultimately broke up without reaching a resolution. [35] [36] The debates, and the escape of Charles I from Hampton Court on 12 November, are likely to have hardened Cromwell's resolve against the king. Second Civil War Edit The trial of Charles I on 4 January 1649. The failure to conclude a political agreement with the king led eventually to the outbreak of the Second English Civil War in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in south Wales led by Rowland Laugharne , winning back Chepstow Castle on 25 May and six days later forcing the surrender of Tenby. The castle at Carmarthen was destroyed by burning. The much stronger castle at Pembroke , however, fell only after a siege of eight weeks. Cromwell dealt leniently with the ex-royalist soldiers, but less so with those who had previously been members of the parliamentary army, John Poyer eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots. [37] Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-Royalist Scottish army (the Engagers ) who had invaded England. At Preston , Cromwell, in sole command for the first time and with an army of 9,000, won a brilliant victory against an army twice as large. [38] During 1648, Cromwell's letters and speeches started to become heavily based on biblical imagery, many of them meditations on the meaning of particular passages. For example, after the battle of Preston, study of Psalms 17 and 105 led him to tell Parliament that "they that are implacable and will not leave troubling the land may be speedily destroyed out of the land". A letter to Oliver St John in September 1648 urged him to read Isaiah 8, in which the kingdom falls and only the godly survive. This letter suggests that it was Cromwell's faith, rather than a commitment to radical politics, coupled with Parliament's decision to engage in negotiations with the king at the Treaty of Newport , that convinced him that God had spoken against both the king and Parliament as lawful authorities. For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument. [39] The episode shows Cromwell’s firm belief in " Providentialism "—that God was actively directing the affairs of the world, through the actions of "chosen people" (whom God had "provided" for such purposes). Cromwell believed, during the Civil Wars, that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories as indications of God's approval of his actions, and defeats as signs that God was directing him in another direction. King tried and executed Main article: High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I In December 1648, those Members of Parliament who wished to continue negotiations with the king were prevented from sitting for parliament by a troop of soldiers headed by Colonel Thomas Pride , an episode soon to be known as Pride's Purge . Thus weakened, the remaining body of MPs, known as the Rump , agreed that Charles should be tried on a charge of treason. Cromwell was still in the north of England, dealing with Royalist resistance, when these events took place, but then returned to London. On the day after Pride's Purge, he became a determined supporter of those pushing for the king's trial and execution, believing that killing Charles was the only way to end the civil wars. Cromwell approved Thomas Brook's address to the House of Commons, which justified the trial and execution of the King on the basis of the Book of Numbers, chapter 35 and particularly verse 33 ("The land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it."). The death warrant for Charles was eventually signed by 59 of the trying court's members, including Cromwell (who was the third to sign it); Fairfax conspicuously refused to sign. Charles I was executed on 30 January 1649. Establishment of the Commonwealth: 1649 Edit Arms of the Commonwealth After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the Commonwealth of England . The Rump Parliament exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller Council of State also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the Rump and was appointed a member of the Council. In the early months after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original group of 'Royal Independents' centred around St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. However, only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish Confederate Catholics . In March, Cromwell was chosen by the Rump to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied Cromwell in the subsequent months. In the latter part of the 1640s, Cromwell came across political dissidence in his New Model Army. The “Leveller,” or “Agitator,” movement was a political movement that emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance. These sentiments were expressed in the manifesto “Agreement of the People” in 1647. Cromwell and the rest of the Grandees disagreed with these sentiments in that they gave too much freedom to the people; they believed that the vote should only extend to the landowners. In the Putney Debates of 1647, the two groups debated these topics in hopes of forming a new constitution for England. There were rebellions and mutinies following the debates, and in 1649, the Bishopsgate mutiny resulted in the execution of Leveller Robert Lockyer by firing squad. The next month, the Banbury mutiny occurred with similar results. Cromwell led the charge in quelling these rebellions. After quelling Leveller mutinies within the English army at Andover and Burford in May, Cromwell departed for Ireland from Bristol at the end of July. [40] Irish campaign: 1649–1650 See also: Irish Confederate Wars and Cromwellian conquest of Ireland Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649–50. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the royalist alliance, and Protestant royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous". [41] Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in Europe. [42] Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the Irish Rebellion of 1641 . This rebellion, although intended to be bloodless, was marked by massacres of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by Irish and Old English , and Highland Scot Catholics in Ireland. These settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants. These factors contributed to the brutality of the Cromwell military campaign in Ireland. [43] Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine-month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held only outposts in Dublin and Derry. When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country. After his landing at Dublin on 15 August 1649 (itself only recently defended from an Irish and English Royalist attack at the Battle of Rathmines ), Cromwell took the fortified port towns of Drogheda and Wexford to secure logistical supply from England. At the Siege of Drogheda in September 1649, Cromwell's troops killed nearly 3,500 people after the town's capture—comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners and Roman Catholic priests. [44] [ unreliable source? ] Cromwell wrote afterwards that: I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret. [45] At the Siege of Wexford in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances. While Cromwell was apparently trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2,000 Irish troops and up to 1,500 civilians, and burned much of the town. [46] No disciplinary actions were taken against his forces subsequent to this second massacre. After the taking of Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to besiege Waterford , Kilkenny and Clonmel in Ireland's south-east. Kilkenny surrendered on terms, as did many other towns like New Ross and Carlow, but Cromwell failed to take Waterford, and at the siege of Clonmel in May 1650 he lost up to 2,000 men in abortive assaults before the town surrendered. [47] One of his major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery , Cromwell persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in Cork to change sides and fight with the Parliament. [48] At this point, word reached Cromwell that Charles II had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the Covenanter regime. Cromwell therefore returned to England from Youghal on 26 May 1650 to counter this threat. [49] The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure. The campaigns under Cromwell's successors Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow mostly consisted of long sieges of fortified cities and guerrilla warfare in the countryside. The last Catholic-held town, Galway, surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops capitulated in April of the following year. [47] In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest, the public practice of Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were killed when captured. [50] [ unreliable source? ] All Catholic-owned land was confiscated in the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and given to Scottish and English settlers, the Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers. The remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in the province of Connacht. Under the Commonwealth, Catholic landownership dropped from 60% of the total to just 8%. Debate over Cromwell's effect on Ireland Edit The extent of Cromwell's brutality [51] [52] in Ireland has been strongly debated. Some historians argue that Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly but only against those "in arms". [53] Other historians, however, cite Cromwell's contemporary reports to London including that of 27 September 1649 in which he lists the slaying of 3,000 military personnel, followed by the phrase "and many inhabitants". [54] In September 1649, he justified his sacking of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster in 1641, calling the massacre "the righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbued their hands with so much innocent blood." [44] However, Drogheda had never been held by the rebels in 1641—many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children as prisoners of war and indentured servants [55] to Bermuda and Barbados , were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England. [56] However other historians would argue that ultimately he was the commander of these generals. Some point to his actions on entering Ireland. Cromwell demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the civilian inhabitants and that everything should be fairly purchased; "I do hereby warn....all Officers, Soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward Country People or any persons whatsoever, unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy.....as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril." However it should be noted that he landed in Dublin, a city with no Catholic population as they had been previously expelled. Several English soldiers were hanged for disobeying these orders. The massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended Thirty Years War , [57] [58] although there are few comparable incidents during the Civil Wars in England or Scotland, which were fought mainly between Protestant adversaries, albeit of differing denominations. One possible comparison is Cromwell's Siege of Basing House in 1645—the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester—which resulted in about 100 of the garrison of 400 being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties, six Catholic priests and a woman. [59] However, the scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller. [60] Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: "I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives." [61] Cromwell's orders—"in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town"—followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege, which was refused. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to quarter . [62] The refusal of the garrison at Drogheda to do this, even after the walls had been breached, was to Cromwell justification for the massacre. [63] Where Cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns, as at Carlow, New Ross, and Clonmel, some historians argue that he respected the terms of surrender and protected the lives and property of the townspeople. [64] At Wexford, Cromwell again began negotiations for surrender. However, the captain of Wexford castle surrendered during the middle of the negotiations, and in the confusion some of his troops began indiscriminate killing and looting. [65] See also. [66] [67] [68] By the end of the Cromwellian campaign and settlement there had been extensive dispossession of landowners who were Catholic, and a huge drop in population. Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited, and although he did not take on executive powers until 1653, he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and John Morrill suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of ethnic cleansing in Ireland. [69] Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton , adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000. [70] The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day. James Joyce , for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel Ulysses: "What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text God is love pasted round the mouth of his cannon?" Similarly, Winston Churchill described the impact of Cromwell on Anglo-Irish relations: ...upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. 'Hell or Connaught' were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred 'The Curse of Cromwell on you.' ... Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'." [71] Cromwell is still a figure of hatred in Ireland, his name being associated with massacre, religious persecution, and mass dispossession of the Catholic community there. As Churchill notes, a traditional Irish curse was mallacht Chromail ort or "the curse of Cromwell upon you". A key surviving statement of Cromwell's own views on the conquest of Ireland is his Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January 1650. [72] In this he was scathing about Catholicism, saying that "I shall not, where I have the power... suffer the exercise of the Mass." [73] However, he also declared that: "as for the people, what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts I cannot reach; but I shall think it my duty, if they walk honestly and peaceably, not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same." [73] Private soldiers who surrendered their arms "and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes, they shall be permitted so to do." [74] As with many incidents in Cromwell's career, there is debate about the extent of his sincerity in making these public statements: the Rump Parliament's later Act of Settlement of 1652 set out a much harsher policy of execution and confiscation of property of anyone who had supported the uprisings. Former Taoiseach Bertie Ahern insisted that the portrait of Cromwell (‘that murdering bastard’) be taken down from a room in Westminster before he began talks with British prime minister Tony Blair and as recently as 1965 the Irish minister for lands explained that his preferred policies were necessary to, “undo the work of Cromwell”. [75] Scottish campaign: 1650–51 Edit Moray House on the Royal Mile – Cromwell's residence in Edinburgh when he implored the Assembly of the Kirk to stop supporting Charles II Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son Charles II as king. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people "fearing His [God's] name, though deceived". [76] He made a famous appeal to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland , urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken." [77] The Scots' reply was robust: "would you have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary. [78] Battle of Dunbar Edit His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie . Sickness began to spread in the ranks. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from Dunbar . However, on 3 September 1650, unexpectedly, Cromwell smashed the main army at the Battle of Dunbar , killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner and then capturing the Scottish capital of Edinburgh. [79] The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it, "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people". [79] Battle of Worcester Edit The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made a desperate attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September 1651. At the subsequent Battle of Worcester , Cromwell's forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army. Charles II barely escaped capture , and subsequently fled to exile in France and the Netherlands, where he would remain until 1660. [80] Many of the Scottish prisoners of war taken in the campaigns died of disease, and others were sent as indentured labourers to the colonies. To fight the battle, Cromwell organised an envelopment followed by a multi pronged coordinated attack on Worcester which involved his forces attacking from three directions with two rivers partitioning his force. During the battle, Cromwell switched his reserves from one side of the river Severn to the other and back again. The editor of the Great Rebellion article of the Encyclopædia Britannica, eleventh edition noted that compared to the early Civil War Battle of Turnham Green , Worcester was a battle of manoeuvre, which the English parliamentary armies at the start of the war were unable to execute, and agreed with a German critic that it was a prototype for the Battle of Sedan (1870) . [81] Conclusion Edit In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men, under George Monck , sacked Dundee, killing up to 1,000 men and 140 women and children. [82] During the Commonwealth, Scotland was ruled from England, and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands, which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland, from the rest of the country. The north west Highlands was the scene of another pro-royalist uprising in 1653–55, which was only put down with deployment of 6,000 English troops there. [83] Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the Kirk (the Scottish church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously. [84] Cromwell's conquest, unwelcome as it was, left no significant lasting legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was, the Highlands aside, largely peaceful. Moreover, there were no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State. [85] Although not often favourably regarded, Cromwell's name rarely meets the hatred in Scotland that it does in Ireland. Return to England and dissolution of the Rump Parliament: 1651–53 Dissolution of the Long Parliament From the middle of 1649 until 1651 Cromwell was away on campaign. In the meantime, with the king gone (and with him their common cause), the various factions in Parliament began to engage in infighting. On his return, Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, and although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In frustration, in April 1653 Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government of 40 members (drawn both from the Rump and the army) and then abdicate. However, the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government. [86] Cromwell was so angered by this that on 20 April 1653, supported by about forty musketeers, he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force. Several accounts exist of this incident: in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting". [87] At least two accounts agree that Cromwell snatched up the mace , symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the "bauble" be taken away. [88] Cromwell's troops were commanded by Charles Worsley , later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted the mace. Establishment of Barebones Parliament: 1653 Edit After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a " sanhedrin " of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic , Fifth Monarchist beliefs—which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth—he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on 4 July 1653, Cromwell thanked God’s providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: "truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time." [89] Sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints or more commonly the Nominated Assembly, it was also called the Barebones Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barebone . The assembly was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653, out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly. [90] The Protectorate: 1653–58 Template:Gallery After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government , closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals . It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake “the chief magistracy and the administration of government”. Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia. [91] However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', the P being an abbreviation for Protector, which was similar to the style of monarchs who used an R to mean Rex or Regina, and it soon became the norm for others to address him as "Your Highness". [92] As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year. [93] Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take. [94] Although Cromwell declared to the first Protectorate Parliament that, "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," in practice social priorities took precedence over forms of government. Such forms were, he said, "but ... dross and dung in comparison of Christ". [95] The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!", [96] Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War . England's American colonies in this period consisted of the New England Confederation , the Providence Plantation , the Virginia Colony and the Maryland Colony . Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony at the Battle of the Severn , by his confirming the former Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate. Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September 1654. He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting". [97] However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament’s bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655. Template:Gallery Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inward godliness throughout England. [98] During the early months of the Protectorate, a set of "triers" was established to assess the suitability of future parish ministers, and a related set of "ejectors" was set up to dismiss ministers and schoolmasters who were deemed unsuitable for office. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a royalist uprising in March 1655, led by Sir John Penruddock , Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major Generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to national security , but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals. The generals not only supervised militia forces and security commissions, but collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English and Welsh provinces. Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament —instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime. [99] As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of Holland, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell's tolerance of the right to private worship of those who fell outside evangelical Puritanism—that led to his encouraging Jews to return to England in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by Edward I , in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars. [100] There was a longer-term motive for Cromwell's decision to allow the Jews to return to England, and that was the hope that they would convert to Christianity and therefore hasten the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, ultimately based on Matthew 23:37–39 and Romans 11 . At the Whitehall conference of December 1655 he quoted from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans 10:12–15 on the need to send Christian preachers to the Jews. Cromwell's long-term religious motive for readmitting the Jews to England should not be doubted, after all he was serious enough to ban Christmas as a pagan festival. William Prynne the Presbyterian, unlike Cromwell the Congregationalist, was strongly opposed to the latter's pro-Jewish policy. [101] In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of king: “I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build Jericho again”. [102] The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1655—comparing himself to Achan , who had brought the Israelites defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho. [103] Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially re-installed as Lord Protector on 26 June 1657 at Westminster Hall , sitting upon King Edward's Chair , which was moved specially from Westminster Abbey for the occasion. The event in part echoed a coronation, using many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre (but not a crown or an orb). But, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary, though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the Humble Petition and Advice , a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a house of life peers (in place of the House of Lords). In the Humble Petition it was called the Other House as the Commons could not agree on a suitable name. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created two baronages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice—Charles Howard was made Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July 1657 and Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658. Cromwell, however, was at pains to minimise his role, describing himself as a constable or watchman. Death and posthumous execution Oliver Cromwell's death mask at Warwick Castle Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria and from "stone", a common term for urinary/kidney infections. In 1658 he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. A Venetian physician tracked Cromwell's final illness, saying Cromwell's personal physicians were mismanaging his health, leading to a rapid decline and death.[ citation needed ] The decline may also have been hastened by the death of one of his daughters, Elizabeth Claypole , in August. He died age 59 at Whitehall on Friday 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester. [104] The most likely cause of Cromwell's death was septicaemia following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral based on that of James I, at Westminster Abbey, [105] his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there. [106] He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard . Although not entirely without ability, Richard had no power base in either Parliament or the Army, and was forced to resign in May 1659, ending the Protectorate. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the short lived reinstated Commonwealth , so George Monck , the English governor of Scotland, at the head of New Model Army regiments was able to march on London, and restore the Long Parliament. Under Monck's watchful eye the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that in 1660 Charles II could be invited back from exile to be king under a restored monarchy. The execution of the bodies of Cromwell, Bradshaw and Ireton, from a contemporary print On 30 January 1661, (the 12th anniversary of the execution of Charles I), Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey, and was subjected to the ritual of a posthumous execution , as were the remains of Robert Blake , John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton . (The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.) His disinterred body was hanged in chains at Tyburn , and then thrown into a pit, while his severed head was displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until 1685. However, many people began to question whether or not the body mutilated at Tyburn was in fact that of Cromwell. These doubts arose because it was assumed that between his death in September 1658 and the exhumation of January 1661, Cromwell’s body was buried and reburied in several places to protect it from vengeful royalists. The stories suggest that his bodily remains are buried in London, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire or Yorkshire. [107] It continues to be questioned whether the body mutilated at Tyburn was in fact that of Oliver Cromwell. The Cromwell vault was later used as a burial place for Charles II’s illegitimate descendants. [108] Afterwards, the head changed hands several times, including its sale in 1814 to Josiah Henry Wilkinson, [109] [110] before eventually being buried in the grounds of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge , in 1960. [111] [112] In Westminster Abbey, the site of Cromwell’s burial was marked during the 19th century by a floor stone in what is now the Air Force Chapel , reading, "THE BURIAL PLACE OF OLIVER CROMWELL 1658–1661". [113] Political reputation Edit A contemporary satirical view of Cromwell as a usurper of monarchical power During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power—for example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered, both part of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure. [114] More positive contemporary assessments—for instance, John Spittlehouse in A Warning Piece Discharged—typically compared him to Moses , rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars. [115] Several biographies were published soon after his death. An example is The Perfect Politician, which described how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and gave a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience brought down by pride and ambition. [116] An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon , in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Clarendon famously declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". [117] He argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy. [117] During the early eighteenth century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs, as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. A version of Edmund Ludlow ’s Memoirs, re-written by John Toland to excise the radical Puritanical elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, presented the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s. [118] “ I hope to render the English name as great and formidable as ever the Roman was. [119] ” – Cromwell During the early nineteenth century, Cromwell began to be adopted by Romantic artists and poets. Thomas Carlyle continued this reassessment of Cromwell in the 1840s by presenting him as a hero in the battle between good and evil and a model for restoring morality to an age that Carlyle believed to have been dominated by timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. Cromwell's actions, including his campaigns in Ireland and his dissolution of the Long Parliament, according to Carlyle, had to be appreciated and praised as a whole. By the late 19th century, Carlyle's portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into Whig and Liberal historiography. The Oxford civil war historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner concluded that "the man—it is ever so with the noblest—was greater than his work". [120] Gardiner stressed Cromwell’s dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy, while underestimating Cromwell’s religious conviction. [121] Cromwell’s foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”. [122] During the first half of the twentieth century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in Nazi Germany and in Italy. Wilbur Cortez Abbott , for example—a Harvard historian—devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches. In this work, which was published between 1937 and 1947, Abbott began to argue that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach. [123] Ernest Barker similarly compared the Independents to the Nazis. Nevertheless, not all historical comparisons made at this time drew on contemporary military dictators. Late twentieth-century historians re-examined the nature of Cromwell's faith and of his authoritarian regime. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government. [124] Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J. C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell’s writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation. [125] Monuments and posthumous honours 1899 statue of Cromwell by Hamo Thornycroft outside the Palace of Westminster, London In 1776, one of the first ships commissioned to serve in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War was named Oliver Cromwell. [126] Nineteenth-century engineer Sir Richard Tangye was a noted Cromwell enthusiast and collector of Cromwell manuscripts and memorabilia. [127] His collection included many rare manuscripts and printed books, medals, paintings, objects d'art and a bizarre assemblage of "relics." This includes Cromwell's bible, button, coffin plate, death mask and funeral escutcheon. On Tangye's death, the entire collection was donated to the Museum of London , where it can still be seen. [128] In 1875 a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the cathedral, a gift to the city by Mrs. Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband. [129] [130] It was the first such large-scale statue to be erected in the open in England and was a realistic likeness, based on the painting by Peter Lely and showing Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. The statue was unpopular with local Conservatives and the large Irish immigrant population. When Queen Victoria was invited to open the new Manchester Town Hall , she is alleged to have consented on condition that the statue of Cromwell be removed. The statue remained, Victoria declined, and the Town Hall was instead opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s the statue was relocated outside Wythenshawe Hall , which had been occupied by Cromwell's troops. [131] During the 1890s plans to erect a statue of Cromwell outside Parliament also proved to be controversial. Pressure from the Irish Nationalist Party [132] forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project, which was eventually funded privately by Lord Rosebery . [133] Cromwell controversy continued into the 20th century. As First Lord of the Admiralty before the First World War, Winston Churchill twice suggested naming a British battleship HMS Oliver Cromwell. The suggestion was vetoed by King George V , not only because of his personal feelings but because he felt, given the anger caused by the erection of the statue outside Parliament, to give such a name to an expensive warship at a time of Irish political unrest was unwise. Churchill was eventually told by the First Sea Lord Admiral Battenberg that the king's decision must be treated as final. [134] The Cromwell Tank , a British Second World War medium weight tank first used in 1944, and a steam locomotive built by British Railways in 1951, 70013 Oliver Cromwell were both named after Cromwell. Title as Lord Protector 16 December 1653 – 3 September 1658: His Highness By the Grace of God and Republic, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. In popular culture Kishlansky, Mark (1990), "Saye What?" in Historical Journal 33, 4. Lenihan, Padraig (2000). Confederate Catholics at War Cork University Press, ISBN 1-85918-244-5 Morrill, John (1990). '"Cromwell and his contemporaries", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4 Morrill, John (1990). "The Making of Oliver Cromwell", in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4 Noble, Mark (1784). Memoirs of the Protectorate-house of Cromwell: Deduced from an Early Period, and Continued Down to the Present Time,.... 2. Printed by Pearson and Rollason. O'Siochru, Micheal (2008). God's Executioner, Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, Faber and Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-24121-7 Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell. Everyman classics. ISBN 0-460-01254-1 . Rutt, John Towill, ed (1828). "Cromwell's death and funeral order" . Diary of Thomas Burton esq, April 1657 – February 1658. Institute of Historical Research. pp. 516–530. http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=36889 . Retrieved 8 November 2011. Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822659-4 Woolrych, Austin (1990). "Cromwell as a soldier" in Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4 Woolrych, Austin (1987). Soldiers and Statesmen: the General Council of the Army and its Debates (Clarendon Press), ISBN 0-19-822752-3 Worden, Blair (1985). "Oliver Cromwell and the sin of Achan", in Beales, D. and Best, G. (eds.) History, Society and the Churches, ISBN 0-521-02189-8 Worden, Blair (1977). The Rump Parliament Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29213-1 Worden, Blair (2000). "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in Proceedings Of The British Academy 105: pp. 131–170. ISSN 0068-1202 Young, Peter and Holmes, Richard (2000). The English Civil War Wordsworth, ISBN 1-84022-222-0 </dl> Korr, Charles P. (1975). Cromwell and the New Model Foreign Policy: England's Policy toward France, 1649–1658 University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-02281-5 Macinnes, Allan (2005). The British Revolution, 1629–1660 Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-59750-8 Morrill, John (1990). "Cromwell and his contemporaries". In Morrill, John (ed.), Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution Longman, ISBN 0-582-01675-4 Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1967). Oliver Cromwell and his Parliaments, in his Religion, the Reformation and Social Change Macmillan. online PDF (256 KB) Venning, Timothy (1995). Cromwellian Foreign Policy Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-63388-1 Woolrych, Austin (1982). Commonwealth to Protectorate Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-822659-4 Woolrych, Austin (2002). Britain in Revolution 1625–1660 Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-927268-6 Primary sources Carlyle, Thomas (ed.) (1904 edition), Oliver Cromwell's letters and speeches, with elucidations . Gasl.org PDF (40.2 MB); Haykin, Michael A. G. (ed.) (1999). To Honour God: The Spirituality of Oliver Cromwell Joshua Press, ISBN 1-894400-03-8 . Excerpts from Cromwell's religious writings. Roots, Ivan (1989). Speeches of Oliver Cromwell. Everyman classics. ISBN 0-460-01254-1 . Historiography Edit Davis, J. C. Oliver Cromwell (2001). 243 pp; a biographical study that covers sources and historiography Gaunt, Peter. "The Reputation of Oliver Cromwell in the 19th century," Parliamentary History, Oct 2009, Vol. 28 Issue 3, pp 425–428 Lunger Knoppers, Laura. Constructing Cromwell. Ceremony, Portrait and Print, 1645–1661 (2000), shows how people compared Cromwell to King Ahab, King David, Elijah, Gideon and Moses, as well as Brutus and Julius Caesar. Mills, Jane, ed. Cromwell's Legacy (Manchester University Press, 2012) [ https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=36366 online review by Timothy Cooke] Morrill, John. "Rewriting Cromwell: a Case of Deafening Silences." Canadian Journal of History 2003 38(3): 553–578. Issn: 0008-4107 Fulltext: Ebsco Morrill, John (1990). "Textualizing and Contextualizing Cromwell", in Historical Journal 1990 33(3): pp. 629–639. ISSN 0018-246X . Full text online at Jstor. Examines the Carlyle and Abbott editions. Worden, Blair (2001). Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity Penguin, ISBN 0-14-100694-3 Worden, Blair. "Thomas Carlyle and Oliver Cromwell", in Proceedings Of The British Academy(2000) 105: pp. 131–170. ISSN 0068-1202 . Worden, Blair. Roundhead Reputations: the English Civil Wars and the passions of posterity (2001), 387pp; ISBN 0-14-100694-3 . External links	Henry Ireton
What was the first name of Mr. Celsius, after whom the temperature scale was named?	Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell Oliver Cromwell, Olivers Kromvels, Oliveris Kromvelis, О́ливер Кро́мвель, Оливер Кромвель Categories: Set cemetery Person Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. Born into the middle gentry, Cromwell was relatively obscure for the first 40 years of his life. After undergoing a religious conversion in the 1630s, he became an independent puritan, taking a generally (but not completely) tolerant view towards the many Protestant sects of his period. An intensely religious man—a self-styled Puritan Moses—he fervently believed that God was guiding his victories. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640–49) Parliaments. He entered the English Civil War on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians. Nicknamed "Old Ironsides", he was quickly promoted from leading a single cavalry troop to become one of the principal commanders of the New Model Army, playing an important role in the defeat of the royalist forces. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles I's death warrant in 1649, and, as a member of the Rump Parliament (1649–53), he dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England. He was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–50. Cromwell's forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country – bringing to an end the Irish Confederate Wars. During this period a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics (a significant minority in England and Scotland but the vast majority in Ireland), and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651. On 20 April 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament, before being invited by his fellow leaders to rule as Lord Protector of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland from 16 December 1653. As a ruler he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. After his death in 1658 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, but after the Royalists returned to power in 1660 they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in the history of the British Isles, considered a regicidal dictator by historians such as David Hume, a military dictator by Winston Churchill, but a hero of liberty by Thomas Carlyle and Samuel Rawson Gardiner. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell was selected as one of the ten greatest Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised as genocidal or near-genocidal, and in Ireland his record is harshly criticised. Early years Cromwell was born at Cromwell House in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599, to Robert Cromwell and Elizabeth Steward. He was descended from Katherine Cromwell (born c. 1482), an elder sister of Tudor statesman Thomas Cromwell (c. 1485–1540), a minister of Henry VIII, whose family acquired considerable wealth by taking over monastery property during the Reformation. Katherine was married to Morgan ap William, son of William ap Yevan of Wales. The family line continued through Richard Williams, alias Cromwell, (c. 1500–1544), Henry Williams, alias Cromwell, (c. 1524–6 January 1604), then to Oliver's father Robert Cromwell (c. 1560–1617), who married Elizabeth Steward (c. 1564–1654) on the day of Oliver Cromwell's birth. Thomas thus was Oliver's great-great-great-uncle. At the time of his birth, Cromwell's grandfather, Sir Henry Williams, was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwell's father Robert was of modest means but still inside the gentry class. As a younger son with many siblings, Robert's inheritance was limited to a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes. Cromwell himself in 1654 said "I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity". Records survive of Cromwell's baptism on 29 April 1599 at St John's Church, and his attendance at Huntingdon Grammar School. He went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, which was then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos. He left in June 1617 without taking a degree, immediately after the death of his father. Early biographers claim he then attended Lincoln's Inn, but there is no record of him in the Inn's archives. Fraser (1973) concludes he likely did train at one of the London Inns of Court during this time. His grandfather, his father, and two of his uncles had attended Lincoln's Inn, and Cromwell sent his son Richard there in 1647. Cromwell probably returned home to Huntingdon after his father's death, for his mother was widowed and his seven sisters were unmarried, and he, therefore, was needed at home to help his family. Marriage and family On 22 August 1620 at St Giles-without-Cripplegate, London, Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier (1598–1665). They had nine children: Robert (1621–1639), died while away at school. Oliver (1622–1644), died of typhoid fever while serving as a Parliamentarian officer. Bridget (1624–1662), married (1) Henry Ireton, (2) Charles Fleetwood. Richard (1626–1712), his father's successor as Lord Protector. Henry (1628–1674), later Lord Deputy of Ireland. Elizabeth (1629–1658), married John Claypole. James (b. & d. 1632), died in infancy. Mary (1637–1713), married Thomas Belasyse, 1st Earl Fauconberg. Frances (1638–1720), married (1) Robert Rich, 3rd Earl of Warwick, (2) Sir John Russell, 3rd Baronet. Elizabeth's father, Sir James Bourchier, was a London leather merchant who owned extensive land in Essex and had strong connections with puritan gentry families there. The marriage brought Cromwell into contact with Oliver St John and with leading members of the London merchant community, and behind them the influence of the Earls of Warwick and Holland. A place in this influential network proved crucial to Cromwell’s military and political career. Crisis and recovery Little evidence exists of Cromwell's religion at this stage. His letter in 1626 to Henry Downhall, an Arminian minister, suggests that Cromwell had yet to be influenced by radical puritanism. However, there is evidence that Cromwell went through a period of personal crisis during the late 1620s and early 1630s. He sought treatment for valde melancolicus (depression) from London doctor Theodore de Mayerne in 1628. He was also caught up in a fight among the gentry of Huntingdon over a new charter for the town, as a result of which he was called before the Privy Council in 1630. In 1631 Cromwell sold most of his properties in Huntingdon—probably as a result of the dispute—and moved to a farmstead in St Ives. This was a major step down in society compared with his previous position, and seems to have had a significant emotional and spiritual impact. A 1638 letter survives from Cromwell to his cousin, the wife of Oliver St John, and gives an account of his spiritual awakening. The letter outlines how, having been "the chief of sinners", Cromwell had been called to be among "the congregation of the firstborn". The language of this letter, which is saturated with biblical quotations and which represents Cromwell as having been saved from sin by God's mercy, places his faith firmly within the Independent beliefs that the Reformation had not gone far enough, that much of England was still living in sin, and that Catholic beliefs and practices needed to be fully removed from the church. Along with his brother Henry, Cromwell had kept a smallholding of chickens and sheep, selling eggs and wool to support himself, his lifestyle resembling that of a yeoman farmer. In 1636 Cromwell inherited control of various properties in Ely from his uncle on his mother's side, and his uncle's job as tithe collector for Ely Cathedral. As a result, his income is likely to have risen to around £300–400 per year; by the end of the 1630s Cromwell had returned to the ranks of acknowledged gentry. He had become a committed Puritan and had established important family links to leading families in London and Essex. Member of Parliament: 1628–29 and 1640–42 Cromwell became the Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in the Parliament of 1628–1629, as a client of the Montagu family of Hinchingbrooke House. He made little impression: records for the Parliament show only one speech (against the Arminian Bishop Richard Neile), which was poorly received. After dissolving this Parliament, Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next 11 years. When Charles faced the Scottish rebellion known as the Bishops' Wars, shortage of funds forced him to call a Parliament again in 1640. Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as member for Cambridge, but it lasted for only three weeks and became known as the Short Parliament. Cromwell moved his family from Ely to London in 1640. A second Parliament was called later the same year, and became known as the Long Parliament. Cromwell was again returned as member for Cambridge. As with the Parliament of 1628–29, it is likely that Cromwell owed his position to the patronage of others, which might explain why in the first week of the Parliament he was in charge of presenting a petition for the release of John Lilburne, who had become a puritan martyr after his arrest for importing religious tracts from Holland. For the first two years of the Long Parliament Cromwell was linked to the godly group of aristocrats in the House of Lords and Members of the House of Commons with whom he had established familial and religious links in the 1630s, such as the Earls of Essex, Warwick and Bedford, Oliver St John, and Viscount Saye and Sele. At this stage, the group had an agenda of godly reformation: the executive checked by regular parliaments, and the moderate extension of liberty of conscience. Cromwell appears to have taken a role in some of this group's political manoeuvres. In May 1641, for example, it was Cromwell who put forward the second reading of the Annual Parliaments Bill and later took a role in drafting the Root and Branch Bill for the abolition of episcopacy. Military commander: 1642–46 English Civil War begins Failure to resolve the issues before the Long Parliament led to armed conflict between Parliament and Charles I in late 1642, the beginning of the English Civil War. Before joining Parliament's forces Cromwell's only military experience was in the trained bands, the local county militia. He recruited a cavalry troop in Cambridgeshire after blocking a valuable shipment of silver plate from Cambridge colleges that was meant for the king. Cromwell and his troop then rode to, but arrived too late to take part in the indecisive Battle of Edgehill on 23 October 1642. The troop was recruited to be a full regiment in the winter of 1642 and 1643, making up part of the Eastern Association under the Earl of Manchester. Cromwell gained experience in a number of successful actions in East Anglia in 1643, notably at the Battle of Gainsborough on 28 July. He was subsequently appointed governor of Ely and a colonel in the Eastern Association. Marston Moor By the time of the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of Lieutenant General of horse in Manchester's army. The success of his cavalry in breaking the ranks of the Royalist cavalry and then attacking their infantry from the rear at Marston Moor was a major factor in the Parliamentarian victory. Cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was slightly wounded in the neck, stepping away briefly to receive treatment during the battle but returning to help force the victory. After Cromwell's nephew was killed at Marston Moor he wrote a famous letter to his brother-in-law. Marston Moor secured the north of England for the Parliamentarians, but failed to end Royalist resistance. The indecisive outcome of the Second Battle of Newbury in October meant that by the end of 1644 the war still showed no signs of ending. Cromwell's experience at Newbury, where Manchester had let the King's army slip out of an encircling manoeuvre, led to a serious dispute with Manchester, whom he believed to be less than enthusiastic in his conduct of the war. Manchester later accused Cromwell of recruiting men of "low birth" as officers in the army, to which he replied: "If you choose godly honest men to be captains of horse, honest men will follow them ... I would rather have a plain russet-coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else". At this time, Cromwell also fell into dispute with Major-General Lawrence Crawford, a Scottish Covenanter Presbyterian attached to Manchester's army, who objected to Cromwell's encouragement of unorthodox Independents and Anabaptists. Cromwell's differences with the Scots, then allies of the Parliament, developed into outright enmity in 1648 and in 1650–51. New Model Army Partly in response to the failure to capitalise on their victory at Marston Moor, Parliament passed the Self-Denying Ordinance in early 1645. This forced members of the House of Commons and the Lords, such as Manchester, to choose between civil office and military command. All of them—except Cromwell, whose commission was given continued extensions and was allowed to remain in parliament—chose to renounce their military positions. The Ordinance also decreed that the army be "remodelled" on a national basis, replacing the old county associations; Cromwell contributed significantly to these military reforms. In April 1645 the New Model Army finally took to the field, with Sir Thomas Fairfax in command and Cromwell as Lieutenant-General of cavalry and second-in-command. By this time, the Parliamentarians' field army outnumbered the King's by roughly two to one. Battle of Naseby At the critical Battle of Naseby in June 1645, the New Model Army smashed the King's major army. Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing the Royalist cavalry. At the Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizeable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory, and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England. In October 1645, Cromwell besieged and took the wealthy and formidable Catholic fortress Basing House, later to be accused of killing 100 of its 300-man Royalist garrison after its surrender. Cromwell also took part in successful sieges at Bridgwater, Sherborne, Bristol, Devizes, and Winchester, then spent the first half of 1646 mopping up resistance in Devon and Cornwall. Charles I surrendered to the Scots on 5 May 1646, effectively ending the First English Civil War. Cromwell and Fairfax took the formal surrender of the Royalists at Oxford in June. Cromwell's military style Cromwell had no formal training in military tactics, and followed the common practice of ranging his cavalry in three ranks and pressing forward, relying on impact rather than firepower. His strengths were an instinctive ability to lead and train his men, and his moral authority. In a war fought mostly by amateurs, these strengths were significant and are likely to have contributed to the discipline of his cavalry. Cromwell introduced close-order cavalry formations, with troopers riding knee to knee; this was an innovation in England at the time, and was a major factor in his success. He kept his troops close together following skirmishes where they had gained superiority, rather than allowing them to chase opponents off the battlefield. This facilitated further engagements in short order, which allowed greater intensity and quick reaction to battle developments. This style of command was decisive at both Marston Moor and Naseby. Politics: 1647–49 In February 1647 Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month. By the time he had recovered, the Parliamentarians were split over the issue of the king. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a Presbyterian settlement of the Church. Cromwell rejected the Scottish model of Presbyterianism, which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another. The New Model Army, radicalised by the failure of the Parliament to pay the wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. In May 1647 Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in Saffron Walden to negotiate with them, but failed to agree. In June 1647, a troop of cavalry under Cornet George Joyce seized the King from Parliament's imprisonment. After the King was in arm's reach of Cromwell, he was eager to find out what conditions the King would be willing to compromise on if his authority was restored. The King appeared to be willing to compromise, so Cromwell employed his son-in-law, Henry Ireton, to draw up proposals for a constitutional settlement. Proposals were drafted multiple times with different changes until finally the "Head of the Proposals" pleased Cromwell in principle and would allow for further negotiations. It was designed to check the powers of the executive, to set up regularly elected parliaments, and to restore a non-compulsory Episcopalian settlement. Many in the army, such as the Levellers led by John Lilburne, thought this was not enough and demanded full political equality for all men, leading to tense debates in Putney during the autumn of 1647 between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and radical Levellers like Colonel Rainsborough on the other. The Putney Debates ultimately broke up without reaching a resolution. The debates, and the escape of Charles I from Hampton Court on 12 November, are likely to have hardened Cromwell's resolve against the king. Second Civil War The failure to conclude a political agreement with the king led eventually to the outbreak of the Second English Civil War in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in south Wales led by Rowland Laugharne, winning back Chepstow Castle on 25 May and six days later forcing the surrender of Tenby. The castle at Carmarthen was destroyed by burning. The much stronger castle at Pembroke, however, fell only after a siege of eight weeks. Cromwell dealt leniently with the ex-royalist soldiers, but less so with those who had previously been members of the parliamentary army, John Poyer eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots. Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-Royalist Scottish army (the Engagers) who had invaded England. At Preston, Cromwell, in sole command for the first time and with an army of 9,000, won a brilliant victory against an army twice as large. During 1648, Cromwell's letters and speeches started to become heavily based on biblical imagery, many of them meditations on the meaning of particular passages. For example, after the battle of Preston, study of Psalms 17 and 105 led him to tell Parliament that "they that are implacable and will not leave troubling the land may be speedily destroyed out of the land". A letter to Oliver St John in September 1648 urged him to read Isaiah 8, in which the kingdom falls and only the godly survive. This letter suggests that it was Cromwell's faith, rather than a commitment to radical politics, coupled with Parliament's decision to engage in negotiations with the king at the Treaty of Newport, that convinced him that God had spoken against both the king and Parliament as lawful authorities. For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument. The episode shows Cromwell’s firm belief in "Providentialism"—that God was actively directing the affairs of the world, through the actions of "chosen people" (whom God had "provided" for such purposes). Cromwell believed, during the Civil Wars, that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories as indications of God's approval of his actions, and defeats as signs that God was directing him in another direction. King tried and executed In December 1648, those Members of Parliament who wished to continue negotiations with the king were prevented from sitting for parliament by a troop of soldiers headed by Colonel Thomas Pride, an episode soon to be known as Pride's Purge. Thus weakened, the remaining body of MPs, known as the Rump, agreed that Charles should be tried on a charge of treason. Cromwell was still in the north of England, dealing with Royalist resistance, when these events took place, but then returned to London. On the day after Pride's Purge, he became a determined supporter of those pushing for the king's trial and execution, believing that killing Charles was the only way to end the civil wars. Cromwell approved Thomas Brook's address to the House of Commons, which justified the trial and execution of the King on the basis of the Book of Numbers, chapter 35 and particularly verse 33 ("The land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it."). The death warrant for Charles was eventually signed by 59 of the trying court's members, including Cromwell (who was the third to sign it); Fairfax conspicuously refused to sign. Charles I was executed on 30 January 1649. Establishment of the Commonwealth: 1649 After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the Commonwealth of England. The Rump Parliament exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller Council of State also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the Rump and was appointed a member of the Council. In the early months after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original group of 'Royal Independents' centred around St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. However, only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish Confederate Catholics. In March, Cromwell was chosen by the Rump to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied Cromwell in the subsequent months. In the latter part of the 1640s, Cromwell came across political dissidence in his New Model Army. The “Leveller,” or “Agitator,” movement was a political movement that emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance. These sentiments were expressed in the manifesto “Agreement of the People” in 1647. Cromwell and the rest of the Grandees disagreed with these sentiments in that they gave too much freedom to the people; they believed that the vote should only extend to the landowners. In the Putney Debates of 1647, the two groups debated these topics in hopes of forming a new constitution for England. There were rebellions and mutinies following the debates, and in 1649, the Bishopsgate mutiny resulted in the execution of Leveller Robert Lockyer by firing squad. The next month, the Banbury mutiny occurred with similar results. Cromwell led the charge in quelling these rebellions. After quelling Leveller mutinies within the English army at Andover and Burford in May, Cromwell departed for Ireland from Bristol at the end of July. Irish campaign: 1649–1650 Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649–50. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the royalist alliance, and Protestant royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous". Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in Europe. Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the Irish Rebellion of 1641. This rebellion, although intended to be bloodless, was marked by massacres of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by Irish and Old English, and Highland Scot Catholics in Ireland. These settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants. These factors contributed to the brutality of the Cromwell military campaign in Ireland. Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine-month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held only outposts in Dublin and Derry. When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country. After his landing at Dublin on 15 August 1649 (itself only recently defended from an Irish and English Royalist attack at the Battle of Rathmines), Cromwell took the fortified port towns of Drogheda and Wexford to secure logistical supply from England. At the Siege of Drogheda in September 1649, Cromwell's troops killed nearly 3,500 people after the town's capture—comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners and Roman Catholic priests. Cromwell wrote afterwards that: I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret. At the Siege of Wexford in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances. While Cromwell was apparently trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2,000 Irish troops and up to 1,500 civilians, and burned much of the town. No disciplinary actions were taken against his forces subsequent to this second massacre. After the taking of Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to besiege Waterford, Kilkenny and Clonmel in Ireland's south-east. Kilkenny surrendered on terms, as did many other towns like New Ross and Carlow, but Cromwell failed to take Waterford, and at the siege of Clonmel in May 1650 he lost up to 2,000 men in abortive assaults before the town surrendered. One of his major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. With the help of Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery, Cromwell persuaded the Protestant Royalist troops in Cork to change sides and fight with the Parliament. At this point, word reached Cromwell that Charles II had landed in Scotland and been proclaimed king by the Covenanter regime. Cromwell therefore returned to England from Youghal on 26 May 1650 to counter this threat. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure. The campaigns under Cromwell's successors Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow mostly consisted of long sieges of fortified cities and guerrilla warfare in the countryside. The last Catholic-held town, Galway, surrendered in April 1652 and the last Irish troops capitulated in April of the following year. In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest, the public practice of Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were killed when captured. All Catholic-owned land was confiscated in the Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 and given to Scottish and English settlers, the Parliament's financial creditors and Parliamentary soldiers. The remaining Catholic landowners were allocated poorer land in the province of Connacht—this led to the Cromwellian attributed phrase "To hell or to Connacht". Under the Commonwealth, Catholic landownership dropped from 60% of the total to just 8%. Debate over Cromwell's effect on Ireland The extent of Cromwell's brutality in Ireland has been strongly debated. Some historians argue that Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly but only against those "in arms". Other historians, however, cite Cromwell's contemporary reports to London including that of 27 September 1649 in which he lists the slaying of 3,000 military personnel, followed by the phrase "and many inhabitants". In September 1649, he justified his sacking of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster in 1641, calling the massacre "the righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbued their hands with so much innocent blood." However, Drogheda had never been held by the rebels in 1641—many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children as prisoners of war and indentured servants to Bermuda and Barbados, were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England. However other historians would argue that ultimately he was the commander of these generals. Some point to his actions on entering Ireland. Cromwell demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the civilian inhabitants and that everything should be fairly purchased; "I do hereby warn....all Officers, Soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward Country People or any persons whatsoever, unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy.....as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril." However it should be noted that he landed in Dublin, a city with no Catholic population as they had been previously expelled. Several English soldiers were hanged for disobeying these orders. The massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended Thirty Years War, although there are few comparable incidents during the Civil Wars in England or Scotland, which were fought mainly between Protestant adversaries, albeit of differing denominations. One possible comparison is Cromwell's Siege of Basing House in 1645—the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester—which resulted in about 100 of the garrison of 400 being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties, six Catholic priests and a woman. However, the scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller. Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: "I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives." Cromwell's orders—"in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare any that were in arms in the town"—followed a request for surrender at the start of the siege, which was refused. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to quarter. The refusal of the garrison at Drogheda to do this, even after the walls had been breached, was to Cromwell justification for the massacre. Where Cromwell negotiated the surrender of fortified towns, as at Carlow, New Ross, and Clonmel, some historians argue that he respected the terms of surrender and protected the lives and property of the townspeople. At Wexford, Cromwell again began negotiations for surrender. However, the captain of Wexford castle surrendered during the middle of the negotiations, and in the confusion some of his troops began indiscriminate killing and looting. See also. By the end of the Cromwellian campaign and settlement there had been extensive dispossession of landowners who were Catholic, and a huge drop in population. Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited, and although he did not take on executive powers until 1653, he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and John Morrill suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of ethnic cleansing in Ireland. Faced with the prospect of an Irish alliance with Charles II, Cromwell carried out a series of massacres to subdue the Irish. Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton, adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated 600,000 deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,400,000. The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day. James Joyce, for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel Ulysses: "What about sanctimonious Cromwell and his ironsides that put the women and children of Drogheda to the sword with the bible text God is love pasted round the mouth of his cannon?" Similarly, Winston Churchill described the impact of Cromwell on Anglo-Irish relations: ...upon all of these Cromwell's record was a lasting bane. By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. 'Hell or Connaught' were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred 'The Curse of Cromwell on you.' ... Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'." Cromwell is still a figure of hatred in Ireland, his name being associated with massacre, religious persecution, and mass dispossession of the Catholic community there. As Churchill notes, a traditional Irish curse was mallacht Chromail ort or "the curse of Cromwell upon you". A key surviving statement of Cromwell's own views on the conquest of Ireland is his Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January 1650. In this he was scathing about Catholicism, saying that "I shall not, where I have the power... suffer the exercise of the Mass." However, he also declared that: "as for the people, what thoughts they have in the matter of religion in their own breasts I cannot reach; but I shall think it my duty, if they walk honestly and peaceably, not to cause them in the least to suffer for the same." Private soldiers who surrendered their arms "and shall live peaceably and honestly at their several homes, they shall be permitted so to do." As with many incidents in Cromwell's career, there is debate about the extent of his sincerity in making these public statements: the Rump Parliament's later Act of Settlement of 1652 set out a much harsher policy of execution and confiscation of property of anyone who had supported the uprisings. Former Taoiseach Bertie Ahern insisted that the portrait of Cromwell (‘that murdering bastard’) be taken down from a room in Westminster before he began talks with British prime minister Tony Blair and as recently as 1965 the Irish minister for lands explained that his preferred policies were necessary to, “undo the work of Cromwell”. Scottish campaign: 1650–51 Scots proclaim Charles II as King Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son Charles II as king. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people "fearing His [God's] name, though deceived". He made a famous appeal to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, urging them to see the error of the royal alliance—"I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken." The Scots' reply was robust: "would you have us to be sceptics in our religion?" This decision to negotiate with Charles II led Cromwell to believe that war was necessary. Battle of Dunbar His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie. Sickness began to spread in the ranks. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from Dunbar. However, on 3 September 1650, unexpectedly, Cromwell smashed the main army at the Battle of Dunbar, killing 4,000 Scottish soldiers, taking another 10,000 prisoner and then capturing the Scottish capital of Edinburgh. The victory was of such a magnitude that Cromwell called it, "A high act of the Lord's Providence to us [and] one of the most signal mercies God hath done for England and His people". Battle of Worcester The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made a desperate attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September 1651. At the subsequent Battle of Worcester, Cromwell's forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army. Charles II barely escaped capture, and subsequently fled to exile in France and the Netherlands, where he would remain until 1660. Many of the Scottish prisoners of war taken in the campaigns died of disease, and others were sent as indentured labourers to the colonies. To fight the battle, Cromwell organised an envelopment followed by a multi pronged coordinated attack on Worcester which involved his forces attacking from three directions with two rivers partitioning his force. During the battle, Cromwell switched his reserves from one side of the river Severn to the other and back again. The editor of the Great Rebellion article of the Encyclopædia Britannica, eleventh edition noted that compared to the early Civil War Battle of Turnham Green, Worcester was a battle of manoeuvre, which the English parliamentary armies at the start of the war were unable to execute, and agreed with a German critic that it was a prototype for the Battle of Sedan (1870). Conclusion In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men, under George Monck, sacked Dundee, killing up to 1,000 men and 140 women and children. During the Commonwealth, Scotland was ruled from England, and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands, which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland, from the rest of the country. The north west Highlands was the scene of another pro-royalist uprising in 1653–55, which was only put down with deployment of 6,000 English troops there. Presbyterianism was allowed to be practised as before, but the Kirk (the Scottish church) did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as it had previously. Cromwell's conquest, unwelcome as it was, left no significant lasting legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was, the Highlands aside, largely peaceful. Moreover, there was no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State. Although not often favourably regarded, Cromwell's name rarely meets the hatred in Scotland that it does in Ireland. Return to England and dissolution of the Rump Parliament: 1651–53 From the middle of 1649 until 1651 Cromwell was away on campaign. In the meantime, with the king gone (and with him their common cause), the various factions in Parliament began to engage in infighting. On his return, Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, and although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In frustration, in April 1653 Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government of 40 members (drawn both from the Rump and the army) and then abdicate. However, the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government. Cromwell was so angered by this that on 20 April 1653, supported by about forty musketeers, he cleared the chamber and dissolved the Parliament by force. Several accounts exist of this incident: in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting". At least two accounts agree that Cromwell snatched up the mace, symbol of Parliament's power, and demanded that the "bauble" be taken away. Cromwell's troops were commanded by Charles Worsley, later one of his Major Generals and one of his most trusted advisors, to whom he entrusted the mace. Establishment of Barebones Parliament: 1653 After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a "sanhedrin" of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic, Fifth Monarchist beliefs—which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth—he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on 4 July 1653, Cromwell thanked God’s providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: "truly God hath called you to this work by, I think, as wonderful providences as ever passed upon the sons of men in so short a time." Sometimes known as the Parliament of Saints or more commonly the Nominated Assembly, it was also called the Barebones Parliament after one of its members, Praise-God Barebone. The assembly was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement (Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined). However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December 1653, out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly. The Protectorate: 1653–58 After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government, closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake “the chief magistracy and the administration of government”. Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia. However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', the P being an abbreviation for Protector, which was similar to the style of monarchs who used an R to mean Rex or Regina, and it soon became the norm for others to address him as "Your Highness". As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year. Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take. Although Cromwell declared to the first Protectorate Parliament that, "Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental," in practice social priorities took precedence over forms of government. Such forms were, he said, "but ... dross and dung in comparison of Christ". The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!", Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. England's American colonies in this period consisted of the New England Confederation, the Providence Plantation, the Virginia Colony and the Maryland Colony. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony at the Battle of the Severn, by his confirming the former Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate. Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September 1654. He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting". However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament’s bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655. Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inward godliness throughout England. During the early months of the Protectorate, a set of "triers" was established to assess the suitability of future parish ministers, and a related set of "ejectors" was set up to dismiss ministers and schoolmasters who were deemed unsuitable for office. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship. This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a royalist uprising in March 1655, led by Sir John Penruddock, Cromwell (influenced by Lambert) divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major Generals who answered only to him. The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to national security, but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals. The generals not only supervised militia forces and security commissions, but collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English and Welsh provinces. Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament—instated in September 1656—voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened the wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime. As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of Holland, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell's tolerance of the right to private worship of those who fell outside evangelical Puritanism—that led to his encouraging Jews to return to England in 1657, over 350 years after their banishment by Edward I, in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars. There was a longer-term motive for Cromwell's decision to allow the Jews to return to England, and that was the hope that they would convert to Christianity and therefore hasten the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, ultimately based on Matthew 23:37–39 and Romans 11. At the Whitehall conference of December 1655 he quoted from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans 10:12–15 on the need to send Christian preachers to the Jews. Cromwell's long-term religious motive for readmitting the Jews to England should not be doubted, after all he was serious enough to ban Christmas as a pagan festival. William Prynne the Presbyterian, unlike Cromwell the Congregationalist, was strongly opposed to the latter's pro-Jewish policy. In 1657, Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April 1657 he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of king: “I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build Jericho again”. The reference to Jericho harks back to a previous occasion on which Cromwell had wrestled with his conscience when the news reached England of the defeat of an expedition against the Spanish-held island of Hispaniola in the West Indies in 1655—comparing himself to Achan, who had brought the Israelites defeat after bringing plunder back to camp after the capture of Jericho. Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially re-installed as Lord Protector on 26 June 1657 at Westminster Hall, sitting upon King Edward's Chair, which was moved specially from Westminster Abbey for the occasion. The event in part echoed a coronation, using many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre (but not a crown or an orb). But, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary, though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the Humble Petition and Advice, a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government. Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a house of life peers (in place of the House of Lords). In the Humble Petition it was called the Other House as the Commons could not agree on a suitable name. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy. In particular, he created two baronages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice—Charles Howard was made Viscount Morpeth and Baron Gisland in July 1657 and Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658. Cromwell, however, was at pains to minimise his role, describing himself as a constable or watchman. Death and posthumous execution Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria and from "stone", a common term for urinary/kidney infections. In 1658 he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. A Venetian physician tracked Cromwell's final illness, saying Cromwell's personal physicians were mismanaging his health, leading to a rapid decline and death. The decline may also have been hastened by the death of one of his daughters, Elizabeth Claypole, in August. He died age 59 at Whitehall on Friday 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester. The most likely cause of Cromwell's death was septicaemia following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral based on that of James I, at Westminster Abbey, his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there. He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Although not entirely without ability, Richard had no power base in either Parliament or the Army, and was forced to resign in May 1659, ending the Protectorate. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the short lived reinstated Commonwealth, so George Monck, the English governor of Scotland, at the head of New Model Army regiments was able to march on London, and restore the Long Parliament. Under Monck's watchful eye the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that in 1660 Charles II could be invited back from exile to be king under a restored monarchy. In 30 January 1661, (the 12th anniversary of the execution of Charles I), Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey, and was subjected to the ritual of a posthumous execution, as were the remains of Robert Blake, John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton. (The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.) His disinterred body was hanged in chains at Tyburn, and then thrown into a pit, while his severed head was displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until 1685. However, many people began to question whether or not the body mutilated at Tyburn was in fact that of Cromwell. These doubts arose because it was assumed that between his death in September 1658 and the exhumation of January 1661, Cromwell’s body was buried and reburied in several places to protect it from vengeful royalists. The stories suggest that his bodily remains are buried in London, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire or Yorkshire. It continues to be questioned whether the body mutilated at Tyburn was in fact that of Oliver Cromwell. The Cromwell vault was later used as a burial place for Charles II’s illegitimate descendants. Afterwards, the head changed hands several times, including its sale in 1814 to Josiah Henry Wilkinson, before eventually being buried in the grounds of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1960. In Westminster Abbey, the site of Cromwell’s burial was marked during the 19th century by a floor stone in what is now the Air Force Chapel, reading, "THE BURIAL PLACE OF OLIVER CROMWELL 1658–1661". Political reputation During his lifetime, some tracts painted him as a hypocrite motivated by power—for example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered, both part of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after 1647, present him as a Machiavellian figure. More positive contemporary assessments—for instance, John Spittlehouse in A Warning Piece Discharged—typically compared him to Moses, rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars. Several biographies were published soon after his death. An example is The Perfect Politician, which described how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and gave a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience brought down by pride and ambition. An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. Clarendon famously declared that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". He argued that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped not only by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy. During the early eighteenth century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs, as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. A version of Edmund Ludlow’s Memoirs, re-written by John Toland to excise the radical Puritanical elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, presented the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny. Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the 1640s. During the early nineteenth century, Cromwell began to be adopted by Romantic artists and poets. Thomas Carlyle continued this reassessment of Cromwell in the 1840s by presenting him as a hero in the battle between good and evil and a model for restoring morality to an age that Carlyle believed to have been dominated by timidity, meaningless rhetoric, and moral compromise. Cromwell's actions, including his campaigns in Ireland and his dissolution of the Long Parliament, according to Carlyle, had to be appreciated and praised as a whole. By the late 19th century, Carlyle's portrayal of Cromwell, stressing the centrality of puritan morality and earnestness, had become assimilated into Whig and Liberal historiography. The Oxford civil war historian Samuel Rawson Gardiner concluded that "the man—it is ever so with the noblest—was greater than his work". Gardiner stressed Cromwell’s dynamic and mercurial character, and his role in dismantling absolute monarchy, while underestimating Cromwell’s religious conviction. Cromwell’s foreign policy also provided an attractive forerunner of Victorian imperial expansion, with Gardiner stressing his “constancy of effort to make England great by land and sea”. During the first half of the twentieth century, Cromwell's reputation was often influenced by the rise of fascism in Nazi Germany and in Italy. Wilbur Cortez Abbott, for example—a Harvard historian—devoted much of his career to compiling and editing a multi-volume collection of Cromwell's letters and speeches. In this work, which was published between 1937 and 1947, Abbott began to argue that Cromwell was a proto-fascist. However, subsequent historians such as John Morrill have criticised both Abbott's interpretation of Cromwell and his editorial approach. Ernest Barker similarly compared the Independents to the Nazis. Nevertheless, not all historical comparisons made at this time drew on contemporary military dictators. Late twentieth-century historians re-examined the nature of Cromwell's faith and of his authoritarian regime. Austin Woolrych explored the issue of "dictatorship" in depth, arguing that Cromwell was subject to two conflicting forces: his obligation to the army and his desire to achieve a lasting settlement by winning back the confidence of the political nation as a whole. Woolrych argued that the dictatorial elements of Cromwell's rule stemmed not so much from its military origins or the participation of army officers in civil government, as from his constant commitment to the interest of the people of God and his conviction that suppressing vice and encouraging virtue constituted the chief end of government. Historians such as John Morrill, Blair Worden and J. C. Davis have developed this theme, revealing the extent to which Cromwell’s writing and speeches are suffused with biblical references, and arguing that his radical actions were driven by his zeal for godly reformation. Monuments and posthumous honours In 1776, one of the first ships commissioned to serve in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War was named Oliver Cromwell. Nineteenth-century engineer Sir Richard Tangye was a noted Cromwell enthusiast and collector of Cromwell manuscripts and memorabilia. His collection included many rare manuscripts and printed books, medals, paintings, objects d'art and a bizarre assemblage of "relics." This includes Cromwell's bible, button, coffin plate, death mask and funeral escutcheon. On Tangye's death, the entire collection was donated to the Museum of London, where it can still be seen. In 1875 a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the cathedral, a gift to the city by Mrs. Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband. It was the first such large-scale statue to be erected in the open in England and was a realistic likeness, based on the painting by Peter Lely and showing Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. The statue was unpopular with local Conservatives and the large Irish immigrant population. When Queen Victoria was invited to open the new Manchester Town Hall, she is alleged to have consented on condition that the statue of Cromwell be removed. The statue remained, Victoria declined, and the Town Hall was instead opened by the Lord Mayor. During the 1980s the statue was relocated outside Wythenshawe Hall, which had been occupied by Cromwell's troops. During the 1890s plans to erect a statue of Cromwell outside Parliament also proved to be controversial. Pressure from the Irish Nationalist Party forced the withdrawal of a motion to seek public funding for the project, which was eventually funded privately by Lord Rosebery. Cromwell controversy continued into the 20th century. As First Lord of the Admiralty before the First World War, Winston Churchill twice suggested naming a British battleship HMS Oliver Cromwell. The suggestion was vetoed by King George V, not only because of his personal feelings but because he felt, given the anger caused by the erection of the statue outside Parliament, to give such a name to an expensive warship at a time of Irish political unrest was unwise. Churchill was eventually told by the First Sea Lord Admiral Battenberg that the king's decision must be treated as final. The Cromwell Tank, a British Second World War medium weight tank first used in 1944, and a steam locomotive built by British Railways in 1951, 70013 Oliver Cromwell were both named after Cromwell. Title as Lord Protector 16 December 1653 – 3 September 1658: His Highness By the Grace of God and Republic, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland.	i don't know
Bute House is the official residence of the holder of which position?	Bute House - First Minister of Scotland Home » About » Bute House Bute House Bute House in Charlotte Square in Edinburgh’s New Town serves as the First Minister’s official residence while working in the capital, including during the Parliamentary week. The Office of the First Minister features the distinctive Georgian doorway of Bute House. The category A-listed building sits on the north side of the grand square created in the late 18th century as part of James Craig’s First New Town plan unveiled in 1767. It would be more than two decades before neoclassical architect Robert Adam was commissioned in 1791 to design unified frontages for Charlotte Square. In 1999, following devolution and the reconvening of the Scottish Parliament, Bute House became the official residence for the First Minister of Scotland. While the living quarters include a small office, the First Minister has two other larger working offices in Edinburgh , one at nearby St Andrew’s House on Regent Road, which is the main headquarter building for the Scottish Government ,and the other in the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood. Drawing Room chandelier A report from the Simon Wiesenthal Center , published in 2008, raised questions about the origin of the decorative chandelier that hangs in the Bute House drawing room. The current origin of the chandelier is believed to be based on a written account that had been held by the Bute family and displayed in the drawing room along with the chandelier. This describes how interior decorator Felix Harbord, while serving in the military during WWII, recovered the damaged chandelier from Germany in 1945 after finding it “abandoned in the streets of Cleves”. He delivered it to Lady Bute, who arranged for its repair and installation at Bute House. Following the emergence of the Wiesenthal Centre report, the National Trust for Scotland undertook a preliminary investigation within its archives of the provenance of the chandelier and could find no conclusive evidence that the chandelier had been looted from Germany. The National Trust for Scotland said: “Unfortunately, back in the 1960s, when Bute House and its fixtures and fittings were acquired by the Treasury, it was not common for the detailed histories of objects to be investigated. They would simply be acquired, catalogued and put on display. “Nowadays there is a much more rigorous approach and all museums and galleries in the UK are particularly mindful of the issues surrounding items acquired in the 1930s and 1940s. “With this particular chandelier, all we have to go on is the written account passed on by the Marquess of Bute’s estate. The scenario painted by the Simon Wiesenthal Center is concerning but we still have no conclusive evidence to confirm that the chandelier was indeed looted. “Nevertheless, as responsible custodians, we will lodge details of the chandelier on the central spoliation database. This contains a list of artefacts held in the UK of uncertain provenance and enables anyone who may have further information to come forward.“ Following this confirmation from the National Trust, the Scottish Government set out its position on stolen artwork from WWII. A government spokesman said: “The Scottish Government deplores the illegal looting of artwork that took place during World War II and other conflicts and is supportive of global efforts to increase awareness of the problem and establish the rightful provenance of items that may have been stolen. We support the aims of the UK-wide National Museum Directors’ Council (NMDC), which has set out a statement of principles and actions for member organisations on the spoliation of works of art during the Holocaust and WWII. “Following the claims made in the Simon Wiesenthal Centre report about the Bute House drawing room chandelier, the National Trust has established that it has no further information in its archives about the chandelier’s provenance beyond the information already made public. We will now establish whether there are any further sources of information that may offer further insight into the chandelier. “In line with the recommendations of the NMDC, we will make public any further information that comes to light and we will also take immediate steps to update all relevant published information on the chandelier. “We welcome the decision by the National Trust to place the chandelier on the spoliation database. This database already includes details of artworks held in museums and galleries in Scotland from this period where detailed investigation has yet to establish provenance and is an important tool in establishing the facts around stolen artwork from this period.”	First Minister of Scotland
Which General and Commander-in Chief led the New Model Army at the Battle of Naseby in 1645?	Bute House - First Minister of Scotland Home » About » Bute House Bute House Bute House in Charlotte Square in Edinburgh’s New Town serves as the First Minister’s official residence while working in the capital, including during the Parliamentary week. The Office of the First Minister features the distinctive Georgian doorway of Bute House. The category A-listed building sits on the north side of the grand square created in the late 18th century as part of James Craig’s First New Town plan unveiled in 1767. It would be more than two decades before neoclassical architect Robert Adam was commissioned in 1791 to design unified frontages for Charlotte Square. In 1999, following devolution and the reconvening of the Scottish Parliament, Bute House became the official residence for the First Minister of Scotland. While the living quarters include a small office, the First Minister has two other larger working offices in Edinburgh , one at nearby St Andrew’s House on Regent Road, which is the main headquarter building for the Scottish Government ,and the other in the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood. Drawing Room chandelier A report from the Simon Wiesenthal Center , published in 2008, raised questions about the origin of the decorative chandelier that hangs in the Bute House drawing room. The current origin of the chandelier is believed to be based on a written account that had been held by the Bute family and displayed in the drawing room along with the chandelier. This describes how interior decorator Felix Harbord, while serving in the military during WWII, recovered the damaged chandelier from Germany in 1945 after finding it “abandoned in the streets of Cleves”. He delivered it to Lady Bute, who arranged for its repair and installation at Bute House. Following the emergence of the Wiesenthal Centre report, the National Trust for Scotland undertook a preliminary investigation within its archives of the provenance of the chandelier and could find no conclusive evidence that the chandelier had been looted from Germany. The National Trust for Scotland said: “Unfortunately, back in the 1960s, when Bute House and its fixtures and fittings were acquired by the Treasury, it was not common for the detailed histories of objects to be investigated. They would simply be acquired, catalogued and put on display. “Nowadays there is a much more rigorous approach and all museums and galleries in the UK are particularly mindful of the issues surrounding items acquired in the 1930s and 1940s. “With this particular chandelier, all we have to go on is the written account passed on by the Marquess of Bute’s estate. The scenario painted by the Simon Wiesenthal Center is concerning but we still have no conclusive evidence to confirm that the chandelier was indeed looted. “Nevertheless, as responsible custodians, we will lodge details of the chandelier on the central spoliation database. This contains a list of artefacts held in the UK of uncertain provenance and enables anyone who may have further information to come forward.“ Following this confirmation from the National Trust, the Scottish Government set out its position on stolen artwork from WWII. A government spokesman said: “The Scottish Government deplores the illegal looting of artwork that took place during World War II and other conflicts and is supportive of global efforts to increase awareness of the problem and establish the rightful provenance of items that may have been stolen. We support the aims of the UK-wide National Museum Directors’ Council (NMDC), which has set out a statement of principles and actions for member organisations on the spoliation of works of art during the Holocaust and WWII. “Following the claims made in the Simon Wiesenthal Centre report about the Bute House drawing room chandelier, the National Trust has established that it has no further information in its archives about the chandelier’s provenance beyond the information already made public. We will now establish whether there are any further sources of information that may offer further insight into the chandelier. “In line with the recommendations of the NMDC, we will make public any further information that comes to light and we will also take immediate steps to update all relevant published information on the chandelier. “We welcome the decision by the National Trust to place the chandelier on the spoliation database. This database already includes details of artworks held in museums and galleries in Scotland from this period where detailed investigation has yet to establish provenance and is an important tool in establishing the facts around stolen artwork from this period.”	i don't know
Which duo had number one hits during the 1980's with 'Heart' and 'It's A Sin'?	It's a sin - Pet Shop Boys - 1987 \| 80 In Musica It's a sin - Pet Shop Boys - 1987 Pet Shop Boys Fonte: rockol.it I Pet Shop Boys si formano a Londra nell’agosto del 1981, quando Neil Tennant conosce il tastierista Chris Lowe, con il quale scopre di avere in comune una certa passione per la musica dance e i sintetizzatori. Nel 1984 il gruppo pubblica il suo primo singolo, “West end girls”, che ottiene successo solo dopo qualche tempo. L’anno d’oro per il gruppo sembra essere il 1987, quando escono ben tre singoli di successo come “It’s a sin”, “You were always on my mind” e "What have I done to deserve this?”, un duetto tra Tennant e Dusty Springfield. Seguono altri singoli di successo e produzioni eccellenti, con album come BEHAVIOUR, VERY, e BILINGUAL, che offre un’inaspettata apertura world al suono del gruppo. Nel 1999 il gruppo pubblica NIGHTLIFE, mentre è del 2002 il successivo RELEASE, che si mantiene a livelli appena sufficienti. Nell’estate del 2002 il gruppo è invitato ad esibirsi al Sonar di Barcellona. Dopo la raccolta POPART, nel maggio 2006 esce FUNDAMENTAL, prodotto da Trevor Horn. Nel 2009 è la volta di YES, che vede la partecipazione di Johnny Marr, mentre nel 2010, dopo la pubblicazione di una raccolta, esce PANDEMONIUM, CD/DVD che documenta il tour brasiliano. Dopo la realizzazione di ULTIMATE, terza raccolta per celebrare i venticinque anni dall’esordio, viene realizzato, nel 2011, THE MOST INCREDIBLE THING, lavoro basato dal racconto di Handersen da cui i Pet Shop Boys traggono un balletto al al Sadlers Wells di Londra. Source: allmusic.com Post-modern ironists cloaked behind a veil of buoyantly melodic and lushly romantic synth pop confections, Pet Shop Boys established themselves among the most commercially and critically successful groups of their era with cheeky, smart, and utterly danceable music. Always remaining one step ahead of their contemporaries, the British duo navigated the constantly shifting landscape of modern dance-pop with rare grace and intelligence, moving easily from disco to house to techno with their own distinctive image remaining completely intact. Satiric and irreverent -- yet somehow strangely affecting -- they also transcended the seeming disposability of their craft, offering wry and thoughtful cultural commentary communicated by the Morse code of au courant synth washes and drum-machine rhythms. Pet Shop Boys formed in London in August 1981, when vocalist Neil Tennant (a former editor at Marvel Comics who later gained some recognition as a journalist for Smash Hits magazine) first met keyboardist Chris Lowe (a onetime architecture student) at an electronics shop. Discovering a shared passion for dance music and synthesizers, they immediately decided to start a band. After dubbing themselves Pet Shop Boys in honor of friends who worked in such an establishment -- while also obliquely nodding to the sort of names prevalent among the New York City hip-hop culture of the early '80s -- the duo's career first took flight in 1983, when Tennant met producer Bobby "O" Orlando while on a writing assignment. Orlando produced their first single, 1984's "West End Girls." The song was a minor hit in the U.S. but went nowhere in Britain, and its follow-up, "One More Chance," was also unsuccessful. Please Upon signing to EMI, Pet Shop Boys issued 1985's biting "Opportunities (Let's Make Lots of Money)." When it too failed to attract attention, the duo's future appeared grim, but Tennant and Lowe then released an evocative new Stephen Hague production of "West End Girls," which became an international chart-topper. Its massive success propelled Pet Shop Boys' 1986 debut LP, Please, into the Top Ten, and when "Opportunities" was subsequently reissued, it too became a hit. Disco, a collection of dance remixes, was quickly rushed into stores, and in 1987 the duo resurfaced with the superb Actually, which launched two more Top Ten smashes -- "It's a Sin" and "What Have I Done to Deserve This?," a duet between Tennant and the great Dusty Springfield. Later that year, "Always on My Mind," a lovely cover of the perennial Elvis Presley standard, reached number one in several countries and the Top Ten in the U.S. A documentary film titled It Couldn't Happen Here was released one year later. Introspective In October 1988, Pet Shop Boys issued their third studio LP, the eclectic Introspective. "Domino Dancing" and "Left to My Own Devices" both reached the Top Ten in Great Britain. The following year, Pet Shop Boys collaborated with a variety of performers, most notably Liza Minnelli, for whom they produced the 1989 LP Results. They also produced material for Springfield, and Tennant joined New Order frontman Bernard Sumner and ex-Smiths guitarist Johnny Marr in the group Electronic, scoring a hit with the single "Getting Away with It." Tennant and Lowe reconvened in 1990 for the muted, downcast Behavior, produced by Harold Faltermeyer. Their hit medley of U2's "Where the Streets Have No Name" and Frankie Valli's "Can't Take My Eyes Off You" was released in 1991, and was followed in 1993 by Very, lauded as among the duo's finest efforts to date. Bilingual After a three-year absence, Pet Shop Boys resurfaced with Bilingual, a fluid expansion into Latin rhythms. Nightlife followed in 1999 and sparked the dance club hit "New York City Boy," whose success allowed the group to tour the U.S. for the first time in eight years. While on tour, the duo also collaborated with playwright Jonathan Harvey on a musical surrounding gay life and societal criticisms, which the three had been planning since 1997. Closer to Heaven made its West End debut in 2001 and had a successful run for most of the year; Pet Shop Boys' score of the original cast recording was also a hit in the U.K. They still had time to make a record for themselves, too -- in April 2002, Tennant and Lowe issued Release, and Disco 3 was compiled for release the following year. Back to MinePet Shop Boys continued releasing material throughout the decade's latter half. In 2005, they put together a volume of the Back to Mine series and released their soundtrack designed to accompany the 1925 silent film Battleship Potemkin, a soundtrack they'd performed a year earlier at a free concert/screening in Trafalgar Square. A year later, they issued Fundamental, a mature, sometimes political album produced by Trevor Horn. The live album Concrete: In Concert at the Mermaid Theatre appeared at the end of the year, and Yes -- a collaborative effort with the production crew Xenomania -- marked the band's tenth studio effort in March 2009. While playing shows in support of that album, Pet Shop Boys also released a hits compilation, Party, to coincide with the Brazilian leg of their tour. In 2010, the tour was documented on the CD/DVD release Pandemonium, and another greatest-hits compilation, Ultimate, arrived. The Most Incredible Thing Their 2011 effort, The Most Incredible Thing, was a two-disc ballet score composed for the Sadler's Wells Theater in London, while 2012's Format rounded up the duo's B-sides and bonus tracks from the years 1996-2009. Also in 2012, the duo released the sports-themed single "Winner" and performed the track at the 2012 Olympics Summer Games, held that year in their hometown of London. The track landed on that year's album Elysium, which was produced by Kanye West affiliate Andrew Dawson. Stuart Price (Madonna, Seal, Kylie Minogue) was the producer of 2013's Electric, an album that featured no ballads, just dance tracks. In May of 2014, the duo announced more original music, this a concert piece scheduled for a July date at Royal Albert Hall, commemorating British codebreaker Alan Turing and including the BBC Concert Orchestra.	Pet Shop Boys
Named after the German bacteriologist who invented it, what name is given to the cylindrical lidded dish used by biologists to culture cells?	Pet Shop Boys 'It's A Sin' \| Sarm East Having acquired a love of recording technology in his native Melbourne, Australia during the late '60s, Mendelsohn relocated to England just after leaving school in 1971. This wasn't out of choice — the move was necessitated by his widowed mother's marriage to a British diplomat — but within a couple of years, after recording voice‑overs and background music for a company that produced audio‑visuals for conferences, Sarm West Studios, Notting Hill, London.he landed an engineering job at the small Milner Sound studio on London's Fulham Road. It was there that owner John Milner, an ex‑BBC engineer, taught Mendelsohn the basics of mic placement, multitrack recording and tape editing. Following a five‑year stint that saw him work with anyone from actor Michael Hordern to vocalists Linda Lewis and Paul Rodgers, the Aussie ex‑pat made the transition from eight‑track to 48‑track in one fell swoop, when Jill Sinclair asked him to join the engineering team at her Sarm East facility in London's East End. Initially working alongside Gary Langan as a tape‑op/tea‑boy, Mendelsohn subsequently earned his recording andmixing stripes on projects with Yes, the Buggles, Nik Kershaw, Tracey Ullman, Bronski Beat, Bob Marley, Musical Youth, Frankie Goes To Hollywood, Go West, Kate Bush, ABC and Level 42. "At Sarm, Gary and I were on the cutting edge of all the new equipment,” Mendelsohn recalls. "Initially, the console was a Trident TSM and it was the first 48‑track studio in Europe with two Studer A80s. There was also the Fairlight, the Linn Drum, the Synclavier and all of this other state‑of‑the‑art gear, and when the 48‑channel SSL arrived in 1982 it was only the second or third of those desks in the UK. It was a brilliant place to work.” Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe in Sarm West's Studio 2 control room during the recording of Actually.And it was also a great place to observe and learn from the contrasting production methods of Trevor Horn and Peter Collins. "Trevor would usually end up taking a long, complex route to get the desired result, whereas Peter would usually take the quickest and most efficient way,” Mendelsohn explains. "Peter would work from 10 in the morning until eight at night, Trevor would work from 11 in the morning until 11 in the morning, and both of them got fantastic results and were huge influences on me.” Although more in tune with Peter Collins' style of working, Mendelsohn would find himself caught up in the Trevor Horn approach on 'It's A Sin', but not before he'd already gone freelance and been cajoled into producing and engineering the hit track 'Suburbia' from the first Pet Shop Boys album, Please, in 1985. "I didn't think their music would be my cup of tea, so at first I was a little reluctant,” he now recalls. "However, Jill Sinclair, who was managing me, pushed me into doing it, and it was an absolutely fantastic experience. They were great to work with. They'd come up with terrific material and some really good ideas, and the sound was totally theirs — that was them telling other people how they wanted to sound and they were also responsible for all the arrangements. Chris was the one who came up with the hooks — the little synthesizer parts that you always remember — and Neil was really good in terms of the arrangement. They were very talented.” Sarm West While Stephen Hague produced and engineered most of Please, he did the same for only a few of the 10 tracks on Actually. One of them was 'What Have I Done To Deserve This?' which featured Neil Tennant duetting with soul icon Dusty Springfield on a number about the mundane lives of bored '80s yuppies; 'Heart' was helmed by Andy Richards and mixed by Julian Mendelsohn; and Mendelsohn produced and engineered 'One More Chance', 'Shopping', 'Rent', 'Hit Music' and 'It's A Sin'. While 'What Have I Done To Deserve This?' was mixed by Mendelsohn, Hague ended up remixing 'It's A Sin'. "We swapped our percentages,” Mendelsohn says with a laugh. "There was an agreement.” The venue for all this work was Sarm West's Studio 2, which housed a 48‑channel E‑Series SSL and a Mitsubishi X850 digital 32‑track. And in line with his preferred method of working, Mendelsohn had the Pet Shop Boys and their programming colleagues — including Richards, JJ Jeczalik and Gary Maughan — record the songs piecemeal. That way, they could constantly switch between tracks rather than complete one before commencing another. "We never laboured on any track for more than a few hours,” he says. "Otherwise, we'd just lose perspective. We wanted to keep everything fresh, and that was the way I generally liked to work. It was the Peter Collins approach: record, record, record. Most of it would be good, some might have to be done again. The only exception was when we were on a mission for a particular song part and might spend the whole day on it.” A case in point was 'It's A Sin', which, according to Mendelsohn, involved so much input on his part that he lost his objectivity on a couple of occasions and also lost his way. "I remember describing a sound or a feel that I was after and Andy not quite understanding what I wanted,” he says, referring to Andy Richards, who was the Fairlight and keyboard programmer on several of the tracks. "We were still there at midnight and he was saying, 'Well, what do you want?' My answer was, 'I want it like this, but I can't quite explain,' and there were a couple of times when we got fairly angry and frustrated with each other. I had this thing in my mind: 'I want it like that and I'm going to get it like that.'” Credit Where Credit's Due The control room in Sarm West's Studio 2. The 1984 sub‑six‑minute demo of the song, as produced by Bobby Orlando, is similar to the finished record in terms of melody, tempo, and even Neil Tennant's vocal, but it lacks the atmospherics and drama of the released version: no NASA countdown, no choral chanting, no Latin mass, no cracks of thunder. Still, it was more than enough to serve as a template, and when work commenced on this at Sarm West, the track's general framework was quickly established. "We started with the bass line and drum pattern and then began adding keyboards,” Julian Mendelsohn recalls. "A lot of that was Fairlight, some of it was Roland rackmounted units, and after we recorded a guide vocal with a Neumann U87 we just built the track up from there. At one point, I remember taking a Nagra to Brompton Oratory [nickname of the Church Of The Immaculate Heart Of Mary on Brompton Road in South Kensington]. So that may be where we recorded the Catholic mass. "The whole overblown production style was them telling me they wanted it overblown. And I was quite good at being overblown at that time. So was Andy Richards, who could be quite over the top. He did a lot of the programming on [Frankie Goes To Hollywood's] 'Relax' and a bit on 'Two Tribes', so there was a fair bit of Andy in 'It's A Sin'. He created that thunder sound on a Roland keyboard, and as things kept getting added, the two of us got quite carried away. There was no game plan; we just tried things, and if they worked, they worked, and if they didn't, we chucked them. "My role as a producer on that album was just getting it all recorded. I also made a few suggestions here and there — you know, 'We can get a better sound for this' or 'Try singing that part again.' In those days, Neil wasn't a great singer and he knew it. So, there was always a bit of work involved in getting his vocals right. He's improved a hell of a lot since then. Julian Mendelsohn (left) and assistant at Sarm West, 1987."I always recorded things the way I wanted them to sound, so I never changed much in the mix. I mean, if you're not recording something the way you want it to sound in the end, what are you doing? You might as well get it right to start with. Neil and Chris would normally leave the studio at around seven or eight o'clock every night, giving us a list of things they'd like us to do, and then they would come back the next morning and tell us what they did and didn't like. So, that's how we'd develop a track, adding things all the time, and we would know when we had enough. In fact, we'd often have too much, which is why we would also dump some stuff. "The five tracks I did on that album took a total of about eight or nine weeks to record and mix, and after that I had to leave for a project with Level 42. Then, when I returned two or three weeks later, I was told that Stephen [Hague] had been given a shot at mixing 'It's A Sin' and that was the mix they were going to use. He did a couple of neat little things, including dropping half a bar halfway through each verse to create a turnaround effect. I know that wasn't in the mix I did, but none of that bothered me. What was good was good. Some engineers used to get really upset when other people mixed their stuff, but I wasn't like that. All that mattered was everybody being happy with the end result. "Still, even though Stephen's mix was the one that became a hit and was a bit more clever than mine, it was my one that actually sounded better. You could hear separate things jumping out at you and it had greater dynamics and a fatter sound, but it also got a bit boring from about halfway through the track and didn't maintain the interest as much as Stephen's mix. By bringing a pair of fresh ears to the proceedings, he was able to zero in on what the track needed. "The exact opposite happened with 'What Have I Done to Deserve This?' Stephen had been working on the track for a week or two and was bored with it, and my fresh ears did the trick. You see, even though Dusty was a great singer, she was very long‑winded when it came to getting the vocals right to her own satisfaction. In fact, when we did 'Nothing Has Been Proved' with her for Scandal, the film about the Profumo Affair, it really was like pulling teeth. She actually had a plan as to how she was going to sing the song from beginning to end — it wasn't random — but she'd only make it so far and, if she didn't get the last couple of words right, she'd say, 'No, I've got to start again,' because she wanted to do it all in one go. "That's how it was every step of the way, and I remember Neil and I looking at each other as if to say, 'Christ, this is going to take forever.' And it did take forever. We ended up having to sift our way through 20 tracks of vocals, but we got a fantastic result in the end, at which point we looked at each other as if to say, 'Well, that's why she took so long.' I had already worked with Paul Rodgers, who was one of the greatest rock singers in the world, and Dusty Springfield was another one. She was incredible.” Actually... Following the November 1986 release of Disco, a collection of remixes of tracks from Please and the respective B‑sides, Actually was the third Pet Shop Boys album but only the second to feature entirely new material. Issued in September of 1987, it sold over four million copies and spawned four UK top 10 singles: 'It's A Sin', 'Rent', 'What Have I Done To Deserve This?' — which, peaking at number two in both the UK and the US, was the biggest hit of Dusty Springfield's career — and a remixed version of 'Heart' that turned into another UK chart‑topper. "For the first year after I finish a record, I'll often listen to it and think, 'Oh God, why did I do this bit here? I should have done that,' but then I'll forget about all those little things that really wouldn't have made any difference,” says Julian Mendelsohn. After producing more Pet Shop Boys material — including the hit cover of 'Always On My Mind' — he mixed 1990's Behaviour album and worked with the likes of Paul McCartney, Tasmin Archer, INXS, Fine Young Cannibals, Aztec Camera, Del Amitri, ABC, Go West, Kate Bush, Simple Minds and Liza Minnelli (who he co‑produced with the Pet Shop Boys). Having relocated back to his hometown of Melbourne in 2005, he is currently recording a second album with New Zealand band the Glorious and doing work for various other local artists. "Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe were great people to work with,” he continues. "Pretty easy going, no stress, lots of ideas, always great tunes. What more can you ask for? If you're an engineer, it's the material you're given that supplies you with a good or bad sound. Of course, if you're a producer like Trevor Horn, you can take anything and mould it into something fantastic, but for the engineer it's what you're given from the other side of the microphone that serves as the basis of what you're going to end up with, and in that regard the Pet Shop Boys' material and performances of that material was hard to beat.”	i don't know
Losing in 1997, who was the last Frenchman to reach the Wimbledon Men's Singles Final?	Djokovic back in Wimbledon final after beating Gasquet You are using an older browser version. Please use a supported version for the best MSN experience. Djokovic back in Wimbledon final after beating Gasquet Associated Press 7/10/2015 By STEPHEN WILSON LONDON (AP) Defending champion Novak Djokovic is back in the Wimbledon final for the fourth time in five years after subduing Richard Gasquet in straight sets. < PREVIOUS SLIDE SLIDE 1 of 5 NEXT SLIDE > Novak Djokovic of Serbia celebrates winning the singles match against Richard Gasquet of France after their men's singles semifinal match at the All England Lawn Tennis Championships in Wimbledon, London, Friday July 10, 2015. Djokovic won 7-6, 6-4, 6-4. (AP Photo/Pavel Golovkin) © (AP Photo/Pavel Golovkin Djokovic overcame an early barrage of single-handed backhand winners from Gasquet, produced big serves at crucial times and pulled away to win 7-6 (2), 6-4, 6-4 on Friday in sunny conditions on Centre Court at the All England Club. Djokovic was twice treated by a trainer on his left shoulder near the end of the second set, but showed no sign of injury as he dominated the third set to reach his 17th Grand Slam final. The top-ranked Serb is now one win away from a third Wimbledon championship and ninth major title. Awaiting him in Sunday's final will be either Roger Federer or Andy Murray. Djokovic, playing in his sixth consecutive Wimbledon semifinal and seventh overall, extended his dominance over the 29-year-old Gasquet to 12-1. He has dropped just one set to the Frenchman in their last 10 meetings - none in their three Grand Slam matches. Gasquet, who also reached the semifinals in 2007, had been trying to become the first Frenchman to reach the Wimbledon final in the Open era. Cedric Pioline finished runner-up in 1997. Instead, he wound up losing his 15th straight match to a No. 1-ranked player. In the day's second semifinal, seven-time champion Federer was up against 2013 winner Murray, in the 24th career match between the two. Federer has never lost a Wimbledon semifinal and is bidding to reach his 10th final. It's their first matchup at the All England Club since 2012 - when Federer defeated Murray in the Wimbledon final. Murray, however, beat Federer in straight sets the Olympic final on the same court a few weeks later. Saturday's women's final will pit five-time champion Serena Williams against 21-year-old Spaniard Garbine Muguruza, playing in her first Grand Slam championship match. Williams will be bidding for her fourth straight major championship, which would complete a ''Serena Slam'' - a feat she last accomplished in 2002-03. A win would also take Williams three-fourths of the way to a calendar-year Grand Slam, a sweep of all four majors in the same year. Steffi Graf was the last to do that, in 1988.	Cédric Pioline
"Which famous poem by Allen Ginsberg begins with the line ""I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness""?"	Novak Djokovic back in Wimbledon final after beating Richard Gasquet - Chicago Tribune Novak Djokovic back in Wimbledon final after beating Richard Gasquet Novak Djokovic Novak Djokovic of Serbia celebrates winning the singles match against Richard Gasquet of France. Novak Djokovic of Serbia celebrates winning the singles match against Richard Gasquet of France. (Pavel Golovkin / AP) Tribune wire reports Contact Reporter Defending champion Novak Djokovic is back in the Wimbledon final for the fourth time in five years after subduing Richard Gasquet in straight sets. Djokovic overcame an early barrage of single-handed backhand winners from Gasquet, produced big serves at crucial times and pulled away to win 7-6 (2), 6-4, 6-4 on Friday in sunny conditions on Centre Court at the All England Club. "It was a very good performance, considering the occasion," Djokovic said. Djokovic was twice treated by a trainer on his left shoulder near the end of the second set, but showed no sign of injury as he dominated the third set to reach his 17th Grand Slam final. "It's nothing that worries me, honestly," Djokovic said. "It'll be fine for the next match." The top-ranked Serb is now one win away from a third Wimbledon championship and ninth major title. Awaiting him in Sunday's final will be either Roger Federer or Andy Murray . "I'm definitely living the dream, being here in Wimbledon, playing in the most renowned tennis court in the world," Djokovic said. "I try to take the best out of myself and I have a responsibility to play well and just glad to reach another final." Djokovic, playing in his sixth consecutive Wimbledon semifinal and seventh overall, extended his dominance over the 29-year-old Gasquet to 12-1. He has dropped just one set to the Frenchman in their last 10 meetings — none in their three Grand Slam matches. Gasquet, who also reached the semifinals in 2007, had been trying to become the first Frenchman to reach the Wimbledon final in the Open era. Cedric Pioline finished runner-up in 1997. Instead, he wound up losing his 15th straight match to a No. 1-ranked player. In the day's second semifinal, seven-time champion Federer was up against 2013 winner Murray, in the 24th career match between the two. Federer has never lost a Wimbledon semifinal and is bidding to reach his 10th final. It's their first matchup at the All England Club since 2012 — when Federer defeated Murray in the Wimbledon final. Murray, however, beat Federer in straight sets in the Olympic final on the same court a few weeks later. Gasquet is renowned for his one-handed backhand, one of the best in the game. The shot was on full display in the first set against Djokovic when he repeatedly ripped clean winners off that wing — including to break back after falling behind 2-0. The two players held serve the rest of the set to force a tiebreaker, but Djokovic won five straight points from 2-2 to take control. He then broke in the first game of the second set and was in front the rest of the way. "Richard had a great tournament, deserved to be in the semis," Djokovic said. "Things could have gone his way, also, the first set, but I think that was the turning point for me." Djokovic finished with 12 aces. Down 15-30 while serving for the second set, he came up with back-to-back aces — both at 125 mph — and went on to hold. Gasquet saved two match points to hold serve and stay within 5-4 in the third set, but Djokovic served out the match at love in the next game, closing with a forehand winner. Saturday's women's final will pit five-time champion Serena Williams against 21-year-old Spaniard Garbine Muguruza, playing in her first Grand Slam championship match. Williams will be bidding for her fourth straight major championship, which would complete a "Serena Slam" — a feat she last accomplished in 2002-03. A win would also take Williams three-fourths of the way to a calendar-year Grand Slam, a sweep of all four majors in the same year. Steffi Graf was the last to do that, in 1988. Associated Press	i don't know
"What is defined in physics as ""the product of the mass and velocity of an object""?"	In physics, what is defined as the product of an object's mass and velocity? \| eNotes In physics, what is defined as the product of an object's mass and velocity? sciftw \| High School Teacher \| (Level 1) Educator Emeritus Posted on July 30, 2016 at 10:33 AM The product of mass and velocity is momentum. A good way to summarize momentum is to say momentum is mass in motion. All objects have mass, but not all objects are moving; therefore, not all objects have momentum. If an object is moving, though, it has momentum. Because the equation for momentum involves multiplication, increases in either mass or velocity will result in the increase of momentum. That means a football linebacker can increase his hitting power by gaining mass, becoming faster, or both. Some students occasionally confuse momentum and inertia. All objects always have inertia because inertia depends only on mass. Inertia is a resistance to changes in any motion. An object will have the exact same inertia whether it is moving or not, but an object will have zero momentum if it is stationary. That particular object's momentum will increase as it begins to increase its velocity. like 0 dislike 0	Momentum
Losing in 2002, who was the last Argentinian to reach the Wimbledon Men's Singles Final?	Momentum momentum Momentum and Its Conservation - Lesson 1 - The Impulse-Momentum Change Theorem Momentum Real-World Applications The sports announcer says, "Going into the all-star break, the Chicago White Sox have the momentum." The headlines declare "Chicago Bulls Gaining Momentum." The coach pumps up his team at half-time, saying "You have the momentum; the critical need is that you use that momentum and bury them in this third quarter." Momentum is a commonly used term in sports. A team that has the momentum is on the move and is going to take some effort to stop. A team that has a lot of momentum is really on the move and is going to be hard to stop. Momentum is a physics term; it refers to the quantity of motion that an object has. A sports team that is on the move has the momentum. If an object is in motion (on the move) then it has momentum. Momentum can be defined as "mass in motion." All objects have mass; so if an object is moving, then it has momentum - it has its mass in motion. The amount of momentum that an object has is dependent upon two variables: how much stuff is moving and how fast the stuff is moving. Momentum depends upon the variables mass and velocity . In terms of an equation, the momentum of an object is equal to the mass of the object times the velocity of the object. Momentum = mass • velocity In physics, the symbol for the quantity momentum is the lower case p. Thus, the above equation can be rewritten as p = m • v where m is the mass and v is the velocity. The equation illustrates that momentum is directly proportional to an object's mass and directly proportional to the object's velocity. The units for momentum would be mass units times velocity units. The standard metric unit of momentum is the kg•m/s. While the kg•m/s is the standard metric unit of momentum, there are a variety of other units that are acceptable (though not conventional) units of momentum. Examples include kg•mi/hr, kg•km/hr, and g•cm/s. In each of these examples, a mass unit is multiplied by a velocity unit to provide a momentum unit. This is consistent with the equation for momentum. Momentum as a Vector Quantity Momentum is a vector quantity. As discussed in an earlier unit, a vector quantity is a quantity that is fully described by both magnitude and direction. To fully describe the momentum of a 5-kg bowling ball moving westward at 2 m/s, you must include information about both the magnitude and the direction of the bowling ball. It is not enough to say that the ball has 10 kg•m/s of momentum; the momentum of the ball is not fully described until information about its direction is given. The direction of the momentum vector is the same as the direction of the velocity of the ball. In a previous unit, it was said that the direction of the velocity vector is the same as the direction that an object is moving. If the bowling ball is moving westward, then its momentum can be fully described by saying that it is 10 kg•m/s, westward. As a vector quantity, the momentum of an object is fully described by both magnitude and direction. The Momentum Equation as a Guide to Thinking From the definition of momentum, it becomes obvious that an object has a large momentum if both its mass and its velocity are large. Both variables are of equal importance in determining the momentum of an object. Consider a Mack truck and a roller skate moving down the street at the same speed. The considerably greater mass of the Mack truck gives it a considerably greater momentum. Yet if the Mack truck were at rest, then the momentum of the least massive roller skate would be the greatest. The momentum of any object that is at rest is 0. Objects at rest do not have momentum - they do not have any " mass in motion ." Both variables - mass and velocity - are important in comparing the momentum of two objects. The momentum equation can help us to think about how a change in one of the two variables might affect the momentum of an object. Consider a 0.5-kg physics cart loaded with one 0.5-kg brick and moving with a speed of 2.0 m/s. The total mass of loaded cart is 1.0 kg and its momentum is 2.0 kg•m/s. If the cart was instead loaded with three 0.5-kg bricks, then the total mass of the loaded cart would be 2.0 kg and its momentum would be 4.0 kg•m/s. A doubling of the mass results in a doubling of the momentum. Similarly, if the 2.0-kg cart had a velocity of 8.0 m/s (instead of 2.0 m/s), then the cart would have a momentum of 16.0 kg•m/s (instead of 4.0 kg•m/s). A quadrupling in velocity results in a quadrupling of the momentum. These two examples illustrate how the equation p = m•v serves as a "guide to thinking" and not merely a "plug-and-chug recipe for algebraic problem-solving." Check Your Understanding Express your understanding of the concept and mathematics of momentum by answering the following questions. Click the button to view the answers. 1. Determine the momentum of a ... a. 60-kg halfback moving eastward at 9 m/s. b. 1000-kg car moving northward at 20 m/s. c. 40-kg freshman moving southward at 2 m/s. A. p = 40 000 units (doubling the velocity will double the momentum) B. p = 60 000 units (tripling the velocity will triple the momentum) C. p = 40 000 units (doubling the mass will double the momentum) D. p = 80 000 units (doubling the velocity will double the momentum and doubling the mass will also double the momentum; the combined result is that the momentum is doubled twice -quadrupled) 3. A halfback (m = 60 kg), a tight end (m = 90 kg), and a lineman (m = 120 kg) are running down the football field. Consider their ticker tape patterns below. Compare the velocities of these three players. How many times greater are the velocity of the halfback and the velocity of the tight end than the velocity of the lineman? See Answer A. The tight end travels twice the distance of the lineman in the same amount of time. Thus, the tight end is twice as fast (vtight end = 6 m/s). The halfback travels three times the distance of the lineman in the same amount of time. Thus, the halfback is three times as fast (vhalfback = 9 m/s). B. Both the halfback and the tight end have the greatest momentum. The each have the same amount of momentum - 540 kgm/s. The lineman only has 360 kgm/s.	i don't know
"Which famous poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson begins with the lines, ""On either side the river lie, long fields of barley and rye""?"	Best Famous Alfred Lord Tennyson Poems \| Famous Poems Home » Famous Poems » Best » Alfred Lord Tennyson » Best Poems Best Famous Alfred Lord Tennyson Poems Here is a collection of the all-time best famous Alfred Lord Tennyson poems. This is a select list of the best famous Alfred Lord Tennyson poetry. Reading, writing, and enjoying famous Alfred Lord Tennyson poetry (as well as classical and contemporary poems) is a great past time. These top poems are the best examples of alfred lord tennyson poems. Search for the best famous Alfred Lord Tennyson poems, articles about Alfred Lord Tennyson poems, poetry blogs, or anything else Alfred Lord Tennyson poem related using the PoetrySoup search engine at the top of the page. See Also: Tears Idle Tears Tears, idle tears, I know not what they mean, Tears from the depth of some divine despair Rise in the heart, and gather to the eyes, In looking on the happy Autumn-fields, And thinking of the days that are no more. Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail, That brings our friends up from the underworld, Sad as the last which reddens over one That sinks with all we love below the verge; So sad, so fresh, the days that are no more. Ah, sad and strange as in dark summer dawns The earliest pipe of half-awakened birds To dying ears, when unto dying eyes The casement slowly grows a glimmering square; So sad, so strange, the days that are no more. Dear as remembered kisses after death, And sweet as those by hopeless fancy feigned On lips that are for others; deep as love, Deep as first love, and wild with all regret; O Death in Life, the days that are no more! Crossing the Bar Sunset and evening star, And one clear call for me! And may there be no moaning of the bar, When I put out to sea, But such a tide as moving seems asleep, Too full for sound and foam, When that which drew from out the boundless deep Turns again home. Twilight and evening bell, And after that the dark! And may there be no sadness of farewell, When I embark; For though from out our bourne of Time and Place The flood may bear me far, I hope to see my Pilot face to face When I have crossed the bar. Beautiful City Beautiful city Beautiful city, the centre and crater of European confusion, O you with your passionate shriek for the rights of an equal humanity, How often your Re-volution has proven but E-volution Roll’d again back on itself in the tides of a civic insanity! The Mermaid I Who would be A mermaid fair, Singing alone, Combing her hair Under the sea, In a golden curl With a comb of pearl, On a throne? II I would be a mermaid fair; I would sing to myself the whole of the day; With a comb of pearl I would comb my hair; And still as I comb'd I would sing and say, 'Who is it loves me? who loves not me?' I would comb my hair till my ringlets would fall Low adown, low adown, From under my starry sea-bud crown Low adown and around, And I should look like a fountain of gold Springing alone With a shrill inner sound Over the throne In the midst of the hall; Till that great sea-snake under the sea From his coiled sleeps in the central deeps Would slowly trail himself sevenfold Round the hall where I sate, and look in at the gate With his large calm eyes for the love of me. And all the mermen under the sea Would feel their immortality Die in their hearts for the love of me. III But at night I would wander away, away, I would fling on each side my low-flowing locks, And lightly vault from the throne and play With the mermen in and out of the rocks; We would run to and fro, and hide and seek, On the broad sea-wolds in the crimson shells, Whose silvery spikes are nighest the sea. But if any came near I would call and shriek, And adown the steep like a wave I would leap From the diamond-ledges that jut from the dells; For I would not be kiss'd by all who would list Of the bold merry mermen under the sea. They would sue me, and woo me, and flatter me, In the purple twilights under the sea; But the king of them all would carry me, Woo me, and win me, and marry me, In the branching jaspers under the sea. Then all the dry-pied things that be In the hueless mosses under the sea Would curl round my silver feet silently, All looking up for the love of me. And if I should carol aloud, from aloft All things that are forked, and horned, and soft Would lean out from the hollow sphere of the sea, All looking down for the love of me. The Lady of Shalott ON either side the river lie Long fields of barley and of rye, That clothe the wold and meet the sky; And thro' the field the road runs by To many-tower'd Camelot; 5 And up and down the people go, Gazing where the lilies blow Round an island there below, The island of Shalott. Willows whiten, aspens quiver, 10 Little breezes dusk and shiver Thro' the wave that runs for ever By the island in the river Flowing down to Camelot. Four gray walls, and four gray towers, 15 Overlook a space of flowers, And the silent isle imbowers The Lady of Shalott. By the margin, willow-veil'd, Slide the heavy barges trail'd 20 By slow horses; and unhail'd The shallop flitteth silken-sail'd Skimming down to Camelot: But who hath seen her wave her hand? Or at the casement seen her stand? 25 Or is she known in all the land, The Lady of Shalott? Only reapers, reaping early In among the bearded barley, Hear a song that echoes cheerly 30 From the river winding clearly, Down to tower'd Camelot: And by the moon the reaper weary, Piling sheaves in uplands airy, Listening, whispers ''Tis the fairy 35 Lady of Shalott. ' PART II There she weaves by night and day A magic web with colours gay. She has heard a whisper say, A curse is on her if she stay 40 To look down to Camelot. She knows not what the curse may be, And so she weaveth steadily, And little other care hath she, The Lady of Shalott. 45 And moving thro' a mirror clear That hangs before her all the year, Shadows of the world appear. There she sees the highway near Winding down to Camelot: 50 There the river eddy whirls, And there the surly village-churls, And the red cloaks of market girls, Pass onward from Shalott. Sometimes a troop of damsels glad, 55 An abbot on an ambling pad, Sometimes a curly shepherd-lad, Or long-hair'd page in crimson clad, Goes by to tower'd Camelot; And sometimes thro' the mirror blue 60 The knights come riding two and two: She hath no loyal knight and true, The Lady of Shalott. But in her web she still delights To weave the mirror's magic sights, 65 For often thro' the silent nights A funeral, with plumes and lights, And music, went to Camelot: Or when the moon was overhead, Came two young lovers lately wed; 70 'I am half sick of shadows,' said The Lady of Shalott. PART III A bow-shot from her bower-eaves, He rode between the barley-sheaves, The sun came dazzling thro' the leaves, 75 And flamed upon the brazen greaves Of bold Sir Lancelot. A red-cross knight for ever kneel'd To a lady in his shield, That sparkled on the yellow field, 80 Beside remote Shalott. The gemmy bridle glitter'd free, Like to some branch of stars we see Hung in the golden Galaxy. The bridle bells rang merrily 85 As he rode down to Camelot: And from his blazon'd baldric slung A mighty silver bugle hung, And as he rode his armour rung, Beside remote Shalott. 90 All in the blue unclouded weather Thick-jewell'd shone the saddle-leather, The helmet and the helmet-feather Burn'd like one burning flame together, As he rode down to Camelot. 95 As often thro' the purple night, Below the starry clusters bright, Some bearded meteor, trailing light, Moves over still Shalott. His broad clear brow in sunlight glow'd; 100 On burnish'd hooves his war-horse trode; From underneath his helmet flow'd His coal-black curls as on he rode, As he rode down to Camelot. From the bank and from the river 105 He flash'd into the crystal mirror, 'Tirra lirra,' by the river Sang Sir Lancelot. She left the web, she left the loom, She made three paces thro' the room, 110 She saw the water-lily bloom, She saw the helmet and the plume, She look'd down to Camelot. Out flew the web and floated wide; The mirror crack'd from side to side; 115 'The curse is come upon me!' cried The Lady of Shalott. PART IV In the stormy east-wind straining, The pale yellow woods were waning, The broad stream in his banks complaining, 120 Heavily the low sky raining Over tower'd Camelot; Down she came and found a boat Beneath a willow left afloat, And round about the prow she wrote 125 The Lady of Shalott. And down the river's dim expanse¡ª Like some bold seer in a trance, Seeing all his own mischance¡ª With a glassy countenance 130 Did she look to Camelot. And at the closing of the day She loosed the chain, and down she lay; The broad stream bore her far away, The Lady of Shalott. 135 Lying, robed in snowy white That loosely flew to left and right¡ª The leaves upon her falling light¡ª Thro' the noises of the night She floated down to Camelot: 140 And as the boat-head wound along The willowy hills and fields among, They heard her singing her last song, The Lady of Shalott. Heard a carol, mournful, holy, 145 Chanted loudly, chanted lowly, Till her blood was frozen slowly, And her eyes were darken'd wholly, Turn'd to tower'd Camelot; For ere she reach'd upon the tide 150 The first house by the water-side, Singing in her song she died, The Lady of Shalott. Under tower and balcony, By garden-wall and gallery, 155 A gleaming shape she floated by, Dead-pale between the houses high, Silent into Camelot. Out upon the wharfs they came, Knight and burgher, lord and dame, 160 And round the prow they read her name, The Lady of Shalott. Who is this? and what is here? And in the lighted palace near Died the sound of royal cheer; 165 And they cross'd themselves for fear, All the knights at Camelot: But Lancelot mused a little space; He said, 'She has a lovely face; God in His mercy lend her grace, 170 The Lady of Shalott. ' The Charge of the Light Brigade Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!" he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade!" Was there a man dismayed? Not though the soldier knew Some one had blundered: Their's not to make reply, Their's not to reason why, Their's but to do and die: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them Volleyed and thundered; Stormed at with shot and shell, Boldly they rode and well, Into the jaws of Death, Into the mouth of Hell Rode the six hundred. Flashed all their sabres bare, Flashed as they turned in air Sabring the gunners there, Charging an army, while All the world wondered: Plunged in the battery-smoke Right through the line they broke; Cossack and Russian Reeled from the sabre-stroke Shattered and sundered. Then they rode back, but not, Not the six hundred. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon behind them Volleyed and thundered; Stormed at with shot and shell, While horse and hero fell, They that had fought so well Came through the jaws of Death Back from the mouth of Hell, All that was left of them, Left of six hundred. When can their glory fade? O the wild charge they made! All the world wondered. Honour the charge they made! Honour the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred! The Revenge - A Ballad of the Fleet At Flores in the Azores Sir Richard Grenville lay, And a pinnace, like a fluttered bird, came flying from far away: 'Spanish ships of war at sea! we have sighted' Then sware Lord Thomas Howard: ''Fore God I am no coward; But I cannot meet them here, for my ships are out of gear, And the half my men are sick. I must fly, but follow quick. We are six ships of the line; can we fight with ?' Then spake Sir Richard Grenville: 'I know you are no coward; You fly them for a moment to fight with them again. But I've ninety men and more that are lying sick ashore. I should count myself the coward if I left them, my Lord Howard, To these Inquisition dogs and the devildoms of Spain. ' So Lord Howard passed away with five ships of war that day, Till he melted like a cloud in the silent summer heaven; But Sir Richard bore in hand all his sick men from the land Very carefully and slow, Men of Bideford in Devon, And we laid them on the ballast down below; For we brought them all aboard, And they blest him in their pain, that they were not left to Spain, To the thumbscrew and the stake, for the glory of the Lord. He had only a hundred seamen to work the ship and to fight, And he sailed away from Flores till the Spaniard came in sight, With his huge sea-castles heaving upon the weather bow. 'Shall we fight or shall we fly? Good Sir Richard, tell us now, For to fight is but to die! There'll be little of us left by the time this sun be set. ' And Sir Richard said again: 'We be all good English men. Let us bang these dogs of Seville, the children of the devil, For I never turned my back upon Don or devil yet. ' Sir Richard spoke and he laughed, and we roared a hurrah, and so The little Revenge ran on sheer into the heart of the foe, With her hundred fighters on deck, and her ninety sick below; For half of their fleet to the right and half to the left were seen, And the little Revenge ran on through the long sea-lane between. Thousands of their soldiers looked down from their decks and laughed, Thousands of their seamen made mock at the mad little craft Running on and on, till delayed By their mountain-like The Talking Oak Once more the gate behind me falls; Once more before my face I see the moulder'd Abbey-walls, That stand within the chace. Beyond the lodge the city lies, Beneath its drift of smoke; And ah! with what delighted eyes I turn to yonder oak. For when my passion first began, Ere that, which in me burn'd, The love, that makes me thrice a man, Could hope itself return'd; To yonder oak within the field I spoke without restraint, And with a larger faith appeal'd Than Papist unto Saint. For oft I talk'd with him apart And told him of my choice, Until he plagiarized a heart, And answer'd with a voice. Tho' what he whisper'd under Heaven None else could understand; I found him garrulously given, A babbler in the land. But since I heard him make reply Is many a weary hour; 'Twere well to question him, and try If yet he keeps the power. Hail, hidden to the knees in fern, Broad Oak of Sumner-chace, Whose topmost branches can discern The roofs of Sumner-place! Say thou, whereon I carved her name, If ever maid or spouse, As fair as my Olivia, came To rest beneath thy boughs. --- "O Walter, I have shelter'd here Whatever maiden grace The good old Summers, year by year Made ripe in Sumner-chace: "Old Summers, when the monk was fat, And, issuing shorn and sleek, Would twist his girdle tight, and pat The girls upon the cheek, "Ere yet, in scorn of Peter's-pence, And number'd bead, and shrift, Bluff Harry broke into the spence And turn'd the cowls adrift: "And I have seen some score of those Fresh faces that would thrive When his man-minded offset rose To chase the deer at five; "And all that from the town would stroll, Till that wild wind made work In which the gloomy brewer's soul Went by me, like a stork: "The slight she-slips of royal blood, And others, passing praise, Straight-laced, but all-too-full in bud For puritanic stays: "And I have shadow'd many a group Of beauties, that were born In teacup-times of hood and hoop, Or while the patch was worn; "And, leg and arm with love-knots gay About me leap'd and laugh'd The modish Cupid of the day, And shrill'd his tinsel shaft. "I swear (and else may insects prick Each leaf into a gall) This girl, for whom your heart is sick, Is three times worth them all. "For those and theirs, by Nature's law, Have faded long ago; But in these latter springs I saw Your own Olivia blow, "From when she gamboll'd on the greens A baby-germ, to when The maiden blossoms of her teens Could number five from ten. "I swear, by leaf, and wind, and rain, (And hear me with thine ears,) That, tho' I circle in the grain Five hundred rings of years--- "Yet, since I first could cast a shade, Did never creature pass So slightly, musically made, So light upon the grass: "For as to fairies, that will flit To make the greensward fresh, I hold them exquisitely knit, But far too spare of flesh. " Oh, hide thy knotted knees in fern, And overlook the chace; And from thy topmost branch discern The roofs of Sumner-place. But thou, whereon I carved her name, That oft hast heard my vows, Declare when last Olivia came To sport beneath thy boughs. "O yesterday, you know, the fair Was holden at the town; Her father left his good arm-chair, And rode his hunter down. "And with him Albert came on his. I look'd at him with joy: As cowslip unto oxlip is, So seems she to the boy. "An hour had past---and, sitting straight Within the low-wheel'd chaise, Her mother trundled to the gate Behind the dappled grays. "But as for her, she stay'd at home, And on the roof she went, And down the way you use to come, She look'd with discontent. "She left the novel half-uncut Upon the rosewood shelf; She left the new piano shut: She could not please herseif "Then ran she, gamesome as the colt, And livelier than a lark She sent her voice thro' all the holt Before her, and the park. "A light wind chased her on the wing, And in the chase grew wild, As close as might be would he cling About the darling child: "But light as any wind that blows So fleetly did she stir, The flower, she touch'd on, dipt and rose, And turn'd to look at her. "And here she came, and round me play'd, And sang to me the whole Of those three stanzas that you made About my Ôgiant bole;' "And in a fit of frolic mirth She strove to span my waist: Alas, I was so broad of girth, I could not be embraced. "I wish'd myself the fair young beech That here beside me stands, That round me, clasping each in each, She might have lock'd her hands. "Yet seem'd the pressure thrice as sweet As woodbine's fragile hold, Or when I feel about my feet The berried briony fold. " O muffle round thy knees with fern, And shadow Sumner-chace! Long may thy topmost branch discern The roofs of Sumner-place! But tell me, did she read the name I carved with many vows When last with throbbing heart I came To rest beneath thy boughs? "O yes, she wander'd round and round These knotted knees of mine, And found, and kiss'd the name she found, And sweetly murmur'd thine. "A teardrop trembled from its source, And down my surface crept. My sense of touch is something coarse, But I believe she wept. "Then flush'd her cheek with rosy light, She glanced across the plain; But not a creature was in sight: She kiss'd me once again. "Her kisses were so close and kind, That, trust me on my word, Hard wood I am, and wrinkled rind, But yet my sap was stirr'd: "And even into my inmost ring A pleasure I discern'd, Like those blind motions of the Spring, That show the year is turn'd. "Thrice-happy he that may caress The ringlet's waving balm--- The cushions of whose touch may press The maiden's tender palm. "I, rooted here among the groves But languidly adjust My vapid vegetable loves With anthers and with dust: "For ah! my friend, the days were brief Whereof the poets talk, When that, which breathes within the leaf, Could slip its bark and walk. "But could I, as in times foregone, From spray, and branch, and stem, Have suck'd and gather'd into one The life that spreads in them, "She had not found me so remiss; But lightly issuing thro', I would have paid her kiss for kiss, With usury thereto. " O flourish high, with leafy towers, And overlook the lea, Pursue thy loves among the bowers But leave thou mine to me. O flourish, hidden deep in fern, Old oak, I love thee well; A thousand thanks for what I learn And what remains to tell. " ÔTis little more: the day was warm; At last, tired out with play, She sank her head upon her arm And at my feet she lay. "Her eyelids dropp'd their silken eaves I breathed upon her eyes Thro' all the summer of my leaves A welcome mix'd with sighs. "I took the swarming sound of life--- The music from the town--- The murmurs of the drum and fife And lull'd them in my own. "Sometimes I let a sunbeam slip, To light her shaded eye; A second flutter'd round her lip Like a golden butterfly; "A third would glimmer on her neck To make the necklace shine; Another slid, a sunny fleck, From head to ankle fine, "Then close and dark my arms I spread, And shadow'd all her rest--- Dropt dews upon her golden head, An acorn in her breast. "But in a pet she started up, And pluck'd it out, and drew My little oakling from the cup, And flung him in the dew. "And yet it was a graceful gift--- I felt a pang within As when I see the woodman lift His axe to slay my kin. "I shook him down because he was The finest on the tree. He lies beside thee on the grass. O kiss him once for me. "O kiss him twice and thrice for me, That have no lips to kiss, For never yet was oak on lea Shall grow so fair as this. ' Step deeper yet in herb and fern, Look further thro' the chace, Spread upward till thy boughs discern The front of Sumner-place. This fruit of thine by Love is blest, That but a moment lay Where fairer fruit of Love may rest Some happy future day. I kiss it twice, I kiss it thrice, The warmth it thence shall win To riper life may magnetise The baby-oak within. But thou, while kingdoms overset, Or lapse from hand to hand, Thy leaf shall never fail, nor yet Thine acorn in the land. May never saw dismember thee, Nor wielded axe disjoint, That art the fairest-spoken tree From here to Lizard-point. O rock upon thy towery-top All throats that gurgle sweet! All starry culmination drop Balm-dews to bathe thy feet! All grass of silky feather grow--- And while he sinks or swells The full south-breeze around thee blow The sound of minster bells. The fat earth feed thy branchy root, That under deeply strikes! The northern morning o'er thee shoot, High up, in silver spikes! Nor ever lightning char thy grain, But, rolling as in sleep, Low thunders bring the mellow rain, That makes thee broad and deep! And hear me swear a solemn oath, That only by thy side Will I to Olive plight my troth, And gain her for my bride. And when my marriage morn may fall, She, Dryad-like, shall wear Alternate leaf and acorn-ball In wreath about her hair. And I will work in prose and rhyme, And praise thee more in both Than bard has honour'd beech or lime, Or that Thessalian growth, In which the swarthy ringdove sat, And mystic sentence spoke; And more than England honours that, Thy famous brother-oak, Wherein the younger Charles abode Till all the paths were dim, And far below the Roundhead rode, And humm'd a surly hymn. All Things Will Die Clearly the blue river chimes in its flowing Under my eye; Warmly and broadly the south winds are blowing Over the sky. One after another the white clouds are fleeting; Every heart this May morning in joyance is beating Full merrily; Yet all things must die. The stream will cease to flow; The wind will cease to blow; The clouds will cease to fleet; The heart will cease to beat; For all things must die. All things must die. Spring will come never more. O, vanity! Death waits at the door. See! our friends are all forsaking The wine and the merrymaking. We are call'd—we must go. Laid low, very low, In the dark we must lie. The merry glees are still; The voice of the bird Shall no more be heard, Nor the wind on the hill. O, misery! Hark! death is calling While I speak to ye, The jaw is falling, The red cheek paling, The strong limbs failing; Ice with the warm blood mixing; The eyeballs fixing. Nine times goes the passing bell: Ye merry souls, farewell. The old earth Had a birth, As all men know, Long ago. And the old earth must die. So let the warm winds range, And the blue wave beat the shore; For even and morn Ye will never see Thro' eternity. All things were born. Song of the Lotos-Eaters THERE is sweet music here that softer falls Than petals from blown roses on the grass, Or night-dews on still waters between walls Of shadowy granite, in a gleaming pass; Music that gentlier on the spirit lies, 5 Than tired eyelids upon tired eyes; Music that brings sweet sleep down from the blissful skies. Here are cool mosses deep, And thro' the moss the ivies creep, And in the stream the long-leaved flowers weep, 10 And from the craggy ledge the poppy hangs in sleep. Why are we weigh'd upon with heaviness, And utterly consumed with sharp distress, While all things else have rest from weariness? All things have rest: why should we toil alone, 15 We only toil, who are the first of things, And make perpetual moan, Still from one sorrow to another thrown: Nor ever fold our wings, And cease from wanderings, 20 Nor steep our brows in slumber's holy balm; Nor harken what the inner spirit sings, 'There is no joy but calm!'¡ª Why should we only toil, the roof and crown of things? Lo! in the middle of the wood, 25 The folded leaf is woo'd from out the bud With winds upon the branch, and there Grows green and broad, and takes no care, Sun-steep'd at noon, and in the moon Nightly dew-fed; and turning yellow 30 Falls, and floats adown the air. Lo! sweeten'd with the summer light, The full-juiced apple, waxing over-mellow, Drops in a silent autumn night. All its allotted length of days, 35 The flower ripens in its place, Ripens and fades, and falls, and hath no toil, Fast-rooted in the fruitful soil. Hateful is the dark-blue sky, Vaulted o'er the dark-blue sea. 40 Death is the end of life; ah, why Should life all labour be? Let us alone. Time driveth onward fast, And in a little while our lips are dumb. Let us alone. What is it that will last? 45 All things are taken from us, and become Portions and parcels of the dreadful Past. Let us alone. What pleasure can we have To war with evil? Is there any peace In ever climbing up the climbing wave? 50 All things have rest, and ripen toward the grave In silence; ripen, fall and cease: Give us long rest or death, dark death, or dreamful ease. How sweet it were, hearing the downward stream, With half-shut eyes ever to seem 55 Falling asleep in a half-dream! To dream and dream, like yonder amber light, Which will not leave the myrrh-bush on the height; To hear each other's whisper'd speech; Eating the Lotos day by day, 60 To watch the crisping ripples on the beach, And tender curving lines of creamy spray; To lend our hearts and spirits wholly To the influence of mild-minded melancholy; To muse and brood and live again in memory, 65 With those old faces of our infancy Heap'd over with a mound of grass, Two handfuls of white dust, shut in an urn of brass! Dear is the memory of our wedded lives, And dear the last embraces of our wives 70 And their warm tears: but all hath suffer'd change; For surely now our household hearts are cold: Our sons inherit us: our looks are strange: And we should come like ghosts to trouble joy. Or else the island princes over-bold 75 Have eat our substance, and the minstrel sings Before them of the ten years' war in Troy, And our great deeds, as half-forgotten things. Is there confusion in the little isle? Let what is broken so remain. 80 The Gods are hard to reconcile: 'Tis hard to settle order once again. There is confusion worse than death, Trouble on trouble, pain on pain, Long labour unto ag¨¨d breath, 85 Sore task to hearts worn out with many wars And eyes grown dim with gazing on the pilot-stars. But, propt on beds of amaranth and moly, How sweet (while warm airs lull us, blowing lowly) With half-dropt eyelids still, 90 Beneath a heaven dark and holy, To watch the long bright river drawing slowly His waters from the purple hill¡ª To hear the dewy echoes calling From cave to cave thro' the thick-twin¨¨d vine¡ª 95 To watch the emerald-colour'd water falling Thro' many a wov'n acanthus-wreath divine! Only to hear and see the far-off sparkling brine, Only to hear were sweet, stretch'd out beneath the pine. The Lotos blooms below the barren peak: 100 The Lotos blows by every winding creek: All day the wind breathes low with mellower tone: Thro' every hollow cave and alley lone Round and round the spicy downs the yellow Lotos-dust is blown. We have had enough of action, and of motion we, 105 Roll'd to starboard, roll'd to larboard, when the surge was seething free, Where the wallowing monster spouted his foam-fountains in the sea. Let us swear an oath, and keep it with an equal mind, In the hollow Lotos-land to live and lie relined On the hills like Gods together, careless of mankind. 110 For they lie beside their nectar, and the bolts are hurl'd Far below them in the valleys, and the clouds are lightly curl'd Round their golden houses, girdled with the gleaming world: Where the smile in secret, looking over wasted lands, Blight and famine, plague and earthquake, roaring deeps and fiery sands, 115 Clanging fights, and flaming towns, and sinking ships, and praying hands. But they smile, they find a music centred in a doleful song Steaming up, a lamentation and an ancient tale of wrong, Like a tale of little meaning tho' the words are strong; Chanted from an ill-used race of men that cleave the soil, 120 Sow the seed, and reap the harvest with enduring toil, Storing yearly little dues of wheat, and wine and oil; Till they perish and they suffer¡ªsome, 'tis whisper'd¡ªdown in hell Suffer endless anguish, others in Elysian valleys dwell, Resting weary limbs at last on beds of asphodel. 125 Surely, surely, slumber is more sweet than toil, the shore Than labour in the deep mid-ocean, wind and wave and oar; O rest ye, brother mariners, we will not wander more. Summer Night NOW sleeps the crimson petal, now the white; Nor waves the cypress in the palace walk; Nor winks the gold fin in the porphyry font: The firefly wakens: waken thou with me. Now droops the milk-white peacock like a ghost, 5 And like a ghost she glimmers on to me. Now lies the Earth all Dana? to the stars, And all thy heart lies open unto me. Now slides the silent meteor on, and leaves A shining furrow, as thy thoughts in me. 10 Now folds the lily all her sweetness up, And slips into the bosom of the lake: So fold thyself, my dearest, thou, and slip Into my bosom and be lost in me. Ulysses It little profits that an idle king, By this still hearth, among these barren crags, Matched with an aged wife, I mete and dole Unequal laws unto a savage race, That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me. I cannot rest from travel: I will drink Life to the lees: all times I have enjoyed Greatly, have suffered greatly, both with those That loved me, and alone; on shore, and when Through scudding drifts the rainy Hyades Vest the dim sea: I am become a name; For always roaming with a hungry heart Much have I seen and known; cities of men And manners, climates, councils, governments, Myself not least, but honoured of them all; And drunk delight of battle with my peers; Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy. I am part of all that I have met; Yet all experience is an arch wherethrough Gleams that untravelled world, whose margin fades For ever and for ever when I move. How dull it is to pause, to make an end, To rust unburnished, not to shine in use! As though to breath were life. Life piled on life Were all to little, and of one to me Little remains: but every hour is saved From that eternal silence, something more, A bringer of new things; and vile it were For some three suns to store and hoard myself, And this gray spirit yearning in desire To follow knowledge like a sinking star, Beyond the utmost bound of human thought. This is my son, mine own Telemachus, To whom I leave the scepter and the isle— Well-loved of me, discerning to fulfill This labour, by slow prudence to make mild A rugged people, and through soft degrees Subdue them to the useful and the good. Most blameless is he, centered in the sphere Of common duties, decent not to fail In offices of tenderness, and pay Meet adoration to my household gods, When I am gone. He works his work, I mine. There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail: There gloom the dark broad seas. My mariners, Souls that have toiled, and wrought, and thought with me— That ever with a frolic welcome took The thunder and the sunshine, and opposed Free hearts, free foreheads—you and I are old; Old age had yet his honour and his toil; Death closes all: but something ere the end, Some work of noble note, may yet be done, Not unbecoming men that strove with Gods. The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks: The long day wanes: the slow moon climbs: the deep Moans round with many voices. Come, my friends, 'Tis not too late to seek a newer world. Push off, and sitting well in order smite The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths Of all the western stars, until I die. It may be that the gulfs will wash us down: It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles, And see the great Achilles, whom we knew. Though much is taken, much abides; and though We are not now that strength which in the old days Moved earth and heaven; that which we are, we are, One equal-temper of heroic hearts, Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. The Grandmother I. And Willy, my eldest-born, is gone, you say, little Anne? Ruddy and white, and strong on his legs, he looks like a man. And Willy's wife has written: she never was over-wise, Never the wife for Willy: he would n't take my advice. II. For, Annie, you see, her father was not the man to save, Had n't a head to manage, and drank himself into his grave. Pretty enough, very pretty! but I was against it for one. Eh!--but he would n't hear me--and Willy, you say, is gone. III. Willy, my beauty, my eldest-born, the flower of the flock; Never a man could fling him: for Willy stood like a rock. `Here's a leg for a babe of a week!' says doctor; and he would be bound, There was not his like that year in twenty parishes round. IV. Strong of his hands, and strong on his legs, but still of his tongue! I ought to have gone before him: I wonder he went so young. I cannot cry for him, Annie: I have not long to stay; Perhaps I shall see him the sooner, for he lived far away. V. Why do you look at me, Annie? you think I am hard and cold; But all my children have gone before me, I am so old: I cannot weep for Willy, nor can I weep for the rest; Only at your age, Annie, I could have wept with the best. VI. For I remember a quarrel I had with your father, my dear, All for a slanderous story, that cost me many a tear. I mean your grandfather, Annie: it cost me a world of woe, Seventy years ago, my darling, seventy years ago. VII. For Jenny, my cousin, had come to the place, and I knew right well That Jenny had tript in her time: I knew, but I would not tell. And she to be coming and slandering me, the base little liar! But the tongue is a fire as you know, my dear, the tongue is a fire. VIII. And the parson made it his text that week, and he said likewise, That a lie which is half a truth is ever the blackest of lies, That a lie which is all a lie may be met and fought with outright, But a lie which is part a truth is a harder matter to fight. IX. And Willy had not been down to the farm for a week and a day; And all things look'd half-dead, tho' it was the middle of May. Jenny, to slander me, who knew what Jenny had been! But soiling another, Annie, will never make oneself clean. X. And I cried myself well-nigh blind, and all of an evening late I climb'd to the top of the garth, and stood by the road at the gate. The moon like a rick on fire was rising over the dale, And whit, whit, whit, in the bush beside me chirrupt the nightingale. XI. All of a sudden he stopt: there past by the gate of the farm, Willy,--he did n't see me,--and Jenny hung on his arm. Out into the road I started, and spoke I scarce knew how; Ah, there's no fool like the old one -- it makes me angry now. XII. Willy stood up like a man, and look'd the thing that he meant; Jenny, the viper, made me a mocking courtesy and went. And I said, `Let us part: in a hundred years it'll all be the same, You cannot love me at all, if you love not my good name. ' XIII. And he turn'd, and I saw his eyes all wet, in the sweet moonshine: Sweetheart, I love you so well that your good name is mine. And what do I care for Jane, let her speak of you well of ill; But marry me out of hand: we two shall be happy still. ' XIV. `Marry you, Willy!' said I, `but I needs must speak my mind, And I fear you'll listen to tales, be jealous and hard and unkind. ' But he turn'd and claspt me in his arms, and answer'd, `No, love, no;' Seventy years ago, my darling, seventy years ago. XV. So Willy and I were wedded: I wore a lilac gown; And the ringers rang with a will, and he gave the ringers a crown. But the first that ever I bare was dead before he was born, Shadow and shine is life, little Annie, flower and thorn. XVI. That was the first time, too, that ever I thought of death. There lay the sweet little body that never had drawn a breath. I had not wept, little Anne, not since I had been a wife; But I wept like a child that day, for the babe had fought for his life. XVII. His dear little face was troubled, as if with anger or pain: I look'd at the still little body--his trouble had all been in vain. For Willy I cannot weep, I shall see him another morn: But I wept like a child for the child that was dead before he was born. XVIII. But he cheer'd me, my good man, for he seldom said me nay: Kind, like a man, was he; like a man, too, would have his way: Never jealous--not he: we had many a happy year; And he died, and I could not weep--my own time seem'd so near. XIX. But I wish'd it had been God's will that I, too, then could have died: I began to be tired a little, and fain had slept at his side. And that was ten years back, or more, if I don't forget: But as to the children, Annie, they're all about me yet. XX. Pattering over the boards, my Annie who left me at two, Patter she goes, my own little Annie, an Annie like you: Pattering over the boards, she comes and goes at her will, While Harry is in the five-acre and Charlie ploughing the hill. XXI. And Harry and Charlie, I hear them too--they sing to their team: Often they come to the door in a pleasant kind of a dream. They come and sit by my chair, they hover about my bed-- I am not always certain if they be alive or dead. XXII. And yet I know for a truth, there's none of them left alive; For Harry went at sixty, your father at sixty- five: And Willy, my eldest born, at nigh threescore and ten; I knew them all as babies, and now they're elderly men. XXIII. For mine is a time of peace, it is not often I grieve; I am oftener sitting at home in my father's farm at eve: And the neighbors come and laugh and gossip, and so do I; I find myself often laughing at things that have long gone by. XXIV. To be sure the preacher says, our sins should make us sad: But mine is a time of peace, and there is Grace to be had; And God, not man, is the Judge of us all when life shall cease; And in this Book, little Annie, the message is one of Peace. XXV. And age is a time of peace, so it be free from pain, And happy has been my life; but I would not live it again. I seem to be tired a little, that's all, and long for rest; Only at your age, Annie, I could have wept with the best. XXVI. So Willy has gone, my beauty, my eldest-born, my flower; But how can I weep for Willy, he has but gone for an hour,-- Gone for a minute, my son, from this room into the next; I, too, shall go in a minute. What time have I to be vext? XXVII. And Willy's wife has written, she never was over-wise. Get me my glasses, Annie: thank God that I keep my eyes. There is but a trifle left you, when I shall have past away. But stay with the old woman now: you cannot have long to stay. The Brook I come from haunts of coot and hern, I make a sudden sally And sparkle out among the fern, To bicker down a valley. By thirty hills I hurry down, Or slip between the ridges, By twenty thorpes, a little town, And half a hundred bridges. Till last by Philip's farm I flow To join the brimming river, For men may come and men may go, But I go on for ever. I chatter over stony ways, In little sharps and trebles, I bubble into eddying bays, I babble on the pebbles. With many a curve my banks I fret By many a field and fallow, And many a fairy foreland set With willow-weed and mallow. I chatter, chatter, as I flow To join the brimming river, For men may come and men may go, But I go on for ever. I wind about, and in and out, With here a blossom sailing, And here and there a lusty trout, And here and there a grayling, And here and there a foamy flake Upon me, as I travel With many a silvery waterbreak Above the golden gravel, And draw them all along, and flow To join the brimming river For men may come and men may go, But I go on for ever. I steal by lawns and grassy plots, I slide by hazel covers; I move the sweet forget-me-nots That grow for happy lovers. I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance, Among my skimming swallows; I make the netted sunbeam dance Against my sandy shallows. I murmur under moon and stars In brambly wildernesses; I linger by my shingly bars; I loiter round my cresses; And out again I curve and flow To join the brimming river, For men may come and men may go, But I go on for ever. Charge of the Light Brigade I. Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. `Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!' he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. II. `Forward, the Light Brigade!' Was there a man dismay'd? Not tho' the soldier knew Some one had blunder'd: Their's not to make reply, Their's not to reason why, Their's but to do and die: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. III Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them Volley'd and thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell, Boldly they rode and well, Into the jaws of Death, Into the mouth of Hell Rode the six hundred. IV Flash'd all their sabres bare, Flash'd as they turn'd in air Sabring the gunners there, Charging an army, while All the world wonder'd: Plunged in the battery-smoke Right thro' the line they broke; Cossack and Russian Reel'd from the sabre-stroke Shatter'd and sunder'd. Then they rode back, but not Not the six hundred. V Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon behind them Volley'd and thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell, While horse and hero fell, They that had fought so well Came thro' the jaws of Death, Back from the mouth of Hell, All that was left of them, Left of six hundred. VI When can their glory fade? O the wild charge they made! All the world wonder'd. Honour the charge they made! Honour the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred!	lady of shalot
"What is defined in physics as ""the increase in velocity per unit of time""?"	SparkNotes: Tennyson’s Poetry: “The Lady of Shalott” “The Lady of Shalott” “The Lady of Shalott”, page 2 page 1 of 3 On either side the river lie Long fields of barley and of rye, That clothe the wold and meet the sky; And thro’ the field the road runs by To many-tower’d Camelot; And up and down the people go, Gazing where the lilies blow Round an island there below, The island of Shalott. Little breezes dusk and shiver Thro’ the wave that runs for ever By the island in the river Flowing down to Camelot. Four gray walls, and four gray towers, Overlook a space of flowers, And the silent isle imbowers The Lady of Shalott. By the margin, willow veil’d, Slide the heavy barges trail’d By slow horses; and unhail’d The shallop flitteth silken-sail’d Skimming down to Camelot: But who hath seen her wave her hand? Or at the casement seen her stand? Or is she known in all the land, The Lady of Shalott? In among the bearded barley, Hear a song that echoes cheerly From the river winding clearly, Down to tower’d Camelot: And by the moon the reaper weary, Piling sheaves in uplands airy, Listening, whispers “ ’Tis the fairy Lady of Shalott.” There she weaves by night and day A magic web with colours gay. She has heard a whisper say, A curse is on her if she stay To look down to Camelot. She knows not what the curse may be, And so she weaveth steadily, And little other care hath she, The Lady of Shalott. And moving thro’ a mirror clear That hangs before her all the year, Shadows of the world appear. There she sees the highway near Winding down to Camelot: There the river eddy whirls, And there the surly village-churls, And the red cloaks of market girls, Pass onward from Shalott. Sometimes a troop of damsels glad, An abbot on an ambling pad, Sometimes a curly shepherd-lad, Or long-hair’d page in crimson clad, Goes by to tower’d Camelot; And sometimes thro’ the mirror blue The knights come riding two and two: She hath no loyal knight and true, The Lady of Shalott. But in her web she still delights To weave the mirror’s magic sights, For often thro’ the silent nights A funeral, with plumes and lights And music, went to Camelot: Or when the moon was overhead, Came two young lovers lately wed: “I am half sick of shadows,” said The Lady of Shalott. A bow-shot from her bower-eaves, He rode between the barley-sheaves, The sun came dazzling thro’ the leaves, And flamed upon the brazen greaves Of bold Sir Lancelot. A red-cross knight for ever kneel’d To a lady in his shield, That sparkled on the yellow field, Beside remote Shalott. The gemmy bridle glitter’d free, Like to some branch of stars we see Hung in the golden Galaxy. The bridle bells rang merrily As he rode down to Camelot: And from his blazon’d baldric slung A mighty silver bugle hung, And as he rode his armour rung, Beside remote Shalott. All in the blue unclouded weather Thick-jewell’d shone the saddle-leather, The helmet and the helmet-feather Burn’d like one burning flame together, As he rode down to Camelot. As often thro’ the purple night, Below the starry clusters bright, Some bearded meteor, trailing light, Moves over still Shalott. His broad clear brow in sunlight glow’d; On burnish’d hooves his war-horse trode; From underneath his helmet flow’d His coal-black curls as on he rode, As he rode down to Camelot. From the bank and from the river He flash’d into the crystal mirror, “Tirra lirra,” by the river Sang Sir Lancelot. She left the web, she left the loom, She made three paces thro’ the room, She saw the water-lily bloom, She saw the helmet and the plume, She look’d down to Camelot. Out flew the web and floated wide; The mirror crack’d from side to side; “The curse is come upon me,” cried The Lady of Shalott. In the stormy east-wind straining, The pale yellow woods were waning, The broad stream in his banks complaining, Heavily the low sky raining Over tower’d Camelot; Down she came and found a boat Beneath a willow left afloat, And round about the prow she wrote The Lady of Shalott. And down the river’s dim expanse Like some bold seër in a trance, Seeing all his own mischance— With a glassy countenance Did she look to Camelot. And at the closing of the day She loosed the chain, and down she lay; The broad stream bore her far away, The Lady of Shalott. Lying, robed in snowy white That loosely flew to left and right— The leaves upon her falling light— Thro’ the noises of the night She floated down to Camelot: And as the boat-head wound along The willowy hills and fields among, They heard her singing her last song, The Lady of Shalott. Heard a carol, mournful, holy, Chanted loudly, chanted lowly, Till her blood was frozen slowly, And her eyes were darken’d wholly, Turn’d to tower’d Camelot. For ere she reach’d upon the tide The first house by the water-side, Singing in her song she died, The Lady of Shalott. A gleaming shape she floated by, Dead-pale between the houses high, Silent into Camelot. Out upon the wharfs they came, Knight and burgher, lord and dame, And round the prow they read her name, The Lady of Shalott. Who is this? and what is here? And in the lighted palace near Died the sound of royal cheer; And they cross’d themselves for fear, All the knights at Camelot: But Lancelot mused a little space; He said, “She has a lovely face; God in his mercy lend her grace, The Lady of Shalott.” Summary Part I: The poem begins with a description of a river and a road that pass through long fields of barley and rye before reaching the town of Camelot. The people of the town travel along the road and look toward an island called Shalott, which lies further down the river. The island of Shalott contains several plants and flowers, including lilies, aspens, and willows. On the island, a woman known as the Lady of Shalott is imprisoned within a building made of “four gray walls and four gray towers.” Both “heavy barges” and light open boats sail along the edge of the river to Camelot. But has anyone seen or heard of the lady who lives on the island in the river? Only the reapers who harvest the barley hear the echo of her singing. At night, the tired reaper listens to her singing and whispers that he hears her: “ ‘Tis the fairy Lady of Shalott.” Part II: The Lady of Shalott weaves a magic, colorful web. She has heard a voice whisper that a curse will befall her if she looks down to Camelot, and she does not know what this curse would be. Thus, she concentrates solely on her weaving, never lifting her eyes. However, as she weaves, a mirror hangs before her. In the mirror, she sees “shadows of the world,” including the highway road, which also passes through the fields, the eddies in the river, and the peasants of the town. Occasionally, she also sees a group of damsels, an abbot (church official), a young shepherd, or a page dressed in crimson. She sometimes sights a pair of knights riding by, though she has no loyal knight of her own to court her. Nonetheless, she enjoys her solitary weaving, though she expresses frustration with the world of shadows when she glimpses a funeral procession or a pair of newlyweds in the mirror. Part III: A knight in brass armor (“brazen greaves”) comes riding through the fields of barley beside Shalott; the sun shines on his armor and makes it sparkle. As he rides, the gems on his horse’s bridle glitter like a constellation of stars, and the bells on the bridle ring. The knight hangs a bugle from his sash, and his armor makes ringing noises as he gallops alongside the remote island of Shalott. In the “blue, unclouded weather,” the jewels on the knight’s saddle shine, making him look like a meteor in the purple sky. His forehead glows in the sunlight, and his black curly hair flows out from under his helmet. As he passes by the river, his image flashes into the Lady of Shalott’s mirror and he sings out “tirra lirra.” Upon seeing and hearing this knight, the Lady stops weaving her web and abandons her loom. The web flies out from the loom, and the mirror cracks, and the Lady announces the arrival of her doom: “The curse is come upon me.” 1	i don't know
Named after the German chemist who developed it, what name is given to the common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single gas flame used for heating and combustion?	Chemistry Archives - Page 3 of 5 - Eva Varga Posted by Eva Varga Jan 27, 2015 Homeschooling , Reviews , Science & Technology apps , Atomidoodle , Chemistry , Games , Hero Factor Games , Periodic Table of Elements , Review 4 Comments Just prior to Thanksgiving, I downloaded a new app called Atomidoodle for our iPad. It looked both educational and fun. We were driving up to Oregon to see family and in the rush to pack and load everything into the car, I neglected to tell the kids about it. After gathering with family at my brother’s house, the kids went home with their Grandma for the night. We picked them up the following day and drove home. The drive takes about 5 hours and often, the kids will engage themselves in reading, practicing their Mandarin, and playing games or reading iBooks on their devices. The next week, I sat down on the couch and called them over to share with them the new app I had downloaded. Much to my surprise, they had already discovered it. “Atomidoodle! I love that game,” my daughter exclaimed. “I found it on the iPad when we were at Grandma’s house and I played it a bunch. It is so fun!” We received the Atomidoodle app in exchange for an honest review. I also received monetary compensation for my time spent in reviewing the product. All opinions expressed are true and completely our own. Please see my disclosure policy for more information. My daughter doesn’t play video games very often. Hearing her speak so highly of the game, I couldn’t wait to play it myself. I asked her to show me and I quickly discovered what she enjoyed so much. We have since enjoyed playing together (taking turns) on several occasions. I love that she is learning as she is engrossed in a game. Trying to collect all the elements in the periodic table is also a great challenge to keep her motivated. Within the game, there are pathways that the little atom travels upon. The goal is to move the number of atoms requested to the final destination before time runs out or the atoms crash into one another. As each atom pops out of the generator, you direct it along its route to divide (using the fission widget) or combine (using the fusion widget) the atom to create different atoms. Let’s say the game asks for a 5-Boron atom. If 5-Boron comes through the portal, you can lead it directly to the end of the route. However, if anything else arrives, you have to keep it moving along the course. When an atom is directed to the fission widget where atoms are split as evenly as possible. Even numbered atoms are split exactly in half whereas odd numbered atoms are split as close as possible (9-Fluorine, for example, will be split into 4-Beryllium and 5-Boron). Conversely, the fusion widget combines atoms. If the game asks for a 5-Boron atom, you’ll need to join smaller atoms together. Direct two 2-Helium atoms into this widget will result in 4-Beryllium. Direct a 1-Hydrogen to the widget together with 4-Beryllium and you’ll create the 5-Boron atom you need. While the game aspect is so very fun, it is also educational! Each time a goal is reached, you unlock one of the elements on the Periodic Table of Elements. Fun facts and trivia are revealed along the way. The game keeps you on your toes! As you race the computer to achieve your goal, target goal will change mid game. As you advance, the game board also changes and the atoms are generated more rapidly. Atomidoodle , a gaming app by Hero Factor Games, provides kids a fun and engaging way to learn about the periodic table and practice their math skills. It is a simple, yet action-packed puzzler based on the Periodic Table of Elements. Created by a husband and wife team who have enjoyed playing video games since their childhood, Atomidoodle is fast paced, mentally stimulating, and hard to put down. Due to their lifelong love of video games, they know how to weave positive content into exciting, challenging, and rewarding gameplay, so that kids are enjoyably edified! The latest release includes hundreds of interesting trivia facts. Atomidoodle is a virtual chemistry notebook come to life with speedy atoms, challenging mazes, and colorful doodles. Draw paths through tricky mazes, and get atoms safely to the goal Use fission (division) and fusion (addition) to create new atoms Think fast to avoid explosions Discover the elements and complete the Periodic Table Unlock hundreds of facts about the elements Eye-catching, hand-drawn artwork Atomidoodle is available for iPads on iTunes and is now also available on Android tablets as well! You can grab it on the Google Play store . Posted by Eva Varga Dec 1, 2014 Homeschooling , Science & Technology , Science in Action , Science Milestones Biology , Chemistry , Entomology , History of Science , Insects , Jean Henri Fabre , Life Sciences , Pheromones , Physical Sciences Leave a Comment Jean-Henri Fabre is best known for his popularization of insect natural history. Although a reclusive amateur, with no scientific training, he was an acute observer of insect behavior. He combined his observations (most made in his own backyard) with an easy to read writing style that made his books popular. The ten volumes of Souvenirs Entomologiques attracted only mild attention when they were first published. Fabre was 84 when the last volume appeared, and he was “discovered” soon afterwards. He was elected to numerous scientific societies, provided a government pension, and even the President of France came to visit him. Biography Jean Henri Casimir Fabre was a French entomologist born at Saint-Léons in Aveyron, France on December 22, 1823. He earned teaching certificate at the young age of 19 and began teaching in Carpentras. He was a popular teacher, however, he is probably best known for his study of insects, and is considered by many to be the father of modern entomology. Much of his enduring popularity is due to his marvelous teaching ability and his manner of writing about the lives of insects in biographical form. He died on October 11, 1915. One of his most notable discoveries was in regards to insect pheromones. Pheromones are chemicals released from the body of animals and insects that are used to attract mates or relay danger. L’Harmas, Fabre’s house at Sérignan in the Vaucluse northeast of Orange, was well screened by trees. In a series of key experiments, initially studying the Great Peacock Moth, Fabre found that a female moth could attract males over large distances, even on stormy nights. “It is smell, therefore, that guides the Moths, that gives them information at a distance“. He deduced that the male antennae had something to so with it, noted that surrounding the female with trays of molecules like naphthalene or lavender oil did not deflect the males from their aim, and observed that males were attracted to an empty cage where the female had spent the previous evening. Bring it Home Visit the Parc de loisirs Micropolis – a tourist attraction all about entomology; there is also a museum on Fabre’s life at Saint-Léons Enoy the activity, How do ants find food? Test the hypothesis that termites determine the direction of their nest from the degrees of the angles found in their pheromone trails. Visit my Science Milestones page to learn more about scientists whose discoveries and advancements have made a significant difference in our lives or who have advanced our understanding of the world around us. Posted by Eva Varga Nov 1, 2014 History & Geography , Homeschooling , Science & Technology , Science in Action , Science Milestones Chemistry , History of Science , Marie Curie , Nobel Prize , Physical Sciences , Physics , Radioactivity , WW1 1 Comment During the 19th century scientists knew little about what went on inside an atom. However, by the end of the century there were startling new ideas about the structure of the atom resulting from the discoveries of X-rays, radioactivity, and the electron. Marie Curie was amongst the leaders whose discoveries of radioactivity led to a new understanding of atomic structure. In 1896 Henri Becquerel was using naturally fluorescent minerals to study the properties of x-rays, which had been discovered the previous year by Wilhelm Roentgen . Becquerel exposed potassium uranyl sulfate to sunlight and then placed it on photographic plates wrapped in black paper, believing that the uranium absorbed the sun’s energy and then emitted it as x-rays. Believing his experiment had failed due to the inclement weather in Paris, he decided to develop his photographic plates anyway. To his surprise, the images were strong and clear, proving that the uranium emitted radiation without an external source of energy such as the sun. Becquerel had discovered radioactivity. “I am amongst those who think science has great beauty.” The term radioactivity was actually coined by Marie Curie, who together with her husband Pierre, began investigating the phenomenon recently discovered by Becquerel. The Curies extracted uranium from ore and to their surprise, found that the leftover ore showed more activity than the pure uranium. They concluded that the ore contained other radioactive elements. This led to the discoveries of the elements polonium and radium. It took four more years of processing tons of ore to isolate enough of each element to determine their chemical properties. Biography Maria Sklodowska was born in Warsaw on November 7, 1867, the daughter of a school teacher. As a young girl, Manya (as she was affectionately called) received a general education in local schools and some scientific training from her father. She was a brilliant student and dreamed of studying at the Sorbonne in Paris but it took eight years of saving before she could afford to go. Despite very poor living conditions and a lack of French she graduated in physics in 1893 and mathematics in 1894. “All my life through, the new sights of nature made me rejoice like a child.” She met Pierre Curie, Professor in the School of Physics in 1894 and in the following year they were married. Her early researches, together with her husband, were often performed under poor laboratory conditions. The discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896 inspired the Curies in their research which led to the isolation of polonium, named after the country of Marie’s birth. Pierre was tragically killed in 1906, leaving Marie with two daughters; Irène aged 9 and Eve aged 2. Determined to continue their work, Marie became the first ever woman professor at the Sorbonne and as well as teaching, she discovered how to isolate radium in metallic form. In 1911 she was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the discovery of the elements radium and polonium. “Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood.” During World War I, she established a front-line X-ray service in the battlefields of Belgium and France, tirelessly fundraising, training staff, and driving the X-ray vans. After the war, Marie continued her research and to raise funds for a hospital and laboratory devoted to radiology. She eventually died in 1934 from the cumulative effects of radiation exposure. My daughter is pictured here giving a living history performance as Madame Curie. Bring it Home Research Marie Curie and her life’s work and create a living history presentation to present to others. Watch the BrainPop video on Marie Curie to learn about her early days, from her humble beginnings in Poland, to her professorship at the Sorbonne. Visit the EPA‘s Radiation Protection Pages to learn about radiation and radiation protection. Write a brief story that describes what Marie Curie might have felt when she realized that she had discovered a new element. Visit my Science Milestones page to learn more about scientists whose discoveries and advancements have made a significant difference in our lives or who have advanced our understanding of the world around us. Explore additional November Birthday lessons and unit studies with iHomeschool Network bloggers. Posted by Eva Varga Oct 1, 2014 History & Geography , Homeschooling , Science & Technology , Science in Action , Science Milestones Alfred Nobel , Chemistry , Nobel , Nobel Prize , Peace , Science Leave a Comment For more than 100 years, the Nobel Prizes have recognized the finest in human achievements, from literature and science to the Nobel Peace Prize, awarded “to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses,” according to the last will and testament of founder Alfred Nobel. As we traveled through Scandinavia in 2011, we came upon numerous buildings and monuments that began to unfold the story of the Nobel Prize (like the Oslo City Hall, pictured above, where the Nobel Prize Ceremony takes place). We also came to discover that the life of Alfred Nobel is a very interesting story. Biography Alfred Bernhard Nobel was born in Stockholm on 21 October 1833. His father, an inventor and engineer who struggled financially for much of his life, was forced to declare bankruptcy. Immanuel left Sweden and began working in St. Petersburg, Russia, where he impressed the czar with one of his inventions, submerged explosive mines that could thwart a naval invasion. In 1842, when his father was financially stable, Alfred moved with his family to St. Petersburg. “Success is not a place at which one arrives but rather the spirit with which one undertakes and continues the journey.” Alfred did not attend school but received private tutoring from good teachers. He was quick to master four foreign languages, and showed great ability in the natural sciences, especially chemistry. Most researchers at the time considered nitroglycerine (discovered by Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847) too unsafe to have any practical use. The Nobel family, however, investigated its potential for commercial and industrial uses. Not surprising, their inquiries had tragic results. “A recluse without books and ink is already in life a dead man.” Seeking a safe way to use the oily liquid, in 1867 Alfred Nobel found that by mixing nitroglycerin with diatomaceous earth, the resulting compound was a stable paste that could be shaped into short sticks that mining companies might use to blast through rock. Nobel patented this invention as “dynamite,” from the Greek word dunamis, or “power.” The invention of dynamite revolutionized the mining, construction and demolition industries. Railroad companies could now safety blast through mountains, opening up vast stretches of the Earth’s surface to exploration and commerce. As a result, Nobel, who eventually garnered 355 patents on his many inventions, became incredibly wealthy. When Alfred’s brother Ludvig died in 1888, some journalistic error printed Alfred’s obituary instead. The obituary was widely published and he quickly learned how others perceived him. One French newspaper wrote “Le marchand de la mort est mort,” or “the merchant of death is dead.” The obituary went on to describe Nobel as a man “who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before.” “If I have been of service, if I have glimpsed more of the nature and essence of ultimate good, if I am inspired to reach wider horizons of thought and action, if I am at peace with myself, it has been a successful day.” Nobel was reportedly stunned by what he read, and as a result became determined to do something to improve his legacy. One year before he died in 1896, Nobel signed his last will and testament, which set aside the majority of his vast estate to establish the five Nobel Prizes, including one awarded for the pursuit of peace. Not everybody was pleased with this. His will was opposed by his relatives and questioned by authorities in various countries. It took four years for his executors to convince all parties to follow Alfred’s wishes. In 1901, the first Nobel Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine and Literature were first awarded in Stockholm, Sweden and the Peace Prize in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway. Bring it Home Learn more about one of the recipients of the Nobel Prize. Women have been awarded the Nobel Prize 44 times. Find out about the work by these famous scientists: Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (medicine) Learn about the production Microscopes including microscope simulations, photo galleries, & readings Find out what you can use conductive polymers for in the future by furnishing a house with the game Conductive Polymers Learn about human blood types and blood transfusions with The Blood Typing Game Read a book by one of the Nobel Peace Prize winners : Lord of the Flies by William Golding Night by Elie Wiesel I, Rigoberta Menchú by Rigoberta Menchú On a related note, the Nobel Peace Prize medallion was designed by Norwegian artist Gustav Vigeland. In my post Gustav Vigeland: Artist & Visionary , I share his life story and a complimentary art lesson. Visit my Science Milestones page to learn more about scientists whose discoveries and advancements have made a significant difference in our lives or who have advanced our understanding of the world around us. Explore additional October Birthday lessons and unit studies with iHomeschool Network bloggers. Posted by Eva Varga Mar 3, 2014 Homeschooling , Lab Report , Math & Logic , Science & Technology , Science in Action , STEM Club Candy , Chemistry , Math , Physical Sciences 6 Comments What is your favorite color of Skittles® candy? Do you want to know what dyes were used to make that color? Check out this science project to find out how you can do some scientific detective work to find out for yourself. Using a simple scientific technique called chromatography, you can separate and identify the various compounds in a complex mixture or solution. In this activity, water is used as the mobile phase (or solvent), a fluid the solution is dissolved in. The stationary phase, the material the fluid moves through, is filter paper (a coffee filter cut into strips will work well). The water is absorbed into the fibers of the paper by capillary action. As the water travels through the paper, it picks up ink particles (the solute) and carries them along. This same process that spoils a perfect print-out can also be put to good use. The components in the dye mixture move at different speeds as they travel through the stationary phase due to the different properties of the solution’s components, such as their molecular size, electrical charge, or other chemical properties. In paper chromatography, different pigments can be separated out from a solution based on the solubility of the pigments. A pigment that is more soluble (or more hydrophilic) than another pigment will generally travel farther because it will be easier for it to dissolve in the mobile phase (water) and be carried along the stationary phase (filter paper). A pigment that is less soluble (or more hydrophobic), or interacts more with the filter paper than the water, will generally travel a shorter distance. Candy Chromatography How are the dyes used in hard-shelled candies similar? How are they different? Materials Candies with a colored coating ~ I recommend testing four different colors and five identical candies of each color Filter paper ~ I used a white coffee filter cut into rectangles of approx. 1″ x 3″ Petri dish (or small plate) Pipet or eyedropper Tape Procedure Prepare the test strips by making a faint line on each strip with a pencil about 1″ from the bottom of the strip. Tape the other end to the skewer so that the strip hangs freely. Place the candies in a shallow dish and add a few drops of water atop each candy. In a few moments a small colored puddle should form. With the pipet, place a drop of the colored candy solution onto the line you drew on the test strip. Carefully place the strip into the cup containing the water. The pencil mark should NOT be in the solution but rather be about 1/2 inch above the water. Make sure, though, that the end of the paper is in the water. Watch the water as it moves up the strip of paper (due to capillary action), and see what happens as it comes in contact with the candy solution. Leave the strip in the solution until the dye no longer travels up the strip with the water. When this is complete, remove the strip of paper and place it somewhere on your desk so that it can dry thoroughly. Continue to test the remaining strips. Integrating Math Why do different compounds travel different distances on the piece of paper? In paper chromatography, you can see the components separate out on the filter paper and identify the components based on how far they travel. To do this, we calculate the retention factor (Rf value) of each component. The Rf value is the ratio between how far a component travels (the dye) and the distance the solvent (the water) travels from a common starting point (the origin). To calculate the Rf value, divide the distance traveled by the sample component by the distance traveled by the solvent. For example, 2.5cm ÷ 5.0cm = 0.5 You can use Rf values to identify different components as long as the solvent, temperature, pH, and type of paper remain the same. This ratio will be different for each component due to its unique properties, primarily based on its adhesive and cohesive factors. Take it Further Try this project with a variety of candies— for example, does the red in Skittles® look the same as the red in M&Ms® when processed with chromatography? Is the average Rf value nearly the same? Look in the ingredients on each package – were the same dyes used? Try this experiment again but this time use different kinds of solvents (e.g., salt water, vegetable oil, isopropyl rubbing alcohol, etc.). Does a dye travel different distances depending on the solvent you use? What do you think this tells you about the solubility of that dye in the different solvents? Do the dyes you tested travel differently on different kinds of filter paper (lightweight paper towels, heavyweight paper towels, white coffee filter papers, etc.)? You can probably now imagine how chromatography can be used to separate specific components from a complex mixture and identify chemicals, for example crime scene samples like blood, drugs, or explosive residue. Highly accurate chromatographic methods are used for process monitoring, for example to ensure that a pharmaceutical manufacturing process is producing the desired drug compound in pure form. Posted by Eva Varga Mar 1, 2014 History & Geography , Homeschooling , Science & Technology , Science in Action , Science Milestones Biography , Bunsen , Chemistry , Physical Sciences 4 Comments The Bunsen Burner, is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame used for heating, sterilization, and combustion was invented by German chemist Robert Wilhelm Eberhard von Bunsen on March 31, 1811. Working alongside his lab assistant, Peter Desaga, he designed a burner with a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion. Bunsen burners are now used in laboratories all around the world. The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable gas such as natural gas (generally methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both. Subscribers to my newsletter will receive the download link to my Burning Sugar Lab (pictured above). Biography Robert Wilhelm Eberhard von Bunsen was born on March 30, 1811 at Göttingen in 1811, in what is now the state of Lower Saxony in Germany (though there are some documents stating the 31st). Bunsen was the youngest of four sons of the University’s chief librarian and professor of modern philology, Christian Bunsen. He investigated emission spectra of heated elements, and discovered caesium (in 1860) and rubidium (in 1861) with Gustav Kirchhoff. He also developed several gas-analytical methods, was a pioneer in photochemistry, and did early work in the field of organoarsenic chemistry. Bunsen was one of the most universally admired scientists of his generation. A master teacher, he always conducted himself as a perfect gentleman, maintaining his distance from theoretical disputes. He much preferred to work quietly in his laboratory, continuing to enrich his science with useful discoveries. As a matter of principle he never took out a patent. He retired at the age of 78 and thereafter pursued his interests in geology and mineralogy. He died in Heidelberg at the age of 88. Bring it Home Upon reading about Eberhard von Bunsen and his invention, I really wanted an opportunity for my kiddos to experience using a Bunsen burner. However, as you can guess, a Bunsen Burner is not typically available to homeschool families unless you have access to a high school or college science lab. If this is a possibility for you and you are interested in learning how to use one safely, the video Introduction to the Bunsen Burner provides a great introduction. It also discusses typical lab applications and safety precautions. As an alternative, there are many hands-on lab activities that can be done safely in your home with simply a candle or Sterno Cooking Fuels . Here are a few ideas that you may wish to explore at home. Burning Sugar Lab – Observe the chemical changes that take place when sugar is exposed to heat Subscribers to my newsletter will receive the download link to my Burning Sugar Lab (pictured above) What happens to the candle when you light it? Can you prove that the candle needs oxygen in order to burn? Can you prove that the candle produces carbon dioxide when it burns? What happens when you hold a piece of glass in different parts of the flame? What do these results say about the process of burning wax in a candle? Is it possible to light a candle without touching the flame directly to the wick? Why or why not? Sketch and label the flame. What part of the flame is the hottest? Design an inquiry experiment to compare different brands of commercial candles? Visit my Science Milestones page to learn more about scientists whose discoveries and advancements have made a significant difference in our lives or who have advanced our understanding of the world around us. To find out about more people born in March hop on over to iHomeschool Network’s March birthdays page .	Bunsen burner
Which best-selling American author created the fictional American President 'Jack Ryan'?	Chemistry Archives - Page 3 of 5 - Eva Varga Posted by Eva Varga Jan 27, 2015 Homeschooling , Reviews , Science & Technology apps , Atomidoodle , Chemistry , Games , Hero Factor Games , Periodic Table of Elements , Review 4 Comments Just prior to Thanksgiving, I downloaded a new app called Atomidoodle for our iPad. It looked both educational and fun. We were driving up to Oregon to see family and in the rush to pack and load everything into the car, I neglected to tell the kids about it. After gathering with family at my brother’s house, the kids went home with their Grandma for the night. We picked them up the following day and drove home. The drive takes about 5 hours and often, the kids will engage themselves in reading, practicing their Mandarin, and playing games or reading iBooks on their devices. The next week, I sat down on the couch and called them over to share with them the new app I had downloaded. Much to my surprise, they had already discovered it. “Atomidoodle! I love that game,” my daughter exclaimed. “I found it on the iPad when we were at Grandma’s house and I played it a bunch. It is so fun!” We received the Atomidoodle app in exchange for an honest review. I also received monetary compensation for my time spent in reviewing the product. All opinions expressed are true and completely our own. Please see my disclosure policy for more information. My daughter doesn’t play video games very often. Hearing her speak so highly of the game, I couldn’t wait to play it myself. I asked her to show me and I quickly discovered what she enjoyed so much. We have since enjoyed playing together (taking turns) on several occasions. I love that she is learning as she is engrossed in a game. Trying to collect all the elements in the periodic table is also a great challenge to keep her motivated. Within the game, there are pathways that the little atom travels upon. The goal is to move the number of atoms requested to the final destination before time runs out or the atoms crash into one another. As each atom pops out of the generator, you direct it along its route to divide (using the fission widget) or combine (using the fusion widget) the atom to create different atoms. Let’s say the game asks for a 5-Boron atom. If 5-Boron comes through the portal, you can lead it directly to the end of the route. However, if anything else arrives, you have to keep it moving along the course. When an atom is directed to the fission widget where atoms are split as evenly as possible. Even numbered atoms are split exactly in half whereas odd numbered atoms are split as close as possible (9-Fluorine, for example, will be split into 4-Beryllium and 5-Boron). Conversely, the fusion widget combines atoms. If the game asks for a 5-Boron atom, you’ll need to join smaller atoms together. Direct two 2-Helium atoms into this widget will result in 4-Beryllium. Direct a 1-Hydrogen to the widget together with 4-Beryllium and you’ll create the 5-Boron atom you need. While the game aspect is so very fun, it is also educational! Each time a goal is reached, you unlock one of the elements on the Periodic Table of Elements. Fun facts and trivia are revealed along the way. The game keeps you on your toes! As you race the computer to achieve your goal, target goal will change mid game. As you advance, the game board also changes and the atoms are generated more rapidly. Atomidoodle , a gaming app by Hero Factor Games, provides kids a fun and engaging way to learn about the periodic table and practice their math skills. It is a simple, yet action-packed puzzler based on the Periodic Table of Elements. Created by a husband and wife team who have enjoyed playing video games since their childhood, Atomidoodle is fast paced, mentally stimulating, and hard to put down. Due to their lifelong love of video games, they know how to weave positive content into exciting, challenging, and rewarding gameplay, so that kids are enjoyably edified! The latest release includes hundreds of interesting trivia facts. Atomidoodle is a virtual chemistry notebook come to life with speedy atoms, challenging mazes, and colorful doodles. Draw paths through tricky mazes, and get atoms safely to the goal Use fission (division) and fusion (addition) to create new atoms Think fast to avoid explosions Discover the elements and complete the Periodic Table Unlock hundreds of facts about the elements Eye-catching, hand-drawn artwork Atomidoodle is available for iPads on iTunes and is now also available on Android tablets as well! You can grab it on the Google Play store . Posted by Eva Varga Dec 1, 2014 Homeschooling , Science & Technology , Science in Action , Science Milestones Biology , Chemistry , Entomology , History of Science , Insects , Jean Henri Fabre , Life Sciences , Pheromones , Physical Sciences Leave a Comment Jean-Henri Fabre is best known for his popularization of insect natural history. Although a reclusive amateur, with no scientific training, he was an acute observer of insect behavior. He combined his observations (most made in his own backyard) with an easy to read writing style that made his books popular. The ten volumes of Souvenirs Entomologiques attracted only mild attention when they were first published. Fabre was 84 when the last volume appeared, and he was “discovered” soon afterwards. He was elected to numerous scientific societies, provided a government pension, and even the President of France came to visit him. Biography Jean Henri Casimir Fabre was a French entomologist born at Saint-Léons in Aveyron, France on December 22, 1823. He earned teaching certificate at the young age of 19 and began teaching in Carpentras. He was a popular teacher, however, he is probably best known for his study of insects, and is considered by many to be the father of modern entomology. Much of his enduring popularity is due to his marvelous teaching ability and his manner of writing about the lives of insects in biographical form. He died on October 11, 1915. One of his most notable discoveries was in regards to insect pheromones. Pheromones are chemicals released from the body of animals and insects that are used to attract mates or relay danger. L’Harmas, Fabre’s house at Sérignan in the Vaucluse northeast of Orange, was well screened by trees. In a series of key experiments, initially studying the Great Peacock Moth, Fabre found that a female moth could attract males over large distances, even on stormy nights. “It is smell, therefore, that guides the Moths, that gives them information at a distance“. He deduced that the male antennae had something to so with it, noted that surrounding the female with trays of molecules like naphthalene or lavender oil did not deflect the males from their aim, and observed that males were attracted to an empty cage where the female had spent the previous evening. Bring it Home Visit the Parc de loisirs Micropolis – a tourist attraction all about entomology; there is also a museum on Fabre’s life at Saint-Léons Enoy the activity, How do ants find food? Test the hypothesis that termites determine the direction of their nest from the degrees of the angles found in their pheromone trails. Visit my Science Milestones page to learn more about scientists whose discoveries and advancements have made a significant difference in our lives or who have advanced our understanding of the world around us. Posted by Eva Varga Nov 1, 2014 History & Geography , Homeschooling , Science & Technology , Science in Action , Science Milestones Chemistry , History of Science , Marie Curie , Nobel Prize , Physical Sciences , Physics , Radioactivity , WW1 1 Comment During the 19th century scientists knew little about what went on inside an atom. However, by the end of the century there were startling new ideas about the structure of the atom resulting from the discoveries of X-rays, radioactivity, and the electron. Marie Curie was amongst the leaders whose discoveries of radioactivity led to a new understanding of atomic structure. In 1896 Henri Becquerel was using naturally fluorescent minerals to study the properties of x-rays, which had been discovered the previous year by Wilhelm Roentgen . Becquerel exposed potassium uranyl sulfate to sunlight and then placed it on photographic plates wrapped in black paper, believing that the uranium absorbed the sun’s energy and then emitted it as x-rays. Believing his experiment had failed due to the inclement weather in Paris, he decided to develop his photographic plates anyway. To his surprise, the images were strong and clear, proving that the uranium emitted radiation without an external source of energy such as the sun. Becquerel had discovered radioactivity. “I am amongst those who think science has great beauty.” The term radioactivity was actually coined by Marie Curie, who together with her husband Pierre, began investigating the phenomenon recently discovered by Becquerel. The Curies extracted uranium from ore and to their surprise, found that the leftover ore showed more activity than the pure uranium. They concluded that the ore contained other radioactive elements. This led to the discoveries of the elements polonium and radium. It took four more years of processing tons of ore to isolate enough of each element to determine their chemical properties. Biography Maria Sklodowska was born in Warsaw on November 7, 1867, the daughter of a school teacher. As a young girl, Manya (as she was affectionately called) received a general education in local schools and some scientific training from her father. She was a brilliant student and dreamed of studying at the Sorbonne in Paris but it took eight years of saving before she could afford to go. Despite very poor living conditions and a lack of French she graduated in physics in 1893 and mathematics in 1894. “All my life through, the new sights of nature made me rejoice like a child.” She met Pierre Curie, Professor in the School of Physics in 1894 and in the following year they were married. Her early researches, together with her husband, were often performed under poor laboratory conditions. The discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896 inspired the Curies in their research which led to the isolation of polonium, named after the country of Marie’s birth. Pierre was tragically killed in 1906, leaving Marie with two daughters; Irène aged 9 and Eve aged 2. Determined to continue their work, Marie became the first ever woman professor at the Sorbonne and as well as teaching, she discovered how to isolate radium in metallic form. In 1911 she was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the discovery of the elements radium and polonium. “Nothing in life is to be feared, it is only to be understood.” During World War I, she established a front-line X-ray service in the battlefields of Belgium and France, tirelessly fundraising, training staff, and driving the X-ray vans. After the war, Marie continued her research and to raise funds for a hospital and laboratory devoted to radiology. She eventually died in 1934 from the cumulative effects of radiation exposure. My daughter is pictured here giving a living history performance as Madame Curie. Bring it Home Research Marie Curie and her life’s work and create a living history presentation to present to others. Watch the BrainPop video on Marie Curie to learn about her early days, from her humble beginnings in Poland, to her professorship at the Sorbonne. Visit the EPA‘s Radiation Protection Pages to learn about radiation and radiation protection. Write a brief story that describes what Marie Curie might have felt when she realized that she had discovered a new element. Visit my Science Milestones page to learn more about scientists whose discoveries and advancements have made a significant difference in our lives or who have advanced our understanding of the world around us. Explore additional November Birthday lessons and unit studies with iHomeschool Network bloggers. Posted by Eva Varga Oct 1, 2014 History & Geography , Homeschooling , Science & Technology , Science in Action , Science Milestones Alfred Nobel , Chemistry , Nobel , Nobel Prize , Peace , Science Leave a Comment For more than 100 years, the Nobel Prizes have recognized the finest in human achievements, from literature and science to the Nobel Peace Prize, awarded “to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses,” according to the last will and testament of founder Alfred Nobel. As we traveled through Scandinavia in 2011, we came upon numerous buildings and monuments that began to unfold the story of the Nobel Prize (like the Oslo City Hall, pictured above, where the Nobel Prize Ceremony takes place). We also came to discover that the life of Alfred Nobel is a very interesting story. Biography Alfred Bernhard Nobel was born in Stockholm on 21 October 1833. His father, an inventor and engineer who struggled financially for much of his life, was forced to declare bankruptcy. Immanuel left Sweden and began working in St. Petersburg, Russia, where he impressed the czar with one of his inventions, submerged explosive mines that could thwart a naval invasion. In 1842, when his father was financially stable, Alfred moved with his family to St. Petersburg. “Success is not a place at which one arrives but rather the spirit with which one undertakes and continues the journey.” Alfred did not attend school but received private tutoring from good teachers. He was quick to master four foreign languages, and showed great ability in the natural sciences, especially chemistry. Most researchers at the time considered nitroglycerine (discovered by Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847) too unsafe to have any practical use. The Nobel family, however, investigated its potential for commercial and industrial uses. Not surprising, their inquiries had tragic results. “A recluse without books and ink is already in life a dead man.” Seeking a safe way to use the oily liquid, in 1867 Alfred Nobel found that by mixing nitroglycerin with diatomaceous earth, the resulting compound was a stable paste that could be shaped into short sticks that mining companies might use to blast through rock. Nobel patented this invention as “dynamite,” from the Greek word dunamis, or “power.” The invention of dynamite revolutionized the mining, construction and demolition industries. Railroad companies could now safety blast through mountains, opening up vast stretches of the Earth’s surface to exploration and commerce. As a result, Nobel, who eventually garnered 355 patents on his many inventions, became incredibly wealthy. When Alfred’s brother Ludvig died in 1888, some journalistic error printed Alfred’s obituary instead. The obituary was widely published and he quickly learned how others perceived him. One French newspaper wrote “Le marchand de la mort est mort,” or “the merchant of death is dead.” The obituary went on to describe Nobel as a man “who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before.” “If I have been of service, if I have glimpsed more of the nature and essence of ultimate good, if I am inspired to reach wider horizons of thought and action, if I am at peace with myself, it has been a successful day.” Nobel was reportedly stunned by what he read, and as a result became determined to do something to improve his legacy. One year before he died in 1896, Nobel signed his last will and testament, which set aside the majority of his vast estate to establish the five Nobel Prizes, including one awarded for the pursuit of peace. Not everybody was pleased with this. His will was opposed by his relatives and questioned by authorities in various countries. It took four years for his executors to convince all parties to follow Alfred’s wishes. In 1901, the first Nobel Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine and Literature were first awarded in Stockholm, Sweden and the Peace Prize in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway. Bring it Home Learn more about one of the recipients of the Nobel Prize. Women have been awarded the Nobel Prize 44 times. Find out about the work by these famous scientists: Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (medicine) Learn about the production Microscopes including microscope simulations, photo galleries, & readings Find out what you can use conductive polymers for in the future by furnishing a house with the game Conductive Polymers Learn about human blood types and blood transfusions with The Blood Typing Game Read a book by one of the Nobel Peace Prize winners : Lord of the Flies by William Golding Night by Elie Wiesel I, Rigoberta Menchú by Rigoberta Menchú On a related note, the Nobel Peace Prize medallion was designed by Norwegian artist Gustav Vigeland. In my post Gustav Vigeland: Artist & Visionary , I share his life story and a complimentary art lesson. Visit my Science Milestones page to learn more about scientists whose discoveries and advancements have made a significant difference in our lives or who have advanced our understanding of the world around us. Explore additional October Birthday lessons and unit studies with iHomeschool Network bloggers. Posted by Eva Varga Mar 3, 2014 Homeschooling , Lab Report , Math & Logic , Science & Technology , Science in Action , STEM Club Candy , Chemistry , Math , Physical Sciences 6 Comments What is your favorite color of Skittles® candy? Do you want to know what dyes were used to make that color? Check out this science project to find out how you can do some scientific detective work to find out for yourself. Using a simple scientific technique called chromatography, you can separate and identify the various compounds in a complex mixture or solution. In this activity, water is used as the mobile phase (or solvent), a fluid the solution is dissolved in. The stationary phase, the material the fluid moves through, is filter paper (a coffee filter cut into strips will work well). The water is absorbed into the fibers of the paper by capillary action. As the water travels through the paper, it picks up ink particles (the solute) and carries them along. This same process that spoils a perfect print-out can also be put to good use. The components in the dye mixture move at different speeds as they travel through the stationary phase due to the different properties of the solution’s components, such as their molecular size, electrical charge, or other chemical properties. In paper chromatography, different pigments can be separated out from a solution based on the solubility of the pigments. A pigment that is more soluble (or more hydrophilic) than another pigment will generally travel farther because it will be easier for it to dissolve in the mobile phase (water) and be carried along the stationary phase (filter paper). A pigment that is less soluble (or more hydrophobic), or interacts more with the filter paper than the water, will generally travel a shorter distance. Candy Chromatography How are the dyes used in hard-shelled candies similar? How are they different? Materials Candies with a colored coating ~ I recommend testing four different colors and five identical candies of each color Filter paper ~ I used a white coffee filter cut into rectangles of approx. 1″ x 3″ Petri dish (or small plate) Pipet or eyedropper Tape Procedure Prepare the test strips by making a faint line on each strip with a pencil about 1″ from the bottom of the strip. Tape the other end to the skewer so that the strip hangs freely. Place the candies in a shallow dish and add a few drops of water atop each candy. In a few moments a small colored puddle should form. With the pipet, place a drop of the colored candy solution onto the line you drew on the test strip. Carefully place the strip into the cup containing the water. The pencil mark should NOT be in the solution but rather be about 1/2 inch above the water. Make sure, though, that the end of the paper is in the water. Watch the water as it moves up the strip of paper (due to capillary action), and see what happens as it comes in contact with the candy solution. Leave the strip in the solution until the dye no longer travels up the strip with the water. When this is complete, remove the strip of paper and place it somewhere on your desk so that it can dry thoroughly. Continue to test the remaining strips. Integrating Math Why do different compounds travel different distances on the piece of paper? In paper chromatography, you can see the components separate out on the filter paper and identify the components based on how far they travel. To do this, we calculate the retention factor (Rf value) of each component. The Rf value is the ratio between how far a component travels (the dye) and the distance the solvent (the water) travels from a common starting point (the origin). To calculate the Rf value, divide the distance traveled by the sample component by the distance traveled by the solvent. For example, 2.5cm ÷ 5.0cm = 0.5 You can use Rf values to identify different components as long as the solvent, temperature, pH, and type of paper remain the same. This ratio will be different for each component due to its unique properties, primarily based on its adhesive and cohesive factors. Take it Further Try this project with a variety of candies— for example, does the red in Skittles® look the same as the red in M&Ms® when processed with chromatography? Is the average Rf value nearly the same? Look in the ingredients on each package – were the same dyes used? Try this experiment again but this time use different kinds of solvents (e.g., salt water, vegetable oil, isopropyl rubbing alcohol, etc.). Does a dye travel different distances depending on the solvent you use? What do you think this tells you about the solubility of that dye in the different solvents? Do the dyes you tested travel differently on different kinds of filter paper (lightweight paper towels, heavyweight paper towels, white coffee filter papers, etc.)? You can probably now imagine how chromatography can be used to separate specific components from a complex mixture and identify chemicals, for example crime scene samples like blood, drugs, or explosive residue. Highly accurate chromatographic methods are used for process monitoring, for example to ensure that a pharmaceutical manufacturing process is producing the desired drug compound in pure form. Posted by Eva Varga Mar 1, 2014 History & Geography , Homeschooling , Science & Technology , Science in Action , Science Milestones Biography , Bunsen , Chemistry , Physical Sciences 4 Comments The Bunsen Burner, is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a single open gas flame used for heating, sterilization, and combustion was invented by German chemist Robert Wilhelm Eberhard von Bunsen on March 31, 1811. Working alongside his lab assistant, Peter Desaga, he designed a burner with a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion. Bunsen burners are now used in laboratories all around the world. The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable gas such as natural gas (generally methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both. Subscribers to my newsletter will receive the download link to my Burning Sugar Lab (pictured above). Biography Robert Wilhelm Eberhard von Bunsen was born on March 30, 1811 at Göttingen in 1811, in what is now the state of Lower Saxony in Germany (though there are some documents stating the 31st). Bunsen was the youngest of four sons of the University’s chief librarian and professor of modern philology, Christian Bunsen. He investigated emission spectra of heated elements, and discovered caesium (in 1860) and rubidium (in 1861) with Gustav Kirchhoff. He also developed several gas-analytical methods, was a pioneer in photochemistry, and did early work in the field of organoarsenic chemistry. Bunsen was one of the most universally admired scientists of his generation. A master teacher, he always conducted himself as a perfect gentleman, maintaining his distance from theoretical disputes. He much preferred to work quietly in his laboratory, continuing to enrich his science with useful discoveries. As a matter of principle he never took out a patent. He retired at the age of 78 and thereafter pursued his interests in geology and mineralogy. He died in Heidelberg at the age of 88. Bring it Home Upon reading about Eberhard von Bunsen and his invention, I really wanted an opportunity for my kiddos to experience using a Bunsen burner. However, as you can guess, a Bunsen Burner is not typically available to homeschool families unless you have access to a high school or college science lab. If this is a possibility for you and you are interested in learning how to use one safely, the video Introduction to the Bunsen Burner provides a great introduction. It also discusses typical lab applications and safety precautions. As an alternative, there are many hands-on lab activities that can be done safely in your home with simply a candle or Sterno Cooking Fuels . Here are a few ideas that you may wish to explore at home. Burning Sugar Lab – Observe the chemical changes that take place when sugar is exposed to heat Subscribers to my newsletter will receive the download link to my Burning Sugar Lab (pictured above) What happens to the candle when you light it? Can you prove that the candle needs oxygen in order to burn? Can you prove that the candle produces carbon dioxide when it burns? What happens when you hold a piece of glass in different parts of the flame? What do these results say about the process of burning wax in a candle? Is it possible to light a candle without touching the flame directly to the wick? Why or why not? Sketch and label the flame. What part of the flame is the hottest? Design an inquiry experiment to compare different brands of commercial candles? Visit my Science Milestones page to learn more about scientists whose discoveries and advancements have made a significant difference in our lives or who have advanced our understanding of the world around us. To find out about more people born in March hop on over to iHomeschool Network’s March birthdays page .	i don't know
What was the name of the former England international cricketer who became Bishop of Liverpool in 1975?	Farewell to a friend - Liverpool Echo Farewell to a friend FAMILY and friends said a final farewell to former Bishop of Liverpool David Sheppard today (Thursday). Share Get daily updates directly to your inbox + Subscribe Could not subscribe, try again laterInvalid Email FAMILY and friends said a final farewell to former Bishop of Liverpool David Sheppard today. The former international cricketer who captained England before turning away from his sporting career to dedicate his life to the church died on March 6 on the eve of his 76th birthday after a long illness. The bells of the church of St Bridget in West Kirby tolled as the simple oak coffin covered in a spray of yellow spring flowers was carried by six pallbearers. Family, friends and senior church officials all had a part to play in a private service relayed by loudspeakers to local people who had gathered outside to pay their respects. Bishop of Liverpool Rt Revd James Jones paid tribute to David's "prophetic ministry" and his passionate work for the poor. He said: "David had the stubborn fearlessness of the prophet whether he was challenging religious bigotry or confronting political power, local or national. "He was one of a handful of diocesan bishops of the 20th century who exercised leadership and influence not just in the church but in the life of the nation. He inspired millions by his example." Lord Sheppard's close friend and former England cricket captain Mike Brearley praised his strong anti- apartheid stance and cricketing skills. He said: "He knew that to occupy a space he had to say no to others. He was big enough to remain civil to those he disagreed with. "I remember a phone call I had a few weeks ago when David said he had half a good night and I imagine others might have dwelt on the other half." The Rt Revd Michael Henshall, honorary assistant bishop in the diocese of York, and former Bishop of Warrington, gave the address. He said: "He was a unique Bishop of many parts. A man who saw beyond and within and behind contemporary issues in the city, diocese, nation and beyond." The family followed the coffin out after the service. They accompanied it to the Lychgate for committal and a private cremation was being held. Lord Sheppard's ashes will be buried at Liverpool Anglican cathedral and a public memorial service will be held there on May 23. As a minister he became interested in issues of poverty, injustice and urban disadvantage, which he wrote about in his books and reports for the Church of England. In January 1998, he received a life peerage, and in recent years was honorary assistant bishop in the diocese of Chester. He lived near West Kirby, Wirral, with his wife Grace. [email protected] Life and times> DAVID SHEPPARD first made his mark as an England cricketer, playing 22 times for his country between 1950 and 1963. But he turned away from his glittering sports career to devote himself to the Anglican church. He came to Liverpool in 1975, retired in 1997 and was given a life peerage in 1998. In 2003 his autobiography Steps Along Hope Street was published. Archbishop Derek Worlock was ordained a priest in 1944 and, in 1976, came to Liverpool as Archbishop. He and Bishop Sheppard welcomed the Pope to the city in 1982. He died in 1996 after a long battle with cancer. Go-ahead for city memorial statue >>>> Go-ahead for city memorial statue> A PERMANENT memorial to two of Liverpool's foremost religious figures will be created in the city they loved. A statue of Bishop David Sheppard and Archbishop Derek Worlock will be erected in the heart of Liverpool, possibly between the two cathedrals in Hope Street. Political leaders last night backed the idea and agreed to support it with funding. The statue was proposed in the ECHO last week after Lord Sheppard's death from cancer, aged 75. Archbishop Worlock died in 1996. Councillors said the firm friends, who united Liverpool's Catholic and Protestant communities during times of great difficulty for city residents, should be remembered in a fitting way. Opposition leader Cllr Joe Anderson, who proposed the idea at last night's council meeting, said: "David and Derek were true servants and leaders of this city. "They fought for the people of this city in a way we should applaud and follow." Council leader Cllr Mike Storey said: "Before David and Derek, Liverpool had the potential for sectarian conflict. Thank God those two men got together. "In generations to come, we will still remember their remarkable contribution." Cllr Steve Radford, of the Liberal Party, added: "Without doubt, David and Derek gave leadership to members of both faiths." Council officers will now start drawing up plans for a memorial, including possible locations. Like us on Facebook Most Read Most Recent Most Read Most Recent	David Sheppard
What was the name of Ernest Shackleton's famous ship that was crushed by ice in the Antarctic in 1915?	David Events in History - BrainyHistory Years David Events in History 2015 Event - British Prime Minister David Cameron is re-elected for five more years in a decisive victory that upset predictions of a close election and resulted in the first Conservative majority government since 1992 2014 Event - Former Luxembourg Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker is nominated for the position of President of the European Commission in a 26-2 vote over U.K. Prime Minister David Cameron, who strongly objected to the decision 2014 Event - Eric Cantor, majority leader of the U.S. House of Representatives, will step down from his leadership position at the end of July following a surprising primary election defeat by Tea Party candidate David Brat 2014 Event - David Letterman announces that he will retire from the 'Late Show' in 2015 2013 Event - In New Zealand, David Cunliffe is elected leader of the Labour Party 2013 Event - David Milliband announces plans to resign as Britain's Foreign Secretary and move to U.S. state of New York to head the International Rescue Committee 2013 Event - Britain's Prime Minister, David Cameron, lays out his intention to renegotiate terms with the EU, and subsequent plan to offer a referendum on his country's withdrawal from the EU if a new deal is agreed 2012 Event - Ballerina Natalia Makarova, blues legend Buddy Guy, actor Dustin Hoffman, American television host David Letterman, and surviving members of Led Zeppelin, receive 2012 Kennedy Center Honors for their contributions to American culture 2012 Event - British Prime Minister David Cameron announces Lough Erne, County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland as the location for the 39th G8 summit in June 2013 2012 Event - Under intense media scrutiny for an extramarital affair, U.S. CIA Director David Petraeus submits his resignation to President Barack Obama 2012 Event - The 2012 Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded to Serge Haroche and David Wineland for their work on quantum optics 2012 Event - David Rudisha of Kenya becomes the first athlete at the 2012 Summer Olympics to set a new world track record and secures the 800m gold medal 2012 Event - David Cameron, Britain's Prime Minister, suggests government spending cuts will be required until the end of the decade 2012 Event - Queen Elizabeth II appoints John Howard, Prime Minister of Australia, and artist David Hockney, to the Order of Merit 2011 Event - After negotiations in Brussels, David Cameron, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, rejects the invitation to join a European Union financial crisis accord 2011 Event - Riots in England continue; Prime Minister David Cameron hires U.S. law enforcement officer Bill Bratton to advise on dealing with gang-related violence 2011 Event - Command of the NATO forces in Afghanistan transfers from U.S. General David Petraeus to U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Genreal John R. Allen 2011 Event - U.K. Prime Minister David Cameron announces an inquiry into News of the World, allegedly involved in a phone hacking scandal 2011 Event - U.K. Prime Minister, David Cameron, confirms the United Kingdom is sending Apache attack helicopters to assist the 2011 Libyan uprising 2011 Event - Speaking in Cardiff, Wales, David Cameron, Prime Minister of the U.K., declares war on 'enemies of enterprise' 2010 Event - David Cameron, Prime Minister of Britain, embarks on an official visit aimed at building closer economic ties to the People's Republic of China 2008 Death - David Foster Wallace, dies in California, of suicide, at 46 2007 Death - David Halberstam, dies in California, in a traffic crash, at 73 2005 Death - David Hackworth, American Soldier 2005 Death - Mitch Hedberg, comedian, appeared on television show, 'The Late Show with David Letterman' and film, 'Lords of Dogtown', dies at age 37, in Livingston, New Jersey 2004 Death - David Bailey, actor, Passions, dies at 71 2004 Death - Carl Wayne, Colin David Tooley, actor, lead vocalist 'The Move', 1960's Birmingham rock group, dies of esophageal cancer, at age 61 2004 Death - David Raksin, composer, Laura, dies at 92 2003 Death - David Hemmings, actor/durectir, Blow Up, dies at 62 2003 Death - David Brinkley, TV journalist, dies at 82 2003 Death - David Lavender, American Historian 2003 Death - David Bloom, TV journalist, died in Iraq of non-war-related causes, dies at 39 2003 Death - David Brown, astronaut, mission specialist on the Columbia, STS-107, 2002 Event - Wimbledon Men's Finals, Lleyton Hewitt beat David Nalbandian 2002 Death - David Riesman, American Sociologist 2001 Death - David Angell, producer, Frasier, dies at 55 - a 9/11 terrorist murder 2001 Event - Wimbledon Men's Doubles Finals, Donald Johnson and Jared Palmer beat Jiri Novak and David Rikl 2001 Death - David Graf, actor, Police Academy, movies, dies at 50 2000 Death - David Brower, ecological activist, executive director of the Sierra Club for nearly 20 years, dies at 88 2000 Death - David R. Brower, American Environmentalist 2000 Death - David Dukes, actor, Gods and Monsters, dies at 55 2000 Death - David Tomlinson, actor, Mary Poppins, dies at 83 2000 Death - David B. Guralnik, Webster's lexicographer, dies at 79 1999 Death - David Strickland, actor, Suddenly Susan, dies at 29 1998 Death - David F. Powers, American Politician 1998 Event - New England Patriot David Meggett arrested in Toronto on sex assault charges 1998 Event - Spice Girl Victoria Adams, aka Posh Spice, and soccer David Beckham gets engaged 1998 Death - David "Junior" Kimbrough, blues musician, dies at 67 1997 Death - David Norman Schramm, physicist, dies at 52 1997 Death - David Abell Wood, priest, dies at 72 1997 Event - David Duval wins Championship at the Champions Golf Club 1997 Event - David Duval wins Walt Disney World/Oldsmobile Golf Classic 1997 Event - David Duval wins Michelob Championship at Kingsmill Golf Club 1997 Event - Newscaster David Brinkley, 74, retires after 54 years in broadcasting 1997 Event - David Toms wins Quad City Golf Classic at 265 1997 Event - David Frost wins Golf's Colonial Final in Ft. Worth Texas 1997 Event - "King David," closes at New Amsterdam Theater New York City 1997 Event - "King David," opens at New Amsterdam Theater New York City 1997 Event - Tea Leoni and David Duchovny wed in Greenwich Village 1997 Death - David Doyle, TV actor (Charlie's Angels) 1997 Death - David Waller, actor (Lady Jane, Perfect Friday, Hannay), dies at 76 1996 Death - David Sinclair, actor (Love and Hate), dies at 62 1996 Death - David Herbert, publisher, dies at 69 1996 Death - David Gilroy Bevan, politician, dies at 86 1996 Death - David Viscott, American Psychologist 1996 Death - David Donaldson, painter, dies at 80 1996 Death - David Tudor, composer, dies at 70 1996 Event - David Sales makes 210 on 1st class cricket debut for Northants vs. Worcs 1996 Death - David Lancaster Nicolson, businessman/politician, dies at 73 1996 Death - David Schine, businessman, dies at 70 1996 Death - David Mourao-Ferreira, poet/politician, dies at 69 1996 Death - David Nicholls, priest/theologian/political theorist, dies at 60 1996 Death - David W. Howe, test pilot, dies at 77 1996 Death - David Michael Ifshin, British political campaign organiser, dies at 46 1996 Death - David Opatoshu, actor (Torn Curtian, Raid on Entebbe), dies at 78 1996 Death - David William Eric Davis, broadcaster, dies at 87 1996 Death - David Shipman, film historian, dies at 63 1996 Death - David Keylsey, actor and director, dies at 63 1996 Death - David Whitton, politician, Labor party, Member of the Scottish Parliament for Strathkelvin and Bearsden, dies at 44 1996 Death - David Packard, electronic engineer and businessman, dies at 83 1996 Death - David Bowman, trade unionist, dies at 82 1996 Event - Actress Halle Berry files for divorce from David Justice 1996 Event - Last day of Test cricket for David Boon 1996 Death - David Schultz, wrestler, Gold Medal 1984 Olympics, killed by John Du Pont 1996 Death - David Robin Francis Guy Greville, 8th Duke of Warwick, dies at 61 1995 Death - David Land, impressario, dies at 77 1995 Event - David Cone signs $19.5 million 3 year contract with New York Yankees 1995 Death - David Lincoln Lightbown, politician, dies at 63 1995 Death - David Saul Marshall, diplomat lawyer/politician, dies at 97 1995 Death - Adrianne Jones, killed by David Graham and Diane Zamora, at 16 1995 Death - David Briggs, record producer, dies at 51 1995 Death - David Healy, actor (Supergirl, Doomsday Gun, Patton), dies at 64 1995 Death - David Farrar, actor (Beat Girl, I Accuse, Watusi), dies at 87 1995 Death - David Richard Holloway, literary Editor, dies at 71 1995 Death - Frank Perry, U.S. dir (Diary of Mad Housewife, David and Lisa), dies at 65 1995 Death - David James Moore, educationalist, dies at 62 1995 Death - David Warrilow, actor (Simon, Radio Days, Barton Fink), dies at 60 1995 Death - David Begelman, film producer, dies at 73 1995 Death - Alan David Marks, pianist/composer, dies at 49 1995 Death - David Parry, guitarist, dies 53 1995 Death - David Avidan, poet and writer, dies at 62 1995 Event - David Bell debuts for the Indians (3rd generation player, Gus and Buddy) 1995 Death - David Alexander Reginald Herbert, writer, dies at 86 1995 Death - Davie Cooper, David 'Davie' Cooper, professional soccer player, signed by Ranger for 100,000 pounds, won Scottish Cup with Motherwell in 1991, dies at 39 1995 Death - David Melvin English Franklin, singer, dies at 52 1995 Death - David Wayne, Wayne Mcmeekan, U.S. actor 'Dallas', dies at 81 1995 Death - David Kindersley, alphabet Designer/Cutter, dies at 79 1994 Death - David Dean Rusk, American Politician 1994 Death - David Bache, son of footballer Joe Bache, car designer, worked with Rover, dies at 69 1994 Death - David Rayner, cyclist, dies 1994 Death - David Feinberg, AIDS activist/author, dies at 37 1994 Death - Anthony David Machell Cox, medievalist, dies at 81 1994 Death - David Buchan, ethno-Musicologist, dies at 55 1994 Death - David Napley, solicitor, dies at 79 1994 Death - David van Cup, sculptor/painter, dies at 57 1994 Death - David Wright, poet, dies at 74 1994 Death - David Malcolm Lewis, expert in Greek Epigraphy, dies at 56 1994 Death - Alan David Melville, polymath, dies at 82 1994 Death - David Lawson, executed in North Carolina (wanted execution shown on Donahue) 1994 Death - David Brooks, psychologist, dies at 91 1994 Death - David Langton, dies of a heart at 81 1994 Death - David Langton, British actor (Upstairs Downstairs), dies at 82 1994 Event - David Robinson scores ties 7th highest total in the NBA - 71 1994 Event - Branch Davidian cult leader David Koresh promises to surrender after completion of his Seven Seals manuscript 1994 Death - David Miles Bensuan Economist-Butt, dies at 79 1994 Event - David Platt appointed captain of English football team 1994 Event - PBA National Championship won by David Traber 1994 Event - Branch Davidian cult leader David Koresh promises to surrender if taped statement is broadcasted, it is, but he doesn't 1993 Death - Mack David, U.S. songwriter (Bachelor in Paradise), dies at 81 1993 Death - Janet Margolin, actress (David and Lisa), dies of ovarian cancer at 50 1993 Death - Absolutely Nobody, David Powers, Washington lieutenant governor candidate, dies at 37 1993 Death - David Tendlar, animator (Betty Boop), dies 1993 Event - Fred McGriff and David Justice are 6th to hit back-to-back home runs twice in same game 1993 Death - David Brian, U.S. actor (Damned Don't Cry, Fort Worth), dies at 78 1993 Event - "Late Night with David Letterman" airs for last time on NBC-TV 1993 Death - David Waymer, NFLer (Saints, 49'ers, Raiders), dies at 34 1993 Event - NBC announces Conan O'Brien to replace David Letterman 1993 Event - David Lee Roth arrested in New York City for purchasing marijuana for 1993 Death - David Gunn, abortion doctor, killed by Michael Griffin at 47 1993 Death - Michael David Morrison, actor (Caleb-As the World Turns), dies at 33 1993 Death - David Willis, British journalist (BBC World Service), dies at 54 1993 Event - David Letterman announces his show is moving from NBC to CBS 1993 Event - NBC offers "Tonight Show" to David Letterman 1992 Event - David Boon's 14th Test Cricket century, 111 vs. WI at Brisbane 1992 Death - David Oliver, actor (Perry Hutchins-Another World), dies of AIDS at 30 1992 Event - David Houghton gets Zimbabwe's 1st Test ton (121 vs. India, debut) 1992 Event - 1,700th David Letterman Show 1992 Event - Actress Ally Sheedy weds actor David Lansbury 1992 Death - David Jones, actor, commits suicide (had terminal cancer) at 76 1992 Event - David Lewett and Jane Luu discovers comet: "1992 QB1" 64 mil km from Sun 1992 Event - Mets trade David Cone to Toronto for Jeff Kent and Ryan Thompson 1992 Death - David Kaplan, news director (ABC), killed in Sarajevo Yugoslavia 1992 Event - Last day of Test Cricket for David Gower 1992 Death - David Wojuarowicz, artist (U2 album cover), dies of AIDs at 37 1992 Event - U.S. actress Bobbie Eakes marries author David Stone 1992 Death - Elizabeth David, British cookbook writer, dies 1992 Event - New York Mets trade David Cone to Toronto Blue Jays for Jeff Kent 1992 Event - David Bowie marries model Iman in Switzerland 1992 Death - David Miller, dies of cancer at 82 1992 Death - David Carroll, actor (Grand Hotel), dies of pulmonary embolism at 41 1992 Event - David Boon's 13 Test Cricket century, 107 vs. India at Perth 1991 Death - David "Sonny" Werblin, AFL owner for the New York Jets, dies at 81 1991 Event - New York Met David Cone ties NL record by striking out 19 Phillies 1991 Event - Houston quarterback David Klingler sets NCAA record with 6 touchdown passes in the 2nd quarter as the Cougars clobbered Louisiana Tech 73-3 1991 Death - David Ruffin, rock vocalist (Temptations), dies of drug overdose at 50 1991 Event - Firestone World Bowling Tournament of Champions won by David Ozio 1991 Death - David Lean, director (28 academy awards), dies of pneumonia at 83 1990 Death - David White, actor (Larry Tate-Bewitched), dies at 74 1990 Death - David White, actor (Bewitched), dies of heart attack at 74 1990 Event - David Hackett Souter, sworn in as Supreme Court Justice 1990 Event - U.S. Senate votes 90-9 to confirm David Souter to Supreme Court 1990 Event - Senate Judiciary Com opens hearing on confirmation of David Souter 1990 Death - David Acer, Florida dentist, dies of AIDs after infecting 5 patients 1990 Death - David Rose, composer (Holiday for Strings, Stripper), dies at 80 1990 Event - Longest wheelie (David Robilliard with 5h12m33s (Channel Islands) 1990 Death - David Rappaport, 3'11' actor (Wizard, LA Law), shoots himself at 38 1990 Event - As Met pitcher David Cone argues a call at 1st base, 2 Braves score 1990 Death - Ralph David Abernathy, U.S. civil rights leader, dies 1990 Event - David Hares "Racing Demon," premieres in London 1990 Death - David Arkin, actor (I Love You Alice B Toklas), dies 1990 Event - David Dinkins sworn in as 1st black mayor of New York City 1989 Event - David Boon scores 200 vs. New Zealand at cricket WACA 1989 Event - David Dinkins elected 1st black mayor of New York City 1989 Death - Stanley David Griggs, astronaut (STS-51-D), dies plane crash at 59 1989 Event - Margaret Ray pleads guilty to breaking into David Letterman's house 1989 Event - Margaret Ray pleads guilty to breaking into David Letterman's house 1989 Death - David Webster, South African white anti-apartheids activist, murdered 1989 Event - David Letterman becomes 1st network TV series to use dolby stereo 1989 Death - Norman Woolard, actor (Guilty, Saul and David, Medeleine), dies at 79 1989 Event - Harold E. Ballard sells CFL Hamilton Tiger-Cats to David Braley 1989 Event - Margaret Ray found in David Letterman's home, claims to be his wife 1989 Event - Whitesnake's rocker David Coverdale weds actress Tawny Kitaen 1988 Death - Arwel Hughes, composer, choral and orchestral music conductor, composer, organist, studied with Ralph Vaughan Williams at Royal College of Music, known for large-scale oratorios Saint David and Pantycelyn, dies at 79 1988 Death - David Schoenbrun, CBS broadcast bureau head (Wash, Paris), dies at 73 1988 Event - David Mamet's "Speed-the-Plow," premieres in New York City 1988 Death - David Prater, U.S. singer (Sam and Dave-Soul Man), dies in car crash at 50 1988 Event - David Henry Hwang's "M. Butterfly," premieres in New York City 1988 Event - David Boon's 6th Test Cricket century, 184* vs. England at Sydney 1987 Event - David Boon's 5th Test Cricket century, 143 vs. New Zealand at Brisbane 1987 Event - Rocker David Crosby weds Jan Dance in Los Angeles 1987 Event - David Robinson scores 50 points in a NCAA basketball game 1987 Event - David Hookes (306) Wayne Phillips make 462 stand for South Australia 1987 Death - David Susskind, TV host (Open End, David Susskind Show), dies at 66 1987 Event - David Hartman quits ABC's "Good Morning America," after 11 years 1987 Death - David Savoy, Jr., rock manager (Husker Du), commits suicide at 24 1986 Event - David Boon's fourth Test century, 103 vs. England at Adelaide 1986 Event - Armand Hammer returns to U.S. with Jewish refusenik David Goldfarb 1986 Event - David Boon's 3rd Test cricket century, 122 vs. India at Madras 1986 Event - Cher called David Letterman an asshole on Late Night on NBC 1986 Event - David Goch finishes swimming 55,682 miles in a 25-yd pool 1986 Event - David Boon's second Test century, 131 vs. India at Adelaide 1986 Event - NCAA basketball's David Robinson blocks a record 14 shots 1986 Death - David Cecil, English Writer 1985 Event - David Boon's 1st Test century, 123 vs. India at Adelaide 1985 Event - "Just A Gigolo/I Ain't Got Nobody" by David Lee Roth hits #12 1985 Event - David Jacobsen taken hostage in Beirut, Lebanon 1985 Event - Larry Holmes TKOs David Bey in 10 for heavyweight boxing title 1985 Death - David Huffman, actor (FIST, Jane Doe, Firefox, Onion Field), dies 1984 Event - Test Cricket debut of David Boon age 23 and Bob Holland age 38 (v WI) 1984 Event - David Levy finds his 1st comet 1984 Death - David Gorcey, actor (Angel's Alley), dies at 63 in a diabetic coma 1984 Birthday - Henry Charles Albert David, Prince of Wales, 3rd in British succession 1984 Event - David Rabe's "Hurlyburly," premieres in New York City 1984 Event - Montreal Expo David Palmer no-hits St. Louis Cardinals, 4-0 in a perfect 5 inn game 1984 Death - David, spent most of his life in a plastic bubble, dies at 12 1983 Death - David Rounds, actor (Terence-Beacon Hill), dies at 53 1983 Event - David Shire and R Maltby Jr's musical "Baby," premieres in New York City 1983 Death - David Alexandrovich Toradze, composer, dies at 61 1983 Death - Ralph [David] Richardson, English actor (Richard III), dies at 80 1983 Event - David Mamet's "Glengarry Glen Ross," premieres in London 1983 Death - David Niven, actor (Rugues), dies in Switzerland at 73 1983 Event - U.S. announces Lebanon freed American hostage David Dodge 1983 Event - David Bowie's 'Let's "Dance' single goes #1 1983 Event - David Hookes scores his only Test Cricket century, 143 vs. Sri Lanka 1982 Death - David Blue, rocker, dies while jogging in Greenwich Village at 41 1982 Event - David Hookes scores Cricket century in 34 balls 43 minutes, SA vs. Victoria 1982 Event - David S. Dodge becomes 1st American hostage in Lebanon 1982 Event - David Moorcroft of U.K. sets record for 5000 m, 13:00.41 1982 Event - In accordance with Camp David, Israel completes Sinai withdrawal 1982 Event - "Late Night with David Letterman" premieres on NBC 1982 Event - "Late Night With David Letterman," debuts on NBC-TV 1981 Death - David Guion, composer, dies at 88 1981 Event - Newscaster David Brinkley is released by NBC 1981 Event - Mark David Chapman, John Lennon's murderer, is sentenced to 20 years 1981 Event - Mark David Chapman is sentenced to 20 years to life for Lennon's murder 1981 Event - Mark David Chapman pleads guilty to killing John Lennon 1981 Event - 81st U.S. Golf Open: David Graham shoots 273 at Merion Golf Club in Ardmore, Pennsylvania 1981 Death - David Lynch, singer (Platters-My Prayer), dies at 51 1980 Death - John Lennon, assassinated in New York by Mark David Chapman at 40 1980 Event - David Bowie appears in role of 'Elephant Man' in Denver 1980 Event - "David Letterman Show," debuts on NBC-TV daytime 1980 Death - David Janssen, Meyer, actor (Fugitive, Harry O), dies at 49 1980 Death - David Newell, actor (Dangerous Curves, White Heat), dies at 75 1979 Birthday - Michael Faustino, actor, brother of David 1979 Event - Coup in Central African Rep: David Dacko overthrows emperor Bokassa I 1979 Event - Hurricane David, a strong Atlantic storm kills over 1,000 1979 Event - 61st PGA Championship: David Graham shoots a 272 at Oakland Hills, Michigan 1979 Event - David Gower 200* in England score of 5-633 vs. India at Edgbaston 1979 Event - Camp David peace treaty between Israel and Egypt 1979 Birthday - David Lopez, Queens, New York, actor, and God Created Women, Ghostwriter 1978 Event - Israeli Knesset endorses Camp David accord 1978 Event - 100,000 cheering Egyptians welcome Sadat home from Camp David summit 1978 Event - Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin returns home after Camp David summit 1978 Event - Begin, Sadat and Carter sign Camp David accord 1978 Event - Begin and Sadat meet at Camp David to discuss peace 1978 Event - Sadat, Begin and Carter began peace conference at Camp David, Md 1978 Death - Thayer David, actor (Rocky, Roots, Savages), dies at 51 1978 Event - David Berkowitz sentenced in New York Supreme Court to 25 years to life 1978 Event - Cricket Test debut of David Gower, vs. Pakistan, Edgbaston, scores 58 1978 Birthday - David Krumholtz, New York City, actor, Billy Kulchak-Chicago Sons 1978 Event - David Hare's "Plenty," premieres in London 1978 Event - David Thompson scores ties 3rd highest total in the NBA - 73 1978 Event - Denver's David Thompson scores 73 points and San Antonio's George Gervin scores 63 points in separate NBA games (33 in 1 quarter) 1978 Death - David McKinley Williams, composer, dies at 91 1977 Death - Johann Nepomuk David, composer, dies at 82 1977 Birthday - David Sales, cricketer, Northampton batsman, 210 on fc debut 1996 1977 Event - David Steed balanced stationary on a bike for 9 hours 15 minutes 1977 Event - David Mamet's "Life in the Theater," premieres in New York City 1977 Event - Postal employee David Berkowitz arrested in Yonkers, New York, accused of being "Son of Sam" 44 caliber killer 1977 Event - David Berkowitz pleads guilty in "Son of Sam" 44-caliber shootings 1977 Event - Bollingen Prize awarded to David Ignatow 1976 Birthday - David Nemirovsky, Toronto, NHL right wing for the Florida Panthers 1976 Event - NBC Nightly News with John Chancellor and David Brinkley, premieres 1976 Birthday - David Diaz, born in Chicago, Illinois, light welterweight boxer 1996 Olympics 1976 Death - David Bruce, dies at 62 1976 Event - David Mamet's "American Buffalo," premieres in New York City 1975 Event - David Bowie's 'Fame' single goes #1 for 2 weeks 1975 Event - David Frost purchases exclusive rights to interview Nixon 1975 Event - David Bowie releases 'Fame' 1975 Death - David Frederick Barlow, composer, dies at 48 1975 Birthday - David Beckham, English Actor 1975 Birthday - David Faustino, born in California, actor in I Had 3 Wives,Married With Children 1975 Death - Heintje Davids, Hendrika David, Dutch cabaret artist, dies at 87 1975 Birthday - David Ortiz, Dominican Republican Athlete 1974 Birthday - David Barnard, WLAF defensive tackle for the Scotland Claymores 1974 Birthday - David Moscow, born in New York City, New York, actor, played role of young Josh in film 'Big' 1974 Death - David Oistrach, Russian violinist, dies at 65 1974 Event - David Bowie's 'Diamond Dog' tour ends in New York City 1974 Birthday - David Wilkie, Ellensburg, NHL defenseman, Montreal Canadiens 1974 Event - During a David Cassidy concert in London a 14 year old is trampled 1974 Death - David C Imboden, actor (King of Kings), dies at 87 1974 Birthday - David Cameron, Australian rower, 1996 Olympics 1974 Event - David Hares' "Knuckle," premieres in London 1974 Death - David Monrad Johansen, composer, dies at 85 1974 Birthday - David Buck, born in Honolulu, Hawaii, kayak alternate for 1996 Olympics 1974 Birthday - David LaFleur, tight end for the Dallas Cowboys 1974 Death - David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexican sculptor/muralist, dies at 77 1973 Death - David Ben-Gurion, founding father of Israel, dies in Tel Aviv at 87 1973 Death - David Ben Gurion, Israeli Statesman 1973 Death - Stringbean, David Akeman, banjoist/comedian (Hee Haw), dies at 58 1973 Event - Good Morning America premieres on ABC (David Hartman and Nancy Dussault) 1973 Birthday - David Richie, NFL nost tackle, Denver Broncos-Super Bowl 32 1973 Birthday - David Reid, Philadelphia, light middleweight boxer, 1996 Olympics gold 1973 Event - David Eisenhower writes his last sports column 1973 Event - David Storey's "Cromwell," premieres in London 1973 Birthday - David Friedman, born in Los Angeles, California, actor, Jason-Little House on the Prairie 1973 Event - Rangers draft Texas high school pitcher David Clyde #1 1973 Birthday - David Bailey, WLAF tackle for the Frankfurt Galaxy 1973 Birthday - David Blaine, born in Brooklyn, New York, illusionist, endurance artist, considered a modern-day Houdini, first television special titled, 'David Blaine; Street Magic' 1973 Birthday - David Moravec, hockey forward, Team Czechoslovakia, Gold Medal 1998 Olympics 1973 Birthday - David Vaughn, NBA forward, Orlando Magic, San Francisco Warriors 1973 Birthday - David Prinosil, born in Olmutz, Czechoslovakia, tennis star, 1995 ATP Newport 1972 Birthday - David Palmer, NFL wide receiver for the Minnesota Vikings 1972 Event - David Bowie sells out his 1st show in New York's Carnegie Hall 1972 Birthday - David Tamburrino, Saratoga Springs, New York, speed skater 1994 Olympics 1972 Birthday - David Bell, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, infielder for the St. Louis Cardinals 1972 Birthday - David Arquette, actor, Scream, Scream 2, Kiss and Tell 1972 Event - Republican convention (Miami Beach, Florida) renominates Vice President Agnew but not unanimous - 1 vote went to NBC newsman David Brinkley 1972 Death - David Lichine, Lichtenstein, Russian/US choreographer, dies at 61 1972 Death - Saul David Alinsky, radical writer (John L Lewis), dies at 63 1972 Birthday - David Dunn, NFL wide receiver for the Cincinnati Bengals 1972 Birthday - David Sloan, NFL tight end, Detroit Lions 1972 Event - David Bowie releases 'Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust' 1972 Birthday - David Hendrix, NFL strong safety for the San Diego Chargers 1972 Birthday - David Charvet, actor, Melrose Place 1972 Death - Reverend Gary David, vocalist, dies at 76 1972 Birthday - David Lascher, born in New York City, actor, Josh-Clueless, Kidz in the Wood 1972 Birthday - David Williams, born in Bedford, Pennsylvania, outfielder for the San Francisco Giants 1972 Birthday - David Rhodes, WLAF wide receiver, Rhein Fire 1972 Event - David Rabe's "Sticks and Bones," premieres in New York City 1972 Birthday - David Binn, NFL safety for the San Diego Chargers 1972 Death - David Seville, singer (Alvin and Chipmunks), dies at 52 1971 Death - David Sarnoff, U.S. TV pioneer (RCA), dies at 80 1971 Birthday - David Defiagbon, Sapele Nigeria, Canadian boxer, 1996 Olympics silver 1971 Event - David Storey's "Changing Room," premieres in London 1971 Birthday - David Robert Duval, born in Jacksonville, Florida, PGA golfer, 1995 Bob Hope 1971 Birthday - David Weightman, Australian rower 1996 Olympics 1971 Birthday - David Hynes, Australian baseball outfielder 1996 Olympics 1971 Birthday - David Merritt, NFL outside linebacker for the Arizona Cardinals 1971 Birthday - David Walliams, born in Surrey, England, actor, appeared on 'Little Britain', 'Neighbours', 'Capturing Mary', television shows 1971 Birthday - Jonathan David Winter, Wellington, New Zealand, 100m backstroker 1996 Olympics 1971 Birthday - David Merritt, WLAF linebacker for the Rhein Fire 1971 Birthday - David Mendenhall, actor, Over the Top, Space Raiders, Witchfire 1971 Birthday - David Oliver, Sechelt, NHL right wing for the Edmonton Oilers 1971 Birthday - David Fox, U.S., 50m freestyle, Olympics-6th-96 1970 Birthday - David Wesley, NBA guard, Charlotte Hornets, Boston Celtics 1970 Birthday - David Doster, Fort Wayne, Indiana, infielder for the Philadelphia Phillies 1970 Birthday - David Sacco, born in Malden, Massachusetts, NHL left wing, Anaheim Mighty Ducks, 1994 Olympics 1970 Birthday - Beck, born in Los Angeles, California, born Bek David Campbell, guitarist, singer, multi-instrumentalist, popular recordings include 'Odelay', 'Sea Change' 1970 Birthday - David Frisch, NFL tight end for the New England Patriots 1970 Birthday - David Wilson, WLAF safety for the Scottish Claymores 1970 Birthday - David Roberts, Alameda, California, U.S. hockey forward 1994 Olympics 1970 Birthday - David White, NFL linebacker for the Buffalo Bills 1970 Birthday - David Podlich, Brisbane QLD, Australasia golfer 1970 Birthday - Brian Gaskill, actor, David Michaels-Models Inc, Bob-All My Children 1970 Death - David O McKay, 9th Mormon president, dies at 96 1970 Death - David O. McKay, American Clergyman 1969 Birthday - David Webb, WLAF defensive end for the Scottish Claymores 1969 Birthday - David Collins, Bethpage, New York, rower, Olympics-bronze-1996 1969 Birthday - David Weathers, Lawrencburg, Tennessee, pitcher, Florida Marlins, New York Yankees 1969 Birthday - David Hollander, born in Los Angeles, California, actor, Lewis and Clark, What's Happenings? 1969 Birthday - David Wain, American Writer 1969 Birthday - David Goldsmith, born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, actor, Eric-Models Inc 1969 Event - David Bowie releases 'Space Oddity' 1969 Birthday - David Wittman Buffalo, New York, 1.5k runner 1969 Event - John and Yoko appear on David Frost's British TV Show 1969 Death - Frank Lawton, actor (David Copperfield, Skin Game), dies at 64 1969 Birthday - David Wheaton, born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, tennis star, 1987 U.S. junior boys 1969 Birthday - David Wharton, born in Warminster, Pennsylvania, U.S. Olympic swimmer, Silver Medal 1988 Olympics 1969 Birthday - David Boreanaz, American Actor 1969 Birthday - David William Wood, Boston, rocker, New Kids-Lovin' You Forever 1969 Birthday - David Archibald, born in Chilliwack, NHL center, Ottawa Senators 1969 Birthday - David Morland, born in North Bay, Ontario, golfer, 1992 Trafalgar Rookie of Year 1969 Birthday - David Klingler, NFL quarterback, Oakland Raiders, Cincinnati Bengals 1969 Birthday - David Webb, WLAF linebacker for the Frankfurt Galaxy 1969 Birthday - David Dixon, NFL guard for the Minnesota Vikings 1968 Event - Julie Nixon weds Dwight David Eisenhower 1968 Event - David Crosby, Stephen Stills and Graham Nash premiere together in California 1968 Event - Burt Bacharach/Hal David's musical premieres in New York City 1968 Birthday - David Jones, WLAF tight end for the Amsterdam Admirals 1968 Birthday - David Alcoriza, Lodi California, double trap 1996 Olympics 1968 Birthday - David Jude Jolicoeur, born in Brooklyn, New York, rapper, producer, member of De La Soul hip hop trio, known by stage name Trugoy the Dove 1968 Birthday - David Pichler, born in Butler, Pennsylvania, diver, Olympics-6th-96 1968 Birthday - David Bradley Stockton, Jr., born in Redlands, California, PGA golfer, 1994 Canon-3rd 1968 Birthday - David Benoit, NBA forward, Utah Jazz, New Jersey Nets 1968 Birthday - Robert David Burns, Mission Hills, California, PGA golfer, 1994 Buick-5th 1968 Birthday - David Maeva, CFL linebacker for the BC Lions 1968 Birthday - David Hulse, U.S. baseball outfielder for the Texas Rangers 1968 Birthday - Mitch Hedberg, born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, comedian, appeared on television show, 'The Late Show with David Letterman' and film, 'Lords of Dogtown' 1968 Event - David Gilmour joins rock group Pink Floyd 1968 Birthday - Junior Murray, cricketer, WI keeper, no relation to Derryck or David 1968 Birthday - David Chokachi, born in Plymouth, Massachusetts, actor, known for roles in television series Baywatch, Witchblade, Beyond the Break 1967 Birthday - David Szott, NFL guard for the Kansas City Chiefs 1967 Birthday - David Diaz, Melbourne VIC, Australasia golfer 1967 Event - Julie Nixon and David Eisenhower announce their engagement 1967 Death - David Cohen, historian/chairman (Jewish Council), dies at 84 1967 Birthday - David McKenzie, Footscray VIC, Australasia golfer 1967 Birthday - David Whitmore, NFL strong safety for the Philadelphia Eagles 1967 Birthday - David Lang, NFL running back for the Dallas Cowboys 1967 Birthday - David Ford, born in Edmonton, Alberta, kayaker, Olympics-15-92, 96 1967 Birthday - David Howard, Sarasota, Florida, infielder for the Kansas City Royals 1967 Death - Winifred Kingston, silent screen actress (David Garrick), dies at 72 1967 Birthday - David Pitcher, CFL fullback for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers 1967 Birthday - David Belcher, Australian rower 1996 Olympics 1967 Birthday - David Wayne Toms, Monroe, Louisiana, PGA golfer, 1992 Northern Telecom-3rd 1966 Birthday - Craig David Parry, Sunshine Victoria, PGA golfer, 1994 Honda-2nd 1966 Birthday - David Schwimmer, Queens, New York, actor, Ross-Friends 1966 Birthday - David Miley, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Nike golfer, 1992 Cleveland Open 1966 Birthday - David Bennent, Lausanne, actor, Tin Drum, Legend 1966 Birthday - David Hallyday, Boulougne France, actor, He's My Girl 1966 Birthday - David Segui, born in Kansas City, Kansas, infielder for the Montreal Expos 1966 Birthday - David Williams, NFL tackle, Houston Oilers, New York Jets 1966 Birthday - David Meggett, NFL running back, New York Giants, New England Patriots 1966 Birthday - David Justice, baseball player, Atlanta Braves, husband of Halle Barry 1966 Birthday - David Hohl, born in Winnipeg Manitoba, freestyle wrestler, Olympics 1992, 1996 1966 Event - Man From Uncle star David McCallum receives huge welcome in London 1966 Birthday - David Nascimento, soccer player, Roda JC/FC Utrecht 1966 Birthday - John David Cullum, actor in 1776, Sweet Country, Day After 1966 Event - David Bowie releases his 1st record 'Can't Help Thinking About Me' 1965 Birthday - David Baker, Sheffield England, U.K. cyclist 1965 Birthday - David Delfino, hockey goaltender, Team Italy 1998 1965 Event - Director David Lean's "Dr. Zhivago," premieres 1965 Event - David Levy begins his search for comets 1965 Birthday - David Ecob, Sydney NSW, Australasia golfer 1965 Birthday - David Spaulding, born in Newport Beach, California, canoe alternate for 1996 Olympics 1965 Birthday - David Wenham, born in Marrickville, Australia, appeared in films, 'The Lord of the Rings', 'Van Helsing', '300' 1965 Birthday - David Robinson, born in Florida, NBA center, San Antonio Spurs, Olympics gold 92 1965 Event - Israeli Mapai-party nominates David Ben-Gurion 1965 Death - David O. Selznick, producer, 'Gone With the Wind', dies at 63 1965 Death - David O. Selznick, American Producer 1965 Birthday - David Bolton, born in Guyana, Canadian Tour golfer, 1992 Lando Mem Amateur 1965 Birthday - David Whyte, rocker, Brother Beyond-Can You Keep a Secret 1965 Death - David Smith, sculptor, dies 1965 Birthday - Kevin James, born in Stony Brook, New York, actor, comedian, appeared on ''The Late Show with David Letterman', films include, 'Hitch', 'Grown Ups', '50 First Dates' 1965 Event - David Attenbrough became the new controller of BBC2 1965 Birthday - David Brandon, NFL linebacker, Atlanta Falcons, Atlanta Falcons 1965 Birthday - James David McGovern, Teaneck, New Jersey, PGA golfer, 1993 Shell Houston Open 1965 Birthday - David Callaghan, cricketer, South African all-rounder in one-dayers 1992 1965 Birthday - David Glasper, rocker, Breathe-All I Need 1964 Birthday - David Tikolo, Kenyan cricket batsman, 1996 World Cup 1964 Birthday - David Wood, NBA forward, Dallas Mavericks 1964 Birthday - David Giles, Australian star yachter, Olympics-84, 88, 92, 96 1964 Birthday - David Tate, NFL defensive back for the Indianapolis Colts 1964 Event - Dr. Kenneth David Kaunda becomes president of Zaire 1964 Birthday - David Brain, cricketer, Zimbabwe lefty seamer 1993- 1964 Birthday - David Michael Sabo, Perth Amboy, New Jersey, rocker, Skid Row-Psycho Love 1964 Birthday - David Spade, comedian, SNL, Tommy Boy, Black Sheep 1964 Birthday - Joe Magrane, born in Des Moines, Iowa, Joseph David Magrane, baseball player, pitcher, MLB Network broadcaster, played for Major League Baseball teams, St. Louis Cardinals, Chicago White Sox, California Angels, NBC sports analyst at 2008 Summer Olympics 1964 Birthday - Trent Bushey, born in Haverhill, Massachusetts, actor, David Rampal-All My Children 1964 Birthday - Paul David Goydos, born in Long Beach, California, PGA golfer, 1994 BC Open-7th 1964 Birthday - David Freedman, cricketer, NSW left-arm Chinese bowler since 1990 1964 Event - Davie Jones and King Bees debut "I Can't Help Thinking About Me," group disbands but Davie Jones goes on to success as David Bowie 1964 Birthday - David Shaw, St. Thomas, NHL defenseman, Tampa Bay Lightning 1964 Event - David Frost interviews Paul McCartney on BBC 1964 Birthday - David Cross, American Actor 1964 Birthday - David Diaz-Infante, NFL guard, Denver Broncos Superbowl 32 1964 Birthday - Felicia Collins, born in Albany, New York, guitarist, David Letterman 1963 Birthday - David Wingate, NBA guard and forward, Seattle Supersonics 1963 Birthday - David Williams, WI cricket wicket-keeper, 3 Tests 1992 1963 Birthday - David Bedard, Montreal QUE, 3m springboard diver, 1984, 1988, 1992, 1996 Olympics 1963 Birthday - David Titlow, rocker, Blue Mercedes-Rich and Famous 1963 Birthday - David Zhuang, born in China, U.S. table tennis player 1996 Olympics 1963 Birthday - David Byas, cricketer, left-handed Yorkshire batsman 1963 Event - Levi Eshkol replaces David Ben-Gurion as Israeli PM 1963 Event - Israeli premier David Ben-Gurion resigns 1963 Birthday - Steven David Rintoul, born in Bowral, Australia, PGA golfer, 1994 Buick-2nd 1963 Birthday - David Wells, Torrance, California, pitcher, Baltimore Orioles, New York Yankees 1963 Birthday - David Gavurin, English pop guitarist/composer, Sundays, Blind 1963 Birthday - Dave Koz, born in Encino, California, saxophonist, compared to David Sanborn, musician, radio host, played on CBS' The Pat Sajak Show, host of Dave Koz Morning Show with Pat Prescott, on a smooth jazz station in Los Angeles 1963 Death - David Moore, U.S. feather weight boxer, dies at 29 1963 Event - David Hendon and Douglas Cross' musical premieres in London 1963 Birthday - David Thewlis, English Actor 1963 Birthday - David Capel, cricketer, England all-rounder in 15 Tests 1987-90 1963 Birthday - David Cone, born in Kansas City, Missouri, baseball pitcher, New York Mets/Tor Blue Jays/New York Yankees 1962 Event - David Lean's "Lawrence of Arabia" premieres 1962 Birthday - Rob Burnett, born in North Caldwell, New Jersey, head writer, David Letterman 1962 Birthday - Meg Parsont, personality, David Letterman Show 1962 Birthday - David Fincher, American Director 1962 Birthday - David Wettlaufer, born in Kitchener, Ontario, golfer, Ontario Beefeater-1986, 87 1962 Birthday - David Pate, born in Los Angeles, California, tennis star 1962 Birthday - David Foster Wallace, born in New York, author, novelist, short story and literary fiction writer 1962 Birthday - David McComb, Australia, vocalist/songwriter, Triffids 1962 Birthday - David Bryan, rock keyboardist, Bon Jovi-You Give Love a Bad Name 1962 Event - David Diamond's 7th Symphony, premieres in Philadelphia 1962 Birthday - David O'Connor, equestrian 3-day, 1996 Olympics silver 1961 Birthday - David AC viscount Linley, son of English princess Margaret/mystic 1961 Birthday - David Kirk, New Zealander Athlete 1961 Birthday - David W. Harper, Abilene, Texas, actor, Jim Bob-Waltons 1961 Birthday - Antonia De Sancha, born in London, England, lover of British MP David Mellor 1961 Birthday - David Chastain, heavy metal rocker, Chastain-Rule of Wasteland 1961 Birthday - David Huff, born in America, David Lyndon Huff, drummer, songwriter, producer, session musician, founder, Giant, 1980's hard rock band, member of White Heart, a Christian rock band 1961 Birthday - David Leavitt, born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, writer, gay literature, professor at Princeton, author of, 'The Lost Language of Cranes', 'The Body of Jonah Boyd', 'The Indian Clerk' 1961 Birthday - David Palmer, heavy metal drummer, ABC, AC/DC 1961 Birthday - David Vitter, born in New Orleans, Louisiana, politician, Republican party, member, U.S. House of Representatives, U.S. Senator from Louisiana 1961 Birthday - Mark David Brooks, born in Ft. Worth, Texas, PGA golfer, 1994 Kemper Open 1961 Birthday - David "Tinker" Juarez, born in Los Angeles, California, cyclist,Olympics 19th in 1996 1961 Birthday - Wendy Liebman, born in Manhasset, New York, comedian, performs stand up comedy, American Comedy Award for Female Stand-up Comedian of the Year, 1997, appeared on HBO, The Late Show with David Letterman, Jimmy Kimmel Live, The Tonight Show 1961 Birthday - David Ward, cricketer, prolific Surrey batsman 1961 Event - David Ben-Gurion resigns as premier of Israel 1960 Birthday - David Boon, cricketer, short backward square from Tasmania 1960 Birthday - David Valle, Bayside, New York, catcher for the Texas Rangers 1960 Birthday - David James Elliott, Toronto, actor, Seinfeld, Lt Harmon Rabb-Jag 1960 Birthday - David Steele, Birmingham, rock keyboardist, Fine Young Cannibals 1960 Birthday - David Duchovny, born in New York City, actor, Fox Mulder-X Files 1960 Birthday - Steve Vai, guitarist, Frank Zappa, David Lee Roth Band, Whitesnake 1960 Birthday - Chris Elliott, actor/comedian, Get a Life, David Letterman Show 1960 Birthday - Bono, born in Dublin, Ireland, born Paul David Hewson, Irish musician, activist, lead vocalist for rock band U2, 54th most successful songwriter in U.K. singles chart history, activism includes Product Red and the ONE campaign 1960 Event - USA's David Jenkins wins Olympic Gold for men's figure skating 1960 Event - U.S. Male Figure Skating championship won by David Jenkins 1960 Birthday - David Peoples, Augusta ME, Nike golfer, 1991 Buick Southern Open 1960 Birthday - David Marciano, Newark, New Jersey, actor, Det Ray Vecchio-Due South 1960 Birthday - Michael David Morrison, actor, Caleb Snyder-As the World Turns 1959 Birthday - David Lutz, NFL guard and tackle, Detroit Lions 1959 Birthday - David Iwasaki-Smith, Warragul VIC, Australasia golfer 1959 Event - Cosmopolitan editor Helen Gurley (37) and David Brown (43) wed 1959 Birthday - David Coulier, Detroit, actor, Joey Gladstone-Full House 1959 Birthday - David Laurence Frost, Cape Town South Africa, PGA golfer, 1988 Southern Open 1959 Event - "Judy" by David Seville hits #86 1959 Birthday - David Ball, Blackpool, rock keyboardist, Soft Cell 1959 Birthday - David Hearn, born in Washington D.C., slalom single canoe, Olympics-9th-96 1959 Event - 31st Academy Awards - "Gigi," Susan Hayward and David Niven win 1959 Birthday - David Hyde Pierce, born in New York, actor, Niles Crane-Fraiser 1959 Birthday - David Delong, born in Portland, Oregon, Canadian Tour golfer, 1988 BC Open 1959 Birthday - Terry Hall, born in Coventry, England, singer, The Specials, member of Fun Boy Three, The Colourfield, collaborated with Sinead O'Connor, David A Stewart and others 1959 Event - Men's Figure Skating Championship in Colorado Springs won by David Jenkins USA 1959 Event - U.S. Male Figure Skating championship won by David Jenkins 1958 Event - Chipmunks (Alvin, Simon and Theodore with David Seville) hit #1 1958 Birthday - David Van Day, rocker, Dollar-Loves Gotta Hold on Me 1958 Birthday - David Wallace, Miami, actor, General Hospital, Babysitter, Humongus 1958 Birthday - David Lewis, guitarist, Atlantic Star-Touch a 4 Leaf Clover 1958 Birthday - David H Mattheisen, Blue Island, Illinois, PhD/astronaut, STS-73 alt 1958 Birthday - David W. Feherty, Bangor N Ireland, PGA golfer, 1994 New England-2nd 1958 Birthday - Brian David Willis, rock drummer, Quarterflash 1958 Event - U.S. Mens Figure Skating championship won by David Jenkins 1958 Birthday - David Sylvian, vocal/guitar, Sylvian Sylvian, Japan-Adolescent Sex 1958 Event - Men's Figure Skating Championship in Paris won by David Jenkins USA 1958 Death - David Broekman, musican (Think Fast), dies at 55 1957 Birthday - David Allen Ogrin, Waukegan, Illinois, PGA golfer, 1994 Byron Nelson-2nd 1957 Birthday - David Moyse, Adelaide Australia, rock vocalist, Air Supply 1957 Birthday - David Bintley, born in Huddersfield, England, choreographer, artistic director, The Royal Ballet, Birmingham Royal Ballet 1957 Event - U.S. Major David Simons reaches 30,933m in a balloon 1957 Event - David Simons reaches 30,942 m in Man High 2 balloon 1957 Birthday - David Houghton, cricketer, Zimbabwe batsman, 266 vs. Sri Lanka 1994 1957 Birthday - David Gleeson, Norfolk England, U.S., rower 1996 Olympics 1957 Birthday - David Gower, cricketer, elegant England left-handed batsman 1978 - 1992 1957 Event - 1st performance of David Diamond's 6th Symphony in Boston 1957 Event - Men's Figure Skating Champ in Colorado Springs won by David Jenkins (USA) 1956 Birthday - David Sedaris, born in London, England, writer, comedian, published, 'Barrel Fever', 'Naked', 'Me Talk Pretty One Day' 1956 Birthday - Sinbad, David Adkins, Benton Harbor, Michigan, actor, 1st Kid, Vibe 1956 Event - Chet Huntley and David Brinkley, NBC News, team up 1956 Birthday - David Copperfield, born in Metuchen, New Jersey, illusionist, history's most successful commercial magician, sold over 40 million tickets, grossed over $1 billion 1956 Birthday - David A. Wolf, born in Indianapolis, Indiana, MD/astronaut, STS-58, sk: 89/91 1956 Birthday - David Grant, Jamaica, singer and songwriter, Stop and Go, Heaven Knows 1956 Birthday - David Alan Grier, comedian, In Living Color, Boomerang 1956 Event - 88th Belmont: David Erb aboard Needles wins in 2:29.8 1956 Birthday - Keith David, American Actor 1956 Event - 82nd Kentucky Derby: David Erb aboard Needles wins in 2:03.4 1956 Birthday - David Guterson, American Author 1956 Birthday - David Wayne Edwards, born in Neosho, Missouri, PGA golfer, 1980 Walt Disney 1956 Birthday - David M. Brown, Arlington, Virginia, Comander USN/astronaut 1956 Birthday - David E. Kelley, American Producer 1956 Birthday - Davie Cooper, born in Hamilton, Scotland, David 'Davie' Cooper, professional soccer player, signed by Ranger for 100,000 pounds, won Scottish Cup with Motherwell in 1991 1956 Birthday - George David Low, born in Cleveland, Ohio, astronaut, STS-32, STS-43 1956 Birthday - David Smith, cricketer, England lefty batsman in 2 Tests vs. WI 1986 1956 Birthday - David Caruso, born in Forest Hills, New York, actor, producer, known for television series, 'CSI: Miami', appeared in films, 'First Blood', 'China Girl', 'An Officer and a Gentleman' 1955 Event - David Ben-Gurion forms Israeli government 1955 Birthday - David Lee Roth, Bloomington, rock singer, Van Halen-Jump 1955 Birthday - David Jasper, British principal, St. Chad's College Durham England 1955 Birthday - David Marshall Grant, born in Westport CT, actor, Legs, French Postcards 1955 Birthday - Mark David Chapman, assassin, John Lennon 1955 Birthday - David Hookes, cricketer, dashing Australian LHB, S Aussie stalwart 1955 Event - Ruth Ellis shoots jilting lover David Blakely 1955 Birthday - David Wu, American Politician 1955 Birthday - Thomas David Jones, born in Baltimore, Maryland, PhD/Astronaut, STS-59, 68, 80, sk: 98 1955 Birthday - David Pratt, Canadian Politician 1954 Birthday - Jeffrey Sachs, born in Detroit, Michigan, Jeffrey David Sachs, economist, founder, co-President of the Millennium Promise Alliance to end extreme poverty and hunger, Senior Advisor to the Global Poverty Project 1954 Birthday - David Paymer, actor, Love Mary, Mr. Saturday Night 1954 Birthday - David Thompson, NBA guard, Phoenix Suns, Seattle Supersonics 1954 Birthday - David Paich, rock keyboardist, Toto-Africa 1954 Birthday - David Keith, born in Knoxville, Tennessee, actor, Back Roads, Firestarter 1954 Birthday - David Wilkie, England, 200m backstroke swimmer, 1996 Olympic gold 1954 Birthday - F. R. David, born in Menzel Bourguiba, Tunisia, singer, band member of French rock band, Les Variations, hit 'Words', 1982, sold eight million records worldwide 1953 Birthday - David Leisner, born in America, teacher, classical guitarist, composer, taught at Manhattan School of Music, expert in focal dystonia 1953 Birthday - Joe Toplyn, Boston, comedic writer, Late Night with David Letterman 1953 Event - David Ben-Gurion, resigns as premier of Israel 1953 Birthday - David Morse, Beverly Massachusetts, actor, St. Elsewhere, House, Inside Moves 1953 Event - Future New York City mayor David Dinkins marries Joyce Burrows in New York City 1953 Birthday - David Thomas, U.S. singer and songwriter, Pere Ubu 1953 Death - Roland Young, actor (David Copperfield, Irene, Dulcy), dies at 65 1953 Birthday - David Maclean, British minister of state 1953 Birthday - David Moorcroft, born in Coventry, England, British athlete, long distance runner, 5,000 meters record holder, Chief Executive of UK Athletics from 1997 to 2007 1952 Birthday - David Knopfler, British Musician 1952 Birthday - David Stewart, rock guitarist, Eurtyhmics-Here Comes the Rain Again 1952 Birthday - Paul David Crews, South Carolina, murderer, FBI Most Wanted List 1952 Birthday - Scott David Cook, born in Glendale California, CEO, Intuit-Quicken 1952 Birthday - Dominic Muldowney, born in Southampton, England, composer, created television, film scores for Loose Connections, King Lear, radio work, theater music, created large-scale oboe concerto, versatile has created music for David Bowie, Royal Academy of Music teacher 1952 Birthday - David Hasselhoff, born in Baltimore, Maryland, actor, Night Rider, Mitch-Baywatch 1952 Birthday - David Pack, born in Los Angeles, California, musician, producer, Grammy-Award winning record producer for Wynnona, Aretha Franklin, Kenny Loggins, Phil Collins, Music Director for President Bill Clinton's Inaugurations, 1992 and 1996, cofounder, lead vocalist for band, Ambrosia 1952 Birthday - David Dreier, born in Kansas City, Missouri, Representative-R-California 1981 - 1952 Birthday - David Byrne, Dumbarton Scotland, rock guitarist/singer, Talking Heads 1952 Birthday - David Icke, English Athlete 1952 Birthday - David Amess, born in London, England, British politician, Conservative, Member of Parliament for Southend West 1952 Birthday - David Byrne, guitarist and vocalist, Talking Heads-Burning Down the House 1952 Birthday - David Allen Barr, born in Kelowna BC, PGA golfer, Atlanta Golf Classic 1952 Birthday - David Puilum Choi, Hong Kong, murderer, FBI Most Wanted List 1952 Birthday - Andrew Smith, born in Wokingham, Berkshire, England, Andrew David Smith, politician, Labor Party, Member of Parliament for Oxford East 1951 Birthday - David Rappaport, born in London, England, 3'11" actor, Wizard, Time Bandits 1951 Event - David Ben-Gurion forms Israeli government 1951 Birthday - David Murray, cricketer, WI wicket-keeper 1951 Birthday - David Clayton-Thomas, singer, Blood, Sweat and Tears 1951 Event - David Ben-Gurion's Mapai-party wins Israeli parliamentary election 1951 Birthday - David Jasper, British principal, St. Chad's College Durham England 1951 Event - 83rd Belmont: David Gorman aboard Counterpoint wins in 2:29 1951 Birthday - David Yip, born in Liverpool, England, of Chinese descent, English actor, played Johnny Ho in The Chinese Detective, played CIA liason agent Chuck Lee in 'A View to a Kill', a 1985 James Bond film 1951 Birthday - David Ogilvie, cricketer, 5 Tests for Australia 1977-78 1951 Death - Karl Heinrich David, composer, dies at 66 1951 Birthday - David Whitton, born in Scotland, politician, Labor party, Member of the Scottish Parliament for Strathkelvin and Bearsden 1951 Birthday - David Naughton, Hartford, Connecticut, actor, My Sister Sam, Separate Vacations 1951 Birthday - David Briggs, rock guitarist, Little River Band-Help is on it's Way 1950 Birthday - David Leisure, actor, Joe Isuzu, Airplane, Charley-Empty Nest 1950 Event - David Diamond's 3rd Symphony, premieres 1950 Birthday - David H G viscount Lascelles, grandson of English princess Mary 1950 Birthday - David Brin, U.S., sci-fi author, Hugo, Nebula, Sundiver, Postman 1950 Birthday - David Bellamy, born in Darby, Florida, singer, Bellamy Bros-Let Your Love Flow, 1950 Birthday - Will Lee, rock guitarist, Late Show with David Letterman 1950 Birthday - David James Wottle, 800m runner, Gold Medal 1972 Olympics 1950 Birthday - David Jensen, born in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, David 'Kid' Jensen, popular British radio DJ, played progressive music, hosted BBC pop network, Radio 1, Top of the Pops presenter, interviewed Duran Duran, promoted The Police before they were commercially successful 1950 Birthday - David Graff, Lancaster Ohio, actor, Police Academy 2, 3, 4, 6 1950 Birthday - David Cassidy, New York City, singer and actor, Keith-Partridge Family 1950 Birthday - David Carl Hilmers, Iowa, Col USMC/astronaut, STS-51-J, 26, 36, 42 1950 Birthday - David Strathairn, actor, LA Confidential, Eight Men Out 1950 Birthday - David Lynn Jones, Bexar, Arkansas, country singer, Bonnie Jean 1950 Birthday - David Johansen, New York, singer, Hot! Hot! Hot! 1949 Death - David Stanley Smith, composer, dies at 72 1949 Birthday - Paul Shaffer, Thunder Bay Ont, orchestra leader, SNL, David Letterman 1949 Birthday - David Green, Melbourne Australia, rock bassist, Air Supply 1949 Birthday - David Coverdale, England, rock vocalist, Whitesnake, Deep Purple 1949 Birthday - David "Clem" Clempson, rocker, Humble Pie 1949 Birthday - David Muse, rocker, Firefall 1949 Death - Louis Davids, Simon David, cabaret artist, dies at 65 1949 Birthday - David Evenett, MP, Conservative 1949 Birthday - David Cornell Leestma, Muskegon, Michigan, USN/astronaut, STS-41-G, 28, 45 1949 Birthday - David Robinson, born in Woburn, Massachusetts, drummer, musician, played with various rock bands including The Cars, The Modern Lovers and DMZ 1949 Birthday - David Mellor, secretary of the British treasury and MP 1949 Birthday - David Sullivan, English softporno/newspaper publisher, Sunday Sport 1948 Birthday - David Davis, British Politician 1948 Birthday - David Gwillim, Plymouth England, actor, Island at Top of the World 1948 Birthday - Charles David Walker, astronaut, STS-12 STS-16 STS-23 1948 Death - David John de Lloyd, composer, dies at 65 1948 Birthday - David Concepcion, born in Venezuela, all star shortstop, Cincinnati Reds 1948 Birthday - David Eisenhower, Eisenhower's grandson, married Julie Nixon 1948 Birthday - David Denny, rock guitarist, Steve Miller Band-Abracadabra 1947 Birthday - David Mamet, Chicago, playwright/dir, Speed the Plow, House of Games 1947 Birthday - David Anthony Ahern, composer 1947 Birthday - David Zucker, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, director, Airplane, Naked Gun, Top Secret 1947 Birthday - David Rosenboom, composer 1947 Birthday - David Essex, Cook, London, rock vocalist/actor, That'll be the Day 1947 Birthday - Larry David, born in Brooklyn, New York, comedian, writer, Seinfeld 1947 Birthday - David L. Lander, born in Brooklyn, New York, actor, Squiggy-Laverne and Shirley 1947 Birthday - David French, British director, Deep Sleep, Bingo 1947 Birthday - David Blunkett, British Politician 1947 Birthday - David Hare, playwright, Strapless, Plenty, Wetherby, Fatale 1947 Birthday - David Hughes, born in Newton-le-Willows, England, cricketer, right batsman, made 10,419 first-class runs in 20 years for Lancashire 1947 Birthday - David Leland, born in Cambridge, England, actor and director, Nothing But Trouble 1947 Birthday - David Gee, director, Friends of the Earth 1947 Birthday - David Letterman, born in Indianapolis, Indiana, comedian, Late Night 1947 Event - 1st Tony Awards: Arthur Miller, David Wayne and Patricia Neal win 1947 Birthday - David Eisenhower, grandson of President Dwight, married Julie Nixon 1947 Birthday - David Lloyd, cricketer, England opener, 214 vs. India 1974 1947 Birthday - David Colley, cricketer, NSW quickie, 3 Tests for Australia 1972 1947 Birthday - David Ladd, born in Los Angeles, California, actor, Raymie, Catlow, Misty, Deathline 1947 Birthday - David Byron, vocalist, Uriah Heep 1947 Birthday - David Bowie, born in London, England, singer and actor, Major Tom, Ziggy Stardust, also known as David Robert Hayward-Jones 1947 Birthday - David Porcelijn, Dutch composer and conductor 1946 Birthday - David Stockman, Reagan's ex-budget director 1946 Birthday - David A. Stockman, American Playwright 1946 Birthday - Billy Preston, Texas, singer and pianist, 5th Beatle, David Brenner Show 1946 Birthday - David Liebman, born in Brooklyn, New York, musician, rocker, saxaphonist, flautist, worked with Steve Swallow, Pete La Roca, played with Elvin Jones, Miles Davis's group, appeared on 'Big Fun' album, among others 1946 Birthday - John Klemmer, born in Chicago, Illinois, musician, songwriter, arranger, saxophonist, plays jazz, pop, cross over jazz, co-written music with David Batteau 1946 Event - Menachem Begins opposition group bombs King David Hotel 1946 Event - Menachen Begin's opposition group surprise attack on King David hotel 1946 Birthday - David Hill, Australian TV-reporter/owner, Fox Sports 1946 Birthday - Alan David Marks, pianist/composer 1946 Birthday - David Wall, English ballet dancers/director, Royal Academy of Dancing 1946 Birthday - David Jon Gilmour, rock guitarist, Pink Floyd-Brick in the Wall 1946 Birthday - David Gilmour, British Musician 1946 Birthday - David Green, English TV/video producer 1946 Birthday - David Lynch, born in Missoula, Montana, actor and director, Dune, Eraserhead 1945 Birthday - David Jessel, British TV-reporter 1945 Birthday - David Norman Schramm, physicist 1945 Birthday - David A[llen] Drake, U.S., sci-fi author, Cross the Stars, Rolling Hot 1945 Birthday - David Bromberg, Philadelphia, musician, Demon in Disguise 1945 Birthday - Omukama Patrick David Matthew Olimi Kaboyo II, king of Toro 1945 Birthday - David Sanborn, jazz saxophonist, David Letterman Show 1945 Birthday - David Heyn, cricketer, Sri Lankan batsman 1975 World Cup 1945 Birthday - David Smith Monson, born in Salt Lake City, Utah, Representative-R-Utah 1985 - 1987 1945 Birthday - David Dukes, actor, Beacon Hill, 79 Park Avenue, Winds of War 1945 Birthday - David E. Bonior, born in Detroit, Michigan, Representative-D-Michigan 1977 - 2003 1945 Death - David Lloyd George, British (L) premier (1916-22), dies at 82 1945 Birthday - David Brenner, born in Philadelphia, comedian/TV talk show host, Nightlife 1945 Birthday - David Pleat, English Athlete 1944 Birthday - David Ashley White, composer 1944 Birthday - David O'Sullivan, New Zealand cricket left-arm spinner, in 11 Tests 1973-76 1944 Event - U.S. Captain David Mccampbell shoots down 9-11 Japanese planes in Gulf of Leyte 1944 Birthday - David Trimble, Irish Politician 1944 Death - David Lord, British lieutenant/Dakota-pilot DFC/VC, dies in battle 1944 Birthday - David Pearl, British judge 1944 Birthday - David Rasche, born in St. Louis, Missouri, actor, Sledge Hammer 1944 Birthday - David M. Walker, Columbus, Georgia, Captain USN/astron, STS-51-A 30, 53, 69 1944 Birthday - David O'Brien Martin, born in New York, Representative-R-New York 1981 - 1983 and 1983 - 1993 1944 Birthday - David Melville, professor and director, Middlesex Polytechnic 1944 Birthday - David Costell, born in Pittsburg, rocker, Gary Lewis and the Playboys-Diamond Ring 1944 Death - David Vogel, Ukrainian author, dies in Auschwitz at 52 1944 Birthday - David Gilmore, born in Cambridge, England, guitarist, Pink Floyd 1944 Birthday - David Briggs, record producer 1944 Birthday - David Gerrold, Jerrold David Friedman, author, World of Star Trek 1943 Birthday - David Peterson, Toronto, premier of Ontario Canada, L, 1982- 1943 Birthday - David Munden, born in England, played for the Tremeloes, a 50 year old band, Europe's longest playing rock and roll band 1943 Birthday - David Wilshire, British MP, C 1943 Birthday - David Henry Maslanka, composer 1943 Birthday - David Soul, Solberg, Chicago, actor, Starsky and Hutch 1943 Birthday - Carl Wayne, born in Birmingham, England, Colin David Tooley, actor, lead vocalist 'The Move', 1960's Birmingham rock group 1943 Birthday - David Carr, rock keyboardist, Fortunes Leyton, London 1943 Birthday - Janet Margolin, born in New York City, actress, Take the Money and Run, David and Lisa 1943 Birthday - David Downing, born in New York City, actor, Backstairs at the White House 1943 Birthday - David Walker, rock keyboardist, Gary Lewis and Playboys-Diamond Ring 1943 Birthday - David Clennon, American Actor 1943 Birthday - David Cronenberg, Toronto, Ontario, director, Shivers, Fly, Brood 1943 Birthday - David Skaggs, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, Representative-D-Colorado 1987 - 1999 1943 Birthday - David Geffin, born in Brooklyn, New York, record producer, Geffin, Asylum 1943 Birthday - David Geffen, American Businessman 1943 Death - David Hilbert, German mathematician (Hilbert Space), dies at 81 1942 Event - Jews in Free Zone of France ordered to wear yellow star of David 1942 Birthday - David Ogden Stiers, Peoria, Illinois, actor, Winchester-MAS*H, Doc 1942 Birthday - Gus Dudgeon, British pop producer, Joan Armatrading, David Bowie 1942 Birthday - David J Stern, NBA commissioner, 1984- 1942 Birthday - David Steinberg, Winnipeg Canada, comedian/director, End 1942 Birthday - Jay David, rocker, Dr. Hook and Medicine Show 1942 Birthday - David Russell Lange, PM, L, New Zealand, 1984-89 1942 Birthday - David Hunt, Wales Secretary of State 1942 Event - David Ben-Gurion leaves Jewish state in Palestine 1942 Birthday - David Minge, born in Clarkfield, Minnesota, Representative-D-Minnesota 1993 - 2001 1942 Birthday - David K Williamson, Australian screenplay/playwright, Removalists 1942 Birthday - David O'Dowd, Chief Constable, Northamptonshire 1941 Event - David Diamond's 1st Symphony, premieres 1941 Birthday - David Wilson, English contractor/multi-millionaire 1941 Birthday - David Porter, U.S. songwriter, Soul Man 1941 Birthday - David Hemmings, Guilford England, actor, Blow-up, Barbarella 1941 Birthday - David Knapp Stockton, San Bernardino California, PGA golfer, 1970 PGA 1941 Birthday - Derek David Bourgeois, composer 1941 Birthday - David Steele, cricketer, England batsman, courageous vs. Lillee 1975 1941 Birthday - David Crosby, born in Los Angeles, California, rocker, Crosby, Stills and Nash-Southern Cross 1941 Birthday - David Warner, born in Manchester, New Hampshire, actor, Star Trek VI, Time Bandits 1941 Birthday - David Howell Cope, composer 1941 Death - David Wijnkoop, revolutionary socialist, dies 1941 Birthday - David L. Boren, born in Washington, D.C., Senator-D-Oklahoma 1979 - 1994, Oklahoma Governor 1975 - 1979 1941 Birthday - David LaFlamme, born in Utah, electric violinist, It's a Beautiful Day 1941 Birthday - David Boies, American Lawyer 1941 Birthday - David Puttnam, London, film producer/CEO, Columbia Pictures 1941 Birthday - David Blue, Cohen, born in Providence, Rhode Island, rocker, Cupid's Arrow 1941 Birthday - David Selby, born in Morgantown, West Virginia, actor, 'Falcon Crest' and 'Flamingo Road' 1941 Birthday - David Ruffin, Mississippi, vocalist, Temptations-Papa Was a Rolling Stone 1940 Birthday - David Sainsbury, English billionaire/founder, Dutch Soc-Dem 1940 Birthday - David McFadden, Canadian Poet 1940 Birthday - David Hart, General-Secretary, National Association of Head Teachers 1940 Birthday - David Price, born in Erwin, Tennessee, Representative-D-North Carolina 1987 - 1995 1940 Birthday - David E. Price, American Politician 1940 Birthday - David Ackroyd, Orange, New Jersey, actor, I Come in Peace, Memories of Me 1940 Birthday - David Larter, cricketer, two-metre tall England pace bowler 1940 Birthday - David Holford, cricketer, cousin of G S Sobers WI leg-spin all-rounder 1940 Birthday - David Rabe, born in Dubuque Iowa, playwright, Streamers 1940 Birthday - David Broome, Show Jumper, world champion 1970 1940 Birthday - David C. Johnson, born in Batavia, New York, composer, flutist, studied with Nadia Boulanger, performed live-electronic music 1939 Birthday - David Gates, born in Tulsa, Oklahoma, rock vocalist, Bread-Baby I'm A Want You 1939 Event - Jews in Lodz Poland ordered to wear yellow star of David 1939 Event - Nazi require wearing of star of David 1939 Birthday - David S. Mann, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, Representative-D-Ohio 1993 - 1995 1939 Birthday - David H Souter, Weir, New Hampshire, 107th Supreme Court Justice, 1990- 1939 Birthday - David H. Souter, American Judge 1939 Birthday - Stanley David Griggs, born in Portland, Oregon, astronaut, STS-51-D, STS-33 1939 Birthday - David Allan Coe, country musician, Mysterious Rhinestone Cowboy 1939 Birthday - William David Hellerman, composer 1939 Death - Louis Davids [Simon David], cabaret performer/chorus performer, dies 1939 Birthday - David Hobbs, born in Royal Leamington Spa, England, auto racer, commentator for Speed, raced in the 24 Hours of Le Mans twenty times 1939 Birthday - David Frederick Stock, composer 1939 Birthday - Jonathan David Harvey, English composer, Bhakti, Music of Stockhausen 1939 Birthday - David Birney, born in Washington D.C., actor, Brigette Loves Bernie, St. Elsewhere 1939 Birthday - David Frost, born in Tenterdon, England, TV host, That Was the Week That Was 1939 Birthday - David Winters, born in London, England, choreographer, Steve Allen Comedy Hour 1939 Birthday - David Mlinaric, British interior director 1939 Birthday - David Spielberg, born in Weslaco, Texas, actor, Jessica Novak, The Practice 1939 Birthday - David Griffiths, portrait painter 1939 Birthday - David Horowitz, American Writer 1939 Birthday - David Buchan, ethno-musicologist 1938 Birthday - David Borden, born in Boston, Massachusetts, composer, minimalist music, jazz pianist, founded Mother Mallard's Portable Masterpiece Company, the world's first synthesizer ensemble, wrote vocal, chamber ensemble, music, style similar to Phillip Glass, Terry Riley 1938 Birthday - [David] Deacon Jones, NFL defensive end, LA, South Dakota, Washington 1938 Birthday - David Ossman, comedian, Firesign Theater 1938 Event - Kristallnacht; Jews forced to wear Star of David 1938 Birthday - David Willis, British journalist, BBC World Service 1938 Birthday - David Obey, American Politician 1938 Birthday - David Freiberg, born in Boston, Massachusetts, rock bassist, Quicksilver Messenger 1938 Birthday - David Groh, born in Brooklyn, New York, actor, Joe-Rhoda, Don-Another Day 1938 Birthday - David Dilks, vice-chancellor, Hull U 1938 Birthday - David Steel, British Politician 1938 Birthday - David Irving, British Author 1938 Birthday - David Baltimore, American Scientist 1937 Death - David C Salas, Antillian writer (Josephina), dies 1937 Birthday - David Behrman, born in Salzburg, Austria, composer, producer, Music of Our Time series, Columbia Records, founding member, Sonic Arts Union 1937 Birthday - David Vickerman Bedford, composer 1937 Birthday - David Hockney, born in Bradford, England, artist, Pop Art 1937 Birthday - David Allan, cricketer, West Indian wicketkeeper 1962-66 1937 Birthday - David Summerscale, head master, Westminster School England 1937 Birthday - David Del Tredici, born in Cloverdale, California, composer, 1980 Pulitzer 1937 Birthday - David Ward, president, Law Society 1937 Birthday - David Ackles, Illinois, vocalist/songwriter, American Gothic 1936 Birthday - David Carradine, born in Hollywood, California, actor, Kung Fu, Mean Streets 1936 Birthday - David Ward-Steinman, composer 1936 Birthday - David Nelson, New York City, actor, Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet 1936 Birthday - David Carradine, Hollywood, actor, Kung-Fu, Boxcar Bertha, Young Guns 1936 Birthday - David Pithey, cricketer, bro of Tony, South Africa all-rounder in 8 Tests 1936 Birthday - David Leonard Blake, composer 1936 Birthday - David Joel Zinman, born in New York City, composer and conductor, Baltimore Symphony 1983 1936 Birthday - Tony Musante, born in Bridgeport, Connecticut, actor, David Toma-Toma, Nowhere to Hide 1936 Birthday - David Jenkins, U.S., figure skater 1960 Olympics gold 1936 Birthday - David Nicholls, priest/theologian/political theorist 1936 Birthday - Keir Dullea, born in Cleveland, Ohio, actor, 2001, 2010, David and Lisa 1936 Birthday - David Suzuki, Canadian Scientist 1936 Birthday - David Thompson, British food magnate and multi-millionaire 1936 Birthday - David Vine, British sport commentator 1935 Birthday - David White, cricketer, England opening attack Brown and White vs. Pak 1961 1935 Birthday - David Houston, born in Bossier City, Louisiana, singer, country music, recorded hit 'Almost Pursuaded', and 'With One Exception', 'My Elusive Dreams' with Tammy Wynette 1935 Birthday - David Allen, cricketer, England off-spinner of 60's 1935 Birthday - David Canary, Elwood, Indiana, actor, Peyton Place, Candy-Bonanza 1935 Birthday - John David Crow, football player, Heisman Trophy 1957 1935 Birthday - David Prowse, British Actor 1935 Birthday - David Hartman, Pawtucket, Rhode Island, TV personality, Good Morning America 1935 Birthday - David Evans, born in England, footballer, cricketer for Aston Villa, Conservative Member of Parliament for Welwyn Hatfield 1935 Birthday - David Wilson, British governor, Hong Kong 1935 Birthday - David John Lodge, English writer, Soul and Bodies 1935 Birthday - David Lodge, British Author 1934 Birthday - David Warrilow, actor, Simon, Radio Days, Dakota Road, Barton Fink 1934 Birthday - David Lloyd-Jones, conductor 1934 Birthday - David Barclay, British hotel magnate/multi-millionaire 1934 Birthday - David Guard, rocker, Kingston Trio 1934 Birthday - David Smith, cricketer, England opening bowler vs. India 1961-62 1934 Death - David Vaughan Thomas, composer, dies at 61 1934 Birthday - David H Pryor, Sen-D Arkansas, 1979- 1934 Birthday - David Durenberger, born in St. Cloud, Minnesota, Senator-R-Minnesota 1978 - 1995 1934 Birthday - David J Burke, Liverpool England, writer 1934 Birthday - David Sinclair, actor, Love and Hate 1934 Birthday - David Robin Francis Guy Greville, 8th Duke of Warwick 1934 Birthday - David de Peyer, cancer research campaigner 1934 Birthday - David Halberstam, born in New York City, journalist, author, Pulitzer Prize winner, wrote about the Vietnam War 1934 Birthday - David Jones, British reverend and headmaster, Bryanston School 1934 Birthday - David Hancock, secretary, British Department of Education and Science 1934 Birthday - David Hugh Jones, Poole Dorset England, director, Betrayal 1933 Birthday - David Reuben, author, Everything You Wanted to Know about Sex 1933 Birthday - David McCallum, Glasgow Scot, actor, Ilyla Kuryakin-Man From UNCLE 1933 Birthday - David Rowland, English real estate developer/broker/multi-millionaire 1933 Birthday - David Rowland, chairman, Lloyd's 1933 Birthday - Tony Pithey, cricketer, brother of David, South African batsman in 17 Tests 1933 Birthday - David M Storey, British rugby player/playwright, Home 1933 Birthday - David McCullough, actor, Huey Long 1933 Birthday - David Benjamin Lewin, composer 1933 Birthday - David Winnick, British MP 1933 Birthday - David Harries, composer 1933 Birthday - David James Moore, educationalist 1933 Birthday - David Bellamy, English botanist/tv-program maker 1932 Birthday - David Lincoln Lightbown, politician 1932 Birthday - David Shipman, film historian 1932 Birthday - Marvin David Levy, composer 1932 Birthday - David McTaggart, co-founder, Greenpeace 1932 Birthday - David Keylsey, actor and director 1932 Birthday - David R. Scott, born in San Antonio, Texas, Col USAF/astronaut, Gemini 8, Apollo 9, 15 1932 Birthday - David Scott, born in San Antonio, Texas, astronaut, commander of Apollo 15 mission, seventh person to walk on the Moon, first person to drive on the Moon 1932 Birthday - David Plastow, CEO, Medical Research Council 1932 Birthday - David Bolton, director, British Royal United Service for Defense 1932 Birthday - David Alliance, Iran/British textile factory/multi-millionaire 1932 Birthday - David Antin, American Poet 1932 Birthday - David Thompson, CEO, Gestetner Holdings 1931 Birthday - David Baker, born in Indianapolis, Indiana, composer, Reflections 1931 Birthday - David Lumsdaine, composer 1931 Birthday - David Wilson, director of British Museum, 1977-92 1931 Birthday - David Bryant, English world champion bowler/tv-host 1931 Birthday - David Eddings, U.S., sci-fi author, Belgariad, Malloreon 1931 Birthday - David Healy, actor, Supergirl, Doomsday Gun, Patton, Be My Guest 1931 Death - David Belasco, American Playwright 1931 Birthday - Igor Oistrach, Russian violinist and son of David Oistrach 1931 Birthday - David Shepherd, born in Britain, painter, artist, considered world's most famous conservationists, famous for paintings of wildlife 1931 Birthday - David Montgomery, chairman, British Forestry Commission 1931 Birthday - David Haddon Whitaker, British publisher, Whitaker's Almanack 1930 Death - Eduard David, German minister (constitution of Weimar), dies at 67 1930 Birthday - David Werner Amram, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, composer, Splendor in the Grass 1930 Birthday - David Amram, American Composer 1930 Birthday - David Hackworth, American Soldier 1930 Birthday - David Rounds, Bronxville, New York, actor, Terence-Beacon Hill 1930 Birthday - David Mayer Epstein, composer 1930 Birthday - David Huddleston, Vinton, Virginia, actor, How the West Was Won 1930 Birthday - David M G Curry, South African Labour Party parliament leader 1930 Birthday - David Konstant, bishop, Leeds 1930 Birthday - David Smith, principal/vice chancellor, Edinburgh University 1930 Death - Herbert David Croly, U.S. founder (New Republic), dies at 61 1930 Birthday - David Evatt Tunley, composer 1930 Birthday - David Sexton, soccer manager 1930 Birthday - David Staple, joint President, Council of Churches for British and Ireland 1930 Birthday - David Janssen, born in Naponee Nebraska, actor, Fugitive, Harry O 1930 Birthday - David Russell Burge, composer 1930 Birthday - David Gentleman, designer and painter 1930 Death - David H Lawrence, poet and writer (Lady Chatterley's Lover), dies at 44 1930 Birthday - David Morris, British MEP 1929 Birthday - David S Broder, born in Chicago Hgts, Illinois, journalist, Pulitzer 1973 1929 Birthday - David S Ruder, 23rd chairman of Security and Exchange Commission 1929 Birthday - David Sheppard, bishop, Liverpool, cricketer, England batsman 1929 Birthday - David Houston, Major-General/Lord Lieutenant of Sutherland 1928 Birthday - David Mitchell, British MP 1928 Birthday - David Malcolm Lewis, expert in Greek Epigraphy 1928 Birthday - David Berriman, CEO, Rose Thomson Young group of Lloyds Trustees 1928 Birthday - David Hedison, actor, Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea 1928 Birthday - David Farquhar Andress, composer 1928 Birthday - David Somerset, born in England, David Robert Somerset, 11th Duke of Beaufort, British peer, criticized for accepting public funds on riverbed land granted to his dukedom 400 years ago 1928 Birthday - David Sheiner, New York City, actor, Paul-Mr Novak, Norman-Diana 1928 Birthday - David L Wolper, producer, Devil's Brigade 1927 Birthday - David Schine, businessman 1927 Birthday - David Norman Dinkins, 1st black Mayor-D-NYC, 1990-93 1927 Birthday - David Hobman, director, Age Concern England 1927 Birthday - David Frederick Barlow, composer 1927 Birthday - David Ingram, Vice-Chancellor, University of Kent at Canterbury 1927 Birthday - Thayer David, born in Massachusetts, actor, Eiger Sanction, Rocky, Nero Wolfe, Savages 1927 Birthday - David Mourao-Ferreira, poet/politician 1927 Birthday - David Ahlstrom, composer 1927 Birthday - David Herbert, publisher 1926 Birthday - David Levine, U.S. painter 1926 Death - David Lobo, Dutch actor, dies in railway accident 1926 Event - Dutch Communist Party expels David Wijnkoop 1926 Birthday - David Hedison, born in Providence, Rhode Island, actor, Colbys, Voyage to Bottom of Sea 1926 Birthday - David Ogilvy, born in London, England, David George Coke Patrick Ogilvy, 13th Earl of Airlie, The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, judge, served as Lord Chamberlain 1926 Birthday - David Young, Lieutenant-General/CEO, Cairn Tech 1926 Birthday - David Attenborough, producer/TV host/scientist 1926 Birthday - David Attenborough, naturalist 1926 Birthday - David Coleman, sports commentator 1926 Birthday - David Oliver Williams, trade unionist, COHSE 1926 Birthday - David Eugene Tudor, Philadelphia Penn, composer 1925 Birthday - Thomas Christian David, composer 1925 Birthday - David Doyle, born in Omaha, Nebraska, actor, John Bosley-Charlie's Angels 1925 Birthday - David Bache, born in Worcestershire, England, David Ernest Bache, son of footballer Joe Bache, car designer, worked with Rover, established design company David Bache Associates, created the Land Rover, Series II Land Rover 1925 Birthday - David Ironside, cricketer, South Africa swing bowler in 3 Tests vs. New Zealand 1953-54 1925 Birthday - David McNee, commissioner, Metropolitan Police 1925 Death - Nina David, Mrs Radcliffe N Salomon, poet/author, dies 1925 Birthday - David Emms, director, London Goodenough Trust for Overseas Graduates 1925 Birthday - David Abell Wood, priest 1925 Event - British Liberals choose David Lloyd George as party leader 1925 Birthday - David Jenkins, Bishop, Durham 1924 Birthday - David Atkinson, British air marshal 1924 Birthday - David Loram, British Vice-Admiral, Supreme Allied Commander 1924 Birthday - David Cox, warden, Nuffield College, Oxford 1924 Birthday - David Richard Holloway, literary Editor 1924 Birthday - Kenneth David Kaunda, founder/president, Zambia, 1964-91 1924 Birthday - Freddie Bartholomew, born in England, actor, Anna Karenina, David Copperfield 1924 Birthday - Bill Wendell, born in New York City, TV announcer, Late Night With David Letterman 1924 Birthday - David Beattie, British governor-general of New Zealand 1924 Birthday - David Craighead, composer 1923 Birthday - David Haslam, British rear Admiral, hydrographer 1922 Birthday - David Lane, CEO, Commission for Racial Equality 1922 Birthday - David Lancaster Nicolson, businessman/politician 1922 Birthday - David Nicolson, businessman/politician 1922 Death - David Mendes Chumaceiro, Curaeaos poet (Adelfas), dies at 45 1922 Birthday - David McLean, born in Akron, Ohio, actor, Tate-Tate 1922 Birthday - David Orr, deputy chairman, Inchcape, CEO, British Council, Unilever 1922 Death - David M Chumaceiro, Curacaos poet, dies 1922 Birthday - David Alexandrovich Toradze, composer 1922 Death - John Kirk Barry, Dr/explorer David Livingstone's companion, dies at 89 1921 Birthday - David Begelman, film producer 1921 Birthday - Billy Taylor, born in Greenville, North Carolina, orchestra leader, David Frost Show 1921 Birthday - David Lawmn, CEO, Prestige Group 1921 Birthday - Clifton James, New York City, actor, Buster and Billie, David and Lisa 1921 Birthday - Hal David, lyricist, Promises Promises-Grammy 1969 1920 Birthday - David Susskind, New York City, TV host, Open End, David Susskind Show 1920 Birthday - David Waller, actor, Shadowlands, Work is a 4 Letter Word 1920 Birthday - David Brinkley, born in Wilmington, North Carolina, NBC news anchor, Huntley-Brinkley 1920 Birthday - David Walker, Professor of Law, Glasgow University 1920 Birthday - David Vere Bendall, former diplomat 1920 Birthday - David Wright, born in Johannesburg, South Africa, given name David John Murray Wright, editor of 'X', autobiography 'Deafness. A Personal Account' gives insight into deafness 1919 Birthday - David Valentine Willcocks, composer 1919 Birthday - David Johan Kvandal, composer 1919 Birthday - David Seville, Ross Bagdasarian, born in Fresno California, Alvin and Chipmunks 1918 Birthday - David Land, impressario 1918 Event - American Red Magen David (Jewish Red Cross) forms 1918 Birthday - David Opatoshu, New York City, actor, Bonino, Secret Empire, Masada 1917 Birthday - David Bohm, American Scientist 1917 Birthday - David Tomlinson, Scotland, actor, Mary Poppins, Helter Skelter 1916 Event - David Lloyd George forms British war government 1916 Event - British government of David Lloyd George forms 1916 Event - David Lloyd George replaces resigning H H Asquith as British PM 1916 Birthday - David Lewis, born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, actor, Edward Quartermaine-General Hospital 1916 Birthday - David Hollestelle, Dutch baritone, Great-Broadcast chorus 1916 Birthday - David Brown, born in New York City, director, Jaws, Planet of the Apes 1916 Birthday - David Donaldson, painter 1916 Birthday - David Stafford-Clark, psychiatrist 1916 Birthday - David White, actor, Larry Tate-Bewitched 1916 Birthday - David Vassall Cox, composer 1915 Birthday - David Napley, solicitor 1915 Birthday - David Leo Diamond, born in Rochester, New York, composer, Paderewski Prize-1943 1915 Birthday - Stringbean, David Akeman, Kentucky, banjoist/comedian, Hee Haw 1915 Birthday - David Rockefeller, American Businessman 1915 Birthday - David Rockefeller, CEO, Chase Manhattan Bank 1915 Birthday - David Kindersley, font designer/cutter 1915 Birthday - David Jenklins, librarian, National Library of Wales 1915 Birthday - David Schoenbrun, CBS broadcast bureau head, Washington, Paris 1915 Birthday - David van de Woestijne, Flemish pianist/composer, Les Aeronautes 1914 Birthday - David Brian, New York City, actor, Accussed of Murder, Dawn at Sorocco 1914 Birthday - David Miles Bensuan-Butt, economist 1914 Birthday - David Langdon, cartoonist/illustrator 1914 Birthday - David Ignatow, U.S. poet, Tread the Dark, Rescue the Dead 1914 Birthday - David Wayne, born in Traverse City, Michigan, actor, 'Andromeda Strain', 'Adams Rib' 1914 Death - David Gill, Scottish Scientist 1914 Birthday - David Bruce, born in Kankakee, Illinois, actor, Harry-Beulah 1913 Birthday - David Hunt, British diplomat/quiz winner 1913 Birthday - Allan David, actor, director andproducer, Cry of the Children 1913 Death - David Popper, composer, dies at 70 1913 Birthday - Anthony David Machell Cox, medievalist 1913 Birthday - Gyula David, born in Hungary, composer, violinist, conductor, studied at the Liszt academy, conducted for the National Theatre 1945 - 1949, wrote folk song music and 12 tone serial music 1913 Birthday - David Donald Albritton, born in Danville, Alabama, high jumper 1936 Olympics silver 1913 Birthday - David Bowman, trade unionist 1913 Death - David Emlyn Evans, composer, dies at 69 1912 Birthday - David Merrick, Hong Kong, Broadway producer, Hello Dolly 1912 Birthday - Hugo David Weisgall, Ivancice Moravia, composer, 4 Impressions 1912 Birthday - David Packard, electronic engineer and businessman 1912 Birthday - Wendy Hiller, England, actress, Major Barbara, David Copperfield 1912 Birthday - David Raksin, born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, composer, Modern Times 1912 Birthday - David Brower, environmentalist/president, Sierra Club 1912 Birthday - David R. Brower, American Environmentalist 1912 Birthday - David Barran, CEO, Midland Bank, England 1912 Birthday - David F. Powers, American Politician 1912 Birthday - David Townsend, cricketer, 3 Tests England vs. WI 1935 1912 Birthday - David Langton, born in Scotland, actor, Quintet, St. Joan, Abandon Ship 1912 Birthday - Alan David Melville, polymath 1912 Birthday - Francis David Charteris, earl of Wemyss and March/Scottish landowner 1911 Birthday - Sigursveinn David Kristinsson, composer 1911 Death - David Graham Phillips, American Journalist 1910 Birthday - David Lichine, Lichtenstein, Russian/US dancer, Make Mine Music 1910 Birthday - David Rose, born in London, England, orchestra leader, Red Skelton Show, Stripper 1910 Birthday - David Gilroy Bevan, politician 1910 Death - David Duffle Wood, composer, dies at 72 1910 Birthday - David Lavender, American Historian 1910 Birthday - David McCampbell, U.S. pilot/captain, WW II-Pacific-downed 34 Japanese planes 1909 Birthday - Alan Carney, David Boughal, born in Brooklyn, New York, actor, Zombies on Broadway 1909 Birthday - David Riesman, U.S. sociologist, Lonely Crowd 1909 Birthday - Arwel Hughes, born in Wales, composer, choral and orchestral music conductor, composer, organist, studied with Ralph Vaughan Williams at Royal College of Music, known for large-scale oratorios Saint David and Pantycelyn 1909 Birthday - David Branson, composer 1909 Event - 1st San Francisco fireboat, David Scannell, launched 1909 Birthday - David Brock, American Author 1909 Birthday - David Niven, born in Kirriemuir, Scotland, actor, Casino Royale 1909 Birthday - David Dean Rusk, American Politician 1909 Birthday - Saul David Alinsky, born in Chicago, Illinois, radical writer, John L Lewis 1909 Event - David, Mawson and Mackay reach south magnetic pole 1908 Birthday - David Alexander Reginald Herbert, writer 1908 Birthday - Herman David Koppel, composer 1908 Birthday - David Oistrakh, born in Odessa, Russia, violinist and professor, Moscow Conservatory 1908 Birthday - David Farrar, Forest Gate England, actor, Beat Girl, I Accuse 1908 Birthday - William Eric David Davis, broadcaster 1908 Birthday - David Lean, British director, Lawrence of Arabia 1908 Birthday - David Lean, born in Croydon, England, director, Dr. Zhivago, Ryan's Daughter 1908 Birthday - David Saul Marshall, diplomat lawyer and politician 1907 Event - David Belasco's "Grand Army Man," premieres in New York City 1906 Birthday - David Sheinfeld, composer 1906 Birthday - David Van Vactor, Plymouth Indiana, composer, Chaconne 1905 Birthday - George Emlyn Williams, Wales, actor and playwright, David Copperfield 1905 Event - David Belasco's "Girl of Golden West," premieres in New York City 1905 Birthday - Carl David Anderson, New York City, physicist, 1936 Nobel Prize for physics 1905 Birthday - David Newell, Missouri, actor, Runaway Bride, White Heat, Dangerous Curves 1904 Birthday - David Brown, CEO, Aston Martin Lagonda 1904 Birthday - Adolph Blaine Charles David Earl Frederick Gerald Hubert Irvin John Kenneth Lloyd Martin Nero Oliver Paul Quincy Randolph Sherman Thomas Uncas Victor William Xerxes Yancy Zeus Wolfeschlegelsteinhausenber----dorff, Sr, near Hamburg, Germany 1902 Event - Impresario David Belasco opens his 1st Broadway theater 1902 Birthday - David Burns, actor, Music Man, Hello Dolly! 1902 Birthday - David Brooks, psychologist 1902 Birthday - David O Selznick, born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, producer, 'Gone With the Wind' 1902 Birthday - David O. Selznick, American Producer 1902 Death - David R Capriles, Curaeaos director of psychiatric, dies at 64 1902 Birthday - David Cecil, English Writer 1900 Birthday - David Wynne, born in Penderyn, Wales, composer, studied at University of Wales, Cardiff, University of Bristol, Head of Music, Lewis School Pengam, professor of composition, Cardiff College of Music and Drama 1900 Birthday - David Croll, QC senator 1899 Birthday - David Eli Lilienthal, U.S. government organizer, Wisconsin 1898 Birthday - David de Jong, Dutch writer, Mutiny on the Canal 1898 Birthday - Martin David, German/Netherlands law historian 1898 Death - Edward Noyes Westcott, U.S. attorney/writer (David Harum), dies 1896 Birthday - David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexico, painter/muralist, Lib of Chile 1896 Death - Henry David Leslie, composer, dies at 73 1895 Birthday - David Butler, born in San Francisco, California, director, April in Paris, Calamity Jane 1895 Birthday - Johann Nepomuk David, composer 1895 Event - David Belasco's "Heart of Maryland," premieres in New York City 1894 Birthday - Winifred Kingston, England, silent screen actress, David Garrick 1892 Birthday - David Guion, composer 1892 Birthday - Arthur Oscar Honnegger, born in Le Havre, France, composer, King David 1892 Birthday - David Garnett, England, novelist and editor, Lady into Fox 1892 Birthday - David Dubinsky, labor leader, Freedom Award, 1969 Medal of Freedom 1891 Birthday - David Vogel, Ukraine, author, Huwelijksleven 1891 Birthday - David Low, British Cartoonist 1891 Birthday - David Sarnoff, U.S., radio/TV pioneer/CEO, RCA 1891 Death - David Dixon Porter, U.S. rear Admiral (Union), dies at 77 1891 Death - David Kalakahua, emperor of Hawaii, dies 1888 Birthday - David Monrad Johansen, composer 1887 Birthday - David McKinley Williams, composer 1886 Birthday - David Ben-Gurion, Plonsk Poland, 1st Prime Minister of Israel, 1948 - 1953, 1955 1886 Birthday - David Ben Gurion, Israeli Statesman 1886 Death - David L Yule, 1st Jewish U.S. senator, dies 1886 Birthday - David Steinman, New York City, bridge designer, Hudson, Triborough 1885 Birthday - David Herbert "DH" Lawrence, England, writer, Lady Chatterly's Lover 1885 Event - Samuel David Ferguson becomes 1st U.S. black bishop 1885 Birthday - Edith Evans, born in London, England, actress, Tom Jones, David Copperfield 1884 Birthday - Karl Heinrich David, composer 1883 Birthday - Louis Davids, Simon David, Dutch cabaret performer/chorus performer 1883 Birthday - David John de Lloyd, composer 1882 Birthday - David Cohen, Dutch historian/chairman, Jewish Council 1882 Death - Phiz [Hablot Knight Browne], English artist (David Cupperfield), dies 1882 Event - David Belasco's "La Belle Russe," premieres in New York City 1881 Event - David Houston patents roll film for cameras 1880 Birthday - Una O'Connor, Belfast Ireland, actress, David Copperfield 1879 Death - David van der Kellen, Dutch coin engraver, dies at 74 1877 Birthday - David Stanley Smith, composer 1877 Birthday - David Mendes Chumaceiro, born in Curacao, poet, Crisalidas 1876 Death - Felicien C David, French composer (Lalla-Roukh), dies at 66 1876 Birthday - David Wijnkoop, Dutch revolutionary socialist 1874 Death - David Livingstone, buried in Westminster Abbey 1874 Event - Dr. David Livingstones corpse arrives in Southampton 1874 Event - King David Kalakaua of Sandwich Is Hawaii, is 1st king to visit U.S. 1874 Death - David F Strauss, German theologist, dies at 66 1874 Death - David Friedrich Strauss, German Theologian 1874 Birthday - John David Rockefeller, Jr., born in Cleveland, Ohio, philanthropist 1873 Birthday - David O McKay, Huntsville, Utah, 9th President of Mormon church 1873 Birthday - David O. McKay, American Clergyman 1873 Death - Ferdinand David, Dutch violinist and composer, dies at 63 1873 Death - David Livingstone, British physician/explorer (Africa), dies at 60 1873 Birthday - David Vaughan Thomas, composer 1872 Birthday - David D Salas, Antillian writer, Josefina 1870 Death - David [James] Glasgow Farragut, admiral, dies 1870 Death - Charles Dickens, English writer (David Copperfield), dies at 58 1869 Birthday - David Grandison Fairchild, U.S., botanist and explorer, brought plants to U.S. 1869 Birthday - Herbert David Croly, U.S. author, Promise of American Life 1868 Death - David Wilmot, American Activist 1867 Birthday - David Graham Phillips, American Journalist 1866 Event - David Faragut appointed as 1st Admiral of U.S. Navy 1864 Death - David Bell Birney, U.S. lawyer/Union general-major, dies at 39 1864 Death - David Bullock Harris, U.S. Confederate colonel, dies of yellow fever 1864 Death - David Allen Russell, U.S. Union general-major, dies in battle at 43 1864 Birthday - Roger David Casement, Irish nationalist, Easter uprising 1916 1864 Event - General David Hunter takes command of Department of West Virginia 1863 Event - Confederate sub David damages Union ship Ironsides 1863 Birthday - Eduard David, German undersecretary, constitution of Weimar 1863 Birthday - David Lloyd George, L-PM-Britain, 1916-22 1862 Event - David G Farragut is 1st rear Admiral in U.S. Navy 1862 Death - David Emanuel Twiggs, U.S. Confederate general-major (Monterrey), dies at 72 1862 Death - Henry David Thoreau, U.S. writer/pacifist (Walden Pond), dies at 44 1862 Event - Union captain David Farragut conquers New Orleans 1862 Birthday - David Hilbert, Konigsberg East Prussia, mathematician 1859 Event - Lake Nyasa, which forms Malawi's boundary with Tanzania and Mozambique discovered by British explorer David Livingstone 1856 Death - David Cox, English painter (Treatise on Landscape Paint), dies at 73 1856 Birthday - David Alfred Thomas, born in Glamorganshire, England, 1st Viscount Rhondda 1856 Death - Pierre J David, David d'Angers, French sculptor, dies at 67 1854 Event - Henry David Thoreau publishes "Walden" 1853 Birthday - David Belasco, American Playwright 1851 Birthday - David Starr Jordan, New York, biologist/university President, Leland Stanford 1849 Death - David H Chasse, baron/general (fought Napoleon at Waterloo), dies at 84 1849 Event - U.S. had no president, Polks term ends on a Sunday, Taylor couldn't be sworn-in, Senator David Atchison (President pro tem) term ended March 3rd 1846 Event - Henry David Thoreau jailed for tax resistance 1845 Event - Henry David Thoreau moves into his shack on Walden Pond 1843 Birthday - David Popper, composer 1843 Birthday - David Gill, Scottish Scientist 1840 Death - Caspar David Friedrich, German Artist 1838 Birthday - David Duffle Wood, composer 1837 Birthday - David Capriles, director of psychiatry of Monte Christo, Curacao 1833 Birthday - David McMurtrie Gregg, Major General Union volunteers 1832 Birthday - John Kirk Barry, Scot, Dr/companion to explorer David Livingstone 1831 Birthday - David Edward Hughes, inventor, microphone, teleprinter 1830 Death - David Walker, abolitionist (Appeal to Colored Citizens), dies at 44 1827 Death - Jan David Holland, composer, dies at 81 1827 Death - David Moritz Michael, composer, dies at 75 1825 Death - Jacques-Louis David, French painter (Death of Marat), dies at 77 1825 Birthday - David Bell Birney, Major General Union volunteers 1825 Birthday - David Rumph "Neighbor" Jones, Major General Confederate Army 1822 Birthday - Henry David Leslie, composer 1820 Birthday - David Allen Russell, Army Major General, Union 1819 Birthday - David Henry Williams, Brigadier General Union volunteers 1818 Birthday - David Addison Weisiger, Brigadier General Confederate Army 1817 Birthday - Henry David Thoreau, born in Concord, Massachusetts, naturalist/pacifist, Walden Pond 1816 Birthday - David Stuart, Brigadier General Union volunteers 1814 Birthday - David Wilmot, American Activist 1813 Birthday - David Dixon Porter, Rear Admiral Union Navy 1813 Birthday - David Livingstone, born in Scotland, explorer, found by Stanley in Africa 1813 Event - David Melville, Newport, Rhode Island, patents apparatus for making coal gas 1810 Birthday - Ferdinand David, violist/compser, Hohe Schule des Violinspiels 1810 Birthday - Felicien C. David, French composer, Perle du Bresil, Desert 1809 Birthday - William David Porter, Commander Union Navy 1808 Birthday - David F Strauss, Germany, theologist, Jesus' Life 1808 Birthday - David Friedrich Strauss, German Theologian 1807 Birthday - David R Atchison, President of USA on March 3rd 1849 1806 Death - David Dale, industrialist and philanthropist, dies 1805 Birthday - David Tod, U.S. diplomat, Gov-R-Ohio, 1861-63 1805 Birthday - David Dudley Field, lawyer/law codifier 1804 Birthday - David Van de Kellen, coin engraver 1802 Birthday - David Hunter, Major General Union volunteers 1801 Birthday - David Glasgow Farragut, Tennessee, Vice Admiral Union Navy 1801 Event - 1st U.S. Jewish governor, David Emanuel, takes office in Georgia 1799 Death - David Traugott Nicolai, composer, dies at 66 1798 Event - David Wilkinson of Rhode Island patents a nut and bolt machine 1788 Birthday - Pierre J David, David d'Angers, French sculptor 1785 Birthday - David Walker, Wilmington, North Carolina, abolitionist, Appeal to Colored Citizens 1784 Event - 1st U.S. seed business established by David Landreth, Philadelphia 1783 Birthday - David Cox, English painter, Treatise on landscape painting 1781 Birthday - David Brewster, Scotland, physicist/inventor, kaleidoscope 1778 Event - David Rittenhouse observes a total solar eclipse in Philadelphia 1776 Event - 1st (failed) submarine attack (David Bushnell's "Turtle" attacks British sailboat "Eagle" in Bay of New York) 1776 Death - David Hume, Scottish Philosopher 1774 Birthday - Caspar David Friedrich, German Artist 1772 Birthday - David Ricardo, economist 1770 Death - David 't Kindt, Flemish architect (Mammelokker, Ghent), dies at 71 1770 Birthday - David Thompson, English/Canadian explorer, Columbia River 1765 Birthday - David H Chasse, Dutch baron/general, fought Napoleon at Waterloo 1751 Birthday - David Moritz Michael, composer 1748 Birthday - Jacques-Louis David, France, Neoclassical painter, Death of Marat 1746 Birthday - Jan David Holland, composer 1744 Birthday - David Allan, Scottish painter 1735 Event - 1st U.S. Moravian bishop, David Nitschmann, consecrated in Germany 1733 Birthday - David Traugott Nicolai, composer 1729 Death - Johann David Heinichen, composer, dies at 46 1717 Birthday - David Garrick, actor/producer/writer, Aboan-Oroonoko 1711 Birthday - David Hume, Scottish Philosopher 1711 Birthday - David Hume, English empiricist/philosopher, Treatise of Human Nature 1710 Birthday - David Wooster, American Soldier 1696 Death - Johann David Mayer, composer, dies at 60 1690 Death - David Teniers the Younger, Flemish painter (Pictorium), dies at 79 1685 Death - David Teniers III, Flemish painter, dies at 46 1683 Birthday - Johann David Heinichen, composer 1667 Death - David ben Samuel Halevi, rabbi/author (Shulchan Aruch), dies 1649 Death - David Teniers I, Flemish painter (altaar stukken), dies 1645 Birthday - Aert de Gelder, Dutch painter, King David 1644 Birthday - Arnold Moonen, Dutch vicar/literature, David's holy saint graduals 1638 Birthday - David Teniers III, Flemish painter, carpet cartons 1636 Birthday - Johann David Mayer, composer 1617 Death - David Fabricius, German astronomer, dies at 53 1610 Birthday - David Teniers II, Flemish courtpainter, Theatrum Pictorium 1596 Event - David Fabricius discovers light variation of Mira (1st variable star) 1588 Death - Petrus Dathenus, Flemish minister/physician (Psalms of David), dies 1566 Death - David Riccio, Italian singer/secretary of Mary Stuart, murdered 1564 Birthday - David Fabricius, Essens Germany, astronomer, discoved variable star 1564 Death - Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian sculptor/painter (David), dies at 88 1559 Event - Excavated corpse of heretic David Jorisz burned in Basel 1556 Death - David Jorisz, Flemish glass blower/sect leader, dies at about 54 1496 Death - David van Bourgondie, Bishop of Utrecht (1456-96), dies at about 69 1475 Birthday - Michelangelo, painter and sculptor, David 1371 Death - David II Bruce, king of Scotland (1331..71), dies at 46 1324 Birthday - David II Bruce, king of Scotland, 1331 - 1371 1272 Death - David of Augsburg, Franciscan minister/author, dies 1153 Death - David I, King of Scotland, dies 1153 Death - David I, king of Scotland (1124-53), dies at about 68	i don't know
Which British heavyweight boxing champion died on 1st. May 2011 at the age of 76?	Sir Henry Cooper obituary \| Sport \| The Guardian Sir Henry Cooper obituary British heavyweight boxing champion known for his warmth, indomitable spirit and a left hook dubbed 'Enry's 'Ammer Muhammad Ali and Henry Cooper before their world heavyweight title fight in London. Photograph: Aubrey Hart/Getty Images Sunday 1 May 2011 17.31 EDT First published on Sunday 1 May 2011 17.31 EDT Share on Messenger Close Sir Henry Cooper , beloved of British postwar generations as no heavyweight boxer before him, has died aged 76. His warmth and indomitable personality, together with his rise from humble roots, gave him a popularity far beyond his sport's normal boundaries. He was never world champion, but his good spirits seemed to hold a gift for everyone, even for his most notable conqueror, Muhammad Ali. At Wembley stadium, on 18 June 1963, Cooper landed Ali, then known as Cassius Clay, on his pants with a punch that made boxing history – a left hook travelling five and a half inches at 30mph with 60 times the force of gravity, striking the side of the American's jaw. The world came to know it as 'Enry's 'Ammer, and it felled Ali as never before. However, in front of 55,000 people, Ali was "saved by the bell" amid unique controversy. Ali, then 21, had fought only one major figure, the ageing Archie Moore, before his arrival in London to meet Cooper, the experienced 29-year-old British and Commonwealth heavyweight champion, over 10 rounds. With a multimillion-dollar syndicate behind Ali's world championship ambition, and Cooper in his prime, it was a fight attracting worldwide interest. Already, the Kentucky fighter's braggadocio ("I am the prettiest ... I am the greatest") had brought him the title of the Louisville Lip. But, after Cooper's hammer blow, Ali's corner were up to various tricks before the Englishman fell victim to a cut eye in the fifth round. In later years, Ali's trainer, Angelo Dundee, admitted tweaking the loose stitching of his fighter's right glove so that the formal minute interval was stretched by six seconds before a replacement was found. His use of smelling salts also defied the rules. "For a fit man," Cooper said later, "seconds are a lifetime. When you are really trained up, you need only 20 seconds and you are back to your old self." Ali's long reach and quickness posed Cooper, himself the lightest of heavyweights, 13st 13lb at his heaviest, some early problems. "For my money, he was the fastest heavyweight of all time, and a stone and a half heavier than me," Cooper acknowledged. "There was never a still target in front of you. He wasn't a counter-puncher, nothing to compare with Floyd Patterson . Nor a puncher like Rocky Marciano. It was a flicker with the left, or a long-arm right that could drag and tear your skin." Ali caught Cooper with a typical blow in the third round. Jim Wicks, Cooper's manager, known as "The Bishop" and always protective of his man, was all for ending the fight as the blood flowed down his fighter's cheek. Cooper, in the corner interval, pleaded for one more round as his "cuts" man, Danny Holland, applied an adrenalin-Vaseline compound. In Cooper's view, he could still take his man – and he very nearly did. The 'Ammer smacked into Ali's chin as he backed into the ropes, the American's speed for once not saving him. Ali slid down the ropes, the slowness helping him. The referee, Tommy Little, reached a count of five, then Ali rose, in Cooper's view like an amateur, his arms dangling, an open target. But the bell rang, and boxing history took another turn. "Oh boy!" was Cooper's autobiographical note. "If it had only happened in the second minute." As it was, Ali took the world title in his next fight, against Sonny Liston. Cooper was to meet Ali – by then, his name had been formally changed after his conversion to Islam – for a world title fight at Arsenal's Highbury stadium, London, on 21 May 1966. Again the fight had to be stopped for a cut eye, this time in the sixth round. The gash was deeper and longer than any of Cooper's career. The Englishman reckoned himself narrowly ahead on points, but the blow was typically Ali, a long punch grazing with the heel of the glove. "It was a physical thing that let me down," Cooper said. "Prominent bones and weak tissue around the eyes. But I was never as bad as my brother, George. After all, I went on until I was 37." For years afterwards, Ali would pay tribute to Cooper. British boxing writers visiting him in the US would be told: "Give my regards to Henry." Overall, Cooper's record was unmatched by any British fighter of his or any other time – winner of 40 of his 55 contests, 27 by knockout, one drawn, in a 17-year career from 1954 to 1971; winner of three Lonsdale belts for three successive British heavyweight title victories; holder of European and Commonwealth/Empire titles for sustained periods, the British for about 11 years. Many thought him unlucky to lose his last fight, and all three titles, to Joe Bugner, with a controversial points decision by the referee Harry Gibbs at Wembley stadium, on 16 March 1971. Cooper had a strong regard for the boxers of his time, men such as Brian London, Joe Erskine, Joe Bygraves, Dick Richardson, Jack Bodell and, at the last, Bugner. In his later years, he came to despise what he saw as tawdry dealings in overweight punch slingers with little of the skill that he had prized. Even for his times, he was nearer the cruiserweight mark than a true heavyweight, but the weight of his left hook was that of a champion, and the postwar sporting world provided him with a multitude of fans, to whom he was ever attached. "Old mums and good-looking young girls, it didn't matter," he said. "Running along the street for your Ali training, they'd shout at you, 'Button his lip.' Not that I minded. His lip earned me good money." Cooper, too, could be swift and able with the spoken word. In a 1970 TV debate, Lady (Edith) Summerskill, a notable opponent of boxing, inquired: "Mr Cooper, have you looked in the mirror and seen the state of your nose?" Quickly, he replied: "Well, have you? Boxing is my excuse – what's yours?" It was ungallant, he acknowledged afterwards, but after a pleasant-enough discussion she had rather ambushed him. Cooper's career coincided with the dawn of the black-and-white TV era, and he was soon to stand with Stanley Matthews , Lester Piggott, Bobby Charlton, Roger Bannister, Leonard Hutton and Denis Compton as a national sporting hero. In his case, too, it extended to a long semi-retirement in which charity and public entertainment played a significant part. He was knighted in 2000 as much for public services as for his boxing skill and courage. They were qualities much leavened by a natural humour and modesty. He was an unabashed royalist, and made no secret of his pleasure in attending lunch at Buckingham Palace with the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh. Cooper loved to tell of his beginnings, and the tales were later repeated in pubs and civic halls all over the country. "We were born, George and me, on 3 May 1934 ... the biggest surprise of my mother's life. Not wanting to see the x-rays beforehand, she was going to call us Walter. Then one of the nurses took a peep at us and said, 'They're a proper little Henry and George. They're going to be six-footers.' And that's how it stuck." George was to fight professionally as Jim because of another George Cooper boxing at the time. He retired long before Henry because of his more prominent brow and more vulnerable skin. Born in Southwark, south-east London, Cooper always saw himself as an "Elephant" boy, meaning the Elephant and Castle area, famous in the early part of the century for horse-trading. There, his half-Irish grandfather bought and sold horses. The Thomas a Becket gym, where Cooper trained for the Ali world title fight, was part of that heritage. Cooper's father, also called Henry, had been a Royal Artillery regular from 1919. A useful amateur boxer, he had inherited a gift with horses and was a driver in gun teams inspected by King George V. He served in Burma from 1942, leaving Lily, his wife, to fend for the twins and their elder brother, Bern. The family had moved to a council estate in Bellingham, south-east London, in 1940, but the twins were soon evacuated to Lancing, West Sussex. The boys returned to Athelney Road school, queueing for rations, chopping wood, doing paper rounds and generally living off their wits. "Golf balls were scarce so we'd nick them off the fairway, run round the clubhouse and sell 'em back to grateful members for a tanner," said Cooper, who later became a chairman of the Variety Club golf section. A natural left-hander, Cooper started to box as a normal right-hander, not a "southpaw", when a neighbour, Bob Hill, a local fireman, took the brothers along to Bellingham Boxing Club. As an amateur with Eltham Boxing Club, Cooper won 73 of 84 contests, including the ABA light-heavyweight championship in 1952. That year, at the Olympic Games in Helsinki, he suffered a second-stage points defeat to a Soviet boxer, Anatoli Petrov. The French judge awarded Cooper the verdict, but the other two, from communist countries, came down the other way. The twins turned professional after completing their national service with the "boxers' battalion" of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Under the astute, paternal Wicks, Cooper won his first nine fights, the ninth against an old foe, the 15-stone Bygraves, which was especially rewarding. The next ended with a cut-eye retirement after a clash of heads with the Italian Uber Bacilieri. Early title challenges to Bygraves, Erskine and Ingemar Johansson ended in defeat, but his career took off with a points victory over the highly rated American Zora Folley, followed in December 1959 by the capture of the British and Empire belts from Brian London. Next came successful defences against Dick Richardson, Erskine, Johnny Prescott and London again. In a 1969 European title defence at the Palazzo dello Sport in Rome, against another Italian, Piero Tomasoni, Cooper suffered the lowest blow of his career – a dent seven inches below his navel in the aluminium cup covering his genitals. He fell to the canvas, only for the referee to carry on counting. He recovered to win on a fifth-round knockout, but kept the cup as a souvenir. There were three dents in it. The world heavyweight fight in which Ali wounded Cooper's eye was the only one watched by his Italian-born wife, Albina. They had met while Albina, born in an Apennine village, was a 16-year-old serving in an Italian restaurant in Soho, central London. They married in 1960 and had two sons, Henry Marco and John Pietro. Appointed OBE in 1969, Cooper was voted BBC sports personality of the year in 1967 and 1970. He made no great fortune out of boxing. His decision to retire was already established before his last fight, against Bugner in July 1971. Modestly comfortable, he still needed to auction off his Lonsdale belts after the collapse of a Lloyd's of London syndicate lost him a huge lump of his savings. The Canterbury auction made only £40,000 where £100,000 was expected. He collaborated on books, including one with me in 1972, a taped and edited life story that succeeded David Niven's The Moon's a Balloon as a paperback bestseller, at 40p a copy. For three years, Cooper chaired a team in the BBC's Question of Sport quizshow, his knowledge of sport proving encyclopedic. Advertisers homed in. For Brut, he would become associated with aftershave, for the NHS, he was a face to encourage flu jabs for the elderly. His charity work included raising funds for more than 100 Sunshine coaches for children who were ill or had disabilities. One of the coaches was named after Albina. In 1998, he famously suffered a snake bite in the golfing rough, which led to a spell in hospital over the Christmas holiday. More seriously, an obscure heart condition developed which latterly restricted both his golf and his charity work. His fighting spirit kept him going throughout. It was never in Cooper's nature to turn people away. Just before the referee Harry Gibbs died, in 1999, they shook hands. "For charity," Cooper said with a laugh. Hard as it might have been, that was the measure of the man. Albina's death from a sudden heart attack in 2008 was a profound blow to the family. George died in 2010. Cooper is survived by his sons. John Rawling writes: Our 'Enry was undoubtedly something of a national treasure, but the story regarding the supposed splitting of the glove by Angelo Dundee – happily corroborated by Henry in his second career as an after-dinner speaker – was a mischievous manipulation of the truth which allowed Dundee to paint himself as the master trainer who pulled a stroke to help young Cassius Clay survive the knockdown. For his part, Henry was only too happy to acquiesce to a tale which added to the legend of 'Enry's 'Ammer, which so nearly defeated the heavyweight who would ultimately be recognised as the greatest of all time. In reality, analysis of the television recording and the radio broadcast, which survives in its entirety, reveals a somewhat more prosaic truth. Dundee did indeed call the referee to his corner to inspect Clay's glove, but the referee made no instruction for the glove to be changed and instead ruled that the contest could continue. The minute's interval was not stretched by 66 seconds, as some tales had it, but actually lasted a little longer than 66 seconds in total. The matter was pointed out to me by the respected commentator and journalist Reg Gutteridge , who died in 2009, and was at ringside reporting the fight. It was supported by the first-hand accounts of those who were there and by Simon Smith's famous BBC radio commentary. The fact is that the glove incident was an embellishment of the truth that has entered sporting mythology as fact. For several years, I commentated with Henry at major fights for BBC radio. His iconic status meant that he was mobbed by autograph hunters wherever we were, to the extent that I would frequently feel more like a minder than a colleague. "Come on, Henry, we've got to get out of here to record that interview," was the advice that I would give to let him eventually walk away and make his exit from the arena. Unquestionably, Henry became increasingly irritated by the hype surrounding fighters such as Chris Eubank and especially Frank Bruno, whom he saw as a strong but limited fighter who was lucky to have ever had a chance to challenge once for a world title, let alone be given four opportunities. It was after Bruno's 1995 victory against the similarly limited Oliver McCall, which brought the Englishman the WBC version of the heavyweight title, that Henry walked away from commentary. He had not gone along with the jingoistic adulation of Bruno in his moment of triumph, and was criticised in some quarters for giving what was seen as only grudging praise. Thereafter, Henry filled his time making numerous public appearances and playing a very decent, if less than aesthetically pleasing, game of golf. He was a charming companion, and always prepared to give his time to young and old. When asked to explain Henry's enduring popularity, I would explain that if he were to be offered £10,000 to make an after-dinner speech, and it clashed with an unpaid appearance at a boys' club when he had given his word that he would attend, Henry would unhesitatingly refuse the fat cheque and be there for the youngsters. He was a good boxer, but an outstanding man. • Henry Cooper, boxer, born 3 May 1934; died 1 May 2011	Henry Cooper
In Greek mythology, which god of travel, language and trade served as the messenger to the gods?	Famous Ring Wars – Sir Henry Cooper vs. Cassius Clay - Boxing News Famous Ring Wars – Sir Henry Cooper vs. Cassius Clay May 10th, 2011 - 9 Comments By John F. McKenna (McJack): Sir Henry Cooper who died on May 1, 2011 at the age of 76, was the most popular British boxer of the post war era. He held the British Heavyweight Title for twelve years. Cooper’s most memorable fight was against Cassius Clay two years before he became Muhammad Ali. The fight took place at Wembley Stadium in June of 1963 before 35,000 pro Cooper fans. Clay had predicted to the press that he would knock Cooper out in five rounds. Cooper had a reputation for being a “bleeder” and when blood started flowing from his eyes in the third round Clay’s bragging seemed to be justified. It was apparent however in the third round that the young Clay had badly misjudged his opponent as Cooper began to land his dangerous left hook. In the fourth round Cooper’s left hook repeatedly found it’s mark. Surprisingly Cooper also appeared to be physically stronger than his larger rival and began to use his ring experience to rough up Clay. The only question for Cooper and his loyal fans was would he be able to nail Clay before the blood from his eyes started gushing out forcing a stoppage. As the round progressed Clay back pedaled away from the advancing Cooper. Just before the end of round four, Cooper caught Clay with a powerful left hook along the ropes. Clay fell to the canvas as if being pole axed. It was a textbook perfect left hook thrown with speed and power. Clay was totally out of it as he was directed back to his corner and his trainer Angelo Dundee started administering smelling salts to revive his fighter. It is alleged that at this point Angelo, who knew every trick in the book, sliced one of Clay’s gloves with a razor to buy more time for Cassius who was still very groggy and in no condition to continue. Dundee then called the referee’s attention to the glove. Of course the glove had to be replaced. This gave Cassius the time he needed to recover. In the next round Clay danced around and targeted Cooper’s eyes which started to bleed profusely. The referee was forced to stop the fight giving Clay a TKO victory. Cooper had given Clay a lot more than he bargained for and it was the closest he would ever come to being knocked out. Clay would go on to win the Heavyweight Title from Sonny Liston in 1964 when Liston quit on his stool between rounds. He would again defeat Liston a year later when Sonny fell down in the first round after being hit with the “Phantom Punch” While Clay was backing up. When Clay became Muhammad Ali he would achieve fistic greatness and become one of the greatest Heavyweight Champions of all time. He would fight Joe Frazier and Kenny Norton three times each and cap off his brilliant career with the “Rumble in the Jungle” in Zaire when he knocked out George Foreman in the eighth round. Nobody ever hit Ali the way Sir Henry Cooper did back at Wembley in 1963. Cooper came very close to derailing the career of the young Cassius Clay. He can thank Angelo Dundee’s quick thinking for that. Cooper was much loved in his native England and was honored with Knighthood in 2000, becoming the first and only boxer to be so honored. He was Knighted mostly for his charitable work but also for the manner in which he conducted himself as a fighter. Always courteous, the thought of hype and trash talking that goes on with today’s fighters was repulsive to Cooper. Cooper’s loyal fans had a pet name for his famed Left hook. They called it “Enery’s Ammer”. Muhammad Ali had the utmost respect for Cooper. Whenever he spoke with British scribes he would always ask how he was doing. The boxing world will surely miss Sir Henry Cooper and the gentleman that he was.	i don't know
One of only two moons in our solar system larger than Mercury, which is the largest satellite of Jupiter?	Planet Jupiter: Facts About Its Size, Moons and Red Spot Planet Jupiter: Facts About Its Size, Moons and Red Spot By Charles Q. Choi, Space.com Contributor \| November 14, 2014 12:59am ET MORE This photo of Jupiter was taken on Sept. 20, 2010 when Jupiter made its closest approach to Earth since 1963. (Uranus [insert] was visible through telescopes near Jupiter.) Credit: Jimmy Eubanks Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. Fittingly, it was named after the king of the gods in Roman mythology. In a similar manner, the ancient Greeks named the planet after Zeus, the king of the Greek pantheon. Jupiter helped revolutionize the way we saw the universe and ourselves in 1610, when Galileo discovered Jupiter's four large moons — Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, now known as the Galilean moons. This was the first time celestial bodies were seen circling an object other than Earth, major support of the Copernican view that Earth was not the center of the universe. Physical characteristics Jupiter is the most massive planet in our solar system , more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined, and had it been about 80 times more massive, it would have actually become a star instead of a planet. Its atmosphere resembles that of the sun, made up mostly of hydrogen and helium, and with four large moons and many smaller moons in orbit around it, Jupiter by itself forms a kind of miniature solar system. All told, the immense volume of Jupiter could hold more than 1,300 Earths. The colorful bands of Jupiter are arranged in dark belts and light zones created by strong east-west winds in the planet's upper atmosphere traveling more than 400 mph (640 kph). The white clouds in the zones are made of crystals of frozen ammonia, while darker clouds of other chemicals are found in the belts. At the deepest visible levels are blue clouds. Far from being static, the stripes of clouds change over time . Inside the atmosphere, diamond rain may fill the skies. The most extraordinary feature on Jupiter is undoubtedly the Great Red Spot , a giant hurricane-like storm seen for more than 300 years. At its widest, the Great Red Spot is three times the diameter of the Earth, and its edge spins counterclockwise around its center at a speed of about 225 mph (360 kph). The color of the storm, which usually varies from brick red to slightly brown, may come from small amounts of sulfur and phosphorus in the ammonia crystals in Jupiter's clouds. The spot grows and shrinks over time, and every now and again, seems to fade entirely. Jupiter's gargantuan magnetic field is the strongest of all the planets in the solar system at nearly 20,000 times the strength of Earth's. It traps electrically charged particles in an intense belt of electrons and other electrically charged particles that regularly blasts the planet's moons and rings with a level of radiation more than 1,000 times the lethal level for a human, damaging even heavily shielded spacecraft such as NASA's Galileo probe. The magnetosphere of Jupiter, which is composed of these fields and particles, swells out some 600,000 to 2 million miles (1 million to 3 million km) toward the sun and tapers to a tail extending more than 600 million miles (1 billion km) behind Jupiter. Jupiter spins faster than any other planet, taking a little under 10 hours to complete a turn on its axis, compared with 24 hours for Earth. This rapid spin makes Jupiter bulge at the equator and flatten at the poles, making the planet about 7 percent wider at the equator than at the poles. Jupiter broadcasts radio waves strong enough to detect on Earth. These come in two forms — strong bursts that occur when Io, the closest of Jupiter's large moons, passes through certain regions of Jupiter's magnetic field, and continuous radiation from Jupiter's surface and high-energy particles in its radiation belts. These radio waves could help scientists to probe the oceans on its moons. Composition & structure Atmospheric composition (by volume): 89.8 percent molecular hydrogen, 10.2 percent helium, minor amounts of methane, ammonia, hydrogen deuteride, ethane, water, ammonia ice aerosols, water ice aerosols, ammonia hydrosulfide aerosols Magnetic field: Nearly 20,000 times stronger than Earth's Chemical composition: Jupiter has a dense core of uncertain composition , surrounded by a helium-rich layer of fluid metallic hydrogen, wrapped up in an atmosphere primarily made of molecular hydrogen. Internal structure: A core less than 10 times Earth's mass surrounded by a layer of fluid metallic hydrogen extending out to 80 to 90 percent of the diameter of the planet, enclosed in an atmosphere mostly made of gaseous and liquid hydrogen. Orbit & rotation Average distance from the sun : 483,682,810 miles (778,412,020 km). By comparison: 5.203 times that of Earth Perihelion (closest approach to the sun): 460,276,100 miles (740,742,600 km). By comparison: 5.036 times that of Earth Aphelion (farthest distance from the sun): 507,089,500 miles (816,081,400 km). By comparison: 5.366 times that of Earth (Source: NASA .) Jupiter's moons Jupiter has at least 63 moons , which are often named after the Roman god's many lovers. The four largest moons of Jupiter, now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, were discovered by Galileo Galilei himself, and are appropriately known today as the Galilean satellites. Ganymede is the largest moon in our solar system, larger even than Mercury and Pluto. It is also the only moon known to have its own magnetic field. The moon has at least one thick ocean between layers of ice, although it may contain several layers of both materials. Io is the most volcanically active body in our solar system. The sulfur its volcanoes spew out gives Io a blotted yellow-orange appearance that is often compared to a pepperoni pizza. As Io orbits Jupiter, the planet's immense gravity causes 'tides' in Io's solid surface that rise 300 feet (100 meters) high, generating enough heat for volcanic activity. The frozen crust of Europa is made up mostly of water ice, and it may hide a liquid ocean holding twice as much water as Earth does. Icy oceans may also exist beneath the crusts of Callisto and Ganymede. Some of this liquid spouts from the surface in newly spotted sporadic plumes at the southern pole. Its potential to host life caused NASA to request funding for a mission to explore Europa . Callisto has the lowest reflectivity, or albedo, of the four Galilean moons. This suggests that its surface may be composed of dark, colorless rock. Jupiter's rings Jupiter's three rings came as a surprise when NASA's Voyager 1 spacecraft discovered them around the planet's equator in 1979. Each are much fainter than Saturn's rings. The main ring is flattened. It is about 20 miles (30 km) thick and more than 4,000 miles (6,400 km) wide. The inner cloud-like ring, called the halo, is roughly 12,000 miles (20,000 km) thick. The halo extends halfway from the main ring down to the planet's cloud tops and expands by interaction with Jupiter's magnetic field. Both the main ring and halo are composed of small, dark particles. The third ring, known as the gossamer ring because of its transparency, is actually three rings of microscopic debris from three of Jupiter's moons, Amalthea, Thebe and Adrastea. It is probably made up of dust particles less than 10 microns in diameter, about the same size of the particles found in cigarette smoke, and extends to an outer edge of about 80,000 miles (129,000 km) from the center of the planet and inward to about 18,600 miles (30,000 km). Ripples in the rings of both Jupiter and Saturn may be signs of impacts from comets and asteroids. Research & exploration Seven missions have flown by Jupiter — Pioneer 10 , Pioneer 11 , Voyager 1 , Voyager 2 , Ulysses, Cassini and New Horizons — while another, NASA's Galileo, actually orbited the planet. Pioneer 10 revealed how dangerous Jupiter's radiation belt is, while Pioneer 11 provided data on the Great Red Spot and close-up pictures of its polar region. Voyager 1 and 2 helped astronomers create the first detailed maps of the Galilean satellites, discovered Jupiter's rings, revealed sulfur volcanoes on Io, and saw lightning in Jupiter's clouds. Ulysses discovered the solar wind has a much greater impact on Jupiter's magnetosphere than before suggested. New Horizons took close-up pictures of Jupiter and its largest moons. In 1995, Galileo sent a probe plunging towards Jupiter, making the first direct measurements of its atmosphere and measuring the amount of water and other chemicals there. When Galileo ran low on fuel, the craft was intentionally crashed into Jupiter's atmosphere to avoid any risk of it slamming into and contaminating Europa, which might have an ocean below its surface capable of supporting life. Another spacecraft, named Juno , is heading toward Jupiter and will reach the planet in 2016. It will study Jupiter from a polar orbit to figure out how it and the rest of the solar system formed, which could shed light on how alien planetary systems might have developed. Jupiter's gravitational impact on the solar system As the most massive body in the solar system after the sun, the pull of Jupiter's gravity has helped shape the fate of our system. It may have violently hurled Neptune and Uranus outward , according to calculations published in the journal Nature. Jupiter, along with Saturn, may have slung a barrage of debris toward the inner planets early in the system's history, according to an article in Science magazine. It may even nowadays help keep asteroids from bombarding Earth, and recent events certainly have shown that it can absorb potentially deadly impacts . Currently, Jupiter's gravitational field influences numerous asteroids that have clustered into the regions preceding and following Jupiter in its orbit around the sun. These are known as the Trojan asteroids, after three large asteroids there, Agamemnon, Achilles and Hector, names drawn from the Iliad, Homer's epic about the Trojan War. Possibility of life on Jupiter If one were to dive into Jupiter's atmosphere , one would discover it to grow warmer with depth, reaching room temperature, or 70 degrees F (21 degrees C), at an altitude where the atmospheric pressure is about 10 times as great as it is on Earth. Scientists have conjectured that if Jupiter has any form of life, it might dwell at this level, and would have to be airborne. However, researchers have found no evidence for life on Jupiter. Additional reporting by Nola Taylor Redd, Space.com Contributor Explore the solar system	Ganymede
In Greek mythology, which god of fire, metal working and stonemasonry served as the smith to the gods?	The Galilean Moons of Jupiter The Galilean Moons of Jupiter Summary: Jupiter has more than 60 known moons, but understanding the geology of its four largest will hopefully lead to some groundbreaking discoveries. Sections: The Galilean Moons Each of the Jovian planets has a number of moons, although Jupiter has the most with more than 60 catalogued to date. Jupiter's 4 largest moons exhibit some of the most interesting geology in the solar system. They were discovered by Galileo Galilei and are known as the Galilean moons. Jupiter's largest moon, Ganymede, is larger than Mercury while the other three are larger than Pluto. Outward from Jupiter: Io: Volcanoes and All Jupiter's Moon Io The Voyager spacecraft took the first close-up images of Io more than 300 years after the moon's discovery. The images showed a surface with no signs of craters from past impacts. What we saw instead was a surface almost entirely covered with large volcanoes. Cameras on Voyager actually captured volcanic eruptions in progress. The frequency of these sulfuric eruptions has filled in almost all of the impact craters and left Io with one of the youngest looking surfaces in the solar system. Io Close-Up (click to enlarge) Close-up photos of eruptions in progress show powerfully hot lava glowing orange and red. Photos taken on the night side of Io show not only the hot volcanic vents, but also a thin sulfur dioxide atmosphere produced by constant outgassing. Io's unusual red and orange colors come primarily from sulfur, which condenses on the surface after being outgassed by the volcanoes. Although there is no direct evidence of tectonic activity on Io, scientists feel confident it exists since the processes that fuel volcanism also fuel tectonics. The volcanic eruptions are so frequent and cover the surface so thoroughly that any clear evidence of tectonic activity is likely to be buried. Europa: What Lies Beneath? Europa Europa's surface and crust are made almost entirely of water ice, and its bizarre, fractured appearance is proof enough that tidal heating has acted there. The icy surface is nearly devoid of impact craters and may be only a few million years old. Europa's Interior Observations made by the Galileo spacecraft show that Europa has a metallic core and a rocky mantle. Surrounding the rocky interior appears to be an icy layer 100 kilometers thick, the top few kilometers of which seem to be frozen solid. The stretching and squeezing of tidal friction should provide enough heat to melt some of this into liquid water beneath a thin ice shell. If it does, then Europa may have an ocean with more than twice as much liquid water as all of Earth's oceans combined. Analyzing Europa's Cracked Surface Close-up photos of the surface of Europa support the idea of a liquid ocean beneath the surface. These photos, taken by the Galileo spacecraft, show what appears to be icebergs stuck in a layer of ice. Other evidence comes from double-ridged cracks on the surface. Tidal flexing that allows water to well up and build ridges may create these cracks. Ganymede: Largest Moon in the Solar System Two Regions of Ganymede's Surface (click to enlarge) The surface of Ganymede shares many similarities with Europa. Ganymede's surface is also made of water ice, but unlike Europa's surface, it shows signs of varying age. The darker regions are heavily cratered, suggesting they are billions of years old. The lighter regions show no signs of craters and it is thought that eruptions of water covered the surface before freezing over. These areas are geologically younger than the darker regions. If liquid water occasionally makes its way to the surface to fill in craters, could that suggest a liquid ocean similar to the one that might exist on Europa? Callisto: The Outermost Galilean Moon Callisto Callisto is the stereotypical outer solar system satellite. It is one of the largest and most heavily cratered satellites in the solar system. The surface is very icy and dates back four billion years. Beneath the icy crust is possibly a salty ocean supported by a deeper rocky interior. Callisto's Surface Callisto doesn't have any large mountains, show evidence of volcanic or tectonic activity or have any appreciable level of internal heat. Nonetheless, observations of Callisto's magnetic field may cause scientists to add the large moon to the list of possible worlds with subsurface salty oceans.	i don't know
Which British snooker commentator died on 1st. May 2011 at the age of 90?	British snooker commentator Ted Lowe dies aged 90 - Wikinews, the free news source British snooker commentator Ted Lowe dies aged 90 From Wikinews, the free news source you can write! Sunday, May 1, 2011 Listen to this article Audio file created from text revision dated 2011-05-01 and may not reflect subsequent edits to this report. Writing an article Lowe started his broadcasting career in the 1940s British snooker commentator Ted Lowe has died at the age of 90. Lowe, who received the nickname "Whispering Ted" due to his broadcasting style commentated on many of snooker's biggest events including the 1985 World Championship final between Steve Davis and Dennis Taylor . His death has come on the same day as the first session of the 2011 World final . His wife, Jean commented on his death. She said "His health had been deteriorating for the last 10 weeks. He went into a hospice a week ago and I never left his side. But I could see he was slowly going. He still loves snooker and was watching it on TV." Tributes have been paid to Lowe by several snooker players and commentators. John Virgo said "He set a standard for us all. He was wonderful, he had an impish sense of humour and while cricket had its John Arlott and Wimbledon had its Dan Maskell, we had Ted Lowe. He was one of the BBC greats. It's a sad day for snooker and he'll be sadly missed." Jimmy White also posted a message on social networking site Twitter saying "Still in shock and so saddened. Absolutely gutted. He was a great friend of my dad's and an absolute gentleman. I loved him dearly." As well as commentating on snooker tournaments Lowe hosted the BBC television programme Pot Black . Lowe is also remembered by viewers for his quote after colour televisions started to appear. During a game he said "He's going for the pink, and for those of you with black-and-white sets, the yellow is behind the blue." Sources	Ted Lowe
Racing for Red Bull, who is the only Australian competing in the 2011 Formula One season?	Today in History - Unix Calendar Today in History Singer Kate Smith born in Washington, DC 1916 Actor Glenn Ford born in Quebec City, Québec 1918 Radio and television personality, Jack Paar born in Canton, Ohio 1930 Blues harmonica legend "Little Walter" born Marion Walter Jacobs in Marksville, Louisiana 1931 Empire State Building dedicated in New York 1939 Grammy Award winning singer and songwriter, Judy Collins born in Seattle, Washington 1945 Pop hit singer Rita Coolidge born in Lafayette, Tennessee 1946 Model, activist, Bond girl and BAFTA award winning actress, Joanna Lumley born in Srinagar, British India 1954 Singer, songwriter and guitarist, Ray Parker Jr born in Detroit, Michigan 1956 César Award winning film and theater actress, Catherine Frot born in Paris, France 1960 Francis Gary Powers shot down over USSR 1964 First BASIC program run at Dartmouth 1964 Olympic Gold Medalist speed skater, Yvonne van Gennip born in Haarlem, Netherlands 1967 Grammy Award winning country singer, Tim McGraw born in Delhi, Louisiana 1972 Ice skating champion and actress, Julie Benz born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1978 Film and TV actress, Sachie Hara born in Fukuoka, Japan 1978 First unsolicited bulk e-mail (spam) 1984 Actress Farah Fath born in Lexington, Kentucky 2011 US forces kill Osama bin Laden in Pakistan 408 Theodosius II suceeds to the Eastern Roman throne 474 Massacre of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain 686 First Normans land in Ireland 1171 Dermot MacMurrough, last Irish King of Leinster, dies 1187 The death of Jacques de Mailly, Marshal of the Templars, and Roger des Moulins, Master of the Hospitalers. Gerard de Ridefort, Master of the Templars, and two others flee the battle 1218 Rudolf I, Count of Habsburg, King of the Romans born 1229 Frederick II Hohenstaufen leaves the Holy Land from Acre 1308 King Albert of Germany murdered by his disinherited nephew 1316 Coronation of Edward Bruce as King of Ireland 1345 Death of St. Peregrine Laziosi 1402 Jean de Bethencourt sails from La Rochelle for the Canary Islands 1486 Columbus persuades Queen Isabella to finance his expedition 1543 Copernicus circulates "The Little Commentary," showing the heliocentricity of the Solar System 1572 Death of Pope Pius V 1590 King James VI lands at Leith with his bride, the Princess of Denmark 1625 Charles I, King of England, marries Henrietta Marie of France by proxy 1654 "Under penalty of death, no Irish man, woman, or child, was to let himself, herself, itself be found east of the River Shannon" An Order from the Parliament of England 1672 Joseph Addison, English poet, essayist and politician. Together with Richard Steele, he founded the Spectator in March 1711. born 1683 In England a patent was awarded for extracting salt from sea water 1700 John Dryden, English poet and Poet Laureate from 1668-88, died. 1707 Scotland and England were joined together under the name of Great Britain. 1761 Haydn was hired by Prince Esterhazy. Haydn worked for the Esterhazys for most of his long life, and was billed as being the music director of the family after the orchestra was disbanded and Haydn pensioned off. 1769 Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington born 1786 Vienna was talking about what a hothead Mozart was. He threatened to burn "The Marriage of Figaro" unless it was performed ahead of another composer's latest opera. Mozart prevailed. 1808 After only a few days in power, Ferdinand relinquished the Spanish throne in favor of Napoleon of France. 1830 Mary Harris Jones (Mother Jones) born 1840 1st adhesive postage stamps ("Penny Blacks" from England) issued. 1851 Queen Victoria opened the first Great Exhibition (World's Fair) in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London. 1855 Feminist Lucy Stone married Henry Blackwell. A marriage contract written by the couple at their wedding omitted the word "obey" and disavowed the gross inequity married women suffered under American law. 1866 A hailstorm broke 20-thousand panes of glass in Baltimore. 1873 David Livingstone, Scottish missionary and explorer, was found dead at Chitambo, now in Zambia. 1876 The Royal Titles Bill was passed by the British Parliament, entitling Queen Victoria to call herself Empress of India. 1883 Buffalo Bill (William F. Cody) staged his first Wild West Show. 1884 Work began on a 10-story building in Chicago using a unique steel-framed interior, making it the world's first ``skyscraper.'' 1893 The World's Columbian Exposition was officially opened in Chicago by President Cleveland. 1895 Composer Leo Sowerby born 1896 General Mark Clark, American army general. With Eisenhower during the invasion of North Africa, he also commanded the 5th Army at Salerno, Anzio, and Rome. born 1898 Commodore George Dewey gave the command, "You may fire when you are ready, Gridley," as an American naval force destroyed a Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.( During the Spanish-American war.) 1904 Czech composer Antonin Dvorak, noted for his ninth symphony ``From the New World,'' died. 1909 Singer Kate Smith born 1915 The liner Lusitania left New York on the same day the German Embassy took out advertisements warning anyone traveling on ships carrying a British flag that they did so at their own risk. It was sunk six days later. 1916 Television personality Jack Paar born 1919 Sportscaster Harry Caray (Carabini) born 1919 Actor Dan O'Herlihy born 1920 The longest baseball game (by innings) was played as the Boston Braves and the Brooklyn Dodgers played 26 innings with the same pitchers, Leon Cadore of Brooklyn and Boston's Joe Oeschger. The game was a 1-1 tie. 1922 Charlie Robertson of Chicago pitched a perfect no-hit, no-run game as the Chicago White Sox shut out the Detroit Tigers 3-0. This would be the last perfect game in an American League regular season for 46 years. 1923 Author Joseph Heller. His satirical novel ``Catch 22'' was published in 1955. born 1925 Cyprus officially became a British colony. It had been leased to Britain by Turkey in 1878 and was annexed to the British Empire in 1914. 1925 Mercury astronaut Scott Carpenter born 1929 Country singer Sonny James born 1931 Singer Kate Smith began her long-running radio program on CBS. The 22-year-old Smith started out with no sponsors and a paycheck of $10 a week for the program. Within 30 days, her salary increased to $1,500 a week. 1931 New York's 102-story Empire State Building was dedicated. It remained the world's tallest building for 40 years. 1937 Spanish painter Pablo Picasso produced the first sketch of his masterpiece ``Guernica,'' five days after the Basque town had been bombed by the Germans. 1939 The People's Democratic Republic of Korea (North Korea) was proclaimed. 1949 Actor-director Douglas Bar. ("Designing Women") born 1954 Singer-songwriter Ray Parker Junior born 1960 Former jockey Steve Cauthen born 1960 The Soviet Union shot down an American U2 spy plane flown by Francis Gary Powers, who was captured. 1961 Cuban leader Fidel Castro declared the country a socialist nation and abolished elections. 1961 Tanganyika achieved internal self-government with Julius Nyerere as prime minister. 1963 James W. Whittaker of Redmond, Washington, became the first American to conquer Mount Everest as he and a Sherpa guide reached the summit. 1963 Sir Winston Churchill announced his retirement from the House of Commons. 1965 Country singer Wayne Hancock born 1966 Actor Charlie Schlatter ("Diagnosis Murder") born 1966 Rock musician Johnny Colt (The Black Crowes) born 1967 Elvis Presley married Priscilla Beaulieu in Las Vegas. (They divorced in 1973.) 1967 Anastasio Somoza Debayle became president of Nicaragua. 1967 Country singer Tim McGraw born 1968 Rock musician D'Arcy (Smashing Pumpkins) born 1969 Leonard Tose, a trucking executive from Philadelphia, PA, bought the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League for $16,155,000. It was the largest price paid to date for a pro football franchise. 1971 Amtrak -- which combined and streamlined the operations of 18 intercity passenger railroads -- went into service. 1975 Hank Aaron, then playing for the Milwaukee Brewers, drove in two runs, breaking Babe Ruth's lifetime RBI record of 2,209. He achieved a final record of 2,297. 1976 Actor Darius McCrary ("Family Matters;" "Don King America") born 1978 Ernest Morial was inaugurated as the first black mayor of New Orleans. 1978 Naomi Uemura, a Japanese explorer, became the first man to reach the North Pole alone. 1981 Sen. Harrison A. Williams Jr., D-NJ, was convicted in New York of charges related to the FBI's "ABSCAM" probe. 1982 In Poland, 50,000 supporters of ``Solidarity'' demonstrated in Warsaw against military rule. 1983 President Reagan paid his first visit to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, placing a bouquet of yellow and pink flowers in front of the monument's dark granite walls. 1985 Arriving in West Germany, President Reagan began a four-nation European visit by clamping a trade embargo on Nicaragua. 1986 The Soviet Union announced that the situation at the damaged Chernobyl nuclear plant was under control. However, Soviet Embassy official Vitaly Churkin said the problem was "not over yet." 1986 Race car driver Bill Elliott set a stock car speed record with his Ford Thunderbird in Talladega, Alabama. Elliott recorded a speed of 212.229 miles per hour . 1987 During a visit to West Germany, Pope John Paul II beatified Edith Stein, a Jewish-born Carmelite nun who was gassed in the Nazi death camp at Auschwitz. 1988 "Newsweek" magazine reported that, according to a memoir by former White House chief of staff Donald Regan, astrology had influenced the planning of President Reagan's schedule. 1989 The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an employer has the legal burden of proving that its refusal to hire or promote someone is based on legitimate and not discriminatory reasons. 1990 Soviet President Mikhail S. Gorbachev and other Kremlin leaders were jeered by thousands of people during the annual May Day parade in Red Square. 1990 Chinese troops began withdrawing from the Tibetan capital of Lhasa as martial law was lifted. 1991 Rickey Henderson of the Oakland A's set a major-league record by stealing his 939th base during a game against the New York Yankees. 1991 The government of Angola and U.S.-backed guerrillas initialed agreements ending their civil war. 1991 Nolan Ryan of the Texas Rangers threw his seventh no-hitter at age 44, shutting out the Toronto Blue Jays 3-0. 1992 Turkmenistan announced it would switch to a Latin-based Turkish alphabet from the Cyrillic script. 1992 On the third day of the Los Angeles riots, beaten motorist Rodney King appeared in public to appeal for calm, asking, "Can we all get along?" President Bush delivered a nationally broadcast address in which he vowed to "use whatever force is necessary" to restore order. 1993 President Ali Abdullah Saleh's ruling party won the most seats in united Yemen's first general elections. 1993 President Clinton held a strategy session with top military and foreign policy advisers on Bosnia. 1993 Violence erupted during a May Day protest in Moscow. 1993 The president of Sri Lanka (Ranasinghe Premadasa) was assassinated by a suicide bomber. 1993 "Sea Hero" won the Kentucky Derby. 1993 France's former Socialist prime minister Pierre Beregovoy died after shooting himself. 1994 Israeli and PLO delegates opened a final round of talks in Cairo, Egypt, on Palestinian autonomy prior to the signing of an agreement on self-rule. 1994 Ayrton Senna, three times world F-1 auto racing champion, died after a high-speed crash in the San Marino Grand Prix. 1995 Charges that Qubilah Shabazz, the daughter of Malcolm X, had plotted to murder Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan were dropped as jury selection for the trial was about to begin in Minneapolis. 1995 President Clinton defended his choice for Surgeon General, Henry Foster, as a "pro-life, pro-choice doctor."" 1995 Croatia recaptured the rebel Serb enclave of Western Slavonia it lost in 1991. 1996 PLO leader Yasser Arafat received a statesman's welcome at the White House, where he met with President Clinton for 45 minutes, then lashed out at Israel for keeping its borders closed to Palestinian workers. 1996 Canadian Deputy Prime Minister Sheila Copps announced she was resigning over the government's failure to abolish a controversial sales tax. 1997 Britons went to the polls in a national election that gave the Labor Party a resounding victory over the ruling Conservatives. 1997 John and Patsy Ramsey, the parents of slain child beauty queen JonBenet Ramsey, publicly declared their innocence in the case, and asked for the public's help in finding the killer of their six-year-old daughter. 1998 Eldridge Cleaver, the fiery Black Panther leader who later renounced his past and became a Republican, died in Pomona, California, at age 62. 1998 Former Rwandan Prime Minister Jean Kambanda pleaded guilty to charges stemming from the 1994 genocide of more than half a million Tutsis. 1999 Despite protests, the National Rifle Association held its annual meeting in Denver 11 days after the Columbine High School shootings. 1999 The "Liberty Bell 7," the Mercury space capsule flown by Gus Grissom, was found in the Atlantic 300 miles southeast of Cape Canaveral, 38 years after it sank. 1999 An amphibious boat sank at Hot Springs, Ark., killing 13. Charismatic, a 30-1 shot, charged to victory in the 125th Kentucky Derby. 2000 Joerg Haider, leader of Austria's far-right Freedom Party, stepped down after 14 years as party leader. 2000 Actor Steve Reeves died in Escondido, California, at age 74. 2000 About three and a-half million Time Warner cable subscribers temporarily lost access to seven Disney-owned ABC stations in a quarrel over transmission rights. 2005 China introduces new jury trial system 2005 Firefox browser reaches fifty million downloads 2005 Cyprus, Latvia and Malta are a step closer to adopting euro 2005 Soap opera writer, creator William J. Bell dies at 78 2005 Pro-Palestinian graffiti sprayed on the wall of Israeli embassy in Denmark 2005 President Bush faces some tough questioning 2005 BBC News website expands RSS license terms to allow commercial use 2005 FOX News previews Grafton Street restaurant and "voice collector" in Harvard Square, Cambridge, Massachusetts 2005 Tabletop fusion may lead to neutron source 2005 Swiss finish drilling world's longest overland tunnel 2005 May Day protests occur throughout Switzerland 2005 Two university students shot, killed in Cameroon strikes 2006 Some Australian government welfare recipients will be forced to pay their bills 2006 Bolivian troops told to seize natural gas fields 2006 May Day march takes place in London 2006 Militants kill 22 villagers in Kashmir 2006 First pictures from the Israeli photo/spy satellite Eros B 2007 Five found guilty of UK bomb plot 2007 Western New York recovering after major internet outage 2007 Internet Radio Equality Act proposed 2007 US State Department accuses Iran of being top state sponsor of terrorism 2007 Reports: Leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq killed 2007 Turkey's Constitutional Court invalidates first round in presidential elections 2007 Worldwide student competition brings WTO debate battle to Geneva 2008 An Australian child's vocabulary: it's "I" before "we", both before "you" 2008 Research shows that bats cry to detect prey 2008 Sea lions take over dock at Moss Landing, California 2008 Wail of sirens marks Holocaust Remembrance Day in Israel 2008 Cuba announces shift of farm management to local level 2008 Demolition to resume at New York skyscraper damaged by 9/11 after deadly fire 2008 2007/08 UEFA Cup: Zenit St. Petersburg vs. Bayern Munich 2008 Native Hawaiians blockade historic palace to restore "Hawaiian nation" 2008 Footage of 7/7 bombers shown to court 2009 Chrysler files for bankruptcy, Fiat Group SpA to run company 2009 Runaway EMU train collides with freight train in India 2009 U.S. Supreme Court Justice David Souter to retire 2010 Bomb blasts in Somalia kill at least 30 2010 Nine of Alfred Hitchcock's films are restored; 30 years since his death 2010 Redistricting reform efforts in Illinois fail for this year 2010 Stones thrown by protesters in Kashmir kill civilian 2011 NASCAR driver Kyle Busch wins spring race in Richmond, Virginia 2011 Sheffield United relegated from English Football League Championship 2011 British snooker commentator Ted Lowe dies aged 90 2012	i don't know
Which archaeological site at the mouth of the River Tiber served as the major port of the Roman Republic?	Ancient Ostia \| Portus \| Port of Ancient Rome \| Ancient Rome Ports - Rome Travels \| Home \| Rome Guide \| Rome Tours \| Rome Travel \| Religious Holidays \| Italy Pilgrimages \| Italy Shore Excursions Ancient Ostia \| Portus \| Port of Ancient Rome \| Ancient Rome Ports - Rome Travels \| Home \| Rome Guide \| Rome Tours \| Rome Travel \| Religious Holidays \| Italy Pilgrimages \| Italy Shore Excursions Ancient Ostia \| Portus \| Port of Ancient Rome \| Ancient Rome Ports Rome Tours The Suburb of Rome: Recommended Itineraries Ancient Ostia & Portus Ostia was the port of Ancient Rome. Being the main sea-port of the Roman Empire, Ancient Ostia followed step-by-step the History of Rome, its birth, rising and decandence. It's the only archaeological site nearby Rome where people may really appreciate how about the real old Roman lifestyle was coupled nowadays with their beautiful ruins. Despite its enormous extension (70 hectares - 173 acres), Ancient Ostia is very much preserved, much better than Rome, due to different floodings of the Tiber River. "Ostia", in Latin, means "mouth" in English. October 1st, 2008 16 Pages - File 189 Kb. Download HERE Ostia and Portus were more than ancient Rome ports, safe harbours and quays, other than complete towns. Many goods & items - food, wine, olive oil, wheat - were stored in the warehouses in the harbour cities and transported to Rome along the Tiber in tow-boats, pulled by oxen, or by using the two of the famous Roman roads: Via Ostiense on the left and Via Portuense on the right side of the Tiber River - still used every day -. With Caesar Augustus, several guilds became increasingly important. These were associations of craftsmen and merchants, other than fire fighters (Vigiles). We will walk by Frescoes, amazing Mosaics, public and private Baths (SPA), Ancient Temples, Warehouses, old Shops, Condominiums ( Insulae ), Houses (Domus) and, of course, the Capitol. In our opinion, Ostia Antica is second only to the Scavi of Pompeii & Herculaneum. Please see the 3D reconstruction at this link: http://www.ostia-antica.org . Portus became the port city of old Rome and it was more important than Ostia once two Roman Emperors, Claudius (41-54 A.D.) and Trajan (98-117 A.D. ) built their harbour bassins on the right side of the Tiber River (Ostia is on the left one). Most of the old City of Portus has been levelled in place of the Rome Fiumicino Airport: however, it can be visited only the first Saturday and the last Sunday of each month. Instead, the great archaelogical remains can be visited in its necropolis, which is always open. Its magnificent status of preservation will amaze you whenever we will walk through its frescos, mosaics, stuccos. It is part of the undiscovered outskirts of Rome and nobody goes there. So far, it will be more than beautiful to have a quick tour after the visit Ancient Ostia, as it is located only 4 km (2,5 miles) away. For info and bookings. [email protected] Guided Tour: The Costs Half day guided Tour (4 hours) with English speaking guide and private transportation: 1-2 pax: 550,00 EUR 8-17 pax: 75,00 EUR p.p. 18-40 pax: 50,00 EUR p.p. Notes: 1. Entrance fees not included 2. 21 % vat tax on the deposit to be added Useful Web Article on Ostia Antica: Restoration of the Gardens Houses OSTIA: Useful Web Article: RESTORATION – OSTIA ANTICA: Doors open to the “garden houses” at Ostia Antica After a major and lengthy restoration, the House of Lucceia Primitiva and the decorative elements of the “Garden Houses” at Ostia have been reopened to the public as part of European Heritage Days. These sorts of houses, or insulae – four in all - , are extremely important evidence of building in the Hadrian age.... read more	Ostia Antica
Racing for Team Lotus, who is the only Finn competing in the 2011 Formula One season?	Ostia \| Italy \| Britannica.com Ostia Lazio Ostia, modern Ostia Antica, seaport of ancient Rome, originally on the Mediterranean coast at the mouth of the Tiber River but now, because of the natural growth of the river delta, about 4 miles (6 km) upstream, southwest of the modern city of Rome , Italy . The modern seaside resort, Lido di Ostia, is about 3 miles (5 km) southwest of the ancient city. Roman ruins at Ostia, Italy. © Mar_Bo/Fotolia Ostia was a port of republican Rome and a commercial centre under the empire (after 27 bce). The Romans considered Ostia their first colony and attributed its founding (for the purpose of salt production) to their fourth king, Ancus Marcius (7th century bce). Archaeologists have found on the site a fort of the mid-4th century bce, but nothing older. The purpose of the fort was to protect the coastline. It was the first of the long series of Rome’s maritime colonies. When Rome developed a navy, Ostia became a naval station, and during the Punic Wars (264–201 bce) it served as the main fleet base on the west coast of Italy. It was the major port—especially significant in grain trade—for republican Rome until its harbour, partly obstructed by a sandbar, became inadequate for large vessels. During the empire Ostia was a commercial and storage centre for Rome’s grain supplies and a service station for vessels going to Portus , the large artificial harbour built by Claudius . In 62 ce a violent storm swamped and sank some 200 ships in the harbour. Rome’s problem with sea commerce was eventually solved when Trajan added a large hexagonal basin to the harbour. Roman ruins at Ostia, Italy. © Barbara Schreiber Roman ruins at Ostia, Italy. © Shawn McCullars New baths, temples, and warehouses were built to support the thriving community . At the height of Ostia’s prosperity in the early 2nd century ce, its population was approximately 50,000. The growing population was accommodated by means of tall brick apartment buildings of three, four, and five stories. The floors in these buildings were paved with mosaic , and the walls elaborately painted; the larger flats had up to 12 rooms. The growth in wealth raised the standard of public generosity of leading citizens. Public funds were restricted, but magistrates were expected to show their appreciation of honours in a practical way; it was they who provided most of the sculpture that adorned the public buildings and public places and who built most of the temples. Ostia also was sufficiently vital to Rome to receive the attention of emperors. Its three largest sets of public baths were the result of imperial generosity. Learn about the water supply and sanitary facilities of ancient Ostia, Italy. © Open University (A Britannica Publishing Partner) Ancient Roman theatre at Ostia, Italy. A. Dagli Orti/DeA Picture Library Similar Topics Portus Little new building occurred after the end of the 2nd century. Ostia suffered from the decline of the Roman economy beginning in the 3rd century. As trade decreased, the town became more popular as a residential area for the wealthy. Augustine, returning to Africa with his mother, Monica, stayed in Ostia, not Portus. Barbarian raids of the 5th and following centuries caused population loss and economic decline. Ostia was abandoned after the erection of Gregoriopolis site of (Ostia Antica) by Pope Gregory IV (827–844). The Roman ruins were quarried for building materials in the Middle Ages and for sculptors’ marble in the Renaissance. Archaeological excavation was begun in the 19th century under papal authority and was sharply accelerated between 1939 and 1942 under Benito Mussolini , until about two-thirds of the Roman town was uncovered. Roman ruins at Ostia, Italy. © Barbara Schreiber	i don't know
Which type of richly hued wood is by far the most common wood used for Marimba and Xylophone keys?	Materials Used \| RainWood Materials Used Materials Used ACRYLIC Acrylic pen blanks are harder than wood, but can be turned to a smooth and shiny finish. Acrylic is ideal for those who prefer vibrant colours that can make a statement. AFRICAN EBONY (Diospyrus crassiflora) African Ebony is an exotic wood that grows in the tropical regions of equatorial West Africa and Madagascar. It is most commonly found in Cameroon, Nigeria, and Gabon. African Ebony is also known as African Rosewood. This wood is extremely dense and hard. It has a very smooth texture and can be black-brown to jet-black in colour. African Ebony polishes to a glossy luster, but is hard on tool edges. AMBOYNA BURL (Pterocarpus indicus) Amboyna burl is one of the most distinctive and sought after burl woods in the world. With heartwood ranging in color from golden yellow to deep red, and with beautifully contrasting, straw-colored sapwood — not to mention an inherent, often spectacular, wavy grain pattern — Amboyna Burl can add flair to almost any wood project. ANCIENT KAURI Ancient Kauri timber is aged from 30,000 to more than 50,000 years old. This prehistoric Kauri timber is from forests buried during the last Ice Age, which are located on the Northern Island of New Zealand is the South Pacific Ocean. Kauri is light yellow and an extremely light wood. Each piece comes with a certificate of authenticity. ANCIENT BOG OAK This Ancient Bog Oak is from Ukraine. This ancient oak is 5400 years old (3400 BC). This is a unique material for its beauty and quality. The wood of this oak has been lying for thousands of years at the bottom of rivers or in the layers of the ground at the depth of three to seven metres, devoid of oxygen. Tannin, which remains in the wood, reacts with the salts of iron. As a result, the oak acquires unique physical properties: colour, firmness and longevity. BAMBOO (Bambuseae) Bamboo is technically not a wood, but a large species in the grass family. Bamboo is incredibly fast growing, some species can grow up to 100 feet in height within 60 days. Since Bamboo grows at such a fast rate it is a very economically friendly substitute for wood. Bamboo is found primarily in Southeast Asia but is also native to all continents in the world other than Europe and Antarctica. Bethlehem Olive wood Each piece of Bethlehem Olive Wood comes with a certificate of authenticity stating it comes from a tree in Bethlehem that was removed during a routine pruning. Each piece of Olive has unique patterns. BIRDSEYE MAPLE (Acer saccharum) Birdseye maple is a rare kind of wood that has a distinctive pattern that looks like tiny swirling eyes disrupting the smooth lines of grain. Birdseye maple isn’t a species of maple, but rather a phenomenon that occurs in the maple wood. Birdseye maple is more valuable with an increase of the frequency of swirls. Birdseye Maple has a medium density and a light amber colour. BLUENOSE II RESTORATION WOOD Bluenose II Restoration wood is a piece of Canadian history, but is in limited supply. These unique pen blanks are made of repurposed cut-offs from wood being used to restore the famous Bluenose II to its original glory. This is one of the most unique materials to have a pen made of and is certified authentic by the Lunenburg Shipyard Alliance. BOCOTE (Cordia gerascanthus) This richly grained tropical hardwood is very scarce and is classified as rare or endangered throughout its natural habitat. Bocote is native to Central American countries and is frequently found in Colombia, Cuba, Honduras, Mexico and Nicaragua. Bocote is also known as Canalete, Cupane, Laurel, and Mexican Rosewood. Its grain varies from straight to wavy and its texture is fine to medium with an oily appearance. The Bocote tree varies in height to a maximum of 100 feet. The wood is noted to be a very heavy hard wood; it resists marring and denting and is very resistant to decay. CHECHEN (Metopium brownei) Chechen is distinctive because of its golden luster. It is native to Central America growing mostly in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Jamaica, Belize and from the Yucatan to Vera Cruz in Mexico. It is also known as Black poisonwood, Poisontree and Chechem. The colour of chechen heartwood is somewhat similar to American Black Walnut with a dark reddish brown colouration with dark brown stripes and lighter streaks. The tree size ranges from the size of a shrub to a height of 50 ft. with a trunk diameter of about 21 inches. Avoid the sap from the thin reddish bark from the Chechen tree because it is reported to be very caustic. COCOBOLO (Dalbergia retusa) This beautiful dark grained hardwood comes from Central America. Typically found in Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama. Cocobolo is also known as Caviuna, Nambar, Pau preto and Funera. The oil in the wood gives it a fine natural polish. It is a favorite species for the manufacture of cutlery handles because of its attractive colour, texture, durability and waterproof characteristics. The Cocobolo tree is a medium sized tree that grows to a height of 45 to 60 ft. CURLY MAPLE (Acer saccharum) Curly maple is a feature of maple in which the growth of the wood fibers is distorted. Curly maple is also known as flamed maple, curly maple, ripple maple, fiddleback or tiger stripe. Maple trees are most commonly found in the North Temperate zone. Curly maple is commonly used in creating instruments, including The Gibson Les Paul “Standard”. Curly Maple is a very hard wood and dulls lathe equipment easily. FEATHER BLANKS A pen made with real feathers under a layer of solid clear acrylic is a way to make a statement in writing utensils. The feathers used may be kept their natural colour to give a rustic yet elegant appearance, or they may be made with vibrantly coloured feathers for an eye catching pen. A feather pen is ideal for anyone that is a fan of birds, nature, hunting, or fly fishing. HONDURAN ROSEWOOD (Dalbergia stevensonii) Honduran Rosewood is known only from Belize, Guatemala and southern Mexico. Its valuable rosewood timber is highly sought after for quality products including musical instruments, turnery and carving. Honduran rosewood is reportedly the best wood for marimba and xylophone keys and it has been suggested as an acceptable substitute in guitars for Brazilian rosewood. MAPLE BURL All maple burl used is stabilized by impregnating the wood with resin which can be coloured. Similar to a dense exotic hardwood to drill and turn, these resin-impregnated blanks combine the beauty and bold figuring of maple burl with the stability and consistent texture of plastic. Maple burl pen blanks are available in natural, teal dyed, black dyed, green dyed, and red dyed. MESQUITE (Prosopis pubescens) Mesquite is a species of legumes that is found in South Western United States and Mexico. There are three main species of mesquite, and the type that is most common for wood working is Screwbean Mesquite, which is also known as Tornillo. Mesquite pods can be eaten and is a traditional Native American food. Screwbean Mesquite grows to 23 feet tall with a light brown bark. It is an attractive wood and is used in wood working. OLIVEWOOD (Olea europaea) Olive wood is indigenous to the Mediterranean region, including the Middle East, southern Europe, and NorthAfrica. Olive trees are in the same family of trees as Lilacs and Jasmine. Olive trees are primarily grown for their fruit, which is used to create olive oil and other products. Olive trees are small shrub like trees with twisted trunks and gnarled branches. Olive wood has a fragrant olive scent when being turned. PADAUK (Pterocarpus soyauxil) This elegant orange brown hardwood tree is found primarily in central and tropical West Africa in areas extending from south-western Nigeria to Zaire. It often grows in small groups and is common in dense equatorial rain forests. It is also known as Mbe, Mbil, Mututi, Ngula, and Bosulu. The Padauk tree is quite large and grows to height of 100 to 130 feet, clear of branches to 70 ft., and has trunk diameters from 24 to 60 inches. Padauk possesses excellent weathering properties and will last for more than 25 years in contact with the ground without any preservative treatments. PURPLEHEART (Peltogyne paniculata) This wood is best known for its unusual purple colour. Purpleheart is found most common in the Amazon basin, and frequently grows in Colombia, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela. It is also known as Nazareno, Morado, Tananeo and Guarabu. This wood has exceptional bending strength (far stronger than Maple, Oak or Teak) with a high tolerance to shock loading. It is highly desired by hobbyists and craftsmen who use this hard heavy wood in small projects. The trees are tall and grow up to 150 ft. with trunk diameters up to 48 inches. TULIPWOOD (Dalbergia frutescens) This unusual and attractive wood is found in Central and Latin America primarily in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, and Venezuela. The wood is also known as Brazilian tulipwood, Pau rosa, Pinkwood, Pau de fuso, and Jacaranda rosa. Tulipwood is hard and dense with elegant pink-yellow heartwood and a pronounced stripe of pink to deep red. The wood is so hard that it dulls the cutting edges of cutting tools. Because of the striking grain and luster, the wood is a favorite with craftsmen who use it for decorative pieces. Walnut (Juglans nigra) The sapwood of walnut is creamy white, while the heartwood is light brown to dark chocolate brown, occasionally with a purplish cast and darker streaks. The wood develops a rich patina that grows more lustrous with age. Walnut is usually supplied steamed, to darken sapwood. The wood is generally straight-grained, but sometimes with wavy or curly grain that produces an attractive and decorative figure. This species produces a greater variety of figure types than any other. WHITE ASH (Fraxinus americana) Ash is the third commonest tree species in Britain and is sometimes the dominant tree in a wood. It is found across Europe from the Arctic Circle to Turkey. This species is currently affected by a disease called ash dieback (Chalara fraxinea). WHITETAIL DEER ANTLER White tail dear antler is a great material, but when turned on the lathe it creates a lot of bad smelling dust. Antler is a great material because it is shed by male deer every winter. Deer antler pens are a great choice for the nature lover or a hunter. YELLOWHEART (Euxylophora paraensis) Yellowheart is well known for its rich yellow colour that darkens with age. Yellowheart trees are found almost exclusively in the State of Para, Brazil. It is also known as Pau Amerello, Satin Wood, Boxwood, or Canary Wood. Yellowheart has a straight grain and is highly desired by hobbyists and craftsmen who use this hard heavy wood in small projects. The trees are tall and grow up to 130 ft. with trunk diameters up to 60 inches. ZEBRAWOOD (Microberlinia brazzavillensis) Zebrawood is a distinctive hardwood that is native to Africa and is found primarily in Cameroon, the Congo, and Gabon. It is sometimes found in pure stands along river banks, but growing sites are reported to be quite inaccessible. Zebrawood is also known as Allen ele, Zebrano, and Zingana. Although abundant, It is an expensive wood because of its difficulty to harvest and preparation necessary to bring it to market. The heartwood is a light golden-yellow with narrow-veining streaks of dark brown to black rendering its zebra-stripe appearance. ZIRCOTE (Cordia dodecandra) an exotic wood native to the Central American countries of Belize, Guatemala, and Mexico. It is a hard, dense wood, with a medium texture. The color ranges from reddish brown to dark brown with unusual black streaks. Ziricote is excellent for wood turning and carving, as well as knife handles, furniture, and cabinets. It works very nicely and finishes well to a high luster. Share this:	Rosewood
What is the name of the current President of Israel?	Rosewood - Factbites Rosewood. (movie reviews). Rosewood is based on the terrible, historically-repressed events that took place in the small, thriving fl town of that name, located on the edge of the Florida cypress swamps. As Rosewood ends, the camera looks down in a long shot on a shack, and we hear the screams and blows of Fannie, as she is brutally beaten by her husband, mixed with the lush, poignant music signifying ideological and narrative resolution. Although Rosewood wasn't commercially successful at the box office, the issues it explores will continue to resonate for some time to come, since the film is sure to have a long run in the video store, in the classroom, and within the critical discourse about Black Cinema. www.lib.berkeley.edu /MRC/rosewood.html (2066 words) Rosewood is a beautifully restored Bed & Breakfast close to the centre of Greymouth on the West Coast of the South Island, New Zealand. Rosewood was built around the early 1920's as a Gentleman's residence. Today Rosewood has retained these features combining modern luxuries such as ensuite bathrooms in 3 rooms (one with facilities for the disabled) and a huge guest share bathroom for the remaining 2 rooms, tasteful furnishings with top quality King and Queen sized beds (cotton linen, your choice of pillows, cosy duvets and extra woollen blankets). www.rosewoodnz.co.nz (550 words) Civil Rights Journal: Remembering Rosewood (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) Rosewood made national news in the mid 1990s, mostly because of the Florida State legislature's controversial debate over whether to award reparations to the victims and their children. Rosewood is a story of romance and violence set in the remote hammocks of north central Florida, and its very absence of ascertainable fact seems to license the imagination. The dogs led the mob to Rosewood, where a local flsmith named Sam Carter was strung up on an old, moss-covered oak and threatened with hanging until he confessed to having driven the suspect away in his wagon. www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_m0HSP/is_1_4/ai_66678563 (1560 words) [No title] (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) ROSEWOOD AND THE RACIAL VIOLENCE OF JANUARY 1923 Lynching had become so common in the United States, especially in the South, that in 1921 Representative L. Dyer of Missouri introduced a bill in the House of Representatives to make lynching a federal crime. Rosewood and nearby Sumner constituted a precinct of 307 people in 1910 (158 whites, 128 fls, and 21 mulattoes); by 1920 the population had more than doubled to 638, except now fls were a majority with 344 people, while white residents numbered 294. Rosewood is located nine miles east of Cedar Key in western Levy County which was established March 10, 1845. www.tfn.net /doc/rosewood.txt (17236 words) David Cookson&Co., Inc. - Glossary The first being the introduction of synthetic linalool to replace Rosewood in the cheap fragrance sector in the early 1960s. Steffen Arctander in his important tome (or as one man used to call it "The Essential oils Bible")- "Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Origin" saw the writing on the wall in 1960 stating that: "Bois de Rose today is fighting for survival in strong competition with other essential oils and particularly with synthetic Linalool". So far, so good with Rosewood - its still out there and producers seem to be hanging in there despite the plethora of problems they are facing; working with government officials, paying the licensing fees, looking at plantation options and supplying the market what it demands. www.cooksonco.com /ROSEWOOD.HTM (900 words) Rosewood Victims vs State of Florida The residents of Rosewood did not return due to fear, and it appears that many simply abandoned their property because the area was not secured for their safety. In the Rosewood claim, although the claimants are now elderly, the damage they sustained was as children, and while ascertaining an amount of damage for emotional harm is subjective, the Gamble case provides guidance as to prior legislative enactments in this regard. Accordingly, it appears that those Rosewood claimants who as children were subjected to the violence and forced to leave their homes should each be awarded compensation in the amount of $150,000. afgen.com /roswood2.html (4465 words) Rosewood Bibliography/State Library of Florida (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) Florida House bill HR 1359, 1994 Rosewood compensation fund and appropriation for erection of a monument. Florida House bill HR 1923, 1993 Resolution commending Minnie Lee Langley for her courage in escaping from the Rosewood massacre. Florida Senate bill SB 1752, 1994 Rosewood compensation fund and appropriation for erection of a monument. dlis.dos.state.fl.us /stlib/rosewood_bib.html (603 words) rosewood ROSEWOOD AND THE RACIAL VIOLENCE OF Lynching had become so common in the United States, especially in the South, that in 1921 Representative L. Dyer of Missouri introduced a bill in the House of Representatives to make lynching a federal crime. Although newspapers had their biases in reporting the Rosewood events, the editorial responses of white and fl state, regional, and national newspapers and other publications are important in evaluating the Rosewood affair. This condensation of Rosewood's history is based on research by Tom Dye who utilized minutes of the Levy County Board of Commissioners, state and federal manuscript census reports, Florida Railroad Commissioner reports, Levy County deed record books, other primary sources, official and unofficial, and a large number of secondary sources. mailer.fsu.edu /~mjones/rosewood/rosewood.html (19895 words) Rosewood (1997) - MovieWeb During the first week of January, 1923, Rosewood, a flourishing fl town in central Florida, was burned to the ground by whites from the neighboring, less prosperous, town of Sumner. Fueled by a white woman's falsified story that she was assaulted and beaten by a fl stranger, a mob of Sumner men declared war on their unsuspecting neighbors. Many of Rosewood's inhabitants were murdered in cold blood and scores more were driven from their beds into the surrounding dank woods, never to return to their homes -- or their secure way of life -- again. movieweb.com /movie/rosewood (232 words) ROSEWOOD - Online Information article about ROSEWOOD (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) ROSEWOOD, the name given to several distinct kinds. Kingdom is Brazilian rosewood, the palissandre of the See also: The heartwood attains large dimensions, but as it begins to decay before the tree arrives at maturity it is always faulty and hollow in the centre. encyclopedia.jrank.org /RON_SAC/ROSEWOOD.html (491 words) Rosewood Family Scholarship - Modified on 081905 (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) The Rosewood Family Scholarship was created to provide student financial assistance for a maximum of twenty-five eligible minority students who attend a state university, public community college, or public postsecondary vocational-technical school. The amount of an annual award for the Rosewood Family Scholarship will be the amount of tuition and fees for 15 semester hours or 450 clock hours per term of undergraduate study, not to exceed $4,000, or the amount established in the General Appropriations Act, whichever is less. The Rosewood Family Scholarship award may be received for a maximum of 8 semesters or 12 quarters or the equivalent or until receipt of the first bachelor's degree, whichever occurs first. www.firn.edu /doe/bin00065/rosewoodfactsheet.htm (1776 words) The Films of John Singleton: Rosewood (1997) In 1923, the predominantly fl town of Rosewood, Florida was burned to ground, its population almost entirely wiped out, by white men from the neighboring town of Sumner... The event that triggers the massacre does not come until about a half hour or so in, when one Fannie Taylor (Catherine Kellner), a white housewife, claims that she was assaulted by a fl stranger (in actuality, she was assaulted by her lover, who was also white). However, with his triumphant return to form with Rosewood, his talent as a filmmaker should no longer be called into question. www.godamongdirectors.com /singleton/rosewood.html (504 words) WCJB - TV20 News - Your Home Team - Gainesville - Lake City - Ocala (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) In the small town of Rosewood, a historical marker now stands outside the only original home that lasted through the 1923 Rosewood Massacre. "This marker will ensure that Rosewood is remembered and that when the voice of the last survivor is stilled, we will all bear witness to what happened here and learn the lessons of its legacy," says Governor Bush. Researchers and survivors say a white woman living in nearby Sumner falsely accused a fl Rosewood man of attacking her. www.wcjb.com /news.asp?id=9716 (335 words) Bolivian Rosewood - Machaerium, sclieroxylon Bolivian Rosewood offers a wide range of colors from medium to light browns through to almost fl brown purplish tones, on top of which there is frequent fl striping. Bolivian Rosewood undergoes a substantial degree of color change as the wood lightens over time and more so in direct sunlight from the darker brown tones to lighter gold/tan tones with a muting the fresh milled color variation. Bolivian Rosewood may be used both residentially and commercially wherever the rich bold look of a rosewood is desired. www.wflooring.com /Technical_Info/Species_Tech_Info/Species_Pages/rosewood_bolivian.htm (338 words) Images - Rosewood He has been making money off of the Rosewood citizens for several years and hopes to one day take his family and his savings and high-tail it for the big city. He isn't particularly interested in helping out the town of Rosewood, but when the lynching party hits Rosewood, looking for any excuse to start stringing up fl men and women, Wright has to rethink his commitment to the community. Instead of seeing Rosewood as a simple venue for showing the horrific results of a lynching party gone crazy, where the fl men and women become victims, producer Peters and director Singleton have seen the opportunity to create an uplifting story of people fighting back against the oppressors. www.imagesjournal.com /issue02/reviews/rosewood.htm (1058 words) City of Reno - Rosewood Lakes Golf Course (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) Rosewood Lakes Golf Course, opened on July 1, 1991, has provided golfers from all over the world extraordinary golf surrounded by the natural beauty of the Nevada desert. Rosewood Lakes Golf Course is renowned for its generous greens, berm-lined fairways and panoramic views. Rosewood is a member of the USGA'S Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary Program. www.rosewoodlakes.com (262 words) Materials on the Destruction of Rosewood, Florida (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) Information about the Destruction of Rosewood, Florida in January, 1923 continues to be of interest. This report, prepared for the Legislature by five professors from FAMU, FSU and UF, was submitted to the Board of Regents in December 1993 . The State Library has prepared a Bibliography of additional materials which are available on Rosewood. dlis.dos.state.fl.us /fgils/rosewood.html (284 words) DVD.net : Rosewood - DVD Review (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) While the official death toll of the Rosewood Massacre stands at two white folks and six fl folks, the estimated body count is anywhere between 40 and 150. Rosewood documents this story from start to finish over its 136 minutes and while there are moments you may wish to shy away from, this story is important and needs to be heard. In Rosewood, a small, mostly fl community is going about its business. www.dvd.net.au /review.cgi?review_id=3271 (961 words) Rosewood™ font family : MyFonts (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) Rosewood™ is a Linotype font family with 2 styles priced from $21.00. Rosewood, like its relatives Zebrawood, Pepperwood and Ponderosa, was created by the designer trio K.B. Chansler, C. Crossgrove and C. Twombly, and has its roots in the slab serif style. Rosewood, like Zebrawood and Schwennel, is a bicolor font, meaning that the weight Rosewood fill can be used as a decoration for the inner spaces of Rosewood regular. www.myfonts.com /fonts/linotype/rosewood (268 words) Rosewood Bed & Breakfast - Bethany (Oklahoma City area), Oklahoma - BBOnline.com / Introduction (Site not responding. Last check: 2007-11-05) Our guests find the Rosewood Inn to be a sanctuary from the busy schedules of a fast paced life. Some of our guests choose to have breakfast in the Rosewood Gardens where they can watch the birds and listen to the babbling brook, while others come downstairs to the Gathering dining room for breakfast and a visit with the innkeepers. Of course, most of our guests prefer to have their breakfast delivered to their room, where they can continue to relax and enjoy the moment in the privacy of luxurious surroundings. www.bbonline.com /ok/rosewood (589 words)	i don't know
Mentioned in the title of a famous song written by Neil Sedaka and performed by Tony Christie, in which American state could you visit Amarillo?	pop music \| Paul Roth's Music Liner Notes Cass Elliot Cass Elliot (September 19, 1941 – July 29, 1974), born Ellen Naomi Cohen, was a noted American singer , best remembered as Mama Cass of the pop quartet The Mamas & the Papas . After the group broke up, she had a successful solo career, releasing five studio albums. Elliot was found dead in her room in London from an apparent heart attack after two weeks of sold-out performances at the Palladium . In 1998, the four members of the group were inducted into Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . [1] Ellen Cohen was born in Baltimore, Maryland , to Philip and Bess Cohen. She grew up in Baltimore, and then the family moved to Alexandria, Virginia (a suburb of Washington, DC ). She adopted the name “Cass” in high school – possibly, as Denny Doherty tells it, borrowing it from the actress Peggy Cass – but in any case, it was just ‘Cass,’ not ‘Cassandra.’ She assumed the surname Elliot sometime later, in memory of a friend who had died. She started her acting career with a part in the play The Boy Friend while she was still in school. After dropping out of George Washington High School (now George Washington Middle School ) shortly before graduation, she went to New York City , where she appeared in The Music Man but lost the part of Miss Marmelstein in I Can Get It for You Wholesale to Barbra Streisand in 1962. “ Dream A Little Dream Of Me ” Here’s another version of “Dream A Little Dream” -I posted it cause it was so funny! While working as a cloakroom attendant at “The Showplace” in Greenwich Village , Elliot would sometimes sing, but it wasn’t until she returned to the Washington area, to attend American University , that she began to pursue a singing career. As America’s folk music scene was on the rise, Elliot met banjoist and singer Tim Rose and singer John Brown, and the three began performing as The Triumvirate. In 1963, James Hendricks replaced Brown and the trio was renamed The Big Three . Elliot’s first recording, Winkin’, Blinkin’ and Nod, with The Big Three, was released by FM Records in 1963. When Tim Rose left The Big Three in 1964, Elliot and Hendricks teamed up with Canadians Zal Yanovsky and Denny Doherty as The Mugwumps . This group lasted eight months, after which Cass performed as a solo act for a while. Yanovsky joined with John Sebastian to co-found The Lovin’ Spoonful while Doherty joined The New Journeymen with John Phillips and his wife, Michelle . In 1965, Doherty finally convinced Phillips that Cass should join the group. She did so, officially, while they were vacationing in the Virgin Islands . “Make Your Own Special Music” Could she look more 1970’s!! A popular legend about Elliot is that her vocal range was improved by three notes after she was hit on the head by some copper tubing shortly before joining the group, while they were in the Virgin Islands. Elliot herself confirmed the story; in an interview with Rolling Stone magazine in 1968 she said, “ It’s true, I did get hit on the head by a pipe that fell down and my range was increased by three notes. They were tearing this club apart in the islands, revamping it, putting in a dance floor. Workmen dropped a thin metal plumbing pipe and it hit me on the head and knocked me to the ground. I had a concussion and went to the hospital. I had a bad headache for about two weeks and all of a sudden I was singing higher. It’s true. Honest to God. [2] ” However, her friends later said that the pipe story was used as a less embarrassing explanation for why John had kept her out of the group for so long, because the real reason she was not accepted sooner was that John considered her to be too fat. [3] Now that The New Journeymen had two female members, they needed a new name. According to Doherty, Elliot had the inspiration for the band’s new name. Doherty writes on his website: “ We’re all just lying around vegging out watching TV and discussing names for the group. The New Journeymen was not a handle that was going to hang on this outfit. John was pushing for The Magic Cyrcle. Eech, but none of us could come up with anything better, then we switch the channel and, hey, it’s the Hells Angels on this talk show… And the first thing we hear is: “Now hold on there, Hoss. Some people call our women cheap, but we just call them our Mamas.” Cass jumped up: “Yeah! I want to be a Mama.” And Michelle is going: “We’re the Mamas! We’re the Mamas!” OK. I look at John. He’s looking at me going: “The Papas?” Problem solved. A toast! To The Mamas and the Papas. Well, after many, many toasts, Cass and John are passed out.” [4] ” Doherty went on to say that the occasion marked the beginning of his affair with Michelle. Elliot was in love with Doherty, so was displeased when he told her about the affair. Doherty has said that Cass once proposed to him, but that he was so stoned at the time, he could not even respond. John Denver and Cass Elliot together Elliot, known for her sense of humor and optimism, was considered by some to be the most charismatic member of the group. Her warm, distinctive voice was a large factor in their success. She is best remembered for her vocals on the group’s hits “ California Dreamin’ “, “ Monday Monday “, and “Words of Love”, and particularly for the solo “ Dream a Little Dream of Me “, which the group recorded in 1968 after learning about the death of Fabian Andre , one of the men who co-wrote it, whom Michelle Phillips had met years earlier. Elliot’s version is noteworthy for being a ballad, whereas almost all earlier recordings of “Dream a Little Dream of Me” (including one by Nat King Cole ) had been quick, up-tempo versions — the song having actually been written in 1931 as a dance tune for the nightclubs of the day. With Johnny Carson The recording is muffled, but good enough to be interesting. One can see how Cass Elliot had become a major force in music and entertainment. Here she is with Julie Andrews singing a Simon and Garfunkel medley. They continued to record to meet the terms of their record contract until their final album was released in 1971. After the breakup of The Mamas & the Papas, Elliot went on to have a successful solo singing career. Her most successful recording during this period was 1968’s Dream a Little Dream of Me from her solo album of the same name , released by Dunhill Records though it had originally been recorded for and released on the album The Papas & the Mamas Presented By The Mamas and the Papas earlier that year. She headlined briefly in Las Vegas at Caesar’s Palace for the unusually lucrative pay of USD$ 40,000 per week, although her performances were not well reviewed. She was a regular on TV talk shows and variety shows in the 1970s, including The Julie Andrews Hour , The Mike Douglas Show , The Andy Williams Show , Hollywood Squares , and The Carol Burnett Show . She guest-hosted for Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show and appeared on that show 13 other times. Elliot also was a guest panelist for a week in late 1973 on the hit game show Match Game ’73 . She appeared in the 1973 Saga of Sonora, a TV music-comedy-Western special with stars of the day including Jill St. John , Vince Edwards , Zero Mostel , and Lesley Ann Warren . She also sang the jingle “Hurry on down to Hardee’s, where the burgers are charco-broiled” for Hardee’s fast-food advertisements. 1973 Recording “I’ll Be Seeing You” Throughout the early 1970s, Elliot continued her acting career as well. She had a featured role in the 1970 movie Pufnstuf and made guest-star acting appearances on TV’s The New Scooby-Doo Movies , Young Dr. Kildare , Love, American Style , and The Red Skelton Show , among others. Elliot was married twice. The first marriage, to bandmate Jim Hendricks, began in 1963. This was reportedly a purely platonic arrangement to assist him in avoiding being drafted into the army during the Vietnam War ; [5] the marriage reportedly was never consummated and was annulled in 1968. [6] In 1971, Elliot married journalist Baron Donald von Wiedenman [7] [8] who was heir to a Bavarian barony . Their marriage ended in divorce after a few months. Cass Elliot’s first solo appearance with Andy Williams Elliot gave birth to a daughter, Owen Vanessa Elliot, on April 26, 1967. She never publicly identified the father, but many years later, Michelle Phillips helped Owen locate her biological father. [9] Owen grew up to become a singer as well and toured with former Beach Boy Al Jardine . [10] At the height of her solo career in 1974, Elliot performed two weeks of sold-out concerts at the London Palladium . She telephoned Michelle Phillips after the final concert on July 28th, utterly elated that she had received standing ovations each night. She then retired for the evening, and died in her sleep at age 32. Sources state her death was due to a heart attack . [11] [12] Elliot died in a London flat, No. 12 at 9 Curzon Place, Mayfair which was on loan from singer/songwriter Harry Nilsson . Four years later, The Who ‘s drummer Keith Moon would die in the same flat. [13] She was entombed in Mount Sinai Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles . After Elliot’s death, her younger sister, Leah Kunkel, received custody of Cass’ daughter Owen, then just seven years old. Kunkel is also a singer and was charted in 1984 as a member of the Coyote Sisters on the single “Straight From The Heart (Into Your Life).” Kunkel was interviewed by VH1 in 1997 and discussed her famous sister for the “Mamas & Papas” episode of the network’s documentary series Behind The Music . Mama Cass, Mary Travers and Joni Mitchell together, “I Shall Be Released” Immediately after her death, gossip columns speculated that Elliot died choking on a ham sandwich. Speaking to the press shortly after her body was discovered, the police noted that a partly eaten sandwich had been found in her room and speculated that she may have choked while eating it. When the coroner’s autopsy was performed, no food was found in her trachea and the cause of death was determined to have been a heart attack. [12] But by then, the specious story was already making the rounds and the real cause of death was rarely discussed. The incorrect story has remained a part of the popular culture. The song “Mama, I Remember You Now” by the Swedish artist Marit Bergman is a tribute to Elliot. She was the subject of a 2004 stage production in Dublin, [14] The Songs of Mama Cass, with Kristin Kapelli performing main vocals. The Crosby, Stills & Nash Greatest Hits album released in 2005 was dedicated to Cass Elliot. The British film Beautiful Thing heavily features her recordings, and the memory of her, plays a role in the life of one character. The Mamas and The Papas, “California Dreamin'” Anthony Kiedis of Red Hot Chili Peppers cited The Mamas & the Papas , and especially Elliot as an influence, in an interview for Rolling Stone . He said: “There have been times when I’ve been very down and out in my life, and the sound of her voice has sort of given me a reason to want to carry on.” [15] Boy George and k.d. lang also cited Elliot as an influence. [16] George described her as “the greatest white female singer ever”. [17] Beth Ditto , the Gossip band singer, named Elliot both as music and fashion inspiration, saying, “I really wanted to sound like Mama Cass growing up.” [18] [19] Elliot’s recording of “ Make Your Own Kind of Music ” is featured prominently in several episodes of seasons 2 and 3 of Lost . Her recording of “It’s Getting Better” was also featured in a season 4 episode . The autobiographical hit single “ Creeque Alley “, written by John Phillips and Michelle Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas, contains the line, “And no one’s getting fat except Mama Cass”. Since her death, Elliot and the circumstances surrounding her death have been the butt of numerous jokes in comedy routines, movies, and songs, by performers such as Frank Zappa , Adam Sandler , [20] Denis Leary , Mike Myers (in the first Austin Powers movie ), TISM , Jack Black , “Weird Al” Yankovic , Robin Williams , Foetus and others. Quick Bio Facts: The song “Mama, I Remember You Now” by the Swedish artist Marit Bergman is a tribute to Elliot. She was the subject of a 2004 stage production in Dublin, [14] The Songs of Mama Cass, with Kristin Kapelli performing main vocals. The Crosby, Stills & Nash Greatest Hits album released in 2005 was dedicated to Cass Elliot. The British film Beautiful Thing heavily features her recordings, and the memory of her, plays a role in the life of one character. Anthony Kiedis of Red Hot Chili Peppers cited The Mamas & the Papas , and especially Elliot as an influence, in an interview for Rolling Stone . He said: “There have been times when I’ve been very down and out in my life, and the sound of her voice has sort of given me a reason to want to carry on.” [15] Boy George and k.d. lang also cited Elliot as an influence. [16] George described her as “the greatest white female singer ever”. [17] Beth Ditto , the Gossip band singer, named Elliot both as music and fashion inspiration, saying, “I really wanted to sound like Mama Cass growing up.” [18] [19] Elliot’s recording of “ Make Your Own Kind of Music ” is featured prominently in several episodes of seasons 2 and 3 of Lost . Her recording of “It’s Getting Better” was also featured in a season 4 episode . The autobiographical hit single “ Creeque Alley “, written by John Phillips and Michelle Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas, contains the line, “And no one’s getting fat except Mama Cass”. Since her death, Elliot and the circumstances surrounding her death have been the butt of numerous jokes in comedy routines, movies, and songs, by performers such as Frank Zappa , Adam Sandler , [20] Denis Leary , Mike Myers (in the first Austin Powers movie ), TISM , Jack Black , “Weird Al” Yankovic , Robin Williams , Foetus and others. Quick Bio Facts: The song “Mama, I Remember You Now” by the Swedish artist Marit Bergman is a tribute to Elliot. She was the subject of a 2004 stage production in Dublin, [14] The Songs of Mama Cass, with Kristin Kapelli performing main vocals. The Crosby, Stills & Nash Greatest Hits album released in 2005 was dedicated to Cass Elliot. The British film Beautiful Thing heavily features her recordings, and the memory of her, plays a role in the life of one character. Anthony Kiedis of Red Hot Chili Peppers cited The Mamas & the Papas , and especially Elliot as an influence, in an interview for Rolling Stone . He said: “There have been times when I’ve been very down and out in my life, and the sound of her voice has sort of given me a reason to want to carry on.” [15] Boy George and k.d. lang also cited Elliot as an influence. [16] George described her as “the greatest white female singer ever”. [17] Beth Ditto , the Gossip band singer, named Elliot both as music and fashion inspiration, saying, “I really wanted to sound like Mama Cass growing up.” [18] [19] Elliot’s recording of “ Make Your Own Kind of Music ” is featured prominently in several episodes of seasons 2 and 3 of Lost . Her recording of “It’s Getting Better” was also featured in a season 4 episode . The autobiographical hit single “ Creeque Alley “, written by John Phillips and Michelle Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas, contains the line, “And no one’s getting fat except Mama Cass”. Since her death, Elliot and the circumstances surrounding her death have been the butt of numerous jokes in comedy routines, movies, and songs, by performers such as Frank Zappa , Adam Sandler , [20] Denis Leary , Mike Myers (in the first Austin Powers movie ), TISM , Jack Black , “Weird Al” Yankovic , Robin Williams , Foetus and others. Quick Bio Facts: 1973: Don’t Call Me Mama Anymore Single 1968: “ Dream a Little Dream of Me ” (Mama Cass with the Mamas & the Papas) – US #12 Pop/#2 AC, UK #11 1968: “California Earthquake” – US #67 1969: “Move in a Little Closer, Baby” – US #58 Pop/#32 AC 1969: “ Make Your Own Kind of Music ” – US #36 Pop/#6 AC 1970: “New World Coming” – US #42 Pop/#4 AC 1970: “A Song That Never Comes” – US #99 Pop/#25 AC 1970: “The Good Times Are Coming” – US #104 Pop/#19 AC 1970: “Don’t Let the Good Life Pass You By” – US #110 Pop/#34 AC 37.810448 -122.239864 September 3, 2010 Agnetha Fältskog Agneta Åse Fältskog (born 5 April 1950) is a Swedish recording artist and entertainer . She became a household name in Sweden after the release of her début album Agnetha Fältskog in 1968, and reached international stardom as a member of pop group ABBA , which sold nearly 370 million records worldwide, [1] [2] making them the second best–selling band in history and the fourth best–selling pop artists in history. [3] Fältskog was born on 5 April 1950 in Jönköping , Småland , Sweden . [4] [5] She was the first of two daughters of department store manager Knut Ingvar Fältskog (1922—1995) and his wife Birgit Margareta Johansson (1923—1994). [4] Her younger sister, Mona Fältskog Ericsson (1955), works as a nurse in Stockholm . Ingvar Fältskog showed much interest in music and showbusiness , whereas Birgit Fältskog was a very calm and careful woman who devoted herself to her children and household. [6] Fältskog cites Connie Francis , Marianne Faithfull , Aretha Franklin and Lesley Gore as her strongest influences. [4] Fältskog wrote her first song aged only six, which was named “Två små troll” (Two Little Trolls) [7] In 1958, she started taking piano lessons, and also sang in a local church choir. [4] In early 1960, Fältskog formed a musical trio The Chambers with her friends Lena Johansson and Elisabeth Strub. They performed locally in minor venues and soon dissolved because of a lack of engagements. [4] At age 15, Fältskog decided to leave school and pursue a career. [4] “Fly Me To The Moon” Fältskog worked as a telephonist for a car firm while performing with a local dance band , headed by Bernt Enghardt. [4] The band soon became so popular that she had to make a choice between her job and her musical career. She continued singing with the Bernt Enghardt band for two years. [4] During that time, Fältskog broke up with her boyfriend Björn Lilja; this event inspired her to write a song that would soon raise her to media prominence, “Jag var så kär”. [4] [6] At that time, Karl Gerhard Lundkvist, a relative of one of the band’s members, retired from his successful rock and roll career and began working as a music producer at Cupol Records. Enghardt sent him a demo record of the band, but Lundkvist showed interest in Fältskog and her song only. [6] She was worried because he was not interested in the band and they were not to be included on the record. However, she decided to accept the offer, and signed a recording contract with CBS Records . [4] Her début album Agnetha Fältskog was released by the CBS Records in 1968 (see 1968 in music ), and topped the Swedish Albums Chart on 28 January 1968. [4] She also submitted the song “Försonade” to Melodifestivalen , the Swedish heats of the Eurovision Song Contest , but it was not selected for the final. [6] Fältskog developed a career as one of Sweden’s most popular pop music artist, participating in a television special about pilots in 1969. [8] The same year, she released the single “Zigenarvän” about a young girl attending a Gypsy wedding and falling in love with the bride’s brother. Its release coincided with a heated debate about Gypsies in the Swedish media, and Fältskog was accused of deliberately trying to make money out of the situation by writing the song. [7] “Sealed With A Kiss” Her success continued throughout the late 1960s. She then met German songwriter and music producer Dieter Zimmerman, to whom she became engaged. [4] Thus Fältskog’s albums were reaching German charts, and Zimmerman promised Fältskog she would achieve great success in Germany. [4] When she went there and met with record producers, she refused to meet their demands, describing their chosen material as “horrible”. [4] Fältskog soon ended her engagement to Zimmerman and returned to Sweden. [4] In 1970, she released “Om tårar vore guld,” which was perhaps her most successful song in Sweden before the ABBA period. This was in spite of a claim from a Danish composer that she had used 22 bars from his composition “Tema,” even though this had been written in the 1950s and had never been recorded. The case dragged on until 1977, when a settlement was reached and Fältskog paid the Dane SEK 5,000. In 1971, Fältskog portrayed Mary Magdalene in the Swedish production of the international musical hit Jesus Christ Superstar . [6] “Love Me With All Your Heart” Fältskog met Björn Ulvaeus , a member of the Hootenanny Singers , in 1969. [5] [6] Her relationship with Ulvaeus, as well as her friendship with Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Benny Andersson , with whom Ulvaeus had already written songs, eventually led to the formation of ABBA . Fältskog and Ulvaeus married on 6 July 1971 in the village Verum, with Andersson playing the organ at their wedding. [4] Their first child, Linda Elin Ulvaeus was born on 23 February 1973, and their son Peter Christian Ulvaeus on 4 December 1977. [5] The couple decided to separate in late 1978, and Fältskog moved out of their home on Christmas night, 25 December 1978. In January 1979, the couple filed for divorce, which was finalised in June 1980. Both Fältskog and Ulvaeus agreed not to let their failed marriage interfere with their responsibilities with ABBA. [4] [5] [6] The failure of their marriage inspired Ulvaeus to write “ The Winner Takes It All “, one of ABBA’s greatest hits. [4] [5] [6] In 1975, during the same period as her bandmate Anni-Frid Lyngstad recorded her Swedish number one album Frida ensam , Fältskog recorded and produced her solo album Elva kvinnor i ett hus . These albums were both recorded between sessions and promotion for the ABBA albums Waterloo and ABBA . Even though ABBA was already a number one act in Sweden by 1975, Fältskog’s album failed to reach the Top 10 on the Swedish album charts, peaking at #11. However, Elva Kvinnor I Ett Hus did spend a staggering 53 weeks on the chart, even longer than any of the ABBA albums, and it also contained three further Svensktoppen entries for Fältskog: her Swedish language version of ABBA’s “SOS” (also #4 on the single sales chart); “Tack För En Underbar Vanlig Dag”; and “Doktorn!”. Except for the version of “SOS”, all the songs had lyrics by Bosse Carlgren and music by Fältskog herself. The album had been underway since 1972, when Agnetha started writing the songs, but it was delayed because of the work with ABBA and her pregnancy. In 1974, she and Carlgren agreed on a concept for the album; it should consist of 12 songs, sung by 12 different women living in the same apartment building, each having a distinct name, identity, etc. In the end, only 11 songs were put onto the album, and the concept was never fully developed. “What Now My Love?” Between the years 1968 and 1980, Fältskog had a total of 18 entries on the important Svensktoppen radio chart, starting with debut single “Jag Var Så Kär” in January 1968 (peak position #1) and ending with “När Du Tar Mig I Din Famn” from the compilation Tio år med Agnetha twelve years later, in January 1980 (peak position #1). The 18 entries, most of which were composed or co-written by Fältskog herself, spent a total of 139 weeks on the chart during this time, with the biggest hit being 1970’s “Om Tårar Vore Guld” (#1, 15 weeks). Fältskog also recorded the Swedish Christmas album Nu tändas tusen juleljus with daughter Linda Ulvaeus which reached #6 on the Swedish album sales chart in December 1981. Chartwise Fältskog was, therefore, by far the most successful solo artist of the four ABBA members, both before and during the band’s international career. [9] [10] Fältskog is also the only member of ABBA to have participated in Melodifestivalen again after having won Eurovision with “Waterloo” in 1974 – albeit only as a composer. In 1981 she wrote the ballad “Men Natten Är Vår” (“But The Night is Ours”) with lyrics by Ingela Forsman , but instead of performing the song in the contest herself she chose new talent Kicki Moberg. The single, which Fältskog produced in the Polar Studios with the same musicians as on contemporary ABBA recordings, was backed with the Swedish version of “I’m Still Alive”, entitled “Här Är Mitt Liv” (“Here is My Life”), a song which she herself had sung on ABBA’s 1979 world tour. Moberg’s recording of the song remains the only version to have been officially released to date. [11] In the 1980s, Fältskog released three English-language solo albums. The records did well in Europe and Scandinavia. At the end of 1982, she duetted with Swedish singer (and former ABBA backing vocalist) Tomas Ledin on a song called “ Never Again “, which became a Top Five hit in Sweden, Norway, Belgium, and South America. The song was also released in a Spanish language version, entitled “Ya Nunca Más”. In the summer of the same year, Fältskog starred in the hit Swedish movie Raskenstam, and received positive reviews for her film début. The film was also a blockbuster hit in Sweden. “Dancing Queen” Abba In May 1983, Fältskog released her first post-ABBA solo album, Wrap Your Arms Around Me . The album became a moderate hit in North America and Australia, and reached the higher regions of the charts across Europe, including No. 1 in Sweden, Norway, Finland, Belgium and Denmark (where it became the biggest-selling album of the year), and No.18 in the UK. All in all Agnetha sold 1.2 million records of her first solo album after ABBA. Two singles from the album became big hits in continental Europe. “ The Heat Is On ” became a No. 1 hit in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland and the Netherlands, but only just scraped into the UK Top 40. The title track also reached No.1 in Belgium as well as the Top Five in the Netherlands, Germany and South Africa. In North America, the album track “ Can’t Shake Loose ” was released as the lead-off single, reaching No. 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and No. 23 on the RPM Top 50 singles chart in Canada. The same year, Fältskog was voted by the readers of Aftonbladet as “Best Female Artist Of The Year,” and received the Music Award Price Rockbjörnen . Her next album, Eyes Of A Woman , produced by Eric Stewart of 10cc fame, was released in March 1985. “She is quite content to grace the works of various other lesser mortals with her immaculate, sugar-sweet voice,” wrote Barry McIlheney in Melody Maker . The album sold well in parts of Europe, reaching No. 2 in Sweden and the Top 20 in Norway and Belgium, but failed to match the success of Wrap Your Arms Around Me . Lead single “I Won’t Let You Go”, composed by Fältskog herself, however enjoyed considerable chart success in both Continental Europe and Scandinavia. “Take A Chance On Me” In 1986, Fältskog recorded another duet, “The Way You Are,” with Swedish singer Ola Håkansson , which became another No. 1 hit in Sweden. In mid-1987, Fältskog travelled to Malibu , California , to record the album I Stand Alone , produced by Peter Cetera and Bruce Gaitsch (fresh off Madonna ‘s La Isla Bonita collaboration). Released in November of that year, it was a minor hit in Europe, except for Sweden where it spent eight weeks at No. 1 and became the biggest selling album of 1988 and entering the Top 15 in Norway. The single from the album, “ I Wasn’t The One (Who Said Good-Bye) “, on which Fältskog duetted with Peter Cetera, was released primarily in North America, and became her second solo single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 (No. 93). It was also a Top 20 Billboard Adult Contemporary hit. Two tracks were also recorded in Spanish for the Latin American market; “La Ultima Véz” (“The Last Time”) and “Yo No Fui Quién Dijo Adiós” (“I Wasn’t The One (Who Said Goodbye)”). After the release of I Stand Alone in mid-1988 Fältskog took a break from her musical career and completely withdrew from public life. In December 1990, Fältskog married for a second time, albeit briefly, a surgeon named Tomas Sonnenfeld. They were divorced in 1993. Former Dutch citizen Gert van der Graaf claims he had fallen in love with Fältskog at the age of 6, in 1974, when he saw ABBA performing “Waterloo” on Dutch TV. Since that day, Van der Graaf was obsessed with Fältskog. As an adult, he started to make trips to Sweden and found the area where Fältskog lived. In 1997, he moved from Holland to Sweden, determined to get in contact with Fältskog. He managed to buy a small house near Fältskog’s estate and also found a job in the area. Soon, he began to approach Fältskog during her walks in her neighborhood. Fältskog began a sexual relationship with him and finally invited him to visit her home – and co-habit with her. “Fool Am I” After about two years, Fältskog wanted to end the relationship and told Van der Graaf. After the relationship terminated, he began to send Fältskog many letters, called her relentlessly, and visited her estate frequently without invitation. Eventually, Fältskog obtained a restraining order against Van der Graaf. He broke the order several times and was eventually deported back to Holland. In 2005, the deportation order from Sweden ran out, and within months Van der Graaf was again sighted near Fältskog’s estate in Ekerö . [12] In court, Fältskog was forced to admit that she had seduced him and Van der Graaf said that he “did not mean to stalk her” but claimed he was still in love with her and “couldn’t let go.” [13] Since the deportation, Fältskog has not reported any further contact from Van der Graaf. However, as recently as 2007, Van der Graaf was spotted at a play at which Fältskog was in attendance. When asked, Fältskog stated that she did not know Van der Graaf had been there and that he did not approach her. In 1996, her autobiography Som jag är was published in Swedish (in English the following year as As I Am), followed by several compilation CDs of her Swedish and English recordings. Hardcore fans welcomed the autobiography, but critics panned it. In April 2004, Fältskog released a new single, “ If I Thought You’d Ever Change Your Mind ” (a cover of the song originally recorded by Cilla Black ). It reached No. 2 in Sweden, No. 11 in the UK, and became a sizeable hit throughout Europe. “It is exciting to hear her voice, utterly undimmed, delivering a tellingly-titled song,” commented London’s Music Week . A few weeks later, the album My Colouring Book , a collection of Fältskog’s covers of 1960s classic oldies , was released, topping the charts in Sweden, hitting the Top Five in Finland and Denmark, No. 6 in Germany and peaking at No. 12 in the UK. The title song “My Colouring Book” is a cover of the song originally recorded by Dusty Springfield . “I love this record,” enthused Pete Clark in London’s Evening Standard , while Daily Mail pointed out that “it reveals a genuine affection for the era’s forgotten pop tunes.” The Times reviewer noted that “her voice is still an impressive pop instrument,” and The Observer shared the same sentiment suggesting that “time hasn’t diminished her perfect voice.” Reviewing the release in The Guardian , Caroline Sullivan wrote: “Agnetha Fältskog has a vulnerability that gets under the skin of a song. She may be cheating a trifle by including no original material on this collection of 1960s covers, but if anyone can do justice to the likes of “ Sealed with a Kiss “, it’s her. The soaring sentimentality evokes Cilla Black and Sandie Shaw in their mini-skirted pomp, and I don’t say that lightly.” The release attracted major media attention across Europe, but Fältskog staunchly refused to be involved in any extensive promotion of the album (including personal appearances), and thus limited her public exposure to several short newspaper interviews, a few videos and a Swedish-language low-key TV special. Yet, the album managed to sell more than 500,000 copies worldwide, 50,000 of those in the UK alone. A second single release from the album, “When you walk in the room” peaked at No.11 in Sweden and also reached the UK Top 40. “The Winner Takes It All” Shortly after this release, for the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest , staged in Istanbul thirty years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, Fältskog appeared briefly in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled “Our Last Video.” Each of the four members of the group appeared briefly in cameo roles, as did others such as Cher and Rik Mayall . The video was not included in the official DVD release of the Eurovision Contest, but was issued as a separate DVD release. It was billed as the first time the four had worked together since the group split. In fact, they each filmed their appearances separately. In 2004, Fältskog was nominated for Best Nordic Artist at the Nordic Music Awards , and at Christmas of that year (for the first time in almost 20 years), she gave an extensive interview which was filmed by Swedish TV. Around the same time, Sony Music released a lavishly produced 6 CD boxed set comprising Fältskog’s Swedish solo career before ABBA (five original solo albums – 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1975 – and an additional compilation disc with bonus tracks). In January 2007, Fältskog appeared at the final performance of Mamma Mia! in Stockholm (as she had at its opening in 2005). Together with ex-husband and former colleague Björn, she appeared on stage at the after show party held at Stockholm’s Grand Hotel. She also sang a duet, “True Love,” with Tommy Körberg of Chess fame. In October 2008 a new compilation album, “My Very Best”, was released in Sweden. The double CD contains both Swedish (CD 1) and English language hits (CD 2) from her whole solo career, from 1967 to 2004. It successfully entered as #4 on the Swedish albums chart and was certified Gold within the first week of its release. [14] On 4 July 2008 Fältskog joined former colleagues Anni-Frid Lyngstad , Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson at the Swedish premiere of the film version of Mamma Mia! , held at the Rival Theatre (owned by Andersson) in Mariatorget , Stockholm . Fältskog arrived with Lyngstad and movie star Meryl Streep , the three dancing in front of thousands of fans before joining the film’s other stars and Andersson and Ulvaeus on the hotel balcony for the first photograph of all four ABBA members together in 22 years. [15] The event made the front pages of newspapers around the world as well as being shown live on news channels. In February 2010 ABBA World, an extensive multi-million pound exhibition, debuted at London’s Earls Court and included an extensive interview with Agnetha filmed in Sweden the previous summer. For the exhibition’s Melbourne launch, she recorded a light-hearted opening film together with former ABBA colleague Benny Andersson, shot in Stockholm in June 2010. Sources: Wikipedia, youtube, nndb.com Requires Flash 7+ and Javascript. 37.810448 -122.239864 August 31, 2010 Joni Mitchell Joni Mitchell, CC (born Roberta Joan Anderson; November 7, 1943) is a Canadian musician, songwriter, and painter. [1] Mitchell began singing in small nightclubs in her native Western Canada and then busking on the streets of Toronto. In the mid-1960s she left for New York City and its rich folk music scene, recording her debut album in 1968 and achieving fame first as a songwriter (“Urge for Going”, “ Chelsea Morning “, “ Both Sides Now “, “ Woodstock “) and then as a singer in her own right. [2] Finally settling in Southern California , Mitchell played a key part in the folk rock movement then sweeping the musical landscape. Blue , her starkly personal 1971 album, is regarded as one of the strongest and most influential records of the time. [3] Mitchell also had pop hits such as “ Big Yellow Taxi “, “ Free Man in Paris “, and “ Help Me “, the last two from 1974’s best-selling Court and Spark . [4] This bio is sponsored by Two Guys From Brooklyn , a unique web site selling personalized gifts. If you are enjoying this site, please take a moment to visit and support them. Mitchell’s contralto vocals, distinctive harmonic guitar style, and piano arrangements all grew more complex through the 1970s as she was deeply influenced by jazz , melding it with pop, folk and rock on experimental albums like 1976’s Hejira . She worked closely with jazz greats including Pat Metheny , Wayne Shorter , Jaco Pastorius , Herbie Hancock , and on a 1979 record released after his death, Charles Mingus . [5] From the 1980s on, Mitchell reduced her recording and touring schedule but turned again toward pop, making greater use of synthesizers and direct political protest in her lyrics, which often tackled social and environmental themes alongside romantic and emotional ones. Mitchell’s work is highly respected both by critics and fellow musicians. Rolling Stone magazine called her “one of the greatest songwriters ever,” [6] while Allmusic said, “When the dust settles, Joni Mitchell may stand as the most important and influential female recording artist of the late 20th century.” [7] Mitchell is also a visual artist . She created the artwork for each of her albums, and in 2000 described herself as a “painter derailed by circumstance.” [8] A blunt critic of the music industry, Mitchell had stopped recording over the last several years, focusing more attention on painting, but in 2007 she released Shine , her first album of new songs in nine years. Joni Mitchell was born Roberta Joan Anderson on November 7, 1943, in Fort Macleod , Alberta , Canada, to Bill Anderson and Myrtle Anderson (née McKee). Her mother was a teacher, and her father an officer in the Royal Canadian Air Force . During the war years , she moved with her parents to a number of bases in western Canada. After the war, her father began working as a grocer, and his work took the family to Saskatchewan to the towns of Maidstone and North Battleford . When she was eleven years old, the family settled in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan , which Mitchell considers her hometown. Her mother’s ancestors were Scottish and Irish. [9] Her father’s were Norwegian . Her paternal grandmother was born on the farm Farestveit in Modalen , Hordaland, Norway. Her paternal grandfather was from Sømna, Sør-Helgeland, Nordland, Norway. There was also Sami (formerly Lapp) heritage on her father’s side. At the age of nine, Mitchell contracted polio during a Canadian epidemic, but she recovered after a stay in hospital. It was during this time that she first became interested in singing. She describes her first experience singing while in hospital during the winter in the following way: “They said I might not walk again, and that I would not be able to go home for Christmas. I wouldn’t go for it. So I started to sing Christmas carols and I used to sing them real loud … The boy in the bed next to me, you know, used to complain. And I discovered I was a ham.” [10] She began smoking at the age of nine as well, a habit which is debatably one of the factors contributing to the change in her voice in recent years (Mitchell herself disputes this in several interviews). [11] As a teenager, Joni taught herself ukulele and, later, guitar . She began performing at parties and bonfires, which eventually led to gigs playing in coffeehouses and other venues in Saskatoon. After finishing high school at Aden Bowman Collegiate in Saskatoon, she attended the Alberta College of Art and Design in Calgary for a year, during which she made the acquaintance of another budding singer-songwriter, Harry Chapin , but Mitchell then left, telling her mother: “I’m going to Toronto to be a folksinger.” After leaving art college in June 1964, Mitchell left her home in Saskatoon to relocate to Toronto. She found out that she was pregnant by her college ex-boyfriend, and in February 1965 she gave birth to a baby girl. A few weeks after the birth, Joni Anderson married folk-singer Chuck Mitchell, and took his surname. A few weeks later she gave her daughter, Kelly Dale Anderson, up for adoption. The experience remained private for most of her career, but she made allusions to it in several songs, most notably a very specific telling of the story in the 1971 song “ Little Green “. Mitchell’s 1982 song “Chinese Cafe”, from the album Wild Things Run Fast, includes the lyrics “Your kids are coming up straight / My child’s a stranger / I bore her / But I could not raise her.” Mitchell’s daughter, renamed Kilauren Gibb, began a search for her as an adult. In 1997 Gibb mentioned her search to the girlfriend of a man with whom she had grown up. By coincidence, this woman knew a third person who had once told her that he knew Joni Mitchell years earlier “when she was pregnant.” Mitchell and her daughter were reunited shortly thereafter. [12] In the summer of 1965, Chuck Mitchell took Joni with him to the United States. While living in Detroit, Chuck & Joni were regular performers at area coffee houses as well as The Alcove bar near Wayne State University and the “Rathskelter” a restaurant on the campus of the University of Detroit. Oscar Brand featured her several times on his CBC television program Let’s Sing Out in 1965 and 1966, broadening her exposure. Mitchell attended school at West Virginia University for short period, which led to her song “Morning Morgantown.” [13] The marriage and partnership of Joni and Chuck Mitchell dissolved in early 1967, and Joni moved to New York City to pursue her musical dreams as a solo artist. She played venues up and down the East Coast, including Philadelphia, Boston, and Fort Bragg, North Carolina. She performed frequently in coffeehouses and folk clubs and, by this time creating her own material, became well known for her unique songwriting and her innovative guitar style. 1970 “Both Sides Now” Folk singer Tom Rush had met Mitchell in Toronto and was impressed with her songwriting ability. He took “Urge For Going” to popular folk act Judy Collins but she was not interested in the song at the time, so Rush recorded it himself. Country singer George Hamilton IV heard Rush performing it and recorded a hit country version. Other artists who recorded Mitchell songs in the early years were Buffy Sainte-Marie (“ The Circle Game “), Dave Van Ronk (“Both Sides Now”), and eventually Judy Collins (“Both Sides Now”, a top ten hit, included on her 1967 album Wildflowers ). Collins also covered “Chelsea Morning”, a recording which again eclipsed Mitchell’s own commercial success early on. While she was playing one night in “The Gaslight South” [14] , a club in Coconut Grove , Florida , David Crosby walked in and was immediately struck by her ability and her appeal as an artist. He took her back to Los Angeles , where he set about introducing her and her music to his friends. Crosby convinced a record company to agree to let Mitchell record a solo acoustic album without all the folk-rock overdubs that were in vogue at the time, and his clout earned him a producer’s credit in March 1968, when Reprise Records released her debut album, alternately known as Joni Mitchell or Song to a Seagull . This is a live performance of Joni Mitchell’s hit, “My Old Man”. This was taken on October 9, 1970. Mitchell continued touring steadily to promote the LP. The tour helped create eager anticipation for Mitchell’s second LP, Clouds , which was released in April 1969. It finally contained Mitchell’s own versions of some of her songs already recorded and performed by other artists: “ Chelsea Morning “, “ Both Sides Now “, and “Tin Angel.” The covers of both LPs, including a self-portrait on Clouds , were designed and painted by Mitchell, a marriage of her art and music which she would continue throughout her career. In March 1970 Clouds won Joni Mitchell her first Grammy Award for Best Folk Performance . The following month, Reprise released her third album, Ladies of the Canyon . Mitchell’s sound, still under the guidance of producer Crosby, was already beginning to expand beyond the confines of acoustic folk music and toward pop and rock, with more overdubs, percussion, and backing vocals, and for the first time, many songs composed on piano, which would become a hallmark of Mitchell’s style in her most popular era. Her own version of “ Woodstock “, slower and darker than the Crosby, Stills & Nash cover, was performed on a Wurlitzer electric piano . The album also included the already-familiar song “The Circle Game” and the environmental anthem “ Big Yellow Taxi “, with its now-famous line, “they paved paradise and put up a parking lot.” “Chelsea Morning” 1969 Ladies of the Canyon was an instant smash on FM radio and sold briskly through the summer and fall, eventually becoming Joni’s first gold album (selling over a half million copies). Mitchell made a decision to stop touring for a year and just write and paint, yet she was still voted “Top Female Performer” for 1970 by Melody Maker , the UK’s leading pop music magazine. The songs she wrote during the months she took off for travel and life experience would appear on her next album, Blue , released in June 1971. Of Blue and in comparing Joni Mitchell’s talent to that of his own, David Crosby said, “By the time she did ‘Blue,’ she was past me and rushing toward the horizon” (A 65th Birthday Tribute to Joni Mitchell, 2008). [15] Blue was an almost instant critical and commercial success, peaking in the top 20 in the Billboard Album Charts in September and also hitting the British Top 3. Lushly produced “Carey” was the single at the time, but musically, other parts of Blue departed further from the sounds of Ladies of the Canyon in favor of simpler, rhythmic acoustic parts allowing a focus on Joni’s voice and emotions (“All I Want”, “A Case of You”), while others such as “Blue”, “ River ” and “ The Last Time I Saw Richard ” were sung to her rolling piano accompaniment. In its lyrics, the album was regarded as an inspired culmination of her early work, with depressed assessments of the world around her serving as counterpoint to exuberant expressions of romantic love (for example, in “California”). Mitchell later remarked, “At that period of my life, I had no personal defenses. I felt like a cellophane wrapper on a pack of cigarettes. I felt like I had absolutely no secrets from the world and I couldn’t pretend in my life to be strong.” [10] Mitchell made the decision to return to the live stage after the great success of Blue, and she presented many new songs on tour which would appear on her next album. Joni’s fifth work, For the Roses , was released in October 1972 and immediately zoomed up the charts. She followed with the single, “You Turn Me On, I’m a Radio”, which peaked at #25 in the Billboard Charts in February 1973, becoming her first bonafide hit single. The album was critically acclaimed and earned her success on her own terms, though it was somewhat overshadowed by the success of Blue and by Mitchell’s next album. Court and Spark , released in January 1974, would see Mitchell begin the flirtation with jazz and jazz fusion that marked her experimental period ahead, but it was also her most commercially successful recording, and among her most critically acclaimed. Court and Spark went to #1 on the Cashbox Album Charts. The LP made Joni Mitchell a widely popular act for perhaps the only time in her career, on the strength of popular tracks such as the rocker “ Raised on Robbery “, which was released right before Christmas 1973 , and “ Help Me “, which was released in March of the following year, and became Joni’s only Top 10 single when it peaked at #7 in the first week of June. “ Free Man in Paris ” was another hit single and staple in her catalog. “Free Man In Paris” While recording Court and Spark, Mitchell had tried to make a clean break with her earlier folk sound, producing the album herself and employing jazz/pop fusion band the L.A. Express as what she called her first real backing group. In February 1974, her tour with the L.A. Express began, and they received rave notices as they traveled across the United States and Canada during the next two months. A series of shows at L.A.’s Universal Amphitheater from August 14–17 were recorded for a live album release. In November, Mitchell released a live album called Miles of Aisles , a two-record set including all but two songs from the L.A. concerts (one selection each from the Berkeley Community Center, on March 2, and the LA Music Center, on March 4, were also included in the set). The live album slowly moved up to #2, matching Court and Sparks’s chart peak on Billboard. “Big Yellow Taxi”, the live version, was also released as a single and did reasonably well (Mitchell would ultimately release yet another recording of “Big Yellow Taxi” in 2007). In January 1975, Court and Spark received four nominations for Grammy Awards, including Grammy Award for Album of the Year , for which Mitchell was the only woman nominated . She won only the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s) Joni Mitchell went into the studio in the spring of 1975 to record acoustic demos of some songs she’d written since the Court and Spark tour ended. A few months later she recorded versions of the tunes with her band, which now included saxophonist Wayne Shorter . Mitchell’s musical interests now were diverging from both the folk and the pop scene of the era, toward less structured, more jazz-inspired pieces, with a wider range of instruments. On “The Jungle Line”, she also made an early effort at sampling a recording of African musicians, something that would become more commonplace among Western rock acts in the 1980s. Meanwhile, “In France They Kiss on Main Street” continued the lush pop sounds of Court and Spark, and efforts such as the title song and “Edith and the Kingpin” chronicled the underbelly of suburban lives in Southern California. “Twisted” 1974 The new song cycle was released in November 1975 as The Hissing of Summer Lawns . The album was initially a big seller, peaking at #4 on the Billboard Album Charts, but it received mixed reviews at the time of its release.[ citation needed ] A common legend holds that Rolling Stone magazine declared it the “Worst Album of the Year”; in truth, it was called only the year’s worst album title. [16] However, Mitchell and Rolling Stone have had a contentious relationship, beginning years earlier when the magazine featured a “tree” illustrating all of Mitchell’s alleged romantic partners, primarily other musicians, which the singer said “hurt my feelings terribly at the time.” [6] During 1975, Mitchell also participated in several concerts in the Rolling Thunder Revue tours featuring Bob Dylan and Joan Baez , and in 1976 she performed as part of The Last Waltz by The Band . In January 1976, Mitchell received one nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the album The Hissing of Summer Lawns , though the Grammy went to Linda Ronstadt . In early 1976, Mitchell traveled with friends who were driving cross country to Maine. Afterwards, Mitchell drove back to California alone and composed several songs during her journey which would feature on her next album, 1976’s Hejira . She states, “This album was written mostly while I was traveling in the car. That’s why there were no piano songs…” [10] Hejira was arguably Mitchell’s most experimental album so far, due to her ongoing collaborations with legendary jazz virtuoso bass guitarist Jaco Pastorius on several songs including the first single, “ Coyote “, the atmospheric “Hejira”, the disorienting, guitar-heavy “Black Crow,” and the album’s last song “Refuge of the Roads.” The album climbed to No. 13 on the Billboard Charts, reaching gold status three weeks after release, and received airplay from album oriented FM rock stations. Yet “Coyote”, backed with “Blue Motel Room”, failed to chart on the Hot 100. While the album was greeted by many fans and critics as a “return to form”, by the time she recorded it her days as a huge pop star were over. However, if Hejira “did not sell as briskly as Mitchell’s earlier, more “radio friendly” albums, its stature in her catalogue has grown over the years.” [17] Mitchell herself believes the album to be unique. In 2006 she said, “I suppose a lot of people could have written a lot of my other songs, but I feel the songs on Hejira could only have come from me.” [17] “Help Me” “Help Me” Live Performance In the summer of 1977, Mitchell began work on new recordings, what would become her first double studio album. Close to completing her contract with Asylum Records, Mitchell felt that this album could be looser in feel than any album she’d done in the past. Don Juan’s Reckless Daughter was released in December 1977. The album received mixed reviews but still sold relatively well, peaking at No. 25 in the US and going gold within three months. The cover of the album created its own controversy; Mitchell was featured in several photographs on the cover, including one where she was disguised as a black man (this is a reference to a character in one song on the album). Layered, atmospheric compositions such as “Overture / Cotton Avenue” featured more collaboration with Pastorius, while “Paprika Plains” was a 16-minute epic that stretched the boundaries of pop, owing more to Joni’s memories of childhood in Canada and her study of classical music. “Dreamland” and “The Tenth World”, featuring Chaka Khan on backing vocals, were percussion dominated tracks. Other songs continued the jazz-rock-folk collisions of Hejira. Mitchell also revived “Jericho”, written but never recorded years earlier (a version is found on her 1974 live album). A few months after the release of Don Juan’s Reckless Daughter, Mitchell was contacted by jazz great Charles Mingus , who had heard the orchestrated song, “Paprika Plains”, and wanted her to work with him. Mitchell began a collaboration with Mingus, who died before the project was completed in 1979. She finished the tracks (most were her own Mingus-inspired compositions, though “ Goodbye Pork Pie Hat ” is a Mingus instrumental standard to which Joni composed lyrics) and the resulting album, Mingus , was released in June 1979, though it was poorly received in the press. Fans were confused over such a major change in Mitchell’s overall sound, and though the album topped out at No. 17 on the Billboard album charts—a higher placement than Don Juan’s Reckless Daughter — Mingus still fell short of gold status, making it her first album since the 1960s to not sell at least a half-million copies. Mitchell’s summer tour to promote Mingus began in August 1979 in Oklahoma City and concluded six weeks later with five shows at Los Angeles’ Greek Theater, where she recorded and filmed the concerts. It was her first tour in several years, and with Pastorius, jazz guitar great Pat Metheny , and other members of her band, Mitchell also performed songs from her other jazz-inspired albums. When the tour ended she began a year of work, turning the tapes from the Los Angeles shows into a two-album set and a concert film, both to be called Shadows and Light . Her final release on Asylum Records and her second live double-album, it was released in September 1980, and made it up to No. 38 on the Billboard Charts. A single from the LP, “Why Do Fools Fall in Love?”, Mitchell’s duet with The Persuasions (her opening act for the tour), bubbled under on Billboard, just missing the Hot 100. For a year and a half, Mitchell worked on the tracks for her next album. During this period Mitchell recorded with bassist Larry Klein, eventually marrying him in 1982. While the album was being readied for release, her friend David Geffen , founder of Asylum Records , decided to start a new label, Geffen Records . Still distributed by Warner Bros,, (who controlled Asylum Records), Geffen was able to negate the remaining contractual obligations Mitchell had with Asylum and signed her to his new label. 1982’s Wild Things Run Fast marked a return to pop songwriting, including “Chinese Cafe/Unchained Melody”, which incorporated the chorus and parts of the melody of the famous Righteous Brothers hit, and “(You’re So Square) Baby I Don’t Care”, a remake of the Elvis chestnut which charted higher than any Mitchell single since her 70s sales peak when it climbed to No. 47 on the charts. The album, however, peaked on the Billboard Charts in its fifth week at only No. 25. As 1983 began, Mitchell began a world tour, visiting Japan, Australia, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia and then back to the United States. A performance from the tour was videotaped and later released on home video (and later DVD) as “Refuge Of The Roads.” As 1984 ended, Mitchell was writing new songs, when she had a suggestion from Geffen that perhaps an outside producer with experience in the modern technical arenas they wanted to explore might be a worthy addition. British synth-pop performer and producer Thomas Dolby was brought on board. Of Dolby’s role, Mitchell later commented: “I was reluctant when Thomas was suggested because he had been asked to produce the record [by Geffen], and would he consider coming in as just a programmer and a player? So on that level we did have some problems… He may be able to do it faster. He may be able to do it better, but the fact is that it then wouldn’t really be my music.” 1970 “California” The album that resulted, Dog Eat Dog , released in October 1985, received a mostly negative critical response. It turned out to be only a moderate seller, peaking at No. 63 on Billboard’s Top Albums Chart, Mitchell’s lowest chart position since her first album peaked at No. 189 almost eighteen years before. One of the songs on the album, Tax Free, created controversy by lambasting “televangelists” and what she saw as a drift to the religious right in American politics. “The churches came after me”, she wrote, “they attacked me, though the Episcopalian Church , which I’ve described as the only church in America which actually uses its head, wrote me a letter of congratulation.” [18] Mitchell continued experimenting with synthesizers, drum machines and sequencers for the recordings of her next album, 1988’s Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm . She also collaborated with artists including Willie Nelson , Billy Idol , Wendy and Lisa , Tom Petty , Don Henley and Peter Gabriel . The album’s first official single, “My Secret Place”, was in fact a duet with Gabriel, and just missed the Billboard Hot 100 charts. The song “Lakota” was one of many songs on the album to take on larger political themes, in this case the deadly battle between Native American activists and the FBI on the Lakota Sioux reservation in the previous decade. Musically, several songs fit into the trend of world music popularized by Gabriel during the era. Reviews were mostly favorable towards the album, and the cameos by well-known musicians brought it considerable attention. Chalk Mark ultimately improved on the chart performance of Dog Eat Dog, peaking at No. 45. After its release, Mitchell, who rarely performed live anymore, participated in Roger Waters ‘ The Wall Concert in Berlin in 1990. She performed the song, “ Goodbye Blue Sky ” and also was one of the performers on the concerts ending song, “ The Tide Is Turning ” along with Waters, Cyndi Lauper , Bryan Adams , Van Morrison and Paul Carrack . Throughout the first half of 1990, Mitchell recorded songs that would appear on her next album. She delivered the final mixes for the new album to Geffen just before Christmas, after trying nearly a hundred different sequences for the songs. The album Night Ride Home was released in March 1991. In the United States, it premiered on Billboard’s Top Album charts at No. 68, moving up to No. 48 in its second week, and peaking at No. 41 in its sixth week. In the United Kingdom, the album premiered at No. 25 on the album charts. Critically, it was better received than her 80s work and seemed to signal a move closer to her acoustic beginnings, along with some references to the style of Hejira. To wider audiences, the real “return to form” for Mitchell came with the 1994’s Grammy -winning Turbulent Indigo . While the recording period also saw the divorce of Mitchell and bassist Larry Klein , whose marriage had lasted almost 12 years, Indigo was seen as Mitchell’s most accessible set of songs in years. Songs such as “Sex Kills”, “Sunny Sunday”, “Borderline” and “The Magdalene Laundries” mixing social commentary and guitar-focused melodies for “a startling comeback.” [19] The album won two Grammy awards, including Best Pop Album, and it coincided with a much-publicized resurgence in interest in Mitchell’s work by a younger generation of singer-songwriters. “Woodstock” Joni Mitchell live at Big Sur, California, September 14, 1969. In 1996, Mitchell agreed to release a greatest Hits collection when label Reprise also allowed her a second Misses album to include some of the lesser known songs from her career. Hits charted at No. 161 in the US, but made No. 6 in the UK. Mitchell also included on Hits, for the first time on an album, her first recording, a version of “Urge for Going” which preceded Song to a Seagull but was previously released only as a B-side. Two years later, Mitchell released her final set of “original” new work before nearly a decade of other pursuits, 1998’s Taming the Tiger . She promoted Tiger with a return to regular concert appearances, most notably a co-headlining tour with Bob Dylan and Van Morrison . On the album, Mitchell had played a “ guitar synthesizer ” on most songs, and for the tour she adapted many of her old songs to this instrument, and reportedly had to re-learn all her complex tunings once again. It was around this time that critics also began to notice a real change in Mitchell’s voice, particularly on her older songs; the singer later admitted to feeling the same way, explaining that “I’d go to hit a note and there was nothing there.” [20] While her more limited range and huskier vocals have sometimes been attributed to her smoking (she has been described as “one of the world’s last great smokers”), Mitchell believes the changes in her voice that became noticeable in the nineties were due to other problems, including vocal nodules, a compressed larynx, and the lingering effects of having had polio. [20] In an interview in 2004, she denied that “my terrible habits” had anything to do with her more limited range and pointed out that singers often lose the upper register when they pass fifty. In addition, she contended that in her opinion her voice became a more interesting and expressive alto range when she no longer could hit the high notes, let alone hold them like she did in her youth. [21] The singer’s next two albums featured no new songs and, Mitchell has said, were recorded to “fulfill contractual obligations”, [19] but on both she attempted to make use of her new vocal range in interpreting familiar material. Both Sides Now (2000) was an album composed mostly of covers of jazz standards , performed with an orchestra, featuring orchestral arrangements by Vince Mendoza . The album also contained remakes of “ A Case of You ” and the title track “Both Sides Now”, two early hits transposed down to Mitchell’s now dusky, soulful alto range. It received mostly strong reviews and spawned a short national tour, with Mitchell accompanied by a core band featuring Larry Klein on bass plus a local orchestra on each tour stop. Its success led to 2002’s Travelogue , a collection of re-workings of her previous songs with lush orchestral accompaniments. Diana Krall performing the Joni Mitchell song, “A Case Of You” Mitchell stated at the time that this would be her final album. In a 2002 interview with Rolling Stone, she voiced discontent with the current state of the music industry, describing it as a “cesspool.” [6] Mitchell expressed her dislike of the record industry’s dominance and her desire to control her own destiny, possibly through releasing her own music over the Internet. During the next few years, the only albums Mitchell released were compilations of her earlier work. In 2003, Mitchell’s Geffen recordings were collected in a remastered, four-disc box set, The Complete Geffen Recordings, including notes by Mitchell and some previously unreleased tracks. A series of themed compilations of songs from earlier albums were also released: The Beginning of Survival (2004), Dreamland (2004), and Songs of a Prairie Girl (2005), the last of which collected the threads of her Canadian upbringing and which she released after accepting an invitation to the Saskatchewan Centennial concert in Saskatoon. The concert, which featured a tribute to Mitchell, was also attended by Queen Elizabeth II . In Prairie Girl liner notes, she writes that the collection is “my contribution to Saskatchewan’s Centennial celebrations.” “River Live” Beautiful song! Rare live recording at the Royal Albert Hall, 1970. In the early 1990s, Mitchell signed a deal with Random House to publish an autobiography. [22] In 1998 she told The New York Times that her memoirs were “in the works”, that they would be published in as many as four volumes, and that the first line would be “I was the only black man at the party.” [23] In 2005, Mitchell said that she was using a tape recorder to get “down [her memories] in the oral tradition.” [24] As well in the early 2000s, Joni Mitchell worked with internationally acclaimed artist Gilles Hebert. Joni visited the Mendel Art Gallery in Saskatoon, where she and Giles produced a book called ‘Voices’. The book received international attention and extended her fame, and the fame of Gilles Hebert. Although Mitchell stated that she would no longer tour or give concerts, she has made occasional public appearances to speak on environmental issues. [25] Mitchell divides her time between her longtime home in Los Angeles, and the 80 acre property in Sechelt , British Columbia that she has owned since the early 1970s. “L.A. is my workplace”, she said in 2006, “B.C. is my heartbeat.” [26] According to interviews, today she focuses mainly on her visual art, which she does not sell and which she displays only on rare occasions. [27] In an October 2006 interview with The Ottawa Citizen, Mitchell “revealed she’s recording her first collection of new songs in nearly a decade”, but gave few other details. [17] Four months later, in an interview with The New York Times, Mitchell said that the forthcoming album, titled Shine , was inspired by the war in Iraq and “something her grandson had said while listening to family fighting: ‘Bad dreams are good—in the great plan.'” [28] Early media reports characterized the album as having “a minimal feel… that harks back to [Mitchell’s] early work”, and a focus on political and environmental issues. [20] In February 2007, Mitchell also returned to Calgary and served as an advisor for the Alberta Ballet Company premiere of “The Fiddle and the Drum”, a dance choreographed to both new and old songs. Mitchell also filmed portions of the rehearsals for a documentary she’s working on. Of the flurry of recent activity she quipped, “I’ve never worked so hard in my life.” [28] In summer 2007, Mitchell’s official fan-run site confirmed speculation that she had signed a two-record deal with Starbucks ‘ Hear Music label. Shine was released by the label on September 25, 2007 [29] , debuting at number 14 on the Billboard 200 album chart, her highest chart position in the United States since the release of Hejira in 1976, over thirty years previously, and at number 36 on the United Kingdom albums chart. On the same day, Herbie Hancock , a longtime associate and friend of Mitchell’s, released River: The Joni Letters , an album paying tribute to Mitchell’s work. Among the album’s contributors were Norah Jones , Tina Turner , Leonard Cohen , and Mitchell herself, who contributed a vocal to the re-recording of “The Tea Leaf Prophecy (Lay Down Your Arms)” (originally on her album Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm ). [30] On February 10, 2008, Hancock’s recording won Album of the Year at the Grammy Awards. It was the first time in 43 years that a jazz artist took the top prize at the annual award ceremony. In accepting the award, Hancock paid tribute to Mitchell as well as to Miles Davis and John Coltrane . At the same ceremony Mitchell won a Grammy for Best Instrumental Pop Performance for the opening track “One Week Last Summer” from her album Shine. On February 12, 2010, Both sides now was performed at the opening ceremonies of the Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver . Mitchell is currently in the midst of treatments for the controversial condition “ Morgellons syndrome “. [31] Mitchell spoke to the LA Times on April 22, 2010 about the disease, saying, “I have this weird, incurable disease that seems like it’s from outer space, but my health’s the best it’s been in a while.” She described Morgellons as a “slow, unpredictable killer” but said she is determined to fight the disease. “I have a tremendous will to live: I’ve been through another pandemic — I’m a polio survivor, so I know how conservative the medical body can be.” According to Mitchell, Morgellons is often misdiagnosed as “delusion of parasites,” and suffers of the disease are offered psychiatric treatment. Mitchell said she plans to leave the music industry to work toward giving people diagnosed with Morgellons more credibility. [32] Quick Bio Facts: 37.810448 -122.239864 July 13, 2010 Neil Sedaka Neil Sedaka (born March 13, 1939) is an American pop singer , pianist , and songwriter . His career has spanned over 50 years, during which time he has written many songs for himself and others, often working with lyricists Howard Greenfield and Phil Cody. Sedaka was born in Brooklyn , New York . His father, Mac Sedaka, a taxi driver, was the son of Turkish Jewish immigrants (“Sedaka” is a variant of tzedaka — Hebrew for charity); his mother, Eleanor (Appel) Sedaka, was of Polish – Russian Jewish descent. He grew up in an apartment in Brighton Beach, Brooklyn . [1] He is the cousin of singer Eydie Gorme . [ citation needed ] He demonstrated musical aptitude in his second-grade choral class, and when his teacher sent a note home suggesting he take piano lessons, his mother took a part-time job in an Abraham & Straus department store for six months to pay for a second-hand upright. He took to the instrument immediately. In 1947, he auditioned successfully for a piano scholarship to the Juilliard School of Music ‘s Preparatory Division for Children, which he attended on Saturdays. He also maintained an interest in popular music, and when he was 13, a neighbor heard him playing and introduced him to her 16-year-old son, Howard Greenfield , an aspiring poet and lyricist. The two began writing together. The best-known Billboard Hot 100 hits of his early career are “The Diary” (#14, 1958), a song that he offered to Little Anthony and the Imperials ; “Oh! Carol” (#9, 1959 ); “You Mean Everything to Me” (#17, 1960); “Calendar Girl” (#4, 1960); “Stairway to Heaven” (#9, 1960); “Run Samson Run” (top 30, 1960); “Little Devil” (#11, 1961); “ Happy Birthday Sweet Sixteen ” (#6, 1961); “ Breaking Up Is Hard to Do ” (#1, 1962); and “Next Door to an Angel” (#5, 1962). “ Oh! Carol ” refers to Sedaka’s Brill Building compatriot and former girlfriend Carole King . King responded with her answer song , “Oh, Neil” and, by using the same chord progression, “ Will You Love Me Tomorrow “. A Scopitone exists for “Calendar Girl”. 1966 “Breaking Up Is Hard To Do” “Breaking Up Is Hard To Do” -Slow romantic version. Boy what a difference tempo makes! A similar sharing came earlier with Sedaka and singer Connie Francis . As Francis explains at her concerts, she began searching for a new hit after her 1958 single “ Who’s Sorry Now? “. She was introduced to Sedaka and Howard Greenfield, who played every ballad they had written for her. Francis began writing her diary while the two played the last of their songs. After they finished, Francis told them they wrote beautiful ballads but that they were too intellectual for the young generation. Sedaka suggested to Greenfield a song they had written that morning for a girl group. Greenfield protested because the song had been promised to the girl group, but Sedaka insisted on playing “Stupid Cupid”. Francis told them they had just played her new hit. Francis’ song reached #14 on the Billboard charts. While Francis was in writing her diary, Sedaka asked her if he could read what she had written. After she refused, Sedaka was inspired to write “The Diary”, his first hit single. Sedaka and Greenfield wrote many of Connie Francis’ hits such as “Fallin'” and “ Where the Boys Are “. In 1961, Sedaka began to record some of his hits in Italian. At first he published “Esagerata” and “Un Giorno Inutile”, local versions of “Little Devil” and “I Must Be Dreaming”. Other recordings were to follow, such as “Tu Non Lo Sai” (“Breaking Up Is Hard to Do”), “Il Re Dei Pagliacci” (“King of Clowns”), “I Tuoi Capricci” (“Look Inside Your Heart”), and “La Terza Luna” (“Waiting For Never”) to name only a few. Sedaka also recorded in Spanish, German, Hebrew, Yiddish, and Japanese. “Laughter In The Rain” Between 1960 and 1962, Sedaka had eight Top 40 hits, but he was one of many American performers of the era whose popularity declined due to the British Invasion and the evolution of the Rock and Pop genres of music. His commercial success declined rapidly after 1964: he scored only two minor hits in 1965, and none of his 1966 singles charted. His RCA contract was not renewed when it ended in 1967, and he was left without a record label. Neil Sedaka joined by Captain and Tenille, “Love Will Keep Us Together” Although Sedaka’s stature as a recording artist was at a low ebb in the late 1960s, he was able to maintain his career through songwriting. Thanks to the fact that his publisher, Aldon Music, was acquired by Screen Gems , two of his songs were recorded by The Monkees , and other hits in this period written by Sedaka included The Cyrkle ‘s version of “We Had a Good Thing Goin'” and “Workin’ on a Groovy Thing”, a Top 40 R&B hit for Patti Drew in 1968 and a US Top 20 hit for The 5th Dimension in 1969. Also, “Make the Music Play” was included on Frankie Valli ‘s charting album Timeless. On an episode of the quiz show I’ve Got a Secret in 1965, Sedaka’s secret was that he was to represent the United States in classical piano at the Tchaikovsky competition in Moscow , and he played “ Fantasie Impromptu ” on the show. Panelist Henry Morgan made a point that the Russians, at least older ones, hated rock and roll. Sedaka’s participation in the competition, which Van Cliburn had won in 1958, was canceled by the USSR because of Sedaka’s rock and roll connection. Sedaka also made an appearance in the 1968 movie “ Playgirl Killer “, with a scene of him performing a song called “The Waterbug” “Solitaire” 1974 Carpenter’s version of the same tune. Sedaka revived his solo career in the early 1970s. Despite his waning chart appeal in the USA in the late 1960s, he remained very popular as a concert attraction, notably in the UK and Australia. He made several trips to Australia to play cabaret dates, and his commercial comeback began when the single “Star Crossed Lovers” became a major hit there. The song went to #5 nationally in April 1969 [2] — giving Sedaka his first charting single in four years—and it also came in at #5 in Go-Set magazine’s list of the Top 40 Australian singles of 1969 [3] . “The Hungry Years” Later that year, with the support of Festival Records , he recorded a new LP of original material entitled Workin’ on a Groovy Thing at Festival Studios in Sydney. It was co-produced by Festival staff producer Pat Aulton , with arrangements by John Farrar (who later achieved international fame for his work with Olivia Newton-John ) and backing by Australian session musicians including guitarist Jimmy Doyle ( Ayers Rock ) and noted jazz musician-composer John Sangster . [4] 1975 “The Immigrant” The single lifted from the album, “Wheeling, West Virginia,” reached #20 in Australia in early 1970 [5] . The LP is also notable because it was Sedaka’s first album to include collaborations with writers other than longtime lyricist Howard Greenfield — the title track featured lyrics by Roger Atkins and four other songs were co-written with Carole Bayer Sager , who subsequently embarked on a successful collaboration with expatriate Australian singer-songwriter Peter Allen . “Oh Carol” 1959 Written for Carol King. In 1971, Sedaka showed signs of life with his Emergence. Singles lifted from that album include “I’m A Song (Sing Me)”, “Silent Movies”, “Superbird”, and “Rosemary Blue”. In 1972, Sedaka embarked on a successful English tour and in June recorded the Solitaire album in England at Strawberry Studios in Stockport , working with the four future members of 10cc . As well as the title track, which was successfully covered by Andy Williams and The Carpenters , it included two UK Top 40 singles, including “Beautiful You” which also charted in America—Sedaka’s first US hit in ten years. A year later he reconvened with the Strawberry team – who had by then charted with their own debut 10cc album – to record The Tra-La Days Are Over , which started the second phase of his career and included his original version of the hit song “Love Will Keep Us Together” (a US #1 hit two years later for The Captain & Tennille ). This album also marked the effective end of his writing partnership with Greenfield, commemorated by the track “Our Last Song Together.” He worked with Elton John , who signed him to his Rocket Records label (during the ensuing years, Sedaka’s records would be distributed in Europe on the Polydor label). Sedaka returned to the U.S. with a flourish, topping the Billboard Hot 100 singles charts twice with “ Laughter in the Rain ” and “ Bad Blood ,” both in 1975. Elton provided backing vocals for the latter song. The flipside of “ Laughter in the Rain ” was “The Immigrant” (US pop #22, US AC #1), a wistful, nostalgic piece dedicated to John Lennon , which recalled the by-gone era when America was welcoming of immigrants, in contrast to the U.S. government’s then-refusal to grant Lennon permanent resident status. [6] 1961 “Happy Birthday Sweet 16” Sedaka and Greenfield co-wrote “ Love Will Keep Us Together “, a No. 1 hit for The Captain and Tennille and was the biggest hit for the entire year of 1975. Toni Tennille paid tribute to Sedaka’s welcome return to music-business success with her ad lib of “Sedaka is back” in the outro while she was laying down her own background vocals . [7] . The Captain and Tennille also recorded a Spanish-language version of the song the same year that cracked the top half of Billboard’s Hot 100 chart (“Por Amor Viviremos,” US pop #49). The irony must have been palpable to Sedaka, to have two #1 hits and another two Top 25 Billboard hits (also “That’s When the Music Takes Me”; US pop #25, US AC #7) all in the same year (1975), just to be eclipsed by a brand-new duo act having stellar success with a cover of his own song. Most likely, he was much more than pleased; it was the most successful year in Sedaka’s entire career, and Tennille’s coda ad lib of “Sedaka is back” certainly proved to be true in all respects. Neil Sedaka Interview In 1975, Sedaka was the opening act for the The Carpenters on their world tour. According to The Carpenters: The Untold Story by Ray Coleman , manager Sherwin Bash fired Sedaka at the request of Richard Carpenter . The firing resulted in a media backlash against The Carpenters after Sedaka publicly announced he was off the tour. This, however, was before Karen and Richard recorded Sedaka’s “ Solitaire ” which became a Top 20 hit for the duo. Richard Carpenter denied that he fired Sedaka for “stealing their show,” stating they were proud of Sedaka’s success. However, Bash was fired as The Carpenters’ manager a short time after. With Andy Gibb on the Dick Clark Show. “Bad Blood” “ Solitaire ” would find success again in the 21st century, when American Idol runner-up Clay Aiken sang the song when Sedaka appeared as a judge in the second season, won by Ruben Studdard . The “guest judge” aspect has since been eliminated. Aiken explained that the song was his mother’s favorite and that she begged him to sing it when she learned that Sedaka would be on the show and that the remaining finalists would be singing songs from Sedaka’s impressive songbook. After Aiken was awarded a recording contract, although it did not appear on his debut CD itself, he added “Solitaire” as the B-side to the single “ The Way ,” whose sales were faltering. “Solitaire” was moved to the A-side and radio airplay and single and download sales responded immediately. The single hit #1 on the Billboard Hot Singles Sales chart, the Top 5 on Billboard’s Hot 100, and was one of the biggest hits of 2004. Sedaka was invited back to American Idol to celebrate its success and continues to be seen in the audience almost on an annual basis. In 1975, Sedaka recorded a new version of “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do.” The 1962 original #1 hit was fast- tempoed and a sort of bouncy teen pop, but the remake was slower and featured a jazzy, torch-piano arrangement. Lenny Welch had recorded the song in this style in 1970. Sedaka’s new version hit #8 on the Hot 100 in early 1976, making him the first artist, and remains so, to hit the U.S. Top 10 twice with different versions of the same song. (The Ventures had hits in 1960 and 1964 with recordings of “ Walk, Don’t Run ,” and Elton John later also recorded two of his hits twice, with 1991’s “ Don’t Let the Sun Go Down on Me ” and “ Candle in the Wind 1997 .” But those versions only involved changes in melody and/or lyrics, not entirely reworked versions of the song as Sedaka’s achieved.) Sedaka’s second version of “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do” topped Billboard’s Adult Contemporary chart in 1976. The same year, Elvis Presley recorded the Sedaka song “Solitaire.” This was followed by the Top 20 hit “Love in the Shadows,” also from 1976. Later that same year, Sedaka released a second (and final) collaboration with Elton John, with Elton once again on uncredited backing vocals—–the title song to Sedaka’s album “Steppin’ Out.” While it would crack the Hot 100’s Top 40, it would also signal the beginning of a slowdown in Sedaka’s music sales and radio play not unlike what he experienced in 1964 when The Beatles and the “British Invasion” arrived. In this version of another fading of his music sales, it was the arrival of the disco era. While Sedaka attempted to release disco-themed music himself in the late ’70s, his album sales were weak and singles could not get a foothold on the radio. In 1980 , Sedaka had his final Top 20 hit with “Should’ve Never Let You Go,” which he recorded with his then-17-year-old daughter, Dara. Even today, Sedaka proudly recalls that there have only been three father-daughter combinations to hit the Billboard Top 40: the Sinatras (Frank and Nancy), the Coles (Nat “King” and Natalie), and the Sedakas (Neil and Dara). Sedaka’s song, “Don’t Let The Sun Go Down On Me” performed by Elton John. A change in record companies in the early 1980s also required him to, for the first time in his career, begin recording cover versions of other artists’ “oldies.” This was undoubtedly a tough pill to swallow for one of America’s most prolific and successful composers and singers of his own songs. Only two singles on two albums, spaced three years apart, managed to land on Billboard’s Adult Contemporary chart; none charted on the Hot 100 at all. Another duet with Dara, a remake of the Marvin Gaye – Tammi Terrell 1967 Top 5 smash “ Your Precious Love ,” placed high enough on the A/C chart for one final album to be released. But the second album’s only release did not fare well on the A/C chart, and by 1985, Neil Sedaka was once again without a recording contract. But always the shrewd businessman, this time around he had amassed a huge fan base over four decades that were willing to come along. Concertgoers filled theatre seats while Sedaka created had his own music label that would assure that his catalog of hits would find the marketplace, and he released occasional CDs of self-produced new, original material that continued to pique his fans’ interest. Sedaka is also composer of “ Is This the Way to Amarillo ?,” a song initially recorded by Britain ‘s Tony Christie when Sedaka had moved his family to the UK in the early 1970s. It reached only #18 on the UK charts in 1971, but then hit #1 for seven consecutive weeks on the UK singles charts when reissued in 2005, thanks to a music video starring comedian Peter Kay . It was Britain’s most popular single for the entire year. Sedaka had also recorded and released the song in the US in 1977, when it became a #44 hit on Billboard’s Hot 100. On April 7, 2006, during a concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London , Sedaka was presented with an award from the Guinness World Records : British Hit Singles and Albums as writer of the best-selling single of the 21st century (thus far) for “Is This the Way to Amarillo?” Ben Folds , an American pop singer, credited Sedaka on his “iTunes Originals” album as inspiration for song publishing. Hearing Sedaka had a song published by the age of 13 gave Folds the goal of also getting a song published by his 13th birthday, despite the fact that Sedaka didn’t actually publish his first song until he was 16. [8] In addition to his work pointed out above in the “21st century” portion, Sedaka continues to perform as the second decade of the 21st century moves along. He has reached and passed the age of 70. He was inducted into the Songwriters’ Hall of Fame in 1983, has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , and was an October 2006 inductee of the Long Island Music Hall of Fame . A concert performance on 26 October 2007 at the Lincoln Center in New York City honored the 50th anniversary of Sedaka’s debut in show business. Guests included The Captain and Tennille , Natalie Cole , Connie Francis , Clay Aiken , music impresario David Foster , and many others. During his 2008 Australian tour, Sedaka premiered a new classical orchestral composition entitled “Joie de Vivre (Joy of Life).” [9] Sedaka also toured The Philippines for his May 17, 2008 concert at the Araneta Coliseum . [10] He is enjoying remarkable sales success in the 21st century, as his three most recent U.S. releases— The Definitive Collection , Waking Up Is Hard to Do, and The Music of My Life—have all appeared on Billboard ‘s Top 200 Albums chart. They charted in May 2007, May 2009, and February 2010, respectively. This is especially notable because none of his album releases had appeared on this particularly prestigious Billboard chart since In the Pocket in 1980, when his duet with daughter Dara, “Should’ve Never Let You Go,” was a Top 20 hit on the Hot 100. The Definitive Collection was a surprise (by all accounts) bona-fide hit, reaching the Top 25 of the albums chart, one of the highest-charting albums of his entire career. It is a life-spanning compilation of his hits, along with previously unreleased material and outtakes. Waking Up is a children’s album, inspired by his three grandchildren, in which he takes his best-known songs and changes the lyrics to delight babies, toddlers, and their elders alike. Music is a new release of original material. Also, in early 2010, his original uptempo version of “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do” is being heard (by a group of uncredited singers) as the impetus for the very ubiquitous series of cheeky insurance TV commercials, featuring actor Dennis Haysbert (best known as the star of the long-running CBS series The Unit and as beloved President David Palmer in the early seasons of the Fox series 24 ) assuring that TV viewers not insured by Allstate can break up with their current insurer without much ado at all. In 1985, songs composed by Sedaka were adapted for the Japanese anime TV series Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam . These included the two opening themes “Zeta – Toki wo Koete” (originally in English as “Better Days Are Coming”) and “Mizu no Hoshi e Ai wo Komete” (originally in English as “For Us to Decide,” but the English version was never recorded), as well as the end theme “Hoshizora no Believe” (written as “Bad and Beautiful”). Due to copyright, the songs were replaced for the North American DVD . In 1994, Sedaka provided the voice for Neil Moussaka, a parody of himself in Food Rocks , an attraction at Epcot from 1994-2006. A musical comedy based around the songs of Sedaka, titled Breaking Up Is Hard to Do, [11] was written in 2005 by Erik Jackson and Ben H. Winters; it is now under license to Theatrical Rights Worldwide. A biographical musical, Laughter in the Rain, produced by Bill Kenwright and Laurie Mansfield, and starring Wayne Smith as Sedaka, had its world premiere at the Churchill Theatre , Bromley (in London, UK) on 4 March 2010. Sedaka attended the opening and joined the cast on stage for an impromptu curtain call of the title song. Quick Bio Facts: Turkish Ancestry Paternal and Maternal Official Website: Sources: Wikipedia, YouTube, NNDB.com, IMDB.com 37.810448 -122.239864 July 3, 2010 Jack Jones John Allan “Jack” Jones (born January 14, 1938) is an American jazz and pop singer. He was one of the most popular vocalists of the 1960s. He was rated highly by Frank Sinatra , Mel Tormé and Tony Bennett and a major influence on Scott Walker . Judy Garland called him the best jazz singer in the world, although Jones was primarily a straight pop singer (even when he recorded contemporary material) whose ventures in the direction of jazz were mostly of the big band/swing variety. Jones won two Grammy Awards . He performs concerts around the world and remains popular in Las Vegas . Some of his best-known recordings are “ Wives and Lovers ” ( 1964 Grammy Award, Best Pop Male Performance ), “ The Race Is On “, “ Lollipops and Roses ” ( 1962 , Grammy Award, Best Pop Male Performance), “ The Impossible Dream “, “Call Me Irresponsible”, “Lady”, and “ The Love Boat Theme”. His birth name is John Allan Jones, the only son of actors Allan Jones and Irene Hervey . Jack Jones was born in Los Angeles on the very night that his father recorded his signature song “Donkey Serenade” (a fact that once prompted talkshow host Mike Douglas to say to him: “I won’t ask what your middle name is”). The young Jones attended University High School in West Los Angeles and studied drama and singing. His first professional break was with his father, when Allan Jones was performing at the Thunderbird Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. He recorded a couple of demos for songwriter Don Raye , attracting attention from the music industry. In 1959, Jones was signed to Capitol Records and released the album This Love of Mine and a few singles. None of these records sold well, and his contract was cut short. These early singles were compiled in the budget album The Romantic Voice of Jack Jones, released in the early 1970s in the UK by the label Music For Pleasure . After being dropped by Capitol, Jones was drafted and spent some time in the US Air Force . Back to civilian life, he had more luck with his next company, Kapp Records . In August 1961 he recorded the ballad “Lollipops and Roses” (a song by Tony Velona), which became a hit in the following year. Jack Jones shows why he is regarded as one of the best ballad singers with this rendition of a modern day classic recorded live in 2009. Jack Jones sings “Shadow of Your Smile” & “What Now My Love” from 03/27/1966 Jones’ biggest pop hit was “ Wives and Lovers ” by Burt Bacharach and Hal David . Today, the lyrics may seem chauvinistic, but this song was a kind of anthem for the urban male of the Kennedy era, hauntingly, since it was climbing the national charts when Kennedy was assassinated. The imagery seems to come from the pages of an early 1960s Playboy Magazine , and a good-looking, smooth-sounding Jack was the perfect vocalist to deliver this classic hit. Singer Bobbi Martin could be considered Jones’ counterpart, echoing much the same message in “For The Love Of Him” more than six years later from an agreeing female perspective. In the Kapp years, Jones recorded almost twenty albums, including Shall We Dance, This Was My Love, She Loves Me, Call Me Irresponsible, I´ve Got a Lot of Living To Do!, Bewitched, Wives and Lovers, Dear Heart, Where Love Has Gone, The Jack Jones Christmas Album, My Kind of Town, The Impossible Dream, The In Crowd, Jack Jones Sings , Lady, Our Song, etc. Young, handsome, and well-groomed, Jack Jones was an anomaly in the sixties, eschewing rock and roll trends and opting for the big band sound, lush romantic ballads and the Great American Songbook , although sometimes he recorded something more pop , country or bossa nova oriented. One of his biggest hits, for example, was “The Race Is On”, by country music legend George Jones (who is not related to Jack). Besides the good choice of material, Jones worked with top arrangers like Billy May , Nelson Riddle , Marty Paich , Shorty Rogers , Jack Elliott , Ralph Carmichael , Bob Florence , Don Costa and Pete King. Jones moved from Kapp (in the UK, London Records ) to RCA Records in 1967. His first album in the new company was called Without Her. The following releases, If You Ever Leave Me, L.A. Break Down, and Where is Love were in roughly the same style of the classic Kapp records, but with slightly more contemporary vocal stylings. After A Jack Jones Christmas, he decided to more significantly revamp his musical direction and image, changing his appearance from the smooth club entertainer of the 1960s Las Vegas scene to the long-haired singer of the early seventies. A Time For Us (1970) was one of the albums which marked his transition towards a middle of the road sound. Jones started to record more contemporary material, including covers of people like Randy Newman , Harry Nilsson , Carole King , Paul Williams , Richard Carpenter , Gordon Lightfoot , Gilbert O’Sullivan , etc. The album Bread Winners (1972) was a tribute to Bread , with eight songs written by David Gates and two by Jimmy Griffin and Robb Royer. Two of his more acclaimed albums of that period were dedicated to two French songwriters: Jack Jones Sings Michel Legrand (1971), and Write Me a Love Song, Charlie (1974), with songs by Charles Aznavour . The Full Life (1977) was produced by Jones and Bruce Johnston of the Beach Boys . On this album, Jones recorded “ Disney Girls ” (Johnston’s most well known song) and “ God Only Knows “, a Beach Boys classic. His last LP for RCA was With One More Look At You (1977) – the title song is a Paul Williams composition from the picture A Star Is Born . In 1979, Jones moved to MGM Records , recording the album Nobody Does it Better, which featured disco tracks of The Love Boat theme and his Grammy winner, “Wives and Lovers”. His second (and last) MGM album, Don’t Stop Now, featured duets with Maureen McGovern . Since 1980, he has recorded only a handful of albums, and now performs in various concert arenas and occasionally appears on the supper-club circuit. He has performed all over the world and has a large following in England, a place he visits almost every year. He even recorded an album there: Live at the London Palladium, that was released in 1995 by the label Emporio. Jones is also well regarded in Japan , where a lot of his old records were released on CD . Although Jones records only sporadically, his new work is always well received. In 1982 he recorded an album for Applause Records, with covers of songs by the Beatles , Billy Joel , The Eagles , etc. Jones released I Am a Singer in 1987 for USA Records, and in 1992 he recorded The Gershwin Album for Sony Music , with songs written by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin . In 1997 came NEW Jack Swing (Honest Entertainment), with Jones giving a big band treatment to old standards and assorted pop/rock songs. Another recent album is Jack Jones Paints a Tribute to Tony Bennett (Honest Entertainment, released in 1999), that was nominated for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance and Record of the Year. In March 2008, Jack Jones celebrated his 70 years of age and 50 years in show business with a concert at the McCallum Theatre ( Palm Springs ). The guests were jazz singer Patti Austin , songwriters Alan Bergman and Marilyn Bergman and singing impressionist Bob Anderson. In 2010, he recorded an album focusing on the Bergmans’ work called Love Makes The Changes. Classic Bacharach/David song was a mid-60’s hit for the great Jack Jones. Jack Jones made his movie debut in Juke Box Rhythm (1959), a rock and roll exploitation production. He is Riff Manton, a young singer who is involved romantically with a princess (Jo Morrow). Jack sings three songs. Others performers featured were The Earl Grant Trio, Johnny Otis & His Band and The Treniers . Jones has acted in such minor films as cult horror The Comeback and feature length British TV comedy, Cruise of the Gods . In the latter, he starred alongside comedy writers/actors Steve Coogan , David Walliams and Rob Brydon . He had a humorous cameo in the film parody Airplane II: The Sequel (1982) as Robert Hays avoids searchlights while escaping captivity, the beams become a spotlight on Jones, performing a verse from The Love Boat theme. At the request of a patron at a stage-side table, Jack Jones sings his Grammy-award winning ballad at Yoshi’s jazz club in San Francisco on August 15, 2009. Accompanied by Vincent Falcone on the piano. Jack Jones & Joanie Sommers sing “Call Me” on Hollywood Palace in 1965 The singer was a staple in the sixties and seventies TV variety shows, performing on The Ed Sullivan Show , The Andy Williams Show , The Dick Cavett Show , The Hollywood Palace , The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour , The Jerry Lewis Show, American Bandstand , This is Tom Jones , The Dean Martin Show , The Judy Garland Show , Playboy After Dark , The Jack Benny Program, The Steve Allen Show , and The Morecambe and Wise Show in Britain. He twice hosted NBC’s top rated rock and roll series Hullabaloo , and was featured in two prime-time specials, Jack Jones On The Move (1966) and The Jack Jones Special (1974). Jones provided the famous opening theme for the television series The Love Boat from 1977 through 1985, and also made several guest appearances on the show. Prior to that, he also provided the vocals to the theme song of Funny Face , The Kind of Girl She Is. When the show returned as The Sandy Duncan Show, he was replaced by a chorus of unknown men and women. He also guested in the series The Rat Patrol , Police Woman , McMillan and Wife , The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries , Match Game , and Night Court . The singer promoted the Chrysler New Yorker in the mid-70’s with the “It’s the talk of the town” ad campaign. In 1990, Jones recorded Three Coins in the Fountain , which was used in the film Coins in the Fountain that same year. In these last two decades, Jones has been active in the musical theater , acting in Guys and Dolls , South Pacific and others. He went to national tour performing Don Quixote in Man Of La Mancha and was acclaimed by the critics. n the second half of the sixties, Jones had a well-publicized relationship with actress Jill St. John and the two were briefly married. In the early seventies, Jones married Gretchen Roberts. Next, he was linked romantically to British actress Susan George . From 1976 to 1982, he was married to Kathy Simmons. From 1982 to 2005 he was married to British-born Kim Ely and they had a daughter, Nicole (born in 1991). The singer has another daughter, Crystal Thomas, from a former marriage to Lee Fuller. Jack Jones now lives with wife Eleonora in La Quinta , a resort city in Riverside County , California . Source: WIkipedia, YouTube, IMDB.com NNDB.com, jackjones.com Quick Bio Facts: 37.810448 -122.239864 July 1, 2010 Janis Joplin Janis Lyn Joplin (January 19, 1943 – October 4, 1970) was an American singer, songwriter and music arranger. She rose to prominence in the late 1960s as the lead singer of Big Brother and the Holding Company and later as a solo artist. Rolling Stone magazine ranked Joplin number 46 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time in 2004, [1] and number 28 on its 2008 list of 100 Greatest Singers of All Time. [2] Janis Joplin was born in Port Arthur, Texas on January 19, 1943(1943-01-19), [3] to Seth Joplin (1910–87), an engineer at Texaco , and Dorothy (née East) Joplin (1913–98), a registrar at a business college. She had two younger siblings, Michael and Laura. The family attended the Church of Christ . [4] The Joplins felt that Janis always needed more attention than their other children, with her mother stating, “She was unhappy and unsatisfied without [receiving a lot of attention]. The normal rapport wasn’t adequate.” [5] Music Liner Notes is sponsored by Two Guys From Brooklyn -a unique web store selling personalized gifts for everyone. If you enjoy Music Liner Notes please support Two Guys From Brooklyn by visiting their site and signing up for their newsletter. Thank you! As a teenager, she befriended a group of outcasts, one of whom had albums by African-American blues artists Bessie Smith and Leadbelly , whom Joplin later credited with influencing her decision to become a singer. [6] She began singing in the local choir and expanded her listening to blues singers such as Odetta and Big Mama Thornton . Primarily a painter while still in school, she first began singing blues and folk music with friends. While at Thomas Jefferson High School , she stated that she was mostly shunned. [6] Joplin was quoted as saying, “I was a misfit. I read, I painted, I didn’t hate niggers .” [5] As a teen, she became overweight and her skin broke out so badly she was left with deep scars which required dermabrasion . [5] [7] [8] Other kids at high school would routinely taunt her and call her names like “pig,” “freak” or “creep.” [5] Joplin graduated from high school in 1960 and attended Lamar State College of Technology in Beaumont, Texas during the summer [7] and later the University of Texas at Austin , though she did not complete her studies. [9] The campus newspaper ran a profile of her in 1962 headlined “She Dares To Be Different.” [9] Cultivating a rebellious manner, Joplin styled herself in part after her female blues heroines and, in part, after the Beat poets . Her very first song recorded on tape, at the home of a fellow student in December 1962, was “ What Good Can Drinkin’ Do .” [10] She left Texas for San Francisco in 1963, living in North Beach and later Haight-Ashbury . In 1964, Joplin and future Jefferson Airplane guitarist Jorma Kaukonen recorded a number of blues standards, further accompanied by Margareta Kaukonen on typewriter (as percussion instrument). This session included seven tracks: “Typewriter Talk,” “Trouble In Mind,” “Kansas City Blues,” “ Hesitation Blues ,” “ Nobody Knows You When You’re Down and Out ,” “Daddy, Daddy, Daddy” and “Long Black Train Blues,” and was later released as the bootleg album The Typewriter Tape . Around this time her drug use increased, and she acquired a reputation as a “speed freak” and occasional heroin user. [3] [6] [7] She also used other psychoactive drugs and was a heavy drinker throughout her career; her favorite beverage was Southern Comfort . “Piece Of My Heart” In the spring of 1965, Joplin’s friends, noticing the physical effects of her amphetamine habit (she was described as “skeletal” [6] and “emaciated” [3] ), persuaded her to return to Port Arthur, Texas. In May 1965, Joplin’s friends threw her a bus-fare party so she could return home. [3] Back in Port Arthur, she changed her lifestyle. She avoided drugs and alcohol, began wearing relatively modest dresses, adopted a beehive hairdo, and enrolled as a sociology major at Lamar University in nearby Beaumont, Texas . During her year at Lamar University, she commuted to Austin to perform solo, accompanying herself on guitar. One of her performances was reviewed in the Austin American-Statesman . Joplin became engaged to a man who visited her, wearing a blue serge suit, to ask her father for her hand in marriage, but the man terminated plans for the marriage soon after. [8] Janis Joplin interview on the Dick Cavett Show In 1966, Joplin’s bluesy vocal style attracted the attention of the psychedelic rock band Big Brother and the Holding Company , a band that had gained some renown among the nascent hippie community in Haight-Ashbury . She was recruited to join the group by Chet Helms , a promoter who had known her in Texas and who at the time was managing Big Brother. Joplin joined Big Brother on June 4, 1966. [11] Her first public performance with them was at the Avalon Ballroom in San Francisco. Due to persistent persuading by keyboardist and close friend Stephen Ryder, Joplin avoided drug use for several weeks, enjoining bandmate Dave Getz to promise that using needles would not be allowed in their rehearsal space or in the communal apartment where they lived. [8] When a visitor to the apartment injected drugs in front of Joplin, she angrily reminded Getz that he had broken his promise. [8] A San Francisco concert from that summer was recorded and released in the 1984 album Cheaper Thrills. On August 23, 1966, [12] during a four week engagement in Chicago , the group signed a deal with independent label Mainstream Records . [13] They recorded tracks in a Chicago recording studio, but the label owner Bob Shad refused to pay their airfare back to San Francisco. [6] Shortly after the five band members drove from Chicago to Northern California with very little money, they moved with the Grateful Dead to a house in Lagunitas, California . It was there that Joplin relapsed into hard drugs. 1970 in Toronto, “Cry Baby” In early 1967, Joplin met Country Joe McDonald of the group Country Joe and the Fish . The pair lived together as a couple for a few months. [3] [13] Joplin and Big Brother began playing clubs in San Francisco, at the Fillmore West , Winterland and the Avalon Ballroom . They also played at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, as well as in Seattle , Washington and Vancouver , British Columbia, the Psychedelic Supermarket in Boston , Massachusetts and the Golden Bear Club in Huntington Beach, California . [13] The band’s debut album was released by Columbia Records in August 1967, shortly after the group’s breakthrough appearance in June at the Monterey Pop Festival . Two songs from Big Brother’s set at Monterey were filmed. “Combination of the Two” and a version of Big Mama Thornton ‘s “ Ball and Chain ” appeared in D.A. Pennebaker ‘s documentary Monterey Pop . The film captured Cass Elliot in the crowd silently mouthing “Wow! That’s really heavy!” during Joplin’s performance. [6] “To Love Somebody” In November 1967, the group parted ways with Chet Helms and signed with top artist manager Albert Grossman . Up to this point, Big Brother had performed mainly in California, but had gained national prominence with their Monterey performance. On February 16, 1968, [14] the group began its first East Coast tour in Philadelphia, and the following day gave their first performance in New York City at the Anderson Theater. [3] [6] On April 7, 1968, the last day of their East Coast tour, Joplin and Big Brother performed with Jimi Hendrix , Buddy Guy , Joni Mitchell , Richie Havens , Paul Butterfield , and Elvin Bishop at the “ Wake for Martin Luther King, Jr. ” concert in New York. During the spring of 1968, Joplin and Big Brother made their nationwide television debut on The Dick Cavett Show , an ABC daytime variety show hosted by Dick Cavett . Later, she made three appearances on the primetime Cavett program. During this time, the band was billed as “Janis Joplin and Big Brother and the Holding Company,” [13] although the media coverage given to Joplin incurred resentment among the other members of the band. [13] The other members of Big Brother thought that Joplin was on a “star trip,” while others were telling Joplin that Big Brother was a terrible band and that she ought to dump them. [13] TIME magazine called Joplin “probably the most powerful singer to emerge from the white rock movement,” and Richard Goldstein, in Vogue magazine, wrote that Joplin was “the most staggering leading woman in rock… she slinks like tar, scowls like war… clutching the knees of a final stanza, begging it not to leave… Janis Joplin can sing the chic off any listener.” [5] 1969 in Stockholm. Wildest version I have ever heard of the Gershwin song, “Summertime” from Porgy and Bess. Big Brother’s second album, Cheap Thrills , featured a cover design by counterculture cartoonist Robert Crumb . Although Cheap Thrills sounded as if it was mostly “live,” only one track (“Ball and Chain”) was actually recorded live; the rest of the tracks were studio recordings. [3] The album had a raw quality, including the sound of a cocktail glass breaking and the broken shards being swept away during the song “Turtle Blues.” With the documentary film Monterey Pop released in late 1968, the album launched Joplin’s successful, albeit short, musical career. [15] Cheap Thrills , which gave the band a breakthrough hit single, “ Piece of My Heart ,” reached the number one spot on the Billboard charts eight weeks after its release, remaining for eight (nonconsecutive) weeks. [15] The album was certified gold at release and sold over a million copies in the first month of its release. [8] [13] Live at Winterland ’68 , recorded at the Winterland Ballroom on April 12 and 13, 1968, featured Joplin and Big Brother and the Holding Company at the height of their mutual career working through a selection of tracks from their albums. The band made another East Coast tour during July–August 1968, performing at the Columbia Records convention in Puerto Rico and the Newport Folk Festival . After returning to San Francisco for two hometown shows at the Palace of Fine Arts Festival on August 31 and September 1, Joplin announced that she would be leaving Big Brother. The group continued touring through the fall and Joplin gave her last official performance with Big Brother at a Family Dog benefit on December 1, 1968. [3] [6] After splitting from Big Brother, Joplin formed a new backup group, the Kozmic Blues Band. The band was influenced by the Stax-Volt Rhythm and Blues bands of the 1960s, as exemplified by Otis Redding and the Bar-Kays , who were major musical influences on Joplin. [3] [6] [8] The Stax-Volt R&B sound was typified by the use of horns and had a more bluesy, funky, soul, pop-oriented sound than most of the hard-rock psychedelic bands of the period. 1969 on the Tom Jones Show. This recording is amazing. Rogers and Hart’s, “Little Girl Blue” Most people don’t associate Janis Joplin with the old standards but she recorded several. By early 1969, Joplin was addicted to heroin, allegedly shooting at least $200 worth of heroin per day, [7] although efforts were made to keep her clean during the recording of I Got Dem Ol’ Kozmic Blues Again Mama! . Gabriel Mekler, who produced the Kozmic Blues, told publicist-turned-biographer Myra Friedman after Joplin’s death that the singer had lived in his house during the June 1969 recording sessions at his insistence so he could keep her away from drugs and her drug-using friends. [8] The Kozmic Blues album, released in September 1969, was certified gold later that year but did not match the success of Cheap Thrills . [15] Reviews of the new group were mixed. Some music critics, including Ralph Gleason of the San Francisco Chronicle , were negative. Gleason wrote that the new band was a “drag” and that Joplin should “scrap” her new band and “go right back to being a member of Big Brother…(if they’ll have her).” [3] Other reviewers, such as reporter Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post generally ignored the flaws and devoted entire articles to celebrating the singer’s magic. Joplin and the Kozmic Blues Band toured North America and Europe throughout 1969, appearing at Woodstock in August. By most accounts, Woodstock was not a happy affair for Joplin. [3] [6] [7] Faced with a ten hour wait after arriving at the festival, she shot heroin [6] [7] and was drinking alcohol, so by the time she hit the stage, she was “three sheets to the wind.” [3] Joplin also had problems at Madison Square Garden where, as she told rock journalist David Dalton, the audience watched and listened to “every note [she sang] with ‘Is she gonna make it?’ in their eyes.” [13] Joplin’s performance was not included in the documentary film Woodstock although the 25th anniversary director’s cut of Woodstock includes her performance of Work Me, Lord. At the end of the year, the group broke up. Their final gig with Joplin was at Madison Square Garden in New York City on the night of December 19–20, 1969. [3] [13] In February 1970, Joplin traveled to Brazil , where she stopped her drug and alcohol use. She was accompanied on vacation there by her friend Linda Gravenites, who had designed the singer’s stage costumes from 1966 to 1969. Joplin was romanced by an American schoolteacher named David (George) Niehaus, who was traveling around the world. They were photographed by the press at Carnival in Rio de Janeiro. [13] Gravenites also took photographs of the two during their Brazilian vacation and they appeared to be a “carefree, happy, healthy young couple” having a great time. [6] Joplin began using heroin again when she returned to the United States. Her relationship with Niehaus soon ended because of the drugs, her relationship with Peggy Caserta and refusal to take some time off work and travel the world with him. [6] Around this time she formed her new band, the Full Tilt Boogie Band . [3] [6] [8] The band was composed mostly of young Canadian musicians and featured an organ, but no horn section. Joplin took a more active role in putting together the Full Tilt Boogie Band than she did with her prior group. She was quoted as saying, “It’s my band. Finally it’s my band!” [3] The Full Tilt Boogie Band began touring in May 1970. Joplin remained quite happy with her new group, which received mostly positive feedback from both her fans and the critics. [3] Prior to beginning a summer tour with Full Tilt Boogie, she performed in a reunion with Big Brother at the Fillmore West in San Francisco on April 4, 1970. [16] Recordings from this concert were included in an in-concert album released posthumously in 1972. She again appeared with Big Brother on April 12 at Winterland where she and Big Brother were reported to be in excellent form. [6] By the time she began touring with Full Tilt Boogie, Joplin told people she was drug-free, but her drinking increased.[ citation needed ] From June 28 to July 4, 1970, Joplin and Full Tilt joined the all-star Festival Express tour through Canada, performing alongside the Grateful Dead , Delaney and Bonnie , Rick Danko and The Band , Eric Andersen and Ian and Sylvia . [6] They played concerts in Toronto , Winnipeg and Calgary . [6] [13] Footage of her performance of the song “Tell Mama” in Calgary became an MTV video in the 1980s and was included on the 1982 Farewell Song album. The audio of other Festival Express performances were included on that 1972 Joplin In Concert album. Video of the performances was included on the Festival Express DVD. In the “Tell Mama” video shown on MTV in the 1980s, Joplin wore a psychedelically colored loose-fitting costume and feathers in her hair. This was her standard stage costume in the spring and summer of 1970. She chose the new costumes after her friend and designer, Linda Gravenites (whom Joplin had praised in the May 1968 issue of Vogue ), cut ties with Joplin shortly after their return from Brazil, due largely to Joplin’s continued use of heroin. [3] Among her last public appearances were two broadcasts of The Dick Cavett Show . In the June 25, 1970 appearance, she announced that she would attend her ten-year high-school class reunion. When asked if she had been popular in school, she admitted that when in high school, her schoolmates “laughed me out of class, out of town and out of the state.” [17] In the August 3, 1970 Cavett broadcast, Joplin referred to her upcoming performance at the Festival for Peace to be held at Shea Stadium in Queens, New York on August 6, 1970. Joplin attended the reunion on August 14, accompanied by fellow musician and friend Bob Neuwirth, road manager John Cooke, and her sister Laura, but it reportedly proved to be an unhappy experience for her. [18] Joplin held a press conference in Port Arthur during her reunion visit. Interviewed by Rolling Stone journalist Chet Flippo, she was reported to wear enough jewelry for a “Babylonian whore.” [6] When asked by a reporter during the reunion if Joplin entertained at Thomas Jefferson High School when she was a student there, Joplin replied, “Only when I walked down the aisles.” [3] [3] [5] Joplin denigrated Port Arthur and the people who’d humiliated her a decade earlier in high school. [3] Joplin’s last public performance, with the Full Tilt Boogie Band, took place on August 12, 1970 at the Harvard Stadium in Boston, Massachusetts . A positive review appeared on the front page of the Harvard Crimson newspaper despite the fact that Full Tilt Boogie performed with makeshift sound amplifiers after their regular equipment was stolen in Boston. [8] During September 1970, Joplin and her band began recording a new album in Los Angeles with producer Paul A. Rothchild , who had produced recordings for The Doors . Although Joplin died before all the tracks were fully completed, there was still enough usable material to compile an LP. “ Mercedes Benz ” was included despite it being a first take, and the track “Buried Alive In The Blues”, to which Joplin had been scheduled to add her vocals on the day she was found dead, was kept as an instrumental. The result was the posthumously released Pearl (1971). It became the biggest selling album of her career [15] and featured her biggest hit single, a cover of Kris Kristofferson ‘s “ Me and Bobby McGee “. Kristofferson had been Joplin’s lover not long before her death. [19] Also included was the social commentary of the a cappella “ Mercedes Benz “, written by Joplin, close friend and song writer Bob Neuwirth and beat poet Michael McClure . In 2003, Pearl was ranked #122 on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . During the recording sessions for Pearl, Joplin began seeing Seth Morgan , a 21 year-old Berkeley student, cocaine dealer and future novelist; [3] [6] [7] and checked into the Landmark Motel in Los Angeles to begin recording the Pearl album. [3] [6] [8] She and Morgan became engaged to be married in early September [5] and Joplin threw herself into the recording of songs for her new album. The last recordings Joplin completed were “ Mercedes Benz ” and a birthday greeting for John Lennon (“ Happy Trails “, composed by Dale Evans ) on October 1, 1970. Lennon, whose birthday was October 9, later told Dick Cavett that her taped greeting arrived at his home after her death. [18] On Saturday, October 3, Joplin visited the Sunset Sound Studios [6] in Los Angeles to listen to the instrumental track for Nick Gravenites ‘ song “Buried Alive in the Blues” prior to recording the vocal track, scheduled for the next day. [13] When she failed to show up at the studio by Sunday afternoon, producer Paul Rothchild became concerned. Full Tilt Boogie’s road manager, John Cooke, drove to the Landmark Motor Hotel (since renamed the Highland Gardens Hotel) where Joplin had been a guest since August 24. [20] He saw Joplin’s psychedelically painted Porsche still in the parking lot. Upon entering her room, he found her dead on the floor. The official cause of death was an overdose of heroin , possibly combined with the effects of alcohol. [21] [8] Cooke believes that Joplin had accidentally been given heroin which was much more potent than normal, as several of her dealer’s other customers also overdosed that week. [22] Joplin was cremated in the Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Mortuary in Los Angeles; her ashes were scattered from a plane into the Pacific Ocean and along Stinson Beach . The only funeral service was a private affair held at Pierce Brothers and attended by Joplin’s parents and maternal aunt. [23] Joplin was a pioneer in the male-dominated rock music scene of the late 1960s, influencing generations of musicians to come. Stevie Nicks commented that after seeing Joplin perform, “I knew that a little bit of my destiny had changed. I would search to find that connection that I had seen between Janis and her audience. In a blink of an eye she changed my life.” [24] Joplin’s body decoration, with a wristlet and a small heart on her left breast, by the San Francisco tattoo artist Lyle Tuttle , is taken as a seminal moment in the tattoo revolution and was an early moment in the popular culture’s acceptance of tattoos as art. [25] Another trademark was her flamboyant hair styles, often including colored streaks and accessories such as scarves, beads and feathers. The 1979 film The Rose was loosely based on Joplin’s life. [26] Bette Midler earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance. In the late 1990s, the musical play Love, Janis was created with input from Janis’s younger sister Laura plus Big Brother guitarist Sam Andrew , with an aim to take it to Off Broadway . Opening in the summer of 2001 and scheduled for only a few weeks of performances, the show won acclaim and packed houses and was held over several times, the demanding role of the singing Janis attracting rock vocalists from relative unknowns to pop stars Laura Branigan and Beth Hart . A national tour followed. Gospel According to Janis, a biographical film starring Zooey Deschanel as Joplin, was originally scheduled to begin shooting in early 2007, now has a projected release date in 2012. [27] At the 2009 Edinburgh Festival Fringe , Janis, [28] a one-woman show by Nicola Haydn , which imagined the last hour of Joplin’s life, gained its first substantial run. [29] It was nominated for ‘Best Solo Performance’ in The Stage Awards for Acting Excellence. [30] The production tourbus also used a recreation of Joplin’s Porsche by Brighton graffiti artist Req – on a VW Polo for budgetary reasons. In 1988, the Janis Joplin Memorial, with an original bronze , multi-image sculpture of Joplin by Douglas Clark , was dedicated in Port Arthur, Texas. Joplin was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995, and was given a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005. In November, 2009, the Hall of Fame and museum honored her as part of its annual American Music Masters Series. [31] Among the artifacts at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum Exhibition are Joplin’s scarf and necklaces, her 1965 Porsche 356 Cabriolet with psychedelically designed painting , and a sheet of LSD blotting paper designed by Robert Crumb , designer of the Cheap Thrills cover. [32] She was the honoree at the Rock Hall’s American Music Master concert and lecture series for 2009. [33] When I was a kid, I was afraid of Janis Joplin. I was too young to appreciate her style, looks and ability. Years later I realized what a profound talent she was. She has had a lasting effect on pop music. I appreciate her more and more as time goes by. Source: Wikipedia, YouTube, janisjoplin.com, nndb.com Quick Bio Facts:	The Texas
Also containing fish, meat or mushrooms, what is the name of the thick, spicy Russian soup, the primary ingredient of which is pickled cucumbers?	Blues \| Paul Roth's Music Liner Notes \| Page 6 Joni Mitchell Joni Mitchell, CC (born Roberta Joan Anderson; November 7, 1943) is a Canadian musician, songwriter, and painter. [1] Mitchell began singing in small nightclubs in her native Western Canada and then busking on the streets of Toronto. In the mid-1960s she left for New York City and its rich folk music scene, recording her debut album in 1968 and achieving fame first as a songwriter (“Urge for Going”, “ Chelsea Morning “, “ Both Sides Now “, “ Woodstock “) and then as a singer in her own right. [2] Finally settling in Southern California , Mitchell played a key part in the folk rock movement then sweeping the musical landscape. Blue , her starkly personal 1971 album, is regarded as one of the strongest and most influential records of the time. [3] Mitchell also had pop hits such as “ Big Yellow Taxi “, “ Free Man in Paris “, and “ Help Me “, the last two from 1974’s best-selling Court and Spark . [4] This bio is sponsored by Two Guys From Brooklyn , a unique web site selling personalized gifts. If you are enjoying this site, please take a moment to visit and support them. Mitchell’s contralto vocals, distinctive harmonic guitar style, and piano arrangements all grew more complex through the 1970s as she was deeply influenced by jazz , melding it with pop, folk and rock on experimental albums like 1976’s Hejira . She worked closely with jazz greats including Pat Metheny , Wayne Shorter , Jaco Pastorius , Herbie Hancock , and on a 1979 record released after his death, Charles Mingus . [5] From the 1980s on, Mitchell reduced her recording and touring schedule but turned again toward pop, making greater use of synthesizers and direct political protest in her lyrics, which often tackled social and environmental themes alongside romantic and emotional ones. Mitchell’s work is highly respected both by critics and fellow musicians. Rolling Stone magazine called her “one of the greatest songwriters ever,” [6] while Allmusic said, “When the dust settles, Joni Mitchell may stand as the most important and influential female recording artist of the late 20th century.” [7] Mitchell is also a visual artist . She created the artwork for each of her albums, and in 2000 described herself as a “painter derailed by circumstance.” [8] A blunt critic of the music industry, Mitchell had stopped recording over the last several years, focusing more attention on painting, but in 2007 she released Shine , her first album of new songs in nine years. Joni Mitchell was born Roberta Joan Anderson on November 7, 1943, in Fort Macleod , Alberta , Canada, to Bill Anderson and Myrtle Anderson (née McKee). Her mother was a teacher, and her father an officer in the Royal Canadian Air Force . During the war years , she moved with her parents to a number of bases in western Canada. After the war, her father began working as a grocer, and his work took the family to Saskatchewan to the towns of Maidstone and North Battleford . When she was eleven years old, the family settled in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan , which Mitchell considers her hometown. Her mother’s ancestors were Scottish and Irish. [9] Her father’s were Norwegian . Her paternal grandmother was born on the farm Farestveit in Modalen , Hordaland, Norway. Her paternal grandfather was from Sømna, Sør-Helgeland, Nordland, Norway. There was also Sami (formerly Lapp) heritage on her father’s side. At the age of nine, Mitchell contracted polio during a Canadian epidemic, but she recovered after a stay in hospital. It was during this time that she first became interested in singing. She describes her first experience singing while in hospital during the winter in the following way: “They said I might not walk again, and that I would not be able to go home for Christmas. I wouldn’t go for it. So I started to sing Christmas carols and I used to sing them real loud … The boy in the bed next to me, you know, used to complain. And I discovered I was a ham.” [10] She began smoking at the age of nine as well, a habit which is debatably one of the factors contributing to the change in her voice in recent years (Mitchell herself disputes this in several interviews). [11] As a teenager, Joni taught herself ukulele and, later, guitar . She began performing at parties and bonfires, which eventually led to gigs playing in coffeehouses and other venues in Saskatoon. After finishing high school at Aden Bowman Collegiate in Saskatoon, she attended the Alberta College of Art and Design in Calgary for a year, during which she made the acquaintance of another budding singer-songwriter, Harry Chapin , but Mitchell then left, telling her mother: “I’m going to Toronto to be a folksinger.” After leaving art college in June 1964, Mitchell left her home in Saskatoon to relocate to Toronto. She found out that she was pregnant by her college ex-boyfriend, and in February 1965 she gave birth to a baby girl. A few weeks after the birth, Joni Anderson married folk-singer Chuck Mitchell, and took his surname. A few weeks later she gave her daughter, Kelly Dale Anderson, up for adoption. The experience remained private for most of her career, but she made allusions to it in several songs, most notably a very specific telling of the story in the 1971 song “ Little Green “. Mitchell’s 1982 song “Chinese Cafe”, from the album Wild Things Run Fast, includes the lyrics “Your kids are coming up straight / My child’s a stranger / I bore her / But I could not raise her.” Mitchell’s daughter, renamed Kilauren Gibb, began a search for her as an adult. In 1997 Gibb mentioned her search to the girlfriend of a man with whom she had grown up. By coincidence, this woman knew a third person who had once told her that he knew Joni Mitchell years earlier “when she was pregnant.” Mitchell and her daughter were reunited shortly thereafter. [12] In the summer of 1965, Chuck Mitchell took Joni with him to the United States. While living in Detroit, Chuck & Joni were regular performers at area coffee houses as well as The Alcove bar near Wayne State University and the “Rathskelter” a restaurant on the campus of the University of Detroit. Oscar Brand featured her several times on his CBC television program Let’s Sing Out in 1965 and 1966, broadening her exposure. Mitchell attended school at West Virginia University for short period, which led to her song “Morning Morgantown.” [13] The marriage and partnership of Joni and Chuck Mitchell dissolved in early 1967, and Joni moved to New York City to pursue her musical dreams as a solo artist. She played venues up and down the East Coast, including Philadelphia, Boston, and Fort Bragg, North Carolina. She performed frequently in coffeehouses and folk clubs and, by this time creating her own material, became well known for her unique songwriting and her innovative guitar style. 1970 “Both Sides Now” Folk singer Tom Rush had met Mitchell in Toronto and was impressed with her songwriting ability. He took “Urge For Going” to popular folk act Judy Collins but she was not interested in the song at the time, so Rush recorded it himself. Country singer George Hamilton IV heard Rush performing it and recorded a hit country version. Other artists who recorded Mitchell songs in the early years were Buffy Sainte-Marie (“ The Circle Game “), Dave Van Ronk (“Both Sides Now”), and eventually Judy Collins (“Both Sides Now”, a top ten hit, included on her 1967 album Wildflowers ). Collins also covered “Chelsea Morning”, a recording which again eclipsed Mitchell’s own commercial success early on. While she was playing one night in “The Gaslight South” [14] , a club in Coconut Grove , Florida , David Crosby walked in and was immediately struck by her ability and her appeal as an artist. He took her back to Los Angeles , where he set about introducing her and her music to his friends. Crosby convinced a record company to agree to let Mitchell record a solo acoustic album without all the folk-rock overdubs that were in vogue at the time, and his clout earned him a producer’s credit in March 1968, when Reprise Records released her debut album, alternately known as Joni Mitchell or Song to a Seagull . This is a live performance of Joni Mitchell’s hit, “My Old Man”. This was taken on October 9, 1970. Mitchell continued touring steadily to promote the LP. The tour helped create eager anticipation for Mitchell’s second LP, Clouds , which was released in April 1969. It finally contained Mitchell’s own versions of some of her songs already recorded and performed by other artists: “ Chelsea Morning “, “ Both Sides Now “, and “Tin Angel.” The covers of both LPs, including a self-portrait on Clouds , were designed and painted by Mitchell, a marriage of her art and music which she would continue throughout her career. In March 1970 Clouds won Joni Mitchell her first Grammy Award for Best Folk Performance . The following month, Reprise released her third album, Ladies of the Canyon . Mitchell’s sound, still under the guidance of producer Crosby, was already beginning to expand beyond the confines of acoustic folk music and toward pop and rock, with more overdubs, percussion, and backing vocals, and for the first time, many songs composed on piano, which would become a hallmark of Mitchell’s style in her most popular era. Her own version of “ Woodstock “, slower and darker than the Crosby, Stills & Nash cover, was performed on a Wurlitzer electric piano . The album also included the already-familiar song “The Circle Game” and the environmental anthem “ Big Yellow Taxi “, with its now-famous line, “they paved paradise and put up a parking lot.” “Chelsea Morning” 1969 Ladies of the Canyon was an instant smash on FM radio and sold briskly through the summer and fall, eventually becoming Joni’s first gold album (selling over a half million copies). Mitchell made a decision to stop touring for a year and just write and paint, yet she was still voted “Top Female Performer” for 1970 by Melody Maker , the UK’s leading pop music magazine. The songs she wrote during the months she took off for travel and life experience would appear on her next album, Blue , released in June 1971. Of Blue and in comparing Joni Mitchell’s talent to that of his own, David Crosby said, “By the time she did ‘Blue,’ she was past me and rushing toward the horizon” (A 65th Birthday Tribute to Joni Mitchell, 2008). [15] Blue was an almost instant critical and commercial success, peaking in the top 20 in the Billboard Album Charts in September and also hitting the British Top 3. Lushly produced “Carey” was the single at the time, but musically, other parts of Blue departed further from the sounds of Ladies of the Canyon in favor of simpler, rhythmic acoustic parts allowing a focus on Joni’s voice and emotions (“All I Want”, “A Case of You”), while others such as “Blue”, “ River ” and “ The Last Time I Saw Richard ” were sung to her rolling piano accompaniment. In its lyrics, the album was regarded as an inspired culmination of her early work, with depressed assessments of the world around her serving as counterpoint to exuberant expressions of romantic love (for example, in “California”). Mitchell later remarked, “At that period of my life, I had no personal defenses. I felt like a cellophane wrapper on a pack of cigarettes. I felt like I had absolutely no secrets from the world and I couldn’t pretend in my life to be strong.” [10] Mitchell made the decision to return to the live stage after the great success of Blue, and she presented many new songs on tour which would appear on her next album. Joni’s fifth work, For the Roses , was released in October 1972 and immediately zoomed up the charts. She followed with the single, “You Turn Me On, I’m a Radio”, which peaked at #25 in the Billboard Charts in February 1973, becoming her first bonafide hit single. The album was critically acclaimed and earned her success on her own terms, though it was somewhat overshadowed by the success of Blue and by Mitchell’s next album. Court and Spark , released in January 1974, would see Mitchell begin the flirtation with jazz and jazz fusion that marked her experimental period ahead, but it was also her most commercially successful recording, and among her most critically acclaimed. Court and Spark went to #1 on the Cashbox Album Charts. The LP made Joni Mitchell a widely popular act for perhaps the only time in her career, on the strength of popular tracks such as the rocker “ Raised on Robbery “, which was released right before Christmas 1973 , and “ Help Me “, which was released in March of the following year, and became Joni’s only Top 10 single when it peaked at #7 in the first week of June. “ Free Man in Paris ” was another hit single and staple in her catalog. “Free Man In Paris” While recording Court and Spark, Mitchell had tried to make a clean break with her earlier folk sound, producing the album herself and employing jazz/pop fusion band the L.A. Express as what she called her first real backing group. In February 1974, her tour with the L.A. Express began, and they received rave notices as they traveled across the United States and Canada during the next two months. A series of shows at L.A.’s Universal Amphitheater from August 14–17 were recorded for a live album release. In November, Mitchell released a live album called Miles of Aisles , a two-record set including all but two songs from the L.A. concerts (one selection each from the Berkeley Community Center, on March 2, and the LA Music Center, on March 4, were also included in the set). The live album slowly moved up to #2, matching Court and Sparks’s chart peak on Billboard. “Big Yellow Taxi”, the live version, was also released as a single and did reasonably well (Mitchell would ultimately release yet another recording of “Big Yellow Taxi” in 2007). In January 1975, Court and Spark received four nominations for Grammy Awards, including Grammy Award for Album of the Year , for which Mitchell was the only woman nominated . She won only the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocalist(s) Joni Mitchell went into the studio in the spring of 1975 to record acoustic demos of some songs she’d written since the Court and Spark tour ended. A few months later she recorded versions of the tunes with her band, which now included saxophonist Wayne Shorter . Mitchell’s musical interests now were diverging from both the folk and the pop scene of the era, toward less structured, more jazz-inspired pieces, with a wider range of instruments. On “The Jungle Line”, she also made an early effort at sampling a recording of African musicians, something that would become more commonplace among Western rock acts in the 1980s. Meanwhile, “In France They Kiss on Main Street” continued the lush pop sounds of Court and Spark, and efforts such as the title song and “Edith and the Kingpin” chronicled the underbelly of suburban lives in Southern California. “Twisted” 1974 The new song cycle was released in November 1975 as The Hissing of Summer Lawns . The album was initially a big seller, peaking at #4 on the Billboard Album Charts, but it received mixed reviews at the time of its release.[ citation needed ] A common legend holds that Rolling Stone magazine declared it the “Worst Album of the Year”; in truth, it was called only the year’s worst album title. [16] However, Mitchell and Rolling Stone have had a contentious relationship, beginning years earlier when the magazine featured a “tree” illustrating all of Mitchell’s alleged romantic partners, primarily other musicians, which the singer said “hurt my feelings terribly at the time.” [6] During 1975, Mitchell also participated in several concerts in the Rolling Thunder Revue tours featuring Bob Dylan and Joan Baez , and in 1976 she performed as part of The Last Waltz by The Band . In January 1976, Mitchell received one nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the album The Hissing of Summer Lawns , though the Grammy went to Linda Ronstadt . In early 1976, Mitchell traveled with friends who were driving cross country to Maine. Afterwards, Mitchell drove back to California alone and composed several songs during her journey which would feature on her next album, 1976’s Hejira . She states, “This album was written mostly while I was traveling in the car. That’s why there were no piano songs…” [10] Hejira was arguably Mitchell’s most experimental album so far, due to her ongoing collaborations with legendary jazz virtuoso bass guitarist Jaco Pastorius on several songs including the first single, “ Coyote “, the atmospheric “Hejira”, the disorienting, guitar-heavy “Black Crow,” and the album’s last song “Refuge of the Roads.” The album climbed to No. 13 on the Billboard Charts, reaching gold status three weeks after release, and received airplay from album oriented FM rock stations. Yet “Coyote”, backed with “Blue Motel Room”, failed to chart on the Hot 100. While the album was greeted by many fans and critics as a “return to form”, by the time she recorded it her days as a huge pop star were over. However, if Hejira “did not sell as briskly as Mitchell’s earlier, more “radio friendly” albums, its stature in her catalogue has grown over the years.” [17] Mitchell herself believes the album to be unique. In 2006 she said, “I suppose a lot of people could have written a lot of my other songs, but I feel the songs on Hejira could only have come from me.” [17] “Help Me” “Help Me” Live Performance In the summer of 1977, Mitchell began work on new recordings, what would become her first double studio album. Close to completing her contract with Asylum Records, Mitchell felt that this album could be looser in feel than any album she’d done in the past. Don Juan’s Reckless Daughter was released in December 1977. The album received mixed reviews but still sold relatively well, peaking at No. 25 in the US and going gold within three months. The cover of the album created its own controversy; Mitchell was featured in several photographs on the cover, including one where she was disguised as a black man (this is a reference to a character in one song on the album). Layered, atmospheric compositions such as “Overture / Cotton Avenue” featured more collaboration with Pastorius, while “Paprika Plains” was a 16-minute epic that stretched the boundaries of pop, owing more to Joni’s memories of childhood in Canada and her study of classical music. “Dreamland” and “The Tenth World”, featuring Chaka Khan on backing vocals, were percussion dominated tracks. Other songs continued the jazz-rock-folk collisions of Hejira. Mitchell also revived “Jericho”, written but never recorded years earlier (a version is found on her 1974 live album). A few months after the release of Don Juan’s Reckless Daughter, Mitchell was contacted by jazz great Charles Mingus , who had heard the orchestrated song, “Paprika Plains”, and wanted her to work with him. Mitchell began a collaboration with Mingus, who died before the project was completed in 1979. She finished the tracks (most were her own Mingus-inspired compositions, though “ Goodbye Pork Pie Hat ” is a Mingus instrumental standard to which Joni composed lyrics) and the resulting album, Mingus , was released in June 1979, though it was poorly received in the press. Fans were confused over such a major change in Mitchell’s overall sound, and though the album topped out at No. 17 on the Billboard album charts—a higher placement than Don Juan’s Reckless Daughter — Mingus still fell short of gold status, making it her first album since the 1960s to not sell at least a half-million copies. Mitchell’s summer tour to promote Mingus began in August 1979 in Oklahoma City and concluded six weeks later with five shows at Los Angeles’ Greek Theater, where she recorded and filmed the concerts. It was her first tour in several years, and with Pastorius, jazz guitar great Pat Metheny , and other members of her band, Mitchell also performed songs from her other jazz-inspired albums. When the tour ended she began a year of work, turning the tapes from the Los Angeles shows into a two-album set and a concert film, both to be called Shadows and Light . Her final release on Asylum Records and her second live double-album, it was released in September 1980, and made it up to No. 38 on the Billboard Charts. A single from the LP, “Why Do Fools Fall in Love?”, Mitchell’s duet with The Persuasions (her opening act for the tour), bubbled under on Billboard, just missing the Hot 100. For a year and a half, Mitchell worked on the tracks for her next album. During this period Mitchell recorded with bassist Larry Klein, eventually marrying him in 1982. While the album was being readied for release, her friend David Geffen , founder of Asylum Records , decided to start a new label, Geffen Records . Still distributed by Warner Bros,, (who controlled Asylum Records), Geffen was able to negate the remaining contractual obligations Mitchell had with Asylum and signed her to his new label. 1982’s Wild Things Run Fast marked a return to pop songwriting, including “Chinese Cafe/Unchained Melody”, which incorporated the chorus and parts of the melody of the famous Righteous Brothers hit, and “(You’re So Square) Baby I Don’t Care”, a remake of the Elvis chestnut which charted higher than any Mitchell single since her 70s sales peak when it climbed to No. 47 on the charts. The album, however, peaked on the Billboard Charts in its fifth week at only No. 25. As 1983 began, Mitchell began a world tour, visiting Japan, Australia, Ireland, the United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia and then back to the United States. A performance from the tour was videotaped and later released on home video (and later DVD) as “Refuge Of The Roads.” As 1984 ended, Mitchell was writing new songs, when she had a suggestion from Geffen that perhaps an outside producer with experience in the modern technical arenas they wanted to explore might be a worthy addition. British synth-pop performer and producer Thomas Dolby was brought on board. Of Dolby’s role, Mitchell later commented: “I was reluctant when Thomas was suggested because he had been asked to produce the record [by Geffen], and would he consider coming in as just a programmer and a player? So on that level we did have some problems… He may be able to do it faster. He may be able to do it better, but the fact is that it then wouldn’t really be my music.” 1970 “California” The album that resulted, Dog Eat Dog , released in October 1985, received a mostly negative critical response. It turned out to be only a moderate seller, peaking at No. 63 on Billboard’s Top Albums Chart, Mitchell’s lowest chart position since her first album peaked at No. 189 almost eighteen years before. One of the songs on the album, Tax Free, created controversy by lambasting “televangelists” and what she saw as a drift to the religious right in American politics. “The churches came after me”, she wrote, “they attacked me, though the Episcopalian Church , which I’ve described as the only church in America which actually uses its head, wrote me a letter of congratulation.” [18] Mitchell continued experimenting with synthesizers, drum machines and sequencers for the recordings of her next album, 1988’s Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm . She also collaborated with artists including Willie Nelson , Billy Idol , Wendy and Lisa , Tom Petty , Don Henley and Peter Gabriel . The album’s first official single, “My Secret Place”, was in fact a duet with Gabriel, and just missed the Billboard Hot 100 charts. The song “Lakota” was one of many songs on the album to take on larger political themes, in this case the deadly battle between Native American activists and the FBI on the Lakota Sioux reservation in the previous decade. Musically, several songs fit into the trend of world music popularized by Gabriel during the era. Reviews were mostly favorable towards the album, and the cameos by well-known musicians brought it considerable attention. Chalk Mark ultimately improved on the chart performance of Dog Eat Dog, peaking at No. 45. After its release, Mitchell, who rarely performed live anymore, participated in Roger Waters ‘ The Wall Concert in Berlin in 1990. She performed the song, “ Goodbye Blue Sky ” and also was one of the performers on the concerts ending song, “ The Tide Is Turning ” along with Waters, Cyndi Lauper , Bryan Adams , Van Morrison and Paul Carrack . Throughout the first half of 1990, Mitchell recorded songs that would appear on her next album. She delivered the final mixes for the new album to Geffen just before Christmas, after trying nearly a hundred different sequences for the songs. The album Night Ride Home was released in March 1991. In the United States, it premiered on Billboard’s Top Album charts at No. 68, moving up to No. 48 in its second week, and peaking at No. 41 in its sixth week. In the United Kingdom, the album premiered at No. 25 on the album charts. Critically, it was better received than her 80s work and seemed to signal a move closer to her acoustic beginnings, along with some references to the style of Hejira. To wider audiences, the real “return to form” for Mitchell came with the 1994’s Grammy -winning Turbulent Indigo . While the recording period also saw the divorce of Mitchell and bassist Larry Klein , whose marriage had lasted almost 12 years, Indigo was seen as Mitchell’s most accessible set of songs in years. Songs such as “Sex Kills”, “Sunny Sunday”, “Borderline” and “The Magdalene Laundries” mixing social commentary and guitar-focused melodies for “a startling comeback.” [19] The album won two Grammy awards, including Best Pop Album, and it coincided with a much-publicized resurgence in interest in Mitchell’s work by a younger generation of singer-songwriters. “Woodstock” Joni Mitchell live at Big Sur, California, September 14, 1969. In 1996, Mitchell agreed to release a greatest Hits collection when label Reprise also allowed her a second Misses album to include some of the lesser known songs from her career. Hits charted at No. 161 in the US, but made No. 6 in the UK. Mitchell also included on Hits, for the first time on an album, her first recording, a version of “Urge for Going” which preceded Song to a Seagull but was previously released only as a B-side. Two years later, Mitchell released her final set of “original” new work before nearly a decade of other pursuits, 1998’s Taming the Tiger . She promoted Tiger with a return to regular concert appearances, most notably a co-headlining tour with Bob Dylan and Van Morrison . On the album, Mitchell had played a “ guitar synthesizer ” on most songs, and for the tour she adapted many of her old songs to this instrument, and reportedly had to re-learn all her complex tunings once again. It was around this time that critics also began to notice a real change in Mitchell’s voice, particularly on her older songs; the singer later admitted to feeling the same way, explaining that “I’d go to hit a note and there was nothing there.” [20] While her more limited range and huskier vocals have sometimes been attributed to her smoking (she has been described as “one of the world’s last great smokers”), Mitchell believes the changes in her voice that became noticeable in the nineties were due to other problems, including vocal nodules, a compressed larynx, and the lingering effects of having had polio. [20] In an interview in 2004, she denied that “my terrible habits” had anything to do with her more limited range and pointed out that singers often lose the upper register when they pass fifty. In addition, she contended that in her opinion her voice became a more interesting and expressive alto range when she no longer could hit the high notes, let alone hold them like she did in her youth. [21] The singer’s next two albums featured no new songs and, Mitchell has said, were recorded to “fulfill contractual obligations”, [19] but on both she attempted to make use of her new vocal range in interpreting familiar material. Both Sides Now (2000) was an album composed mostly of covers of jazz standards , performed with an orchestra, featuring orchestral arrangements by Vince Mendoza . The album also contained remakes of “ A Case of You ” and the title track “Both Sides Now”, two early hits transposed down to Mitchell’s now dusky, soulful alto range. It received mostly strong reviews and spawned a short national tour, with Mitchell accompanied by a core band featuring Larry Klein on bass plus a local orchestra on each tour stop. Its success led to 2002’s Travelogue , a collection of re-workings of her previous songs with lush orchestral accompaniments. Diana Krall performing the Joni Mitchell song, “A Case Of You” Mitchell stated at the time that this would be her final album. In a 2002 interview with Rolling Stone, she voiced discontent with the current state of the music industry, describing it as a “cesspool.” [6] Mitchell expressed her dislike of the record industry’s dominance and her desire to control her own destiny, possibly through releasing her own music over the Internet. During the next few years, the only albums Mitchell released were compilations of her earlier work. In 2003, Mitchell’s Geffen recordings were collected in a remastered, four-disc box set, The Complete Geffen Recordings, including notes by Mitchell and some previously unreleased tracks. A series of themed compilations of songs from earlier albums were also released: The Beginning of Survival (2004), Dreamland (2004), and Songs of a Prairie Girl (2005), the last of which collected the threads of her Canadian upbringing and which she released after accepting an invitation to the Saskatchewan Centennial concert in Saskatoon. The concert, which featured a tribute to Mitchell, was also attended by Queen Elizabeth II . In Prairie Girl liner notes, she writes that the collection is “my contribution to Saskatchewan’s Centennial celebrations.” “River Live” Beautiful song! Rare live recording at the Royal Albert Hall, 1970. In the early 1990s, Mitchell signed a deal with Random House to publish an autobiography. [22] In 1998 she told The New York Times that her memoirs were “in the works”, that they would be published in as many as four volumes, and that the first line would be “I was the only black man at the party.” [23] In 2005, Mitchell said that she was using a tape recorder to get “down [her memories] in the oral tradition.” [24] As well in the early 2000s, Joni Mitchell worked with internationally acclaimed artist Gilles Hebert. Joni visited the Mendel Art Gallery in Saskatoon, where she and Giles produced a book called ‘Voices’. The book received international attention and extended her fame, and the fame of Gilles Hebert. Although Mitchell stated that she would no longer tour or give concerts, she has made occasional public appearances to speak on environmental issues. [25] Mitchell divides her time between her longtime home in Los Angeles, and the 80 acre property in Sechelt , British Columbia that she has owned since the early 1970s. “L.A. is my workplace”, she said in 2006, “B.C. is my heartbeat.” [26] According to interviews, today she focuses mainly on her visual art, which she does not sell and which she displays only on rare occasions. [27] In an October 2006 interview with The Ottawa Citizen, Mitchell “revealed she’s recording her first collection of new songs in nearly a decade”, but gave few other details. [17] Four months later, in an interview with The New York Times, Mitchell said that the forthcoming album, titled Shine , was inspired by the war in Iraq and “something her grandson had said while listening to family fighting: ‘Bad dreams are good—in the great plan.'” [28] Early media reports characterized the album as having “a minimal feel… that harks back to [Mitchell’s] early work”, and a focus on political and environmental issues. [20] In February 2007, Mitchell also returned to Calgary and served as an advisor for the Alberta Ballet Company premiere of “The Fiddle and the Drum”, a dance choreographed to both new and old songs. Mitchell also filmed portions of the rehearsals for a documentary she’s working on. Of the flurry of recent activity she quipped, “I’ve never worked so hard in my life.” [28] In summer 2007, Mitchell’s official fan-run site confirmed speculation that she had signed a two-record deal with Starbucks ‘ Hear Music label. Shine was released by the label on September 25, 2007 [29] , debuting at number 14 on the Billboard 200 album chart, her highest chart position in the United States since the release of Hejira in 1976, over thirty years previously, and at number 36 on the United Kingdom albums chart. On the same day, Herbie Hancock , a longtime associate and friend of Mitchell’s, released River: The Joni Letters , an album paying tribute to Mitchell’s work. Among the album’s contributors were Norah Jones , Tina Turner , Leonard Cohen , and Mitchell herself, who contributed a vocal to the re-recording of “The Tea Leaf Prophecy (Lay Down Your Arms)” (originally on her album Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm ). [30] On February 10, 2008, Hancock’s recording won Album of the Year at the Grammy Awards. It was the first time in 43 years that a jazz artist took the top prize at the annual award ceremony. In accepting the award, Hancock paid tribute to Mitchell as well as to Miles Davis and John Coltrane . At the same ceremony Mitchell won a Grammy for Best Instrumental Pop Performance for the opening track “One Week Last Summer” from her album Shine. On February 12, 2010, Both sides now was performed at the opening ceremonies of the Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver . Mitchell is currently in the midst of treatments for the controversial condition “ Morgellons syndrome “. [31] Mitchell spoke to the LA Times on April 22, 2010 about the disease, saying, “I have this weird, incurable disease that seems like it’s from outer space, but my health’s the best it’s been in a while.” She described Morgellons as a “slow, unpredictable killer” but said she is determined to fight the disease. “I have a tremendous will to live: I’ve been through another pandemic — I’m a polio survivor, so I know how conservative the medical body can be.” According to Mitchell, Morgellons is often misdiagnosed as “delusion of parasites,” and suffers of the disease are offered psychiatric treatment. Mitchell said she plans to leave the music industry to work toward giving people diagnosed with Morgellons more credibility. [32] Quick Bio Facts: 37.810448 -122.239864 July 13, 2010 Johnny Hartman John Maurice Hartman (July 3 1923 – September 15 1983) was an American baritone jazz singer who specialized in ballads and earned critical acclaim, though he was never widely known. He recorded a well-known collaboration with the saxophonist John Coltrane in 1963 called John Coltrane and Johnny Hartman , and was briefly a member of Dizzy Gillespie ‘s group. Most of his career was spent recording solo albums. Born and raised in Chicago , Hartman began singing and playing the piano by age eight. Hartman attended DuSable High School studying music under Walter Dyett before receiving a scholarship to Chicago Musical College . He sang as an Army private during World War II , but his first professional work came in September 1946 when he won a singing contest awarding him a one-week engagement with Earl Hines . Seeing potential in the singer, Hines hired him for the next year. Although Hartman’s first recordings were with Marl Young in February 1947, it was the collaboration with Hines that provided notable exposure. After the Hines orchestra broke up, Dizzy Gillespie invited Hartman to join his big band in 1948 during an eight-week tour in California. Dropped from the band about one year later, Hartman worked for a short time with pianist Erroll Garner before going solo by early 1950. John Coltrane & Johnny Hartman (1963) “My One And Only Love” Okay, forgetting the graphic on the video, this is a fabulous rendition of “Lush Life” Immediately followed by a live version of the same song. Johnny Hartman sings his signature song, Lush Life, on the Jonathan Schwartz TV show (NYC) in 1983. After recording several singles with different orchestras, Hartman finally released his first solo album, Songs From the Heart, with a quintet for Bethlehem Records in 1955. Releasing two more albums with small labels, neither very successful, Hartman got a career-altering offer in 1963 to record with John Coltrane. The saxophonist likely remembered Hartman from a bill they shared at the Apollo Theater in 1950 and later said, “I just felt something about him, I don’t know what it was. I like his sound, I thought there was something there I had to hear so I looked him up and did that album.” [1] Featuring all ballads, John Coltrane and Johnny Hartman is widely considered a classic. This led to recording four more albums with Impulse! and parent label ABC , all produced by Bob Thiele . With the 1970s being difficult for singers clinging to the pre-rock American songbook , Hartman turned to playing cocktail lounges in New York City and Chicago. Recording again with small labels like Perception and Musicor , Hartman produced music of mixed quality as he attempted to be viewed as a more versatile vocalist. Referring to his approach to interpreting a song, Hartman said, “Well, to me a lyric is a story, almost like talking, telling somebody a story, try to make it believable.” [2] Returning to the jazz combo format of his earlier albums, Hartman recorded Once in Every Life for Bee Hive, earning him a 1981 Grammy nomination for Best Male Jazz Vocalist . This was quickly followed up by his last album of newly recorded material titled This One’s for Tedi as a tribute to his wife. Johnny Hartman sings the Rodgers and Hart song, “It Never Entered My Mind” 1955 “What Is There To Say?” Johnny recorded new tracks for Grenadilla Records on their jazz label – Grapevine. These were dance tracks of Beyond the Sea and Caravan with Caravan also having an extended 6-minute version. In the early 1980s Hartman gave several performances for jazz festivals, television, and radio before succumbing to lung cancer at age sixty. His reputation grew considerably in 1995 when the soundtrack to Clint Eastwood’s Bridges of Madison County (1995) featured seven songs from the then out-of-print Bee Hive album. With the renewed public interest in his deep-voiced, romantically charged ballads, all the music from Hartman’s solo albums and most of his earlier singles have since been reissued. Considering the nearly unanimous critical praise Hartman received during his life, it is unfortunate greater popularity always seemed to escape him. 1963 “In The Wee Small Hours Of The Morning” The late jazz vocalist Hartman apparently made many TV appearances on foreign soil but not so many in his home country. Here is one, from regional TV, with the trio of Loonis McGlohon, who also wrote both songs. “Charade” After listening to Johnny Hartman sing you’ll probably be wondering, “How did I miss him?!” He had a voice that was so rich, deep and unique and yet he never seemed to get past the many variables that kept him from becoming a household name. I’ve been listening to him since the late 70’s. Many of the songs I perform regularly, such as “My One And Only Love,” and “Wee Small Hours” are a result of listening to Johnny’s recordings. I’d venture as far to say that no jazz collection is complete without him. Discography Boston Concert 1976 (Gambit, 2007) 37.810448 -122.239864 July 7, 2010 Lee Wiley Lee Wiley (October 9, 1908 – December 11, 1975) was an American jazz singer popular in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. Wiley was born in Fort Gibson, Oklahoma . While still in her early teens, she left home to pursue a singing career with the Leo Reisman band. Her career was temporarily interrupted by a fall while horseback riding. Wiley suffered temporary blindness, but recovered, and at the age of 19 was back with Reisman again, with whom she recorded three songs: “Take It From Me,” “Time On My Hands,” and her own composition, “Got The South In My Soul.” She sang with Paul Whiteman and later, the Casa Loma Orchestra. A collaboration with composer Victor Young resulted in several songs for which Wiley wrote the lyrics, including “Got The South in My Soul” and “Anytime, Anyday, Anywhere,” the latter an R&B hit in the 1950s. 1944 Lee singing, “Sugar” Lee Wiley – accompanied by Billy Butterfield and His Orchestra, 1957 “My Melancholy Baby” In 1939, Wiley recorded eight Gershwin songs on 78s with a small group for Liberty Music Shops. The set sold well and was followed by 78s dedicated to the music of Cole Porter (1940) and Richard Rodgers & Lorenz Hart (1940 and 1954), Harold Arlen (1943), and Vincent Youmans and Irving Berlin (1951). The players on these recordings included Bunny Berigan , Bud Freeman , Max Kaminsky , Fats Waller , Billy Butterfield , Bobby Hackett , Eddie Condon , and the bandleader Jess Stacy , to whom Wiley was married for a number of years. These influential albums launched the concept of a “songbook” (often featuring lesser-known songs), which was later widely imitated by other singers. Wiley’s career made a resurgence in 1950 with the much admired ten-inch album Night in Manhattan. In 1954, she opened the very first Newport Jazz Festival accompanied by Bobby Hackett . 1951 “Manhattan” Do You Know What It Means To Miss New Orleans – Lee Wiley Later in the decade she recorded two of her finest albums, West of the Moon (1956) and A Touch of the Blues (1957). In the 1960s, Wiley retired, although she acted in a 1963 television film, Something About Lee Wiley, which told her life story. The film stimulated interest in the singer. Her last public appearance was a concert in Carnegie Hall in 1972 as part of the New York Jazz Festival , where she was enthusiastically received. Wiley died on December 11, 1975 in New York City after being diagnosed with colon cancer earlier that year. She was 67 years old. She was survived by her second husband, Nat Tischenkel, whom she married in 1966. 1934 Lee singing, “A Hundred Years From Today” Lee Wiley with Eddie Condon’s Orch. – The Man I Love, Decca 1944 Filmography … aka “Melody Masters: Woody Herman & His Orchestra” – USA (series title) Sources: Wikipedia, imdb.com 37.810448 -122.239864 July 4, 2010 Neil Sedaka Neil Sedaka (born March 13, 1939) is an American pop singer , pianist , and songwriter . His career has spanned over 50 years, during which time he has written many songs for himself and others, often working with lyricists Howard Greenfield and Phil Cody. Sedaka was born in Brooklyn , New York . His father, Mac Sedaka, a taxi driver, was the son of Turkish Jewish immigrants (“Sedaka” is a variant of tzedaka — Hebrew for charity); his mother, Eleanor (Appel) Sedaka, was of Polish – Russian Jewish descent. He grew up in an apartment in Brighton Beach, Brooklyn . [1] He is the cousin of singer Eydie Gorme . [ citation needed ] He demonstrated musical aptitude in his second-grade choral class, and when his teacher sent a note home suggesting he take piano lessons, his mother took a part-time job in an Abraham & Straus department store for six months to pay for a second-hand upright. He took to the instrument immediately. In 1947, he auditioned successfully for a piano scholarship to the Juilliard School of Music ‘s Preparatory Division for Children, which he attended on Saturdays. He also maintained an interest in popular music, and when he was 13, a neighbor heard him playing and introduced him to her 16-year-old son, Howard Greenfield , an aspiring poet and lyricist. The two began writing together. The best-known Billboard Hot 100 hits of his early career are “The Diary” (#14, 1958), a song that he offered to Little Anthony and the Imperials ; “Oh! Carol” (#9, 1959 ); “You Mean Everything to Me” (#17, 1960); “Calendar Girl” (#4, 1960); “Stairway to Heaven” (#9, 1960); “Run Samson Run” (top 30, 1960); “Little Devil” (#11, 1961); “ Happy Birthday Sweet Sixteen ” (#6, 1961); “ Breaking Up Is Hard to Do ” (#1, 1962); and “Next Door to an Angel” (#5, 1962). “ Oh! Carol ” refers to Sedaka’s Brill Building compatriot and former girlfriend Carole King . King responded with her answer song , “Oh, Neil” and, by using the same chord progression, “ Will You Love Me Tomorrow “. A Scopitone exists for “Calendar Girl”. 1966 “Breaking Up Is Hard To Do” “Breaking Up Is Hard To Do” -Slow romantic version. Boy what a difference tempo makes! A similar sharing came earlier with Sedaka and singer Connie Francis . As Francis explains at her concerts, she began searching for a new hit after her 1958 single “ Who’s Sorry Now? “. She was introduced to Sedaka and Howard Greenfield, who played every ballad they had written for her. Francis began writing her diary while the two played the last of their songs. After they finished, Francis told them they wrote beautiful ballads but that they were too intellectual for the young generation. Sedaka suggested to Greenfield a song they had written that morning for a girl group. Greenfield protested because the song had been promised to the girl group, but Sedaka insisted on playing “Stupid Cupid”. Francis told them they had just played her new hit. Francis’ song reached #14 on the Billboard charts. While Francis was in writing her diary, Sedaka asked her if he could read what she had written. After she refused, Sedaka was inspired to write “The Diary”, his first hit single. Sedaka and Greenfield wrote many of Connie Francis’ hits such as “Fallin'” and “ Where the Boys Are “. In 1961, Sedaka began to record some of his hits in Italian. At first he published “Esagerata” and “Un Giorno Inutile”, local versions of “Little Devil” and “I Must Be Dreaming”. Other recordings were to follow, such as “Tu Non Lo Sai” (“Breaking Up Is Hard to Do”), “Il Re Dei Pagliacci” (“King of Clowns”), “I Tuoi Capricci” (“Look Inside Your Heart”), and “La Terza Luna” (“Waiting For Never”) to name only a few. Sedaka also recorded in Spanish, German, Hebrew, Yiddish, and Japanese. “Laughter In The Rain” Between 1960 and 1962, Sedaka had eight Top 40 hits, but he was one of many American performers of the era whose popularity declined due to the British Invasion and the evolution of the Rock and Pop genres of music. His commercial success declined rapidly after 1964: he scored only two minor hits in 1965, and none of his 1966 singles charted. His RCA contract was not renewed when it ended in 1967, and he was left without a record label. Neil Sedaka joined by Captain and Tenille, “Love Will Keep Us Together” Although Sedaka’s stature as a recording artist was at a low ebb in the late 1960s, he was able to maintain his career through songwriting. Thanks to the fact that his publisher, Aldon Music, was acquired by Screen Gems , two of his songs were recorded by The Monkees , and other hits in this period written by Sedaka included The Cyrkle ‘s version of “We Had a Good Thing Goin'” and “Workin’ on a Groovy Thing”, a Top 40 R&B hit for Patti Drew in 1968 and a US Top 20 hit for The 5th Dimension in 1969. Also, “Make the Music Play” was included on Frankie Valli ‘s charting album Timeless. On an episode of the quiz show I’ve Got a Secret in 1965, Sedaka’s secret was that he was to represent the United States in classical piano at the Tchaikovsky competition in Moscow , and he played “ Fantasie Impromptu ” on the show. Panelist Henry Morgan made a point that the Russians, at least older ones, hated rock and roll. Sedaka’s participation in the competition, which Van Cliburn had won in 1958, was canceled by the USSR because of Sedaka’s rock and roll connection. Sedaka also made an appearance in the 1968 movie “ Playgirl Killer “, with a scene of him performing a song called “The Waterbug” “Solitaire” 1974 Carpenter’s version of the same tune. Sedaka revived his solo career in the early 1970s. Despite his waning chart appeal in the USA in the late 1960s, he remained very popular as a concert attraction, notably in the UK and Australia. He made several trips to Australia to play cabaret dates, and his commercial comeback began when the single “Star Crossed Lovers” became a major hit there. The song went to #5 nationally in April 1969 [2] — giving Sedaka his first charting single in four years—and it also came in at #5 in Go-Set magazine’s list of the Top 40 Australian singles of 1969 [3] . “The Hungry Years” Later that year, with the support of Festival Records , he recorded a new LP of original material entitled Workin’ on a Groovy Thing at Festival Studios in Sydney. It was co-produced by Festival staff producer Pat Aulton , with arrangements by John Farrar (who later achieved international fame for his work with Olivia Newton-John ) and backing by Australian session musicians including guitarist Jimmy Doyle ( Ayers Rock ) and noted jazz musician-composer John Sangster . [4] 1975 “The Immigrant” The single lifted from the album, “Wheeling, West Virginia,” reached #20 in Australia in early 1970 [5] . The LP is also notable because it was Sedaka’s first album to include collaborations with writers other than longtime lyricist Howard Greenfield — the title track featured lyrics by Roger Atkins and four other songs were co-written with Carole Bayer Sager , who subsequently embarked on a successful collaboration with expatriate Australian singer-songwriter Peter Allen . “Oh Carol” 1959 Written for Carol King. In 1971, Sedaka showed signs of life with his Emergence. Singles lifted from that album include “I’m A Song (Sing Me)”, “Silent Movies”, “Superbird”, and “Rosemary Blue”. In 1972, Sedaka embarked on a successful English tour and in June recorded the Solitaire album in England at Strawberry Studios in Stockport , working with the four future members of 10cc . As well as the title track, which was successfully covered by Andy Williams and The Carpenters , it included two UK Top 40 singles, including “Beautiful You” which also charted in America—Sedaka’s first US hit in ten years. A year later he reconvened with the Strawberry team – who had by then charted with their own debut 10cc album – to record The Tra-La Days Are Over , which started the second phase of his career and included his original version of the hit song “Love Will Keep Us Together” (a US #1 hit two years later for The Captain & Tennille ). This album also marked the effective end of his writing partnership with Greenfield, commemorated by the track “Our Last Song Together.” He worked with Elton John , who signed him to his Rocket Records label (during the ensuing years, Sedaka’s records would be distributed in Europe on the Polydor label). Sedaka returned to the U.S. with a flourish, topping the Billboard Hot 100 singles charts twice with “ Laughter in the Rain ” and “ Bad Blood ,” both in 1975. Elton provided backing vocals for the latter song. The flipside of “ Laughter in the Rain ” was “The Immigrant” (US pop #22, US AC #1), a wistful, nostalgic piece dedicated to John Lennon , which recalled the by-gone era when America was welcoming of immigrants, in contrast to the U.S. government’s then-refusal to grant Lennon permanent resident status. [6] 1961 “Happy Birthday Sweet 16” Sedaka and Greenfield co-wrote “ Love Will Keep Us Together “, a No. 1 hit for The Captain and Tennille and was the biggest hit for the entire year of 1975. Toni Tennille paid tribute to Sedaka’s welcome return to music-business success with her ad lib of “Sedaka is back” in the outro while she was laying down her own background vocals . [7] . The Captain and Tennille also recorded a Spanish-language version of the song the same year that cracked the top half of Billboard’s Hot 100 chart (“Por Amor Viviremos,” US pop #49). The irony must have been palpable to Sedaka, to have two #1 hits and another two Top 25 Billboard hits (also “That’s When the Music Takes Me”; US pop #25, US AC #7) all in the same year (1975), just to be eclipsed by a brand-new duo act having stellar success with a cover of his own song. Most likely, he was much more than pleased; it was the most successful year in Sedaka’s entire career, and Tennille’s coda ad lib of “Sedaka is back” certainly proved to be true in all respects. Neil Sedaka Interview In 1975, Sedaka was the opening act for the The Carpenters on their world tour. According to The Carpenters: The Untold Story by Ray Coleman , manager Sherwin Bash fired Sedaka at the request of Richard Carpenter . The firing resulted in a media backlash against The Carpenters after Sedaka publicly announced he was off the tour. This, however, was before Karen and Richard recorded Sedaka’s “ Solitaire ” which became a Top 20 hit for the duo. Richard Carpenter denied that he fired Sedaka for “stealing their show,” stating they were proud of Sedaka’s success. However, Bash was fired as The Carpenters’ manager a short time after. With Andy Gibb on the Dick Clark Show. “Bad Blood” “ Solitaire ” would find success again in the 21st century, when American Idol runner-up Clay Aiken sang the song when Sedaka appeared as a judge in the second season, won by Ruben Studdard . The “guest judge” aspect has since been eliminated. Aiken explained that the song was his mother’s favorite and that she begged him to sing it when she learned that Sedaka would be on the show and that the remaining finalists would be singing songs from Sedaka’s impressive songbook. After Aiken was awarded a recording contract, although it did not appear on his debut CD itself, he added “Solitaire” as the B-side to the single “ The Way ,” whose sales were faltering. “Solitaire” was moved to the A-side and radio airplay and single and download sales responded immediately. The single hit #1 on the Billboard Hot Singles Sales chart, the Top 5 on Billboard’s Hot 100, and was one of the biggest hits of 2004. Sedaka was invited back to American Idol to celebrate its success and continues to be seen in the audience almost on an annual basis. In 1975, Sedaka recorded a new version of “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do.” The 1962 original #1 hit was fast- tempoed and a sort of bouncy teen pop, but the remake was slower and featured a jazzy, torch-piano arrangement. Lenny Welch had recorded the song in this style in 1970. Sedaka’s new version hit #8 on the Hot 100 in early 1976, making him the first artist, and remains so, to hit the U.S. Top 10 twice with different versions of the same song. (The Ventures had hits in 1960 and 1964 with recordings of “ Walk, Don’t Run ,” and Elton John later also recorded two of his hits twice, with 1991’s “ Don’t Let the Sun Go Down on Me ” and “ Candle in the Wind 1997 .” But those versions only involved changes in melody and/or lyrics, not entirely reworked versions of the song as Sedaka’s achieved.) Sedaka’s second version of “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do” topped Billboard’s Adult Contemporary chart in 1976. The same year, Elvis Presley recorded the Sedaka song “Solitaire.” This was followed by the Top 20 hit “Love in the Shadows,” also from 1976. Later that same year, Sedaka released a second (and final) collaboration with Elton John, with Elton once again on uncredited backing vocals—–the title song to Sedaka’s album “Steppin’ Out.” While it would crack the Hot 100’s Top 40, it would also signal the beginning of a slowdown in Sedaka’s music sales and radio play not unlike what he experienced in 1964 when The Beatles and the “British Invasion” arrived. In this version of another fading of his music sales, it was the arrival of the disco era. While Sedaka attempted to release disco-themed music himself in the late ’70s, his album sales were weak and singles could not get a foothold on the radio. In 1980 , Sedaka had his final Top 20 hit with “Should’ve Never Let You Go,” which he recorded with his then-17-year-old daughter, Dara. Even today, Sedaka proudly recalls that there have only been three father-daughter combinations to hit the Billboard Top 40: the Sinatras (Frank and Nancy), the Coles (Nat “King” and Natalie), and the Sedakas (Neil and Dara). Sedaka’s song, “Don’t Let The Sun Go Down On Me” performed by Elton John. A change in record companies in the early 1980s also required him to, for the first time in his career, begin recording cover versions of other artists’ “oldies.” This was undoubtedly a tough pill to swallow for one of America’s most prolific and successful composers and singers of his own songs. Only two singles on two albums, spaced three years apart, managed to land on Billboard’s Adult Contemporary chart; none charted on the Hot 100 at all. Another duet with Dara, a remake of the Marvin Gaye – Tammi Terrell 1967 Top 5 smash “ Your Precious Love ,” placed high enough on the A/C chart for one final album to be released. But the second album’s only release did not fare well on the A/C chart, and by 1985, Neil Sedaka was once again without a recording contract. But always the shrewd businessman, this time around he had amassed a huge fan base over four decades that were willing to come along. Concertgoers filled theatre seats while Sedaka created had his own music label that would assure that his catalog of hits would find the marketplace, and he released occasional CDs of self-produced new, original material that continued to pique his fans’ interest. Sedaka is also composer of “ Is This the Way to Amarillo ?,” a song initially recorded by Britain ‘s Tony Christie when Sedaka had moved his family to the UK in the early 1970s. It reached only #18 on the UK charts in 1971, but then hit #1 for seven consecutive weeks on the UK singles charts when reissued in 2005, thanks to a music video starring comedian Peter Kay . It was Britain’s most popular single for the entire year. Sedaka had also recorded and released the song in the US in 1977, when it became a #44 hit on Billboard’s Hot 100. On April 7, 2006, during a concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London , Sedaka was presented with an award from the Guinness World Records : British Hit Singles and Albums as writer of the best-selling single of the 21st century (thus far) for “Is This the Way to Amarillo?” Ben Folds , an American pop singer, credited Sedaka on his “iTunes Originals” album as inspiration for song publishing. Hearing Sedaka had a song published by the age of 13 gave Folds the goal of also getting a song published by his 13th birthday, despite the fact that Sedaka didn’t actually publish his first song until he was 16. [8] In addition to his work pointed out above in the “21st century” portion, Sedaka continues to perform as the second decade of the 21st century moves along. He has reached and passed the age of 70. He was inducted into the Songwriters’ Hall of Fame in 1983, has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , and was an October 2006 inductee of the Long Island Music Hall of Fame . A concert performance on 26 October 2007 at the Lincoln Center in New York City honored the 50th anniversary of Sedaka’s debut in show business. Guests included The Captain and Tennille , Natalie Cole , Connie Francis , Clay Aiken , music impresario David Foster , and many others. During his 2008 Australian tour, Sedaka premiered a new classical orchestral composition entitled “Joie de Vivre (Joy of Life).” [9] Sedaka also toured The Philippines for his May 17, 2008 concert at the Araneta Coliseum . [10] He is enjoying remarkable sales success in the 21st century, as his three most recent U.S. releases— The Definitive Collection , Waking Up Is Hard to Do, and The Music of My Life—have all appeared on Billboard ‘s Top 200 Albums chart. They charted in May 2007, May 2009, and February 2010, respectively. This is especially notable because none of his album releases had appeared on this particularly prestigious Billboard chart since In the Pocket in 1980, when his duet with daughter Dara, “Should’ve Never Let You Go,” was a Top 20 hit on the Hot 100. The Definitive Collection was a surprise (by all accounts) bona-fide hit, reaching the Top 25 of the albums chart, one of the highest-charting albums of his entire career. It is a life-spanning compilation of his hits, along with previously unreleased material and outtakes. Waking Up is a children’s album, inspired by his three grandchildren, in which he takes his best-known songs and changes the lyrics to delight babies, toddlers, and their elders alike. Music is a new release of original material. Also, in early 2010, his original uptempo version of “Breaking Up Is Hard to Do” is being heard (by a group of uncredited singers) as the impetus for the very ubiquitous series of cheeky insurance TV commercials, featuring actor Dennis Haysbert (best known as the star of the long-running CBS series The Unit and as beloved President David Palmer in the early seasons of the Fox series 24 ) assuring that TV viewers not insured by Allstate can break up with their current insurer without much ado at all. In 1985, songs composed by Sedaka were adapted for the Japanese anime TV series Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam . These included the two opening themes “Zeta – Toki wo Koete” (originally in English as “Better Days Are Coming”) and “Mizu no Hoshi e Ai wo Komete” (originally in English as “For Us to Decide,” but the English version was never recorded), as well as the end theme “Hoshizora no Believe” (written as “Bad and Beautiful”). Due to copyright, the songs were replaced for the North American DVD . In 1994, Sedaka provided the voice for Neil Moussaka, a parody of himself in Food Rocks , an attraction at Epcot from 1994-2006. A musical comedy based around the songs of Sedaka, titled Breaking Up Is Hard to Do, [11] was written in 2005 by Erik Jackson and Ben H. Winters; it is now under license to Theatrical Rights Worldwide. A biographical musical, Laughter in the Rain, produced by Bill Kenwright and Laurie Mansfield, and starring Wayne Smith as Sedaka, had its world premiere at the Churchill Theatre , Bromley (in London, UK) on 4 March 2010. Sedaka attended the opening and joined the cast on stage for an impromptu curtain call of the title song. Quick Bio Facts: Turkish Ancestry Paternal and Maternal Official Website: Sources: Wikipedia, YouTube, NNDB.com, IMDB.com 37.810448 -122.239864 July 3, 2010 Janis Joplin Janis Lyn Joplin (January 19, 1943 – October 4, 1970) was an American singer, songwriter and music arranger. She rose to prominence in the late 1960s as the lead singer of Big Brother and the Holding Company and later as a solo artist. Rolling Stone magazine ranked Joplin number 46 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time in 2004, [1] and number 28 on its 2008 list of 100 Greatest Singers of All Time. [2] Janis Joplin was born in Port Arthur, Texas on January 19, 1943(1943-01-19), [3] to Seth Joplin (1910–87), an engineer at Texaco , and Dorothy (née East) Joplin (1913–98), a registrar at a business college. She had two younger siblings, Michael and Laura. The family attended the Church of Christ . [4] The Joplins felt that Janis always needed more attention than their other children, with her mother stating, “She was unhappy and unsatisfied without [receiving a lot of attention]. The normal rapport wasn’t adequate.” [5] Music Liner Notes is sponsored by Two Guys From Brooklyn -a unique web store selling personalized gifts for everyone. If you enjoy Music Liner Notes please support Two Guys From Brooklyn by visiting their site and signing up for their newsletter. Thank you! As a teenager, she befriended a group of outcasts, one of whom had albums by African-American blues artists Bessie Smith and Leadbelly , whom Joplin later credited with influencing her decision to become a singer. [6] She began singing in the local choir and expanded her listening to blues singers such as Odetta and Big Mama Thornton . Primarily a painter while still in school, she first began singing blues and folk music with friends. While at Thomas Jefferson High School , she stated that she was mostly shunned. [6] Joplin was quoted as saying, “I was a misfit. I read, I painted, I didn’t hate niggers .” [5] As a teen, she became overweight and her skin broke out so badly she was left with deep scars which required dermabrasion . [5] [7] [8] Other kids at high school would routinely taunt her and call her names like “pig,” “freak” or “creep.” [5] Joplin graduated from high school in 1960 and attended Lamar State College of Technology in Beaumont, Texas during the summer [7] and later the University of Texas at Austin , though she did not complete her studies. [9] The campus newspaper ran a profile of her in 1962 headlined “She Dares To Be Different.” [9] Cultivating a rebellious manner, Joplin styled herself in part after her female blues heroines and, in part, after the Beat poets . Her very first song recorded on tape, at the home of a fellow student in December 1962, was “ What Good Can Drinkin’ Do .” [10] She left Texas for San Francisco in 1963, living in North Beach and later Haight-Ashbury . In 1964, Joplin and future Jefferson Airplane guitarist Jorma Kaukonen recorded a number of blues standards, further accompanied by Margareta Kaukonen on typewriter (as percussion instrument). This session included seven tracks: “Typewriter Talk,” “Trouble In Mind,” “Kansas City Blues,” “ Hesitation Blues ,” “ Nobody Knows You When You’re Down and Out ,” “Daddy, Daddy, Daddy” and “Long Black Train Blues,” and was later released as the bootleg album The Typewriter Tape . Around this time her drug use increased, and she acquired a reputation as a “speed freak” and occasional heroin user. [3] [6] [7] She also used other psychoactive drugs and was a heavy drinker throughout her career; her favorite beverage was Southern Comfort . “Piece Of My Heart” In the spring of 1965, Joplin’s friends, noticing the physical effects of her amphetamine habit (she was described as “skeletal” [6] and “emaciated” [3] ), persuaded her to return to Port Arthur, Texas. In May 1965, Joplin’s friends threw her a bus-fare party so she could return home. [3] Back in Port Arthur, she changed her lifestyle. She avoided drugs and alcohol, began wearing relatively modest dresses, adopted a beehive hairdo, and enrolled as a sociology major at Lamar University in nearby Beaumont, Texas . During her year at Lamar University, she commuted to Austin to perform solo, accompanying herself on guitar. One of her performances was reviewed in the Austin American-Statesman . Joplin became engaged to a man who visited her, wearing a blue serge suit, to ask her father for her hand in marriage, but the man terminated plans for the marriage soon after. [8] Janis Joplin interview on the Dick Cavett Show In 1966, Joplin’s bluesy vocal style attracted the attention of the psychedelic rock band Big Brother and the Holding Company , a band that had gained some renown among the nascent hippie community in Haight-Ashbury . She was recruited to join the group by Chet Helms , a promoter who had known her in Texas and who at the time was managing Big Brother. Joplin joined Big Brother on June 4, 1966. [11] Her first public performance with them was at the Avalon Ballroom in San Francisco. Due to persistent persuading by keyboardist and close friend Stephen Ryder, Joplin avoided drug use for several weeks, enjoining bandmate Dave Getz to promise that using needles would not be allowed in their rehearsal space or in the communal apartment where they lived. [8] When a visitor to the apartment injected drugs in front of Joplin, she angrily reminded Getz that he had broken his promise. [8] A San Francisco concert from that summer was recorded and released in the 1984 album Cheaper Thrills. On August 23, 1966, [12] during a four week engagement in Chicago , the group signed a deal with independent label Mainstream Records . [13] They recorded tracks in a Chicago recording studio, but the label owner Bob Shad refused to pay their airfare back to San Francisco. [6] Shortly after the five band members drove from Chicago to Northern California with very little money, they moved with the Grateful Dead to a house in Lagunitas, California . It was there that Joplin relapsed into hard drugs. 1970 in Toronto, “Cry Baby” In early 1967, Joplin met Country Joe McDonald of the group Country Joe and the Fish . The pair lived together as a couple for a few months. [3] [13] Joplin and Big Brother began playing clubs in San Francisco, at the Fillmore West , Winterland and the Avalon Ballroom . They also played at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles, as well as in Seattle , Washington and Vancouver , British Columbia, the Psychedelic Supermarket in Boston , Massachusetts and the Golden Bear Club in Huntington Beach, California . [13] The band’s debut album was released by Columbia Records in August 1967, shortly after the group’s breakthrough appearance in June at the Monterey Pop Festival . Two songs from Big Brother’s set at Monterey were filmed. “Combination of the Two” and a version of Big Mama Thornton ‘s “ Ball and Chain ” appeared in D.A. Pennebaker ‘s documentary Monterey Pop . The film captured Cass Elliot in the crowd silently mouthing “Wow! That’s really heavy!” during Joplin’s performance. [6] “To Love Somebody” In November 1967, the group parted ways with Chet Helms and signed with top artist manager Albert Grossman . Up to this point, Big Brother had performed mainly in California, but had gained national prominence with their Monterey performance. On February 16, 1968, [14] the group began its first East Coast tour in Philadelphia, and the following day gave their first performance in New York City at the Anderson Theater. [3] [6] On April 7, 1968, the last day of their East Coast tour, Joplin and Big Brother performed with Jimi Hendrix , Buddy Guy , Joni Mitchell , Richie Havens , Paul Butterfield , and Elvin Bishop at the “ Wake for Martin Luther King, Jr. ” concert in New York. During the spring of 1968, Joplin and Big Brother made their nationwide television debut on The Dick Cavett Show , an ABC daytime variety show hosted by Dick Cavett . Later, she made three appearances on the primetime Cavett program. During this time, the band was billed as “Janis Joplin and Big Brother and the Holding Company,” [13] although the media coverage given to Joplin incurred resentment among the other members of the band. [13] The other members of Big Brother thought that Joplin was on a “star trip,” while others were telling Joplin that Big Brother was a terrible band and that she ought to dump them. [13] TIME magazine called Joplin “probably the most powerful singer to emerge from the white rock movement,” and Richard Goldstein, in Vogue magazine, wrote that Joplin was “the most staggering leading woman in rock… she slinks like tar, scowls like war… clutching the knees of a final stanza, begging it not to leave… Janis Joplin can sing the chic off any listener.” [5] 1969 in Stockholm. Wildest version I have ever heard of the Gershwin song, “Summertime” from Porgy and Bess. Big Brother’s second album, Cheap Thrills , featured a cover design by counterculture cartoonist Robert Crumb . Although Cheap Thrills sounded as if it was mostly “live,” only one track (“Ball and Chain”) was actually recorded live; the rest of the tracks were studio recordings. [3] The album had a raw quality, including the sound of a cocktail glass breaking and the broken shards being swept away during the song “Turtle Blues.” With the documentary film Monterey Pop released in late 1968, the album launched Joplin’s successful, albeit short, musical career. [15] Cheap Thrills , which gave the band a breakthrough hit single, “ Piece of My Heart ,” reached the number one spot on the Billboard charts eight weeks after its release, remaining for eight (nonconsecutive) weeks. [15] The album was certified gold at release and sold over a million copies in the first month of its release. [8] [13] Live at Winterland ’68 , recorded at the Winterland Ballroom on April 12 and 13, 1968, featured Joplin and Big Brother and the Holding Company at the height of their mutual career working through a selection of tracks from their albums. The band made another East Coast tour during July–August 1968, performing at the Columbia Records convention in Puerto Rico and the Newport Folk Festival . After returning to San Francisco for two hometown shows at the Palace of Fine Arts Festival on August 31 and September 1, Joplin announced that she would be leaving Big Brother. The group continued touring through the fall and Joplin gave her last official performance with Big Brother at a Family Dog benefit on December 1, 1968. [3] [6] After splitting from Big Brother, Joplin formed a new backup group, the Kozmic Blues Band. The band was influenced by the Stax-Volt Rhythm and Blues bands of the 1960s, as exemplified by Otis Redding and the Bar-Kays , who were major musical influences on Joplin. [3] [6] [8] The Stax-Volt R&B sound was typified by the use of horns and had a more bluesy, funky, soul, pop-oriented sound than most of the hard-rock psychedelic bands of the period. 1969 on the Tom Jones Show. This recording is amazing. Rogers and Hart’s, “Little Girl Blue” Most people don’t associate Janis Joplin with the old standards but she recorded several. By early 1969, Joplin was addicted to heroin, allegedly shooting at least $200 worth of heroin per day, [7] although efforts were made to keep her clean during the recording of I Got Dem Ol’ Kozmic Blues Again Mama! . Gabriel Mekler, who produced the Kozmic Blues, told publicist-turned-biographer Myra Friedman after Joplin’s death that the singer had lived in his house during the June 1969 recording sessions at his insistence so he could keep her away from drugs and her drug-using friends. [8] The Kozmic Blues album, released in September 1969, was certified gold later that year but did not match the success of Cheap Thrills . [15] Reviews of the new group were mixed. Some music critics, including Ralph Gleason of the San Francisco Chronicle , were negative. Gleason wrote that the new band was a “drag” and that Joplin should “scrap” her new band and “go right back to being a member of Big Brother…(if they’ll have her).” [3] Other reviewers, such as reporter Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post generally ignored the flaws and devoted entire articles to celebrating the singer’s magic. Joplin and the Kozmic Blues Band toured North America and Europe throughout 1969, appearing at Woodstock in August. By most accounts, Woodstock was not a happy affair for Joplin. [3] [6] [7] Faced with a ten hour wait after arriving at the festival, she shot heroin [6] [7] and was drinking alcohol, so by the time she hit the stage, she was “three sheets to the wind.” [3] Joplin also had problems at Madison Square Garden where, as she told rock journalist David Dalton, the audience watched and listened to “every note [she sang] with ‘Is she gonna make it?’ in their eyes.” [13] Joplin’s performance was not included in the documentary film Woodstock although the 25th anniversary director’s cut of Woodstock includes her performance of Work Me, Lord. At the end of the year, the group broke up. Their final gig with Joplin was at Madison Square Garden in New York City on the night of December 19–20, 1969. [3] [13] In February 1970, Joplin traveled to Brazil , where she stopped her drug and alcohol use. She was accompanied on vacation there by her friend Linda Gravenites, who had designed the singer’s stage costumes from 1966 to 1969. Joplin was romanced by an American schoolteacher named David (George) Niehaus, who was traveling around the world. They were photographed by the press at Carnival in Rio de Janeiro. [13] Gravenites also took photographs of the two during their Brazilian vacation and they appeared to be a “carefree, happy, healthy young couple” having a great time. [6] Joplin began using heroin again when she returned to the United States. Her relationship with Niehaus soon ended because of the drugs, her relationship with Peggy Caserta and refusal to take some time off work and travel the world with him. [6] Around this time she formed her new band, the Full Tilt Boogie Band . [3] [6] [8] The band was composed mostly of young Canadian musicians and featured an organ, but no horn section. Joplin took a more active role in putting together the Full Tilt Boogie Band than she did with her prior group. She was quoted as saying, “It’s my band. Finally it’s my band!” [3] The Full Tilt Boogie Band began touring in May 1970. Joplin remained quite happy with her new group, which received mostly positive feedback from both her fans and the critics. [3] Prior to beginning a summer tour with Full Tilt Boogie, she performed in a reunion with Big Brother at the Fillmore West in San Francisco on April 4, 1970. [16] Recordings from this concert were included in an in-concert album released posthumously in 1972. She again appeared with Big Brother on April 12 at Winterland where she and Big Brother were reported to be in excellent form. [6] By the time she began touring with Full Tilt Boogie, Joplin told people she was drug-free, but her drinking increased.[ citation needed ] From June 28 to July 4, 1970, Joplin and Full Tilt joined the all-star Festival Express tour through Canada, performing alongside the Grateful Dead , Delaney and Bonnie , Rick Danko and The Band , Eric Andersen and Ian and Sylvia . [6] They played concerts in Toronto , Winnipeg and Calgary . [6] [13] Footage of her performance of the song “Tell Mama” in Calgary became an MTV video in the 1980s and was included on the 1982 Farewell Song album. The audio of other Festival Express performances were included on that 1972 Joplin In Concert album. Video of the performances was included on the Festival Express DVD. In the “Tell Mama” video shown on MTV in the 1980s, Joplin wore a psychedelically colored loose-fitting costume and feathers in her hair. This was her standard stage costume in the spring and summer of 1970. She chose the new costumes after her friend and designer, Linda Gravenites (whom Joplin had praised in the May 1968 issue of Vogue ), cut ties with Joplin shortly after their return from Brazil, due largely to Joplin’s continued use of heroin. [3] Among her last public appearances were two broadcasts of The Dick Cavett Show . In the June 25, 1970 appearance, she announced that she would attend her ten-year high-school class reunion. When asked if she had been popular in school, she admitted that when in high school, her schoolmates “laughed me out of class, out of town and out of the state.” [17] In the August 3, 1970 Cavett broadcast, Joplin referred to her upcoming performance at the Festival for Peace to be held at Shea Stadium in Queens, New York on August 6, 1970. Joplin attended the reunion on August 14, accompanied by fellow musician and friend Bob Neuwirth, road manager John Cooke, and her sister Laura, but it reportedly proved to be an unhappy experience for her. [18] Joplin held a press conference in Port Arthur during her reunion visit. Interviewed by Rolling Stone journalist Chet Flippo, she was reported to wear enough jewelry for a “Babylonian whore.” [6] When asked by a reporter during the reunion if Joplin entertained at Thomas Jefferson High School when she was a student there, Joplin replied, “Only when I walked down the aisles.” [3] [3] [5] Joplin denigrated Port Arthur and the people who’d humiliated her a decade earlier in high school. [3] Joplin’s last public performance, with the Full Tilt Boogie Band, took place on August 12, 1970 at the Harvard Stadium in Boston, Massachusetts . A positive review appeared on the front page of the Harvard Crimson newspaper despite the fact that Full Tilt Boogie performed with makeshift sound amplifiers after their regular equipment was stolen in Boston. [8] During September 1970, Joplin and her band began recording a new album in Los Angeles with producer Paul A. Rothchild , who had produced recordings for The Doors . Although Joplin died before all the tracks were fully completed, there was still enough usable material to compile an LP. “ Mercedes Benz ” was included despite it being a first take, and the track “Buried Alive In The Blues”, to which Joplin had been scheduled to add her vocals on the day she was found dead, was kept as an instrumental. The result was the posthumously released Pearl (1971). It became the biggest selling album of her career [15] and featured her biggest hit single, a cover of Kris Kristofferson ‘s “ Me and Bobby McGee “. Kristofferson had been Joplin’s lover not long before her death. [19] Also included was the social commentary of the a cappella “ Mercedes Benz “, written by Joplin, close friend and song writer Bob Neuwirth and beat poet Michael McClure . In 2003, Pearl was ranked #122 on Rolling Stone magazine’s list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . During the recording sessions for Pearl, Joplin began seeing Seth Morgan , a 21 year-old Berkeley student, cocaine dealer and future novelist; [3] [6] [7] and checked into the Landmark Motel in Los Angeles to begin recording the Pearl album. [3] [6] [8] She and Morgan became engaged to be married in early September [5] and Joplin threw herself into the recording of songs for her new album. The last recordings Joplin completed were “ Mercedes Benz ” and a birthday greeting for John Lennon (“ Happy Trails “, composed by Dale Evans ) on October 1, 1970. Lennon, whose birthday was October 9, later told Dick Cavett that her taped greeting arrived at his home after her death. [18] On Saturday, October 3, Joplin visited the Sunset Sound Studios [6] in Los Angeles to listen to the instrumental track for Nick Gravenites ‘ song “Buried Alive in the Blues” prior to recording the vocal track, scheduled for the next day. [13] When she failed to show up at the studio by Sunday afternoon, producer Paul Rothchild became concerned. Full Tilt Boogie’s road manager, John Cooke, drove to the Landmark Motor Hotel (since renamed the Highland Gardens Hotel) where Joplin had been a guest since August 24. [20] He saw Joplin’s psychedelically painted Porsche still in the parking lot. Upon entering her room, he found her dead on the floor. The official cause of death was an overdose of heroin , possibly combined with the effects of alcohol. [21] [8] Cooke believes that Joplin had accidentally been given heroin which was much more potent than normal, as several of her dealer’s other customers also overdosed that week. [22] Joplin was cremated in the Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Mortuary in Los Angeles; her ashes were scattered from a plane into the Pacific Ocean and along Stinson Beach . The only funeral service was a private affair held at Pierce Brothers and attended by Joplin’s parents and maternal aunt. [23] Joplin was a pioneer in the male-dominated rock music scene of the late 1960s, influencing generations of musicians to come. Stevie Nicks commented that after seeing Joplin perform, “I knew that a little bit of my destiny had changed. I would search to find that connection that I had seen between Janis and her audience. In a blink of an eye she changed my life.” [24] Joplin’s body decoration, with a wristlet and a small heart on her left breast, by the San Francisco tattoo artist Lyle Tuttle , is taken as a seminal moment in the tattoo revolution and was an early moment in the popular culture’s acceptance of tattoos as art. [25] Another trademark was her flamboyant hair styles, often including colored streaks and accessories such as scarves, beads and feathers. The 1979 film The Rose was loosely based on Joplin’s life. [26] Bette Midler earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance. In the late 1990s, the musical play Love, Janis was created with input from Janis’s younger sister Laura plus Big Brother guitarist Sam Andrew , with an aim to take it to Off Broadway . Opening in the summer of 2001 and scheduled for only a few weeks of performances, the show won acclaim and packed houses and was held over several times, the demanding role of the singing Janis attracting rock vocalists from relative unknowns to pop stars Laura Branigan and Beth Hart . A national tour followed. Gospel According to Janis, a biographical film starring Zooey Deschanel as Joplin, was originally scheduled to begin shooting in early 2007, now has a projected release date in 2012. [27] At the 2009 Edinburgh Festival Fringe , Janis, [28] a one-woman show by Nicola Haydn , which imagined the last hour of Joplin’s life, gained its first substantial run. [29] It was nominated for ‘Best Solo Performance’ in The Stage Awards for Acting Excellence. [30] The production tourbus also used a recreation of Joplin’s Porsche by Brighton graffiti artist Req – on a VW Polo for budgetary reasons. In 1988, the Janis Joplin Memorial, with an original bronze , multi-image sculpture of Joplin by Douglas Clark , was dedicated in Port Arthur, Texas. Joplin was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1995, and was given a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005. In November, 2009, the Hall of Fame and museum honored her as part of its annual American Music Masters Series. [31] Among the artifacts at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum Exhibition are Joplin’s scarf and necklaces, her 1965 Porsche 356 Cabriolet with psychedelically designed painting , and a sheet of LSD blotting paper designed by Robert Crumb , designer of the Cheap Thrills cover. [32] She was the honoree at the Rock Hall’s American Music Master concert and lecture series for 2009. [33] When I was a kid, I was afraid of Janis Joplin. I was too young to appreciate her style, looks and ability. Years later I realized what a profound talent she was. She has had a lasting effect on pop music. I appreciate her more and more as time goes by. Source: Wikipedia, YouTube, janisjoplin.com, nndb.com Quick Bio Facts: Monterey Pop (26-Dec-1968) Performer Music Liner Notes is sponsored by Two Guys From Brooklyn -a unique web store selling personalized gifts for everyone. If you enjoy Music Liner Notes please support Two Guys From Brooklyn by visiting their site and signing up for their newsletter. Thank you! 37.810448 -122.239864 June 30, 2010 Johnny Mercer John Herndon “Johnny” Mercer (November 18, 1909 – June 25, 1976) was an American lyricist , songwriter and singer . He is best known as a lyricist, but he also composed music. He was also a popular singer who recorded his own songs as well as those written by others. From the mid-1930s through the mid-1950s, many of the songs Mercer wrote and performed were among the most popular hits of the time. He wrote the lyrics to more than fifteen hundred songs, including compositions for movies and Broadway shows. He received nineteen Academy Award nominations, and won four. Mercer was also a co-founder of Capitol Records . [1] Mercer was born in Savannah , Georgia . His father, George Anderson Mercer, was a prominent attorney and real estate developer, and his mother, Lillian Elizabeth ( née Ciucevich), George Mercer’s secretary and then second wife, was the daughter of Croatian-Irish immigrants who came to America in the 1850s. Lillian’s father was a merchant seaman who ran the Union blockade during the U.S. Civil War. [2] Mercer was George’s fourth son, first by Lillian. His great-grandfather was Confederate General Hugh Weedon Mercer and he was a direct descendant of Revolutionary War General Hugh Mercer , a Scottish soldier-physician who died at the Battle of Princeton. Mercer was also a distant cousin of General George S. Patton . [3] The Mercer House in Savannah was built by General Hugh Weedon Mercer in 1860, later the home of Jim Williams , whose trial for murder was the centerpiece of John Berendt ‘s book Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil , although neither the General nor Johnny ever lived there. Mercer liked music as a small child and attributed his musical talent to his mother, who would sing sentimental ballads. Mercer’s father also sang, mostly old Scottish songs. His aunt told him he was humming music when he was six months old and later she took him to see minstrel and vaudeville shows where he heard “coon songs” and ragtime. [4] The family’s summer home “Vernon View” was on the tidal waters and Mercer’s long summers there among mossy trees, saltwater marshes, and soft, starry nights inspired him years later. [5] Mercer’s exposure to black music was perhaps unique among the white songwriters of his generation. As a child, Mercer had African-American playmates and servants, and he listened to the fishermen and vendors about him, who spoke and sang in the Creole dialect known as “Geechee”. He was also attracted to black church services. Mercer later stated, “Songs always fascinated me more than anything”. [6] He never had formal musical training but was singing in a choir by six and at eleven or twelve he had memorized almost all of the songs he had heard and he had become curious about who had written them. He once asked his brother who the best songwriter was, and his brother said Irving Berlin , among the best of Tin Pan Alley . [7] Vocals by Johnny Mercer, Jo Stafford & The Pied Pipers. Despite his early exposure to music, Mercer’s talent was clearly in creating the words and singing, not playing music, though early on he hoped to become a composer. In addition to the lyrics Mercer memorized, he was an avid reader and wrote adventure stories. His attempts to play the trumpet and piano were not successful, however, and he never could read musical scores with any facility, relying instead on his own notational system. [8] Jo Stafford singing the Mercer/Kern song, “Long Ago And Far Away” Here’s Dick Haymes and Helen Forrest’s rendition of the same song. As a teenager in the Jazz Era, he was a ”product of his age”. He hunted for records in the black section of Savannah and played such early black jazz greats as Ma Rainey , Bessie Smith , and Louis Armstrong . His father owned the first car in town, and Mercer’s teenage social life was enhanced by his driving privilege, which sometimes verged on recklessness. [9] The family would motor to the mountains near Asheville, North Carolina to escape the Savannah heat and there Mercer learned to dance (from Arthur Murray himself) and to flirt with Southern belles, his natural sense of rhythm helping him on both accounts. Nat King Cole Singing “Day In Day Out” Peggy Lee in 1984 singing Mercer’s, “Day In Day Out” Mercer attended exclusive Woodberry Forest boys prep school in Virginia until 1927. Though not a top student, he was active in literary and poetry societies and as a humor writer for the school’s publications. In addition, his exposure to classic literature augmented his already rich store of vocabulary and phraseology. He began to scribble ingenious, sometimes strained rhymed phrases for later use. Mercer was also the class clown and a prankster, and member of the “hop” committee that booked musical entertainment on campus. [10] Frank Sinatra sings, “Too Marvelous For Words” Billie Holiday sings, “Too Marvelous For Words” Already somewhat of an authority on jazz, Mercer’s yearbook stated, “No orchestra or new production can be authoritatively termed ‘good’ until Johnny’s stamp of approval has been placed upon it. His ability to ‘get hot’ under all conditions and at all times is uncanny”. [11] Mercer began to write songs, an early effort being ‘’Sister Susie, Strut Your Stuff.” and quickly learned the powerful effect songs had on girls. [12] Given his family’s proud history and association with Princeton, New Jersey , and Princeton University , Mercer was destined for school there until his father’s financial setbacks in the late 1920’s changed those plans. He went to work in his father’s recovering business, collecting rent and running errands, but soon grew bored with the routine and with Savannah, and looked to escape. Mercer moved to New York in 1928, when he was 19. The music he loved, jazz and blues , was booming in Harlem and Broadway was bursting with musicals and revues from George Gershwin , Cole Porter , and Irving Berlin . Vaudeville , though beginning to fade, was still a strong musical presence. Mercer’s first few jobs were as a bit actor (billed as John Mercer). Holed up in a Greenwich Village apartment with plenty of time on his hands and a beat-up piano to play, Mercer soon returned to singing and lyric writing. [13] He secured a day job at a brokerage house and sang at night. Pooling his meager income with that of his roommates, Mercer managed to keep going, sometimes on little more than oatmeal. One night he dropped in on Eddie Cantor backstage to offer a comic song, but although Cantor didn’t use the song, he began encouraging Mercer’s career. [14] Mercer’s first lyric, for the song “Out of Breath (and Scared to Death of You)”, composed by friend Everett Miller, appeared in a musical revue The Garrick Gaieties in 1930. Mercer met his future wife at the show, chorus girl Ginger Meehan. Meehan had earlier been one of the many chorus girls pursued by the young crooner Bing Crosby . Through Miller’s father, an executive at the famous publisher T. B. Harms, Mercer’s first song was published. [15] It was recorded by Joe Venuti and his New Yorkers. The 20-year-old Mercer began to hang out with other songwriters and to learn the trade. He traveled to California to undertake a lyric writing assignment for the musical Paris in the Spring and met his idols Bing Crosby and Louis Armstrong . Mercer found the experience sobering and realized that he much preferred free-standing lyric writing to writing on demand for musicals. Upon his return, he got a job as staff lyricist for Miller Music for a $25 dollar-a-week draw which give him a base income and enough prospects to win over and marry Ginger in 1931. [16] The new Mrs. Mercer quit the chorus line and became a seamstress, and to save money the newlyweds moved in with Ginger’s mother in Brooklyn. Johnny did not inform his own parents of his marriage until after the fact, perhaps in part because he knew that Ginger being Jewish would not sit comfortably with some members of his family, and he worried they would try to talk him out of marrying her. Sung By Maxine Sullivan – Recorded in New York, 1947. Written by Johnny Mercer and Hoagy Carmichael in 1941 Original (definitive) version of “Skylark” performed by Harry James with Helen Forrest. Beyond a doubt, my very favorite recording of the song. Ella Fitzgerald singing, “Skylark” from the Johnny Mercer Songbook Album In 1932, Mercer won a contest to sing with the Paul Whiteman orchestra, but it did not help his situation significantly. He made his recording debut, singing with Frank Trumbauer’s Orchestra, on April 5 of that year. Mercer then apprenticed with Yip Harburg on the score for Americana, a Depression-flavored revue famous for “ Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? ” (not a Mercer composition), which gave Mercer invaluable training. After several songs which didn’t catch fire, during his time with Whiteman, he wrote and sang “Pardon My Southern Accent”. Mercer’s fortunes improved dramatically with a chance pairing with Indiana-born Hoagy Carmichael , already famous for the standard “ Stardust “, who was intrigued by the “young, bouncy butterball of a man from Georgia”. [17] The two spent a year laboring over “ Lazybones “, which became a hit one week after its first radio broadcast, and each received a large royalty check of $1250. [18] A regional song in pseudo-black dialect, it captured the mood of the times, especially in rural America. Mercer became a member of ASCAP and a recognized “brother” in the Tin Pan Alley fraternity, receiving congratulations from Irving Berlin , George Gershwin , and Cole Porter among others. Paul Whiteman lured Mercer back to his orchestra (to sing, write comic skits and compose songs), temporarily breaking up the working team with Carmichael. During the golden age of sophisticated popular song of the late Twenties and early Thirties, songs were put into revues with minimal regard for plot integration. During the 1930s, there was a shift from revues to stage and movie musicals using song to further the plot. Demand diminished accordingly for the pure stand-alone songs that Mercer preferred. Thus, although he had established himself in the New York music world, when Mercer was offered a job in Hollywood to compose songs and perform in low-budget musicals for RKO , he accepted and followed idol Bing Crosby west. [19] It was only when Mercer moved to Hollywood in 1935 that his career was assured. Writing songs for movies offered two distinct advantages. The use of sensitive microphones for recording and of the lip-synching of pre-recorded songs liberated songwriters from dependence on the long vowel endings and long sustained notes required for live performance. Performers such as Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers could now sing more conversationally and more nonchalantly. Mercer, as a singer, was attuned to this shift and his style fit the need perfectly. [20] Rosemary Clooney singing, “Blue In The Night” 1979 Ella singing, “Blues In The Night” Mercer’s first Hollywood assignment was not the Astaire-Rogers vehicle of which he had dreamed but a B-movie college musical, Old Man Rhythm, to which he contributed two undistinguished songs and even worse acting. His next project, To Beat the Band, was another flop, but it did lead to a meeting and a collaboration with Fred Astaire on the moderately successful Astaire song “I’m Building Up to an Awful Let-Down”. Though all but overwhelmed by the glitter of Hollywood, Mercer found his beloved jazz and nightlife lacking. As he wrote, “Hollywood was never much of a night town. Everybody had to get up too early… the movie people were in bed with the chickens (or each other).” [21] Mercer was now in Bing Crosby’s hard-drinking circle and enjoyed Crosby’s company and hipster talk. Unfortunately, Mercer also began to drink more at parties and was prone to vicious outbursts when under the influence of alcohol, contrasting sharply with his ordinarily genial and gentlemanly behavior. [22] Cowboys Rocky Rockwell & Buddy Hayes perform “I`m An Old Cowhand” (1957) Harry Connick Jr. sings, “I’m An Old Cowhand” Mercer’s first big Hollywood song “ I’m an Old Cowhand from the Rio Grande ” was inspired by a road trip through Texas (he wrote both the music and the lyric). It was performed by Crosby in the film Rhythm on the Range in 1936, and from thereon the demand for Mercer as a lyricist took off. His second hit that year was “ Goody Goody “. In 1937, Mercer began employment with the Warner Brothers studio, working with the veteran composer Richard Whiting ( Ain’t We Got Fun? ), soon producing his standard, “ Too Marvelous for Words “, followed by “ Hooray for Hollywood “. After Whiting’s sudden death from a heart attack, Mercer joined forces with Harry Warren and created “ Jeepers Creepers “, which earned Mercer his first Oscar nomination for Best Song. It was given a memorable recording by Louis Armstrong . Another hit with Warren in 1938 was “ You Must Have Been a Beautiful Baby “. The pair also created “Hooray For Spinach”, a comic song produced for the film Naughty But Nice in 1939. During a lull at Warners, Mercer revived his singing career. He joined Bing Crosby’s informal minstrel shows put on by the “Westwood Marching and Chowder Club”, which included many Hollywood luminaries and brought together Crosby and Bob Hope . [23] A duet “Mr. Crosby and Mr. Mercer” was recorded and became a hit in 1938. In 1939, Mercer wrote the lyrics to a melody by Ziggy Elman , a trumpet player with Benny Goodman . The song was “ And the Angels Sing ” and, although recorded by Bing Crosby and Count Basie , it was the Goodman version with vocal by Martha Tilton and memorable trumpet solo by Elman that became the Number One hit. Years later, the title was inscribed on Mercer’s tombstone. Paul Roth singing, “One For My Baby” Mercer was invited to the Camel Caravan radio show in New York to sing his hits and create satirical songs with the Benny Goodman orchestra, then becoming the emcee of the nationally broadcast show for several months. Two more hits followed shortly, “ Day In, Day Out ” and “ Fools Rush In ,” and Mercer in short order had five of the top ten songs on the popular radio show Your Hit Parade . [24] Mercer also started a short-lived publishing company during his stay in New York. On a lucky streak, Mercer undertook a musical with Hoagy Carmichael , but Walk With Music (originally called Three After Three) was a bomb, with story quality not matching that of the score. Another disappointment for Mercer was the selection of Johnny Burke as the long-term songwriter for the Hope-Crosby “Road” pictures. In 1940, the Mercers adopted a daughter, Amanda. Mercer was thirty and his life and career were riding high. In 1941, shortly after the death of his father, Mercer began an intense affair with nineteen-year-old Judy Garland while she was engaged to composer David Rose . Garland married Rose to temporarily stop the affair, but the effect on Mercer lingered, adding to the emotional depth of his lyrics. Their affair revived later. Mercer stated that his song “ I Remember You ” was the most direct expression of his feelings for Garland. [25] Sinatra sings, “How Little We Know” Shortly thereafter, Mercer met an ideal musical collaborator in the form of Harold Arlen whose jazz and blues -influenced compositions provided Mercer’s sophisticated, idiomatic lyrics a perfect musical vehicle. Now Mercer’s lyrics began to display the combination of sophisticated wit and southern regional vernacular that characterize some of his best songs. Their first hit was “ Blues in the Night ” (1941), which Arthur Schwartz claimed was “probably the greatest blues song ever written.” [26] They went on to compose “ One for My Baby (and One More for the Road) ” (1941), “ That Old Black Magic ” (1942), and “ Come Rain Or Come Shine ” (1946) among others. [27] Frank Sinatra was particularly successful with the first two and Bing Crosby with the third. “Come Rain” was Mercer’s only Broadway hit, composed for the show St. Louis Woman with Pearl Bailey . “ On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe ” was a big smash for Judy Garland in the 1946 film The Harvey Girls , and earned Mercer the first of his four Academy Awards for Best Song , after eight unsuccessful nominations. Mercer re-united with Hoagy Carmichael with “ Skylark ” (1941), and the Oscar-winning “ In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening ” (1951). With Jerome Kern , Mercer created You Were Never Lovelier for Fred Astaire and Rita Hayworth in the movie of the same name, as well as “ I’m Old Fashioned “. Mercer co-founded Capitol Records (originally “Liberty Records”) in Hollywood in 1942, along with producer Buddy DeSylva and record store owner Glen Wallichs. [1] He also co-founded Cowboy Records . Mercer by the mid-1940’s enjoyed a reputation as being among the premier Hollywood lyricists. He was adaptable, listening carefully and absorbing a tune and then transforming it into his own style. Like Irving Berlin , he was a close follower of cultural fashion and changing language, which in part accounted for the long tenure of his success. Mercer preferred to have the music first, taking it home and working on it. He claimed composers had no problem with this method provided that he returned with the lyrics. Only with Arlen and Whiting did Mercer occasionally work side-by-side. Mercer was often asked to write new lyrics to already popular tunes. The lyrics to “ Laura “, “Midnight Sun”, and “ Satin Doll ” were all written after the melodies had become hits. He was also asked to compose English lyrics to foreign songs, the most famous example being “ Autumn Leaves “, based on the French “Les Feuilles Mortes”. In the 1950’s, the advent of rock and roll and the transition of jazz into “bebop” cut deeply into Mercer’s natural audience, and dramatically reduced venues for his songs. His continual string of hits came to an end but many great songs were still to come. Mercer wrote for some MGM films, including Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954) and Merry Andrew (1958). He collaborated on three Broadway musicals in the 1950s – Top Banana (1951), Li’l Abner (1956), and Saratoga (1959) – and the West End production The Good Companions in 1974. His more successful songs of the 1950s include “ The Glow-Worm ” (sung by the Mills Brothers ) and “ Something’s Gotta Give “. In 1961, he wrote the lyrics to “ Moon River ” for Audrey Hepburn in Breakfast at Tiffany’s and for Days of Wine and Roses , both with music by Henry Mancini, and Mercer received his third and fourth Oscars for Best Song. The back-to-back Oscars were the first time a songwriting team had achieved that feat. [28] Mercer, also with Mancini, wrote Charade in 1964, for the Cary Grant – Audrey Hepburn romantic thriller. The Tony Bennett classic “ I Wanna Be Around ” was written by Mercer in 1962 and the Sinatra hit “ Summer Wind ” in 1965. An indication of the high esteem in which Mercer was held can be observed in that in 1964 he became the only lyricist to have his work recorded as a volume of Ella Fitzgerald ‘s celebrated ‘Songbook’ albums for the Verve label. Yet Mercer always remained humble about his work, attributing much to luck and timing. He was fond of telling the story of how he was offered the job of doing the lyrics for Johnny Mandel ‘s music on The Sandpiper, only to have the producer turn his lyrics down. The producer offered the commission to Paul Francis Webster and the result was The Shadow of Your Smile which became a huge hit, winning the 1965 Oscar for Best Original Song . [7] Sarah Vaughan singing, “The Shadow Of Your Smile” in 1964 From 1965, and originally found on Tony Bennett’s classic “The Movie Song Album,” In 1969, Mercer helped publishers Abe Olman and Howie Richmond found the National Academy of Popular Music’s Songwriters Hall of Fame . In 1971, Mercer presented a retrospective of his career for the “Lyrics and Lyricists Series” in New York, including an omnibus of his “greatest hits” and a performance by Margaret Whiting . It was recorded live as An Evening with Johnny Mercer. [29] In 1974, Mercer recorded two albums worth of his songs in London, with the Pete Moore Orchestra, and with the Harry Roche Constellation, later compiled into a single album and released as “…My Huckleberry Friend: Johnny Mercer Sings the Songs of Johnny Mercer” . In 1975, Paul McCartney approached Mercer for a collaboration but Mercer was ill, and an inoperable brain tumor was diagnosed. [30] He died on June 25, 1976 in Bel Air , California . Mercer was buried in Savannah’s historical Bonaventure Cemetery. Well regarded also as a singer , with a folksy quality, Mercer was a natural for his own songs such as Ac-Cent-Tchu-Ate The Positive , On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe , One for My Baby (and One More for the Road) , and Lazybones . He was considered a first-rate performer of his own work. [7] It has been said that he penned One for My Baby (and One More for the Road) —one of the great torch laments of all times—on a napkin while sitting at the bar at P. J. Clarke’s when Tommy Joyce was the bartender. The next day Mercer called Joyce to apologize for the line “So, set ’em up, Joe,” “I couldn’t get your name to rhyme.” Mercer, like Cole Porter before him, was more interested in the words than the emotion in lyric. This may be why One for My Baby (and One More for the Road) was sung more effectively by him than other singers who often turned it into a tear-jerker. ATCO Records issued Two of a Kind in 1961, a duet album by Bobby Darin and Johnny Mercer with Billy May and his Orchestra, produced by Ahmet Ertegün . In his last year, Mercer became fond of pop singer Barry Manilow , in part because Manilow’s first hit record was of a song titled Mandy , which was also the name of Mercer’s daughter Amanda. After Mercer’s death in 1976 from a brain tumor, his widow, Ginger Mehan Mercer, arranged to give some unfinished lyrics he had written to Manilow to possibly develop into complete songs. Among these was a piece titled “ When October Goes “, a melancholy remembrance of lost love. Manilow applied his own melody to the lyric and issued it as a single in 1984, when it became a top 10 Adult Contemporary hit in the United States. The song has since become a jazz standard, with notable recordings by Rosemary Clooney , Nancy Wilson , and Megon McDonough , among other performers. He was honored by the United States Postal Service with his portrait placed on a stamp in 1996. Mercer’s star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1628 Vine Street [31] is a block away from the Capitol Records building at 1750 Vine Street. Mercer was given tribute in John Berendt ‘s book Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil . The Hoagy Carmichael/Johnny Mercer song “Skylark”, sung by K.D. Lang, features prominently in the movie and the movie soundtrack is a tribute album to Johnny Mercer, containing 14 Mercer songs performed by a variety of jazz and pop recording artists. The Johnny Mercer Collections, including his papers and memorabilia, are preserved in the library of Georgia State University in Atlanta. GSU occasionally holds events showcasing Mercer’s works. In November 2009, a statue of Mercer was unveiled in Ellis Square in Savannah, Georgia , his hometown and birthplace. The Complete Lyrics of Johnny Mercer was scheduled to be published by Knopf [1] in the fall of 2009.The Complete Lyrics contains the texts to nearly 1,500 of his lyrics, several hundred of them appearing in print for the first time. Simply amazing, how one composer effected so many people with music and lyrics that spanned 6 decades. Mercer was as prolific in 1929 as he was in 1976. His songs were and continue to provide the backdrops of our lives. It has been said that at one point, the high literacy level in the United States was in part due to the fact that the popular music of the day was infused with Mercer’s prolific lyrics. Sources: Wikipedia, johnnymercer.com, youtube, imdb.com, nndb.com 37.810448 -122.239864 June 29, 2010 Billie Holiday Billie Holiday (born Elinore Harris; [1] April 7, 1915 – July 17, 1959) was an American jazz singer and songwriter. Nicknamed Lady Day [2] by her friend and musical partner Lester Young , Holiday was a seminal influence on jazz and pop singing. Her vocal style, strongly inspired by jazz instrumentalists, pioneered a new way of manipulating phrasing and tempo. Above all, she was admired all over the world for her deeply personal and intimate approach to singing. “God Bless The Child” Them that’s got shall get Them that’s not shall lose So the Bible said and it still is news Mama may have, Papa may have But God bless the child that’s got his own That’s got his own Yes, the strong gets more While the weak ones fade Empty pockets don’t ever make the grade Mama may have, Papa may have But God bless the child that’s got his own That’s got his own Money, you’ve got lots of friends Crowding round the door When you’re gone, spending ends They don’t come no more Rich relations give Crust of bread and such You can help yourself But don’t take too much Mama may have, Papa may have But God bless the child that’s got his own That’s got his own Mama may have, Papa may have But God bless the child that’s got his own That’s got his own He just worry ’bout nothin’ Cause he’s got his own Critic John Bush wrote that she “changed the art of American pop vocals forever.” [3] She co-wrote only a few songs, but several of them have become jazz standards , notably “ God Bless the Child “, “ Don’t Explain “, “ Fine and Mellow “, and “ Lady Sings the Blues “. She also became famous for singing jazz standards including “ Easy Living ” and “ Strange Fruit “. Billie Holiday had a difficult childhood. Much information once not considered true was confirmed in the book Billie Holiday by Stuart Nicholson in 1995. Holiday’s autobiography, Lady Sings the Blues , which was first published in 1956, is sketchy when it comes to details about her early life but has been confirmed by the Nicholson research. Her professional pseudonym was taken from Billie Dove , an actress she admired, and Clarence Holiday , her probable father. [4] At the outset of her career, she spelled her last name Halliday, which was the birth-surname of her father, but eventually changed it to Holiday, his performing name. Billie Holiday singing, “I’ll Be Seeing You,” recorded “live” at her November 10, 1956 Carnegie Hall Concert. There is some controversy regarding Holiday’s paternity, stemming from a copy of her birth certificate in the Baltimore archives that lists the father as a “Frank DeViese”. Some historians consider this an anomaly, probably inserted by a hospital or government worker. [5] Despite Billie’s later comments, Sadie and Clarence Holiday neither married nor lived together [6] and in fact Frank DeVeazy did live in Philadelphia and may have been known to Sadie through her work. Billie’s mother, Sarah Julia “Sadie” Harris (later Fagan), [7] was thrown out of her parents’ home in Sandtown , Baltimore , after becoming pregnant at thirteen; she moved to Philadelphia , where Billie was born Eleanora Fagan. [8] With no support from her parents, Sadie arranged for Eleanora to stay with her half sister, Eva Miller, in Baltimore. [9] Sadie often took what were then known as “transportation jobs”, leaving Eleanora to be raised largely by Eva Miller’s mother-in-law, Martha Miller. [10] Martha Miller’s daughter, Evelyn Miller Conway, attested to the fact that Eleanora had an attitude problem from very early on as a result of her mother leaving her in the care of others for much of the first ten years of her life. [11] Sadie Harris, now known as Sadie Fagan, married Philip Gough but the marriage was over in two years. [12] Once again Eleanora was left in the care of Martha Miller while Sadie took further transportation jobs. [13] Eleanora’s frequent truancy resulted in her being brought before the juvenile court on January 5, 1925, and sent to The House of the Good Shepherd, a Catholic reform school. [14] Eleanora was baptized there on March 19, 1925. [15] After nine months in care, Eleanora was “paroled” to her mother on October 3, 1925. [16] Sadie had opened a restaurant called the East Side Grill and she and Eleanora worked long hours. By the time she was eleven, Eleanora had dropped out of school. I wished on the Moon –Billie Holiday 1935 20 year old Billie Holiday sings in a first session with the Teddy Wilson Orchestra on July 2 1935 in New York. Next to Teddy on piano the All Star Band consists of Benny Goodman clarinet, Roy Eldridge trumpet, Ben Webster tenor sax, John Truehart guitar, John Kirby bass and Cozy Cole drums. Jazz promotor John Hammond heard Billie for the first time in New York’s Monette club in 1933 and wrote in Melody Maker: “Billie although only 18, she weighs over 200 lbs, is incredibly beautiful, and sings as well as anybody I ever heard”. Hammond told Benny Goodman, and the two went to this Monette club. Both were impressed and it was the start of Billie’s career. Towards the end of 1926, after having moved again, Sadie returned home on December 24, 1926, to discover a neighbor, Wilbur Rich, in the act of having sex with Eleanora. Rich was arrested, and on the same day Eleanora was again placed in the care of the House of Good Shepard, being held there in protective custody “as a state witness in the case of State of Maryland vs Wilbur Rich, charged with rape.” [17] Eventually Eleanora was released in February of 1927. During this period, Sadie and Eleanora wound up living with and working for a madame . [18] It was during this time she first heard the records of Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith . By the end of 1928, Sadie decided to try her luck in Harlem and again left Eleanora in the care of Martha Miller. [19] During her final period of separation from her mother, Billie began to perform the songs she learned while working in the brothel. [20] However, by early 1929, Sadie sent for her to join her in Harlem. Their landlady was a sharply dressed woman named Florence Williams, who ran a whorehouse at 151 West 140th Street. [21] In order to live, Sadie became a prostitute and, within a matter of days of her arrival, Eleanora, who had not yet turned fourteen, was also turning tricks for $5 a time. [22] A Fine Romance — Billie Holiday 1936 In a second recording date under her own name was made in New York on September 29, 1936. Artie Shaw was replaced by a clarinetist from the Bob Crosby band called Irving Fazola, and pianist Clyde Hart replaced Joe Bushkin, with Bunny Berigan trumpet, Dick McDonough guitar, Artie Bernstein bass and Cozy Cole drums Dorothy Fields and Jerome Kern composed this tune. “A fine romance, with no kisses, a fine romance, my friend this is we should be like a couple of hot tomatoes but you are as cold as yesterdays mashed potatoes a fine romance, you won’t nestle, a fine romance you won’t wrestle I might as well play bridge with my old maid aunt I haven’t got a chance, this is a fine romance” On May 2, 1929, the house was raided and Sadie and Eleanora wound up in prison. After spending some time in a workhouse , Sadie was released in July, followed by Eleanora in October. Changing her name to Billie Holiday (sometimes Halliday), Billie teamed up with a neighbor, tenor sax player Kenneth Hollan. From 1929 to 1931, they were a team, performing at clubs such as the “Grey Dawn”, “Pod’s and Jerry’s” and the Brooklyn Elk’s Club. [23] [24] Benny Goodman recalled hearing Billie in 1931 at “The Bright Spot” and as Billie’s reputation grew, she played at many clubs, including “Mexico’s” and “The Alhambra Bar and Grill” where Charles Linton, a vocalist who later worked with Chick Webb , first met her. [25] It was also during this period that Billie connected with her father, Clarence, who by this time was playing with Fletcher Henderson ‘s band. [26] By the end of 1932, Billie was brought in to replace Monette Moore at a club called “Covan’s” on West 132nd Street. It was here that producer John Hammond , who loved Monette Moore’s singing and had come to hear her, first heard Billie in early 1933. [27] “The Blues Are Brewin” Look at how young Louis Armstrong is! Hammond arranged for Holiday to make her recording debut in November 1933 with Benny Goodman , singing two songs: “Your Mother’s Son-In-Law” and “Riffin’ the Scotch”. Goodman was also on hand in 1935, when she continued her recording career with a group led by pianist Teddy Wilson . Their first collaboration included “ What a Little Moonlight Can Do ” and “ Miss Brown To You “, which helped to establish Holiday as a major vocalist. She began recording under her own name a year later, producing a series of extraordinary performances with groups comprising the swing era ‘s finest musicians. Wilson was signed to Brunswick Records by John Hammond for the purpose of recording current pop tunes in the new “ swing ” style for the growing jukebox trade. They were given free rein to improvise the material. Holiday’s amazing method of improvising the melody line to fit the emotion was revolutionary. Wilson and Holiday took pedestrian pop tunes, such as “ Twenty-Four Hours a Day ” or “Yankee Doodle Never Went To Town”, and turned them into jazz classics with their arrangements. With few exceptions, the recordings she made with Wilson or under her own name during the 1930s and early 1940s are regarded as important parts of the jazz vocal library. Catching the attention of musicians nationwide, singers began to imitate Holiday’s light, rhythmic manner. Billie Holiday – You Go To My Head You go to my head You go to my head, And you linger like a haunting refrain And I find you spinning round in my brain Like the bubbles in a glass of champagne. You go to my head Like a sip of sparkling burgundy brew And I find the very mention of you Like the kicker in a julep or two. The thrill of the thought That you might give a thought To my plea casts a spell over me Still I say to myself: get a hold of yourself Can’t you see that it can never be? You go to my head With smile that makes my temperature rise Like a summer with a thousand Julys You intoxicate my soul with your eyes Tho I’m certain that this heart of mine Hasn’t a ghost of a chance in this crazy romance, You go to my head. Among the musicians who accompanied her frequently was tenor saxophonist Lester Young , who had been a boarder at her mother’s house in 1934 and with whom she had a special rapport. “Well, I think you can hear that on some of the old records, you know. Some time I’d sit down and listen to ’em myself, and it sound like two of the same voices, if you don’t be careful, you know, or the same mind, or something like that.” [28] Young nicknamed her “Lady Day”, and she, in turn, dubbed him “Prez”. She did a three-month residency at Clark Monroe’s Uptown House in New York in 1937. In the late 1930s, she also had brief stints as a big band vocalist with Count Basie (1937) and Artie Shaw (1938). The latter association placed her among the first black women to work with a white orchestra, an arrangement that went against the tenor of the times. Holiday was recording for Columbia in the late 1930s when she was introduced to “ Strange Fruit “, a song based on a poem about lynching written by Abel Meeropol , a Jewish schoolteacher from the Bronx . Meeropol used the pseudonym “Lewis Allan” for the poem, which was set to music and performed at teachers’ union meetings. It was eventually heard by Barney Josephson, proprietor of Café Society , an integrated nightclub in Greenwich Village , who introduced it to Holiday. She performed it at the club in 1939, with some trepidation, fearing possible retaliation. Holiday later said that the imagery in “Strange Fruit” reminded her of her father’s death and that this played a role in her resistance to performing it. In a 1958 interview, she also bemoaned the fact that many people did not grasp the song’s message: “They’ll ask me to ‘sing that sexy song about the people swinging'”, she said. [29] When Holiday’s producers at Columbia found the subject matter too sensitive, Milt Gabler agreed to record it for his Commodore Records . That was done on April 20, 1939, and “Strange Fruit” remained in her repertoire for twenty years. She later recorded it again for Verve . While the Commodore release did not get airplay, the controversial song sold well, though Gabler attributed that mostly to the record’s other side, “ Fine and Mellow “, which was a jukebox hit. [30] Milt Gabler eventually became an A&R man for Decca Records , in addition to owning Commodore Records, and he signed Holiday to the label on August 7, 1944, when Holiday was 29. Her first recording for Decca was “ Lover Man ” (#5 R&B) and “No More”. [31] “Lover Man” was a song written especially for her by Jimmy Davis, Roger “Ram” Ramirez, and Jimmy Sherman. Although its lyrics describe a woman who has never known love (“I long to try something I never had”), its theme—a woman longing for a missing lover—and its refrain, “Lover man, oh, where can you be?”, struck a chord in wartime America, and the record became one of her biggest hits. Holiday’s slow, melodic songs of unrequited love aided her career, and she became a popular star in the 1940’s. [32] A month later, in November, Billie Holiday returned to the Decca studio to record three songs, “That Ole Devil Called Love”, “Big Stuff”, and “ Don’t Explain “. Holiday wrote “Don’t Explain” after she caught her husband, Jimmy Monroe, with lipstick on his collar. After the recording session, Holiday did not return to the studio until August 1945. She recorded “Don’t Explain”, “Big Stuff”, “ What Is This Thing Called Love? “, and “You Better Go Now”. “Big Stuff” and “Don’t Explain” were recorded again but with additional strings and a viola . This was Holiday’s only recording session in 1945, for she returned again to the studio in January 1946, recording her biggest hits: “No Good Man” and “ Good Morning Heartache “. “Big Stuff” was also recorded for the third time. She came back on March 13, 1946, to record “Big Stuff” with a smaller group. In December 1946, Billie recorded “The Blues Are Brewin”, a song that she performed in her only feature film, New Orleans (1947). She also recorded “Guilty”. In February 1947, Holiday recorded two hits, “ There Is No Greater Love ” and the haunting “Deep Song”. She also recorded “ Solitude ” and “ Easy Living “, songs that she had recorded with Teddy Wilson in the late 1930s. Billie’s next recording was after her release from prison in 1948. This time, she had a vocal group behind her (The Stardusters). She recorded “Weep No More” and “Girls Were Made to Take Care of Boys”. Worried that people would not like the recordings, they recorded two more songs without the group. These singles became some of her biggest hits on Decca. She recorded “My Man” and Gershwin’s “ I Loves You Porgy “. “I Love You Porgy” The next year, Billie had a streak of hits, from her brassy rendition of Bessie Smith ‘s “ Ain’t Nobody’s Business If I Do “, “Gimme A Pigfoot (And A Bottle of Beer)”, “Do Your Duty”, and “Keeps on Rainin'”, to her lush “ You’re My Thrill ” and “Crazy He Calls Me”. She also recorded a song that she wrote, called “Somebody’s On My Mind”. In her last recording in 1950, she recorded two songs. Both of them were backed by strings, horns, and a choir. She recorded her own “ God Bless the Child ” and “This is Heaven to Me”. In 1933, Billie Holiday appeared as an extra in Paul Robeson ‘s The Emperor Jones . Then, in 1935, she had a small role as a woman being abused by her lover in Duke Ellington’s short “Symphony in Black: A Rhapsody of Negro Life”. She also sang a tune called “Saddest Tale”. ‎Holiday made one major film appearance, opposite Louis Armstrong in New Orleans (1947). The musical drama featured Holiday singing with Armstrong and his band and was directed by Arthur Lubin . Holiday was not pleased that her role was that of a maid, as she recalled in her autobiography, Lady Sings the Blues: “I thought I was going to play myself in it. I thought I was going to be Billie Holiday doing a couple of songs in a nightclub setting and that would be that. I should have known better. When I saw the script, I did. You just tell one Negro girl who’s made movies who didn’t play a maid or a whore. I don’t know any. I found out I was going to do a little singing, but I was still playing the part of a maid.” Holiday also appeared in the 1950 Universal-International short film “ ‘Sugar Chile’ Robinson, Billie Holiday, Count Basie and His Sextet “, where she sang “God Bless the Child” and “Now, Baby or Never”. On May 16, 1947, Holiday was arrested for the possession of narcotics and drugs in her New York apartment. On May 27, 1947, she was in court. “It was called ‘The United States of America versus Billie Holiday’. And that’s just the way it felt,” Holiday recalled in her autobiography, Lady Sings the Blues. Holiday pleaded guilty and was sentenced to Alderson Federal Prison Camp in West Virginia. Holiday said she never “sang a note” at Alderson, even though people wanted her to. Luckily for Holiday, she was released early (March 16, 1948) because of good behavior. When she arrived at Newark, everybody was there to welcome her back, including her pianist Bobby Tucker . “I might just as well have wheeled into Penn Station and had a quiet little get-together with the Associated Press , United Press , and International News Service .” “Miss Brown To You” -A rare Johnny Mercer tune. Not only a great recording of Billie Holliday’s but one that show the amazing versatility of Johnny Mercer. 1935 Ed Fishman (who fought with Joe Glaser to be Holiday’s manager) thought of the idea to throw a comeback concert at Carnegie Hall . Holiday hesitated, unsure whether audiences were ready to accept her after the arrest. She eventually gave in, and agreed to the concert. On March 27, 1948, Holiday played Carnegie Hall to a sold-out crowd. It is not certain how many sets Holiday did, as the concert was not recorded, but the sets included Cole Porter ‘s “ Night and Day ” and “ Strange Fruit “. Less than a year later, Holiday was arrested again on January 22, 1949, inside her room at San Francisco’s Hotel Mark Twain. Holiday stated that she began using hard drugs in the early 1940s. She married trombonist Jimmy Monroe on August 25, 1941. While still married to Monroe, she became romantically involved with trumpeter Joe Guy , who was also her drug dealer, and eventually became his common law wife. She finally divorced Monroe in 1947 and also split with Guy. Because of her 1947 conviction, her New York City Cabaret Card was revoked, which kept her from working in clubs there for the remaining 12 years of her life, except when she played at the Ebony Club in 1948, where she opened under the permission of John Levy . “What A Little Moonlight Can Do” performed with Teddy Wilson on piano. By the 1950s, Holiday’s drug abuse, drinking, and relationships with abusive men caused her health to deteriorate. Her later recordings showed the effects on her voice, as it grew coarse and no longer projected the vibrancy it once had. In spite of this, however, she retained—and perhaps strengthened—the emotional impact of her delivery ( See below ). On March 28, 1952, Holiday married Louis McKay, a Mafia enforcer. McKay, like most of the men in her life, was abusive, but he did try to get her off drugs. They were separated at the time of her death, but McKay had plans to start a chain of Billie Holiday vocal studios, à la Arthur Murray dance schools. Her late recordings on Verve constitute about a third of her commercial recorded legacy and are as popular as her earlier work for the Columbia, Commodore and Decca labels. In later years, her voice became more fragile, but it never lost the edge that had always made it so distinctive. On November 10, 1956, she performed two concerts before packed audiences at Carnegie Hall , a major accomplishment for any artist, especially a black artist of the segregated period of American history. Live recordings of the second Carnegie Hall concert were released on a Verve/HMV album in the UK in late 1961 called The Essential Billie Holiday. The thirteen tracks included on this album featured her own songs “Love My Man”, “Don’t Explain” and “Fine And Mellow”, together with other songs closely associated with her, including “Body and Soul”, “My Man”, and “Lady Sings the Blues” (her lyrics accompanied a tune by pianist Herbie Nichols ). “Body And Soul” 1940 The liner notes on this album were penned partly by Gilbert Millstein of The New York Times, who, according to these notes, served as narrator in the Carnegie Hall concerts, taking position at a lectern to the left of the stage. Interspersed among Holiday’s songs, Millstein read aloud four lengthy passages from her autobiography Lady Sings The Blues. He later wrote: “The narration began with the ironic account of her birth in Baltimore – ‘Mom and Pop were just a couple of kids when they got married. He was eighteen, she was sixteen, and I was three’ – and ended, very nearly shyly, with her hope for love and a long life with ‘my man’ at her side.” Millstein continued, “It was evident, even then, that Miss Holiday was ill. I had known her casually over the years and I was shocked at her physical weakness. Her rehearsal had been desultory; her voice sounded tinny and trailed off; her body sagged tiredly. But I will not forget the metamorphosis that night. The lights went down, the musicians began to play and the narration began. Miss Holiday stepped from between the curtains, into the white spotlight awaiting her, wearing a white evening gown and white gardenias in her black hair. She was erect and beautiful; poised and smiling. And when the first section of narration was ended, she sang – with strength undiminished – with all of the art that was hers. I was very much moved. In the darkness, my face burned and my eyes. I recall only one thing. I smiled.” Nat Hentoff of Down Beat magazine, who attended this same Carnegie Hall concert, penned the remainder of the sleeve notes on the 1961 album. He wrote of her performance: “Throughout the night, Billie was in superior form to what had sometimes been the case in the last years of her life. Not only was there assurance of phrasing and intonation; but there was also an outgoing warmth, a palpable eagerness to reach and touch the audience. And there was mocking wit. A smile was often lightly evident on her lips and her eyes as if, for once, she could accept the fact that there were people who did dig her.” Hentoff continued, “The beat flowed in her uniquely sinuous, supple way of moving the story along; the words became her own experiences; and coursing through it all was Lady’s sound – a texture simultaneously steel-edged and yet soft inside; a voice that was almost unbearably wise in disillusion and yet still childlike, again at the centre. The audience was hers from before she sang, greeting her and saying good-bye with heavy, loving applause. And at one time, the musicians too applauded. It was a night when Billie was on top, undeniably the best and most honest jazz singer alive.” Her performance of “Fine And Mellow” on CBS ‘s The Sound of Jazz program is memorable for her interplay with her long-time friend Lester Young ; both were less than two years from death. Holiday first toured Europe in 1954 as part of a Leonard Feather package that also included Buddy DeFranco and Red Norvo . When she returned almost five years later, she made one of her last television appearances for Granada’s Chelsea at Nine in London. Her final studio recordings were made for MGM in 1959, with lush backing from Ray Ellis and his Orchestra, who had also accompanied her on Columbia’s Lady in Satin album the previous year—see below. The MGM sessions were released posthumously on a self-titled album, later re-titled and re-released as Last Recordings. Holiday’s autobiography, Lady Sings the Blues, was ghostwritten by William Dufty and published in 1956. Dufty, a New York Post writer and editor then married to Holiday’s close friend Maely Dufty, wrote the book quickly from a series of conversations with the singer in the Duftys’ 93rd Street apartment, drawing on the work of earlier interviewers as well. His aim was to let Holiday tell her story in her own way. [33] Although childless, Billie Holiday had two godchildren: singer Billie Lorraine Feather , daughter of Leonard Feather, and Bevan Dufty , son of William Dufty . [33] On May 31, 1959, she was taken to Metropolitan Hospital in New York suffering from liver and heart disease . Police officers were stationed at the door to her room. She was arrested for drug possession as she lay dying, and her hospital room was raided by authorities. [33] Holiday remained under police guard at the hospital until she died from cirrhosis of the liver on July 17, 1959. In the final years of her life, she had been progressively swindled out of her earnings, and she died with $0.70 in the bank and $750 (a tabloid fee) on her person. Source: Wikipedia, YouTube, IMDB.com, NNDB.com 37.810448 -122.239864 June 28, 2010	i don't know
Telling the story of a group of birds in the Brazilian jungle, which animated film, featuring voice casting by Jesse Eisenberg and Anne Hathaway, is the highest grossing film worldwide of 2011 so far?	Rio Rio You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 3 to 24 are not shown in this preview. This action might not be possible to undo. Are you sure you want to continue? CANCEL We've moved you to where you read on your other device. Get the full title to continue Get the full title to continue reading from where you left off, or restart the preview. Restart preview	Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino
'Gargantua' and 'Pantagruel' are literary works written by which 16th century French author?	IMDb: Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Actors, The" Most Popular People With Biographies Matching "Actors, The" 1-50 of 38,787 names. Felicity Jones Felicity Rose Hadley Jones is an English actress. Jones was born in Birmingham, West Midlands, and grew up in Bournville. Her parents met while working at the Wolverhampton Express and Star. Her father was a journalist while her mother was in advertising. They divorced when she was three, and she was brought up with her brother by her mother alone. Despite this, she has said that her family is "extremely close." Her uncle is actor Michael Hadley . After Kings Norton Girls School, Jones attended King Edward VI Handsworth School, to complete A Levels and went on to take a gap year (during which she appeared in the BBC series Servants ). She then read English at Wadham College, Oxford, graduating with a 2:1 in 2006. While studying English, she appeared in student plays, including Attis in which she played the title role, and, in 2005, Shakespeare's "Comedy of Errors" for the OUDS summer tour to Japan, starring alongside Harry Lloyd. Diego Luna Diego Luna Alexander was born on December 29, 1979 in Mexico City, Mexico, to Alejandro Luna and Fiona Alexander, who worked as a costume designer. His father is Mexican and his mother was British, of Scottish and English descent. His mother died when Diego was only two, in a car accident. He soon became immersed in his father's passion, entertainment - he is the most acclaimed living theatre, cinema and opera set designer in Mexico. From an early age he began acting working in tv, movies, and theater. His first television role was in the movie The Last New Year . His next role in the Mexican soap opera El abuelo y yo . His childhood best friend and fellow actor Gael Garcia Bernal played the title role. After 'El Abuelo y Yo', Diego began to receive more and more parts in theater, movies and TV. His big break came in 2001 when he was cast in the critically acclaimed Y Tu Mamá También , once again alongside his best friend Gael Garcia Bernal, as Tenoch Iturbide. His star continues to shine and he is making a name for himself in the American market such as starring alongside Bon Jovi in Vampires: Los Muertos and the Oscar winning Frida . He has just wrapped 'Havana Nights: Dirty Dancing 2', the prequel to 'Dirty Dancing' and is working on more projects in both Latin America and the United States. Jennifer Lawrence Jennifer Shrader Lawrence was born on August 15, 1990 in Louisville, Kentucky, to Karen (Koch), who manages a children's camp, and Gary Lawrence, who works in construction. She has two older brothers, Ben and Blaine, and has English, as well as some German, Irish, and Scottish, ancestry. Her career began when she traveled to Manhattan at the age of 14. After conducting her first cold read, agents told her mother that "it was the best cold read by a 14- year-old they had ever heard", and tried to convince her stage mother that she needed to spend the summer in Manhattan. After leaving the agency, Jen was spotted by an agent in the midst of shooting an H&M ad and asked to take her picture. The next day, that agent followed up with her and invited her to the studio for a cold read audition. Again, the agents were highly impressed and strongly urged her mother to allow her to spend the summer in New York City. As fate would have it, she did, and subsequently appeared in commercials such as MTV's "My Super Sweet 16" and played a role in the movie, The Devil You Know . Shortly thereafter, her career forced her and her family to move to Los Angeles, where she was cast in the TBS sitcom The Bill Engvall Show , and in smaller movies like The Poker House and The Burning Plain . Her big break came when she played Ree in Winter's Bone , which landed her Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations. Shortly thereafter, she secured the role of Mystique in franchise reboot X-Men: First Class , which went on to be a hit in Summer 2011. Around this time, Lawrence scored the role of a lifetime when she was cast as Katniss Everdeen in the big-screen adaptation of literary sensation The Hunger Games . That went on to become one of the highest-grossing movies ever with over $407 million at the domestic box office, and instantly propelled Lawrence to the A-list among young actors/actresses. Three Hunger Games sequels are scheduled for release in November 2013, 2014, and 2015, with Lawrence reprising her role at least for the first one ( The Hunger Games: Catching Fire ). In 2012 the romantic comedy Silver Linings Playbook earned her the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, Satellite Award and the Independent Spirit Award for Best Actress, among other accolades, making her the youngest person ever to be nominated for two Academy Awards for Best Actress and the second-youngest Best Actress winner. Carrie Fisher Carrie Frances Fisher was born on October 21, 1956 in Beverly Hills, Los Angeles, California, to singers/actors Eddie Fisher and Debbie Reynolds . She was an actress and writer, and is known for Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope (aka Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope (1977)), Star Wars: Episode V - The Empire Strikes Back and Star Wars: Episode VI - Return of the Jedi . Fisher is also known for her book, "Postcards From The Edge", and Fisher wrote the screenplay for the movie from her novel. Carrie Fisher and talent agent Bryan Lourd have a daughter, Billie Lourd (Billie Catherine Lourd), born on July 17, 1992. Ben Mendelsohn Despite his prominence in Hollywood as a character actor known for playing villains and criminals, Ben Mendelsohn has been a leading man in Australia since starting acting as a teenager. Paul Benjamin Mendelsohn was born in Melbourne, Australia, to Carole Ann (Ferguson), a nurse, and Frederick Arthur Oscar Mendelsohn, a medical researcher. Getting his start in television, including The Henderson Kids and the long running soap opera Neighbours, Mendelsohn broke out with his performance as an ill-fated juvenile delinquent in the acclaimed coming of age film The Year My Voice Broke. Mendelsohn won the best supporting actor award from the Australian Film Institute, his first of eight nominations. Mendelsohn went onto to become one of the most popular teen/young adult stars in Australia cinema, often rivaling other emerging talents of his generation, including Russell Crowe, Noah Taylor, and Guy Pearce, leading the Australian tabloid to nickname them "the Mouse Pack" in reference to the Rat Pack in America and Brit Pack in the UK, emerging at the same time. Among his peers, Mendelsohn seemed to corner the market on troubled, angry young men, thanks to his roles in Idiot Box, Metal Skin, and Nirvana Street Murder. But Mendelsohn also proved he was capable of being a romantic lead, starring in the comedies The Big Steal, Cosi, Spotswood, and Amy. In the 1990s, Mendelsohn appeared in just one "Hollywood" film, the action film Vertical Limit, as one of two daredevil climbers on a rescue mission, often providing the film's comic relief. The film failed to find an audience and Mendelsohn returned to Australia, where he primarily worked in theater and television, despite earning best actor nominations from the Australian Film Institute and Australian Film Critics Circle for the drama Mullet, as a prodigal son returning to his small town. He also took steps to work in more international films such as The New World, Knowing and Australia. Mendelsohn has acknowledged that there was a period of almost two years that he had so little work, he considered leaving the acting profession entirely. In 2009, Mendelsohn experienced a bit of a comeback with the role in the independent Australian films Beautiful Kate, as troubled man forced to return reunite with his dying father and come to terms with the death of his twin sister, with whom he had a complicated relationship. He was nominated for Australian Film Institute and Australian Film Critics Circle Best Actor in 2009. A year later, he appeared as Pope in Animal Kingdom, the most terrifying and violent member of a crime family. In 2010, he won Best Actor from the Australian Film Institute, Independent Film Award, and Australian Film Critics Circle. Since 2010, Mendelsohn has become a major player in Hollywood as a character actor in both blockbuster films (The Dark Knight Rises) and critically acclaimed films such as Killing Them Softly and Place Beyond the Pines. In 2013 he appeared in the UK Starred Up, which earned him a Best Supporting Actor Award from the British Independent Film Awards. In 2014, he will also star in Ryan Gosling's Lost River, Slow West, and Exodus: Gods and Kings, along with a leading role in an untitled drama/thriller for Netflix. Mendelsohn lives in the US with his wife, writer Emma Forrest , and their daughter. He also has an older daughter from a previous relationship. (2014) Tom Hardy With his breakthrough performance as Eames in Christopher Nolan 's science fiction thriller Inception , English actor Tom Hardy has been brought to the attention of mainstream audiences worldwide. But the versatile actor has been steadily working on both stage and screen since his television debut in the miniseries Band of Brothers . After being cast in the World War II drama, Hardy left his studies at the prestigious Drama Centre in London and was subsequently cast as Twombly in Ridley Scott 's Black Hawk Down and as the villain Shinzon in Star Trek: Nemesis . Tom was born on September 15, 1977 in Hammersmith, London; his mother, Elizabeth Anne (Barrett), is an artist and painter, and his father, Edward Hardy, is a writer. He is of English and Irish descent. Hardy was brought up in East Sheen, London, and first studied at Reed's School. His education continued at Tower House School, then at Richmond Drama School, and subsequently at the Drama Centre London, along with fellow Oscar nominee Michael Fassbender. After winning a modeling competition at age 21, he had a brief contract with the agency Models One. Tom spent his teens and early twenties battling delinquency, alcoholism and drug addiction; after completing his work on Star Trek: Nemesis , he sought treatment and has also admitted that his battles with addiction ended his 5-year marriage to Rachael Speed. Returning to work in 2003, Hardy was awarded the Evening Standard Most Promising Newcomer Award for his theatre performances in the productions of "In Arabia, We'd All Be Kings" and "Blood". In 2003, Tom also co-starred in the play "The Modernists" with Paul Popplewell , Jesse Spencer and Orlando Wells . During the next five years, Hardy worked consistently in film, television and theatre, playing roles as varied as Robert Dudley in the BBC's The Virgin Queen , Bill Sikes in Oliver Twist and starring in "The Man of Mode" at the National Theatre. On the silver screen, he appeared in the crime thriller Layer Cake with Daniel Craig , Sofia Coppola 's Marie Antoinette , and the romp Scenes of a Sexual Nature . In 2006, Hardy created "Shotgun", an underground theatre company along with director Robert Delamere , and directed a play, penned by his father for the company, called "Blue on Blue". In 2007, Hardy received a best actor BAFTA nomination for his touching performance as Stuart Shorter in the BBC adaptation of Alexander Masters ' bestselling biography Stuart: A Life Backwards . Hardy, hailed for his transformative character acting, was lauded for his emotionally and physically convincing portrayal in the ill-fated and warmhearted tale of Shorter, a homeless and occasionally violent man suffering from addiction and muscular dystrophy. The following year, he appeared as gay hoodlum Handsome Bob in the Guy Ritchie film RocknRolla , but it would be his next transformation that would prove his extensive range and stun critics. In the film Bronson , Hardy played the notorious Charles Bronson (given name, Michael Peterson), the "most violent prisoner in Britain". Bald, pumped-up, and outfitted with Bronson's signature strongman mustache, Hardy is unrecognizable and gives a harrowing performance that is physically fearless and psychologically unsettling. Director Nicolas Winding Refn breaks the fourth wall with Hardy retelling his tales directly to viewers as well as performing them outright before an audience of his own imagining. The performance mixes terrifying brutality, vaudevillian showmanship, wry humor, and an alarming amount of commitment, and won Hardy a British Independent Film Award for Best Actor. The performance got Hollywood's attention and, in 2009, Hardy was named one of Variety's "10 Actors to Watch". That year, he continued to garner praise for his starring role in The Take , a four-part adaptation of Martina Cole 's bestselling crime novel, as well as for his performance as Heathcliff in a version of Wuthering Heights . Recent work includes the aforementioned breakthrough appearance in Inception alongside Leonardo DiCaprio , Joseph Gordon-Levitt , Cillian Murphy , Tom Berenger , Ken Watanabe , Michael Caine , Marion Cotillard and Ellen Page . The movie was released in July 2010 and became one of top 25 highest grossing films of all time, collecting eight Oscar nominations (including Best Picture) and winning four. Evan Rachel Wood Evan Rachel Wood was born September 7, 1987, in Raleigh, North Carolina. Her father, Ira David Wood III , is a theatre actor, writer and director, and her mother, Sara Wood , is an actress and acting coach. She has two older brothers-- Dana Wood , a musician, and Ira David Wood IV , who has also acted. Evan and her brothers sometimes performed at Theatre In The Park in Raleigh, which her father founded and where he serves as executive director. At the age of five she screen-tested against Kirsten Dunst for the lead role in Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles after a long auditioning process. She moved to Los Angeles with her mom and brother Ira in 1996 and has had success ever since, appearing in a TV series, TV movies and feature films. She has appeared in Practical Magic , starred in the comedy S1m0ne as Al Pacino 's daughter, and followed that with Thirteen , with Holly Hunter . Her breakout role as Tracy in "Thirteen" garnered her a Golden Globes nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture: Drama and for a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role. At the time of this SAG nomination, she was the youngest actress to be nominated in the Leading Role category. She received a Golden Globe and Emmy nomination for "Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie" for her portrayal of Veda Pierce in the HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce . She also earned acclaim for her powerful performance as Stephanie, Mickey Rourke 's estranged daughter, in Darren Aronofsky 's The Wrestler . Daisy Ridley Daisy Jazz Isobel Ridley is an English actress. She is best known for her breakthrough role as "Rey" in the 2015 film, Star Wars: Episode VII - The Force Awakens . Daisy was born in Westminster, London, on April 10, 1992. She is the daughter of Louise Fawkner-Corbett and Chris Ridley. Her great-uncle was Arnold Ridley , an English actor, playwright, and appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), who was best known for his authorship of the play, "The Ghost Train", and his role as "Private Godfrey" in the British sitcom, Dad's Army . Daisy attended the Tring Park School for Performing Arts, located in Hertfordshire, England, where she trained in musical theater and graduated in 2010, at the age of 18. Aside from acting, her talent repertoire includes ballet, jazz dancing, Latin American, and tap. Her vocal range is mezzo-soprano, where she is notably skilled in jazz and cabaret singing. Upon graduation, Daisy was hired in a number of roles in television, film, and music. She was cast to play "Jessie" in the British comedy-drama, Youngers . In 2013, she played "Fran Bedingfield" in the BBC series, Casualty , and as "Charlotte" in the British comedy, Toast of London . In 2014, she played opposite to Jeremy Piven as "Roxy Starlet" in the second season of the ITV series, Mr Selfridge , and as "Hannah Kennedy" in two episodes of the BBC crime drama, Silent Witness . She further had roles in short films, including Scrawl, 100% Beef, and Crossed Wires. She was featured in Blue Season, which was entered into the Sci-Fi-London 48-Hour Film Challenge, and Lifesaver, which was nominated for a BAFTA Award. She also appeared in Wiley's British rap music video, Lights On. In April 2014, it was announced that Daisy was cast to play the heroine main protagonist, Rey, in Star Wars: The Force Awakens, the first film in the new trilogy of the Star Wars franchise. Since its release in December 2015, the J.J. Abrams directed movie has received critical acclaim and became the fastest movie, ever, to reach $1 billion at the box office, worldwide. In August 2015, it was announced that she would play the lead role of Taeko in the English dub of the 1991 animated film, Only Yesterday, which is set to be released in 2016. In December 2015, it was announced that Daisy will reprise her role as Rey in the eighth Star Wars film, which will start filming in January 2016 and is scheduled for release in 2017. Alan Tudyk Alan Tudyk was born in El Paso, Texas, and grew up in Plano, where he attended Plano Sr. High. In 1990, he went on to study drama at Lon Morris Jr. College. While there, he was awarded the Academic Excellence Award for Drama. He was also named Most Likely to Succeed and Sophomore Beau. During this time, Alan was also an active member of the Delta Psi Omega fraternity. After leaving LMJC, Alan went on to study at the prestigious Juilliard conservatory but left in 1996 before earning a degree. After a number of smaller stage productions and a small role in the movie Patch Adams , Alan landed his first Broadway role in 1999 with "Epic Proportions." He quickly became a sought-after comedic actor, with roles in such films as 28 Days and A Knight's Tale . In 2002, Alan got the role of Wash, the wise-cracking pilot of Serenity on the short-lived series Firefly . Although it lasted only eleven episodes, this may be Alan's most well-known and best-loved role. No other networks would buy the failed series, but Universal Pictures began courting creator Joss Whedon to produce a big-screen version of the series. While awaiting the final news of Firefly's fate, Alan played the beloved Steve the Pirate in the movie Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story and the voice of the robot Sonny in I, Robot . In 2005, Alan finally reprised the role of Wash in Serenity , the feature-film version of the series Firefly. The same year, he went back to Broadway from June to November, taking over the role of Lancelot for Hank Azaria in the successful musical "Spamalot." He lives in New York City but also has a place in Los Angeles, California Alicia Vikander Alicia Vikander is a Swedish actress, dancer and producer. She was born and raised in Gothenburg, Västra Götalands län, Sweden, to Maria Fahl-Vikander , an actress of stage and screen, and Svante Vikander, a psychiatrist. She is of Swedish and one quarter Finnish descent. Alicia began acting as a child in minor stage productions at The Göteborg Opera, and trained as a ballet dancer at the Royal Swedish Ballet School in Stockholm, and the School of American Ballet in New York. She began her professional acting career by appearing in Swedish short films and television series, and first gained recognition in Northern Europe for her role as Josefin Björn-Tegebrandt in the TV drama Second Avenue . Vikander made her feature film debut in Pure , for which she won the Guldbagge Award for Best Actress. She attracted widespread recognition in 2012 for portraying Princess Ekaterina "Kitty" Alexandrovna Shcherbatskaya in Joe Wright's film adaptation of Anna Karenina , and Queen Caroline Mathilde in the acclaimed Danish film A Royal Affair , receiving a BAFTA Rising Star Award nomination for her breakthrough. She went on to star in the 2013 Swedish drama film Hotel and appeared in the Julian Assange biopic The Fifth Estate that same year. In 2014 and 2015, Vikander achieved global recognition and acclaim for her roles as activist Vera Brittain in Testament of Youth , an AI in Ex Machina , for which she was nominated for the Golden Globe and BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actress, and painter Gerda Wegener in The Danish Girl , for which she received the Academy Award and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Supporting Actress. Chris Pratt Christopher Michael Pratt is an American film and television actor. He came to prominence from his television roles, including Bright Abbott in Everwood , Ché in The O.C. , and Andy Dwyer and Parks and Recreation , and notable film roles in Moneyball , The Five-Year Engagement , Zero Dark Thirty , Delivery Man , and Her . In 2014, he broke out as a leading man after headlining two of the year's biggest films: he voiced Emmet Brickowoski, in The Lego Movie , and starred as Peter Quill / Star-Lord in Guardians of the Galaxy . In 2015, he headlined the sci-fi thriller Jurassic World , the fourth installment in the Jurassic Park franchise and his most financially successful film. In 2016, he will co-star in the remake The Magnificent Seven , with Denzel Washington and Ethan Hawke , and appear with 'Jennifer Lawrence' in the sci-fi drama Passengers . He was born in Virginia, Minnesota, to Kathleen Louise (Indahl), who worked at a supermarket, and Daniel Clifton Pratt, who remodeled houses. His mother is of Norwegian descent and his father had English, German, Swiss, and French-Canadian ancestry. Chris grew up in Lake Stevens, Washington state. He is married to fellow Washington State native, Anna Faris , whom he met on the film set of Take Me Home Tonight , and with whom he has one child, Jack Pratt. Chris's hobbies include fishing, hunting and working on cars. He has two older siblings, Cully and Angie. Donnie Yen Martial artist and Hong Kong action star Donnie Yen was born to newspaper editor Klyster Yen and martial arts master Bow Sim Mark. At the age of four Yen started taking up martial arts from his mother, who taught him wushu and tai chi until the age of eleven when his family emigrated to Boston, MA. From there he continued mastering wushi and tai chi. But after developing a huge interest in martial arts he eventually began getting into various others martial art styles, such as taekwondo, kick-boxing, boxing, karate etc. When Yen was sixteen his parents sent him to Beijing Wushu Academy so he could train Chinese martial arts under Master Wu Bin, well known as the coach of Jet Li . He underwent intensive training for three years. After three years Yen was about to leave back to the US but made a side trip to Hong Kong. There he was accidentally introduced to famous Hong Kong action film-maker Woo-Ping Yuen , who was responsible for bringing Jackie Chan to super stardom and was looking for someone new to star in his films. Yen was offered a screen test - which he passed - and thereafter a 4-picture deal. Yen started out with stunt doubling duty on the magical martial arts film The Miracle Fighters . From there he starred in his first film, Drunken Tai Chi at the age of 19. He continued his early film career working independently with Woo-Ping Yuen and also applied for acting lessons as well as roles in TV series at TVB to gain more acting experience. He started getting a bit of attention in the late 1980s and mid 1990s, after he was offered a contract by D&B Films Co's Dickson Poon . Poon gave Yen major roles in the action films Tiger Cage , In the Line of Duty 4 and Tiger Cage 2 , which became cult classics after their initial releases. These films eventually spread outside the Hong Kong film circuit and gave Yen a good reputation as a formidable onscreen action performer. But after a while, the company did not do well and in the end went bankrupt. This left Yen with no choice but to go back to TVB as well as venture into low-budget film-making making films, such as Crystal Hunt and Revenge of the Cheetah . But the misfortune didn't last long. Famous director Hark Tsui had just made a successful attempt to revive the kung fu genre with Once Upon a Time in China which starred Jet Li . For the sequel Once Upon a Time in China II Hark was looking for someone to play the new nemesis. Through Yen's early films and his rep as one of the most effective pound-for-pound on-screen fighters in Hong Kong, Hark became fascinated and decided to approach, discuss, and eventually cast him in the role of General Lan. The film became a turning point in Yen's career and his two fight scenes with Jet Li revolutionized the standards of Hong Kong martial arts choreography at the time, and are still regarded as among the best fight scenes ever created in Hong Kong film history. Another acclaim by critics and movie goers was Yen's acting performance. It was so outstanding that he was nominated for "Best Supporting Actor" at the 1992 Hong Kong Film Awards. After the excellent showcase, Yen starred in other successful and classic films, such as Dragon Inn for director Raymond Lee and Butterfly and Sword by Michael Mak . But he still continued to work with Woo-Ping Yuen on films including Heroes Among Heroes , Iron Monkey and Wing Chun . But after creative differences between them became apparent, both of them decided it was best to work on their own so they ended up going separate ways and haven't collaborated with each other ever since. During this period Yen got into TV and worked on a couple of series for ATV as actor and action director. The first was The Kung Fu Master which depicted the life of martial arts legend Hung Hei-Kwan. The TV series was a big success and Yen continued the success by action directing and starring in the second successful series; Fist of Fury . It retold the story of Chen Zhen, the character made famous by Bruce Lee in the original 1972 film classic with the same title. Aside the TV work, he was offered roles by prolific director/producer Jing Wong in films such as The Saint of Gamblers and got other offers which includes Circus Kids where he co-starred with action star Biao Yuen , and Asian Cop: High Voltage which was shot in the Philippines. In 1996 - after fulfilling his contract deal with Wong Jing and returning deposit money to refuse making more films for him - Yen signed with the independent film company My Way Film Co. This became another turning point in his career in that he started learning directing and experimenting with film cameras. In 1997, he finally made his directorial debut with Legend of the Wolf and had created a different style of martial arts choreography. The film made a huge impact within fan communities around the world for its' daring, braving, and fresh attempt of accomplishing something new for the then dying martial arts action genre in Hong Kong. There was and still is a mixture of people both admiring and looking down on this particular style. Yen continued to work as lead actor/director/action director on films such as Ballistic Kiss , Shanghai Affairs . In 1999, he decided to try something different and ended up flying to Germany to work on the local TV film Der Puma - Kämpfer mit Herz and its' TV series counterpart. In 2000, things took a turn for Yen once again when US-based film company Dimension Films called and offered him a major role in Highlander: Endgame as the immortal Jin Ke, making it his US debut. But sadly the film didn't perform well at the box-office and many fans consider it to be a part of its' own franchise. Nevertheless, Yen's fan-base consider his action scenes to be highlights of the film; especially his duel with Adrian Paul . To Dimension Films' credit though, offers followed shortly afterward. Yen was invited to work behind the camera on The Princess Blade for Japanese director Shinsuke Sato and Blade II by Guillermo del Toro , the latter of which he also appeared in as the mute vampire Snowman. In 2002 and 2003 respectively, Yen's career further progressed after he took on two memorable roles. Firstly, highly acclaimed Chinese director Yimou Zhang offered Yen the part of assassin Sky in Hero starring Jet Li and resulted in one of the most anticipated Chinese films of 2002 which eventually became a mega hit around Asia. Secondly, director David Dobkin casted him alongside Jackie Chan as the traitorous Wu Chow in Shanghai Knights , the sequel to Shanghai Noon . This film marked the first time Yen worked with Chan in his career. Both of these collaborations gave Yen more recognition in the US and in Hong Kong, which in turn gave him more opportunities as an actor and action director. In the same year Yen decided to put hold of pursuing a career in Hollywood and flew back to Hong Kong to find quality work. Through his good friend and Hong Kong cinema expert Bey Logan he signed up as action director for Vampire Effect , produced by Emperor Multimedia Group Co. (EMG) and starring the pop stars Gillian Chung and Charlene Choi with in a cameo appearance by Jackie Chan . The film earned him a nomination for "Best Action Design" at the 2003 Hong Kong Film Awards as well as the 2003 Golden Horse Awards, both of which he won prices for. He continued to work on few films after that, including Black Rose Academy as director and action director, and The Twins Effect II as actor where he once again worked with Jackie Chan on an anticipated fight scene which was satisfying enough for fans to see. Later on in 2004 Yen's career took a totally different turn when Hark Tsui offered him a leading role in Seven Swords which was an adaptation of a lengthy novel written by Liang Yu-Sheng about seven warriors and their mystical swords. Despite the disappointing box-office reception when it was released locally, the film was nonetheless a great showcase for Yen as an actor and action performer unlike anything he did previously in his career. Around the same time, Yen also teamed up with acclaimed Hong Kong director Wilson Yip and together they made the highly anticipated crime drama SPL: Kill Zone . The film was remarkable in that it successfully combined strong acting and unique storytelling/visuals with groundbreaking martial arts action. This concept went on to become favored by action film fans and Hong Kong Cinema fans in general after its' release. Yen's way of shooting martial arts action - which was nothing like people had already seen - earned him a nomination and a price at the 2005 Hong Kong Film Awards for "Best Action Design". The movie also led to a trend of similar Hong Kong action films where storytelling/visuals along with hard-hitting action scenes were to be highlighted as much as possible. After the success, Yen and Yip teamed up immediately for more projects which includes the comic book adaptation Dragon Tiger Gate and the hard-hitting action drama Flash Point , both of which were very successful at the box-office and within fan communities globally. These accomplishments made people regard Yen as the new pinnacle of Hong Kong martial arts/action films. Yen both earned the "Best Action Design" nomination at the 2006 Hong Kong Film Awards as well as the "Best Action Direction" nomination at 2006 Golden Bauhinia Awards for Dragon Tiger Gate . He won a price for the latter while he was awarded for his action design on Flash Point at both the 2007 Golden Bauhinia Awards and the 2007 Hong Kong Film Awards. From there on Yen continued to work as a lead actor and also developed an interest in improving his acting skills. He got a leading role in the battle epic An Empress and the Warriors , directed by acclaimed Hong Kong action director Siu-Tung Ching , which was a big success in Mainland China. He continued work starring in the supernatural romance film Painted Skin by Gordon Chan . Then he starred in the martial arts biopic Ip Man helmed by Wilson Yip . This film was based on the life of one of Bruce Lee's wing chun teachers, Yip Man. The film became a sensational mega success all over Asia and people within the Hong Kong film industry started taking note after Wilson Yip's matured style of film-making, Sammo Hung's fresh martial arts choreography which many action film fans consider to be a redefinition of Hung's career as action director. But most impressive about the film for the audiences and critics was Yen's acting performance. During production, people had been very skeptical about Yen being the choice for the Yip Man role. But when the film was released, all pressure from the cast and crew were gone and people eventually went on to praise Yen for his portrayal of Yip Man. The success of the film also led to other successful directors and producers approaching Yen and giving him offers to work in front of the camera. Through his progression in the Hong Kong film industry from the start - when he was just like other action performers in Hong Kong trying to make a name for themselves - to nowadays as arguably among the most offering leading Hong Kong actors and the most promising action director, as long as Donnie Yen is still active in film-making (whether working in front of or behind the camera), he will almost certainly break new grounds and create more innovative concepts of action choreography for the martial arts action genre. Zoey Deutch A vibrant, diversely talented, and charming actress, Zoey Deutch is steadily building on her body of work with dynamic roles alongside notable actors and filmmakers. Deutch co-stars in Richard Linklater 's latest film Everybody Wants Some!! , a film about a group of college kids navigating their way through the freedoms and responsibilities of unsupervised adulthood. The film, which premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival, was released by Paramount in April 2016. Starring opposite Bryan Cranston and James Franco , Deutch's next project is Why Him? , a film about an overprotective but loving dad (Cranston) who visits his daughter at Stanford and meets his biggest nightmare: her well-meaning but socially awkward Silicon Valley billionaire boyfriend, Laird (James Franco). Directed by John Hamburg ( I Love You, Man ), the film will be released by 20th Century Fox on December 25th. Deutch is also set to appear in Danny Strong's upcoming film Rebel in the Rye opposite Kevin Spacey and Nicholas Hoult . Based on a true story, the film follows author J.D. Salinger (Hoult) as he prepares to write his classic novel, "Catcher in the Rye". Deutch will play Oona O'Neill , the daughter of legendary playwright Eugene O'Neill, who has an affair with Salinger. Deutch appears in Vincent N Roxxy , a film that follows a small town loner and a rebellious punk rocker as they unexpectedly fall in love and are forced on the run, that had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2016. She co-stars in the film opposite Emile Hirsch , Zoë Kravitz and Emory Cohen . Zoey was also seen in the comedy _Dirty Grandpa_ opposite Robert De Niro and Zac Efron . Directed by Dan Mazer, the film centers on a wacky road-trip that unfolds as an uptight man (Efron) is tricked into driving his horny grandfather (De Niro) to Florida for spring break. In 2014, Deutch played the lead role in the Weinstein Company's Vampire Academy . Starring as Rose Hathaway, the actress's performance as a Dhampir - half human-half vampire - garnered her a Teen Choice Award nomination for Choice Movie Actress: Comedy. In addition, she was featured alongside Viola Davis and Emma Thompson in the film adaptation by Warner Bros. of the best-selling novel _Beautiful Creatures_. On the independent film front, Deutch has wrapped production on several projects. She stars in Before I Fall for director Ry Russo-Young, the adaptation of the 2010 YA novel by Lauren Oliver for Awesomeness Films. The film centers on Samantha Kingston (Deutch), a high school senior who finds that she may be living the last day of her life over and over until she gets it right. In addition, she recently starred opposite her sister Madelyn Deutch in The Year of Spectacular Men , which was the feature directorial debut of their mother Lea Thompson, and written by her sister. The film, which follows a young woman (Madelyn Deutch) fresh out of college as she strikes up and torches relationships with several men, shows Deutch in a contrasting role as the movie star sister with a loving boyfriend (Avan Jogia). She stars alongside Julia Garner, Nicholas Braun, and Dayo Okeniyi in the comedy Good Kids , which tells the story of four overachieving high-school students living in Cape Cod who decide to reinvent themselves following graduation. The script, written by Chris McCoy, made the 2011 Black List. Deutch first became known for her role as Maya on The Disney Channel show The Suite Life on Deck , which earned her further roles as a rising star in Hollywood. She also starred as Juliet Martin, Sarah Michelle Gellar 's troubled stepdaughter, in the CW's Ringer . Committed to several charitable causes, Deutch is a strong supporter of the Corazon De Vida Orphanage in Tijuana, and has performed for The Alzheimer's Association, What A Pair, and Race to Erase MS benefits. She also works with Water.org for their Give.Water.org campaign. The actress resides in Los Angeles, CA Kaitlyn Dever Kaitlyn Dever was born in Phoenix, Arizona. She knew she wanted to act at just six years old, and incessantly asked her parents to send her to acting school. Instead, they enrolled her in gymnastics, ballet and ice skating, but her passion didn't lie within any of these activities. At nine years of age, Dever enrolled at the Dallas Young Actors Studio, where she learned set etiquette, how the entertainment business works, and what would be expected of her as a professional actress. She was quickly signed with a respected Los Angeles based talent agent. Shortly thereafter, Dever was booking commercials and was on her way to the quality projects that now support her strong body of work. She showcased her versatility working with Shailene Woodley in the critically acclaimed coming-of-age comedic drama The Spectacular Now . Soon thereafter, she was given the opportunity to truly shine in the dark drama Short Term 12 alongside Brie Larson, where she plays the supporting lead Jayden, a teenager living in a group home for troubled youths. Short Term 12 premiered at SXSW 2013, where it won the Grand Jury Prize for Best Narrative as well as the Audience Award. Kaitlyn was coined as Summer 2013's indie "It" girl and was highlighted as a SXSW breakout. Kaitlyn has been fortunate to have worked with some of the industries top and up and coming directors including Clint Eastwood , Jason Reitman , Destin Daniel Cretton , James Ponsoldt , and Lynn Shelton. Macaulay Culkin Macaulay Carson Culkin, one of the most famous American child stars, was born on August 26, 1980 in New York City, New York, USA, as the third of seven children of his father Christopher Culkin (a former stage and child actor and also Macaulay's former manager) and mother Patricia Brentrup . He is the brother of Shane Culkin , Dakota Culkin , Kieran Culkin , Quinn Culkin , Christian Culkin , and Rory Culkin , most of whom have also acted. Macaulay's mother, who is from North Dakota, is of German and Norwegian descent. Macaulay's father, from Manhattan, has Irish, German, English, Swiss-German, and French ancestry. "Mack", as he's known to his close friends and family, first came into showbiz at the age of 4, appearing in a string of Off-Broadway shows such as the New York City Ballet's The Nutcracker and, by 8 years-old, the films Rocket Gibraltar and See You in the Morning , which included him in the rare company of kids who have received rave reviews from The New Yorker and The New York Times. By the age of 9, the young actor had nearly upstaged star John Candy in Uncle Buck (his deadpan interrogation of Candy was Buck's funniest scene). Then, in 1990, writer John Hughes turned his finished Home Alone script over to director Chris Columbus with a suggestion to consider Culkin for the lead. Though Macaulay was the first kid Columbus saw, he was skeptical about having him in the lead and saw over 200 other possible actors and he admitted that no one came as close to being as good as Culkin. By the callback interview, Mack had memorized two scenes, and Columbus was sure he found his "Kevin McCallister". The movie grossed more than $285 million in the US alone, becoming one of the highest grossing movies of all time and making Macaulay Culkin one of the biggest movie stars of the time. His next big project was My Girl in which he played "Thomas J. Sennett", a boy who seems to be allergic to everything. Despite some controversy over the ending, the film was released anyway and proved to be another hit film for Mack (and featured his very first kiss). In 1992 came Home Alone 2: Lost in New York , which grossed more than $172 million in the US alone. In 1993 came The Good Son , which was the first role to depart from his cute kid comedies. He played a murderous little demon named Henry. He got the role when his powerhouse negotiator/manager/father Kit Culkin said that he would pull Mack out of Home Alone 2: Lost in New York unless he was given the psychotic boy lead in The Good Son . He was also given a salary of $5 million for the film. In 1994, at the age of 14, came a string of duds, The Pagemaster , Getting Even with Dad and Ri¢hie Ri¢h . He was paid $8 million for the last two, the highest salary ever paid for a child star. Many people believed Mack had lost his touch, though, because he was no longer that cute tiny kid they saw in Home Alone . In 1995 his parents, who were never married, separated and started a greedy legal battle over the custody of their kids and Mack's fortune. In 1996, the young actor had reportedly said he wouldn't accept any roles until his parents settled their custody dispute. That case would not be resolved until April 1997 when Kit Culkin relinquished control to Brentrup. In 1998, Macaulay married actress Rachel Miner , but separated in 2000 because Rachel wanted to start a family and Mack wanted to get back into acting. There has been a gap of eight years since 1994's Ri¢hie Ri¢h , and although he made a 'comeback' on stage in 2001, appearing in a London production of "Madame Melville", and also portrayed Michael Alig in Party Monster ; with an estimated fortune of $17 million he clearly never has to work again - if the roles don't appeal to him. Mads Mikkelsen Mads Mikkelsen is a synonym to the great success the Danish film industry has had since the mid-1990s. He was born in Østerbro, Copenhagen, to Bente Christiansen, a nurse, and Henning Mikkelsen, a banker. Starting out as a low-life pusher/junkie in the 1996 success Pusher , he slowly grew to become one of Denmark's biggest movie actors. The success in his home country includes Flickering Lights , Shake It and the Emmy-winning police series Unit 1 . His success has taken him abroad where he has played alongside Gérard Depardieu in I Am Dina as well as in the Spanish comedy Torremolinos 73 and the American blockbuster King Arthur . Alexandra Daddario Alexandra Anna Daddario was born on March 16, 1986 in New York City, New York, to Christina, a lawyer, and Richard Daddario, a prosecutor. Her brother is actor Matthew Daddario , and her grandfather was congressman Emilio Daddario (Emilio Q. Daddario), of Connecticut. She has Italian, Irish, Hungarian, German, and English ancestry. She wanted to be an actress when she was young. Her first job came at age 16, when she got the role of "Laurie Lewis" on All My Children . Alex co-starred, with Logan Lerman & Brandon T. Jackson , in the role of 'Annabeth Chase" in the "Percy Jackson" movies, which were based on Rick Riordan 's best-selling teen books. Also, she played the main character in Texas Chainsaw 3D , which was released in 2013. At the end of 2012, Alex starred in the music video, Imagine Dragons 's "Radioactive". Jeffrey Dean Morgan Jeffrey Dean Morgan endeared himself to audiences with his recurring role on ABC's smash hit series, Grey's Anatomy . His dramatic arc as heart patient "Denny Duquette", who wins the heart of intern "Izzie Stevens" ( Katherine Heigl ) in a star-crossed romance, made him a universal fan favorite. He also had recurring roles on The CW and Warner Bros. Television's drama series, Supernatural , and on Showtime and Lions Gate Television's award-winning comedy series, Weeds . Morgan starred in Warner Bros.' Watchmen , director Zack Snyder 's ( 300 ) adaptation of the iconic graphic novel. He played the pivotal role of "The Comedian", a Vietnam vet who is a member of a group of heroes called "the Minutemen". He next appeared in producer Joel Silver 's The Losers , for Warner Bros. It is an adaptation of DC-Vertigo's acclaimed comic book series about a band of black ops commandos who are set up to be killed by their own government. The team barely survives and sets out to get even. James Vanderbilt adapted the screenplay, and Sylvain White directed. He appeared in Focus Features' Taking Woodstock , directed by Oscar-winning director Ang Lee . He also starred opposite Uma Thurman in Yari Film Group's romantic comedy, The Accidental Husband . Additional feature credits include a cameo role opposite Rachel Weisz in Warner Bros.' comedy, Fred Claus , and the independent office comedy, Kabluey , in which he played a charismatic yet smarmy co-worker to Lisa Kudrow 's character. In 2011, the in-demand actor starred in the independent murder mystery, Texas Killing Fields . In the film, based on a true story, Morgan plays a detective transplanted from New York who teams with a local investigator ( Sam Worthington ) to work on a series of unsolved murders in industrial wastelands surrounding Gulf Coast refineries, where as many as 70 bodies turned up over the past two decades. Together, they wage a war against the unknown assailants. Michael Mann produced the film, while his daughter, Ami Canaan Mann , directed. The actor traveled to Thailand, where he filmed the Weinstein Company's period drama, Shanghai , under the direction of Mikael Håfström ( 1408 ). John Cusack stars as an American who returns to a corrupt, Japanese-occupied Shanghai four months prior to Pearl Harbor and learns that his friend "Connor" (Morgan) has been killed. While trying to solve the murder, he discovers a much larger secret that his own government is hiding. In addition, Morgan has a role in Michael London 's Groundswell Productions' All Good Things , starring Kirsten Dunst and Ryan Gosling , also for The Weinstein Co. He also stars opposite two-time Academy Award winner Hilary Swank in the suspense thriller, The Resident , for Hammer Films. It is the story of a young doctor (Swank) who moves into a Brooklyn loft and becomes suspicious that she is not alone. Morgan plays "Max", her charming new landlord who she discovers has developed a dangerous obsession with her. Morgan previously co-starred with Swank in Warner Bros.' P.S. I Love You . Morgan also appeared in the MGM/UA reboot of the 1984 action movie, Red Dawn . The plot focuses on a group of teenagers who form an insurgency, called "the Wolverines", when their town is invaded by Cuban and Russian soldiers. Morgan plays the role of "Lieutenant Andrew Tanner", leader of the U.S. Special Forces who finds the Wolverines. Morgan was born in Seattle, Washington, to Sandy Thomas and Richard Dean Morgan. In his spare time, Morgan enjoys barbecuing on the grill, reading, watching movies and listening to his favorite band, The Eagles . He also loves to root for his home team, the Seattle Seahawks. He resides in Los Angeles with his dogs, Bisou and Bandit Mogan, a puppy he rescued in Puerto Rico while filming The Losers . Peter Cushing Peter Wilton Cushing was born on May 26, 1913 in Kenley, Surrey, England, to Nellie Maria (King) and George Edward Cushing, a quantity surveyor. He and his older brother David were raised first in Dulwich Village, a south London suburb, and then later back in Surrey. At an early age, Cushing was attracted to acting, inspired by his favorite aunt, who was a stage actress. While at school, Cushing pursued his acting interest in acting and also drawing, a talent he put to good use later in his first job as a government surveyor's assistant in Surrey. At this time, he also dabbled in local amateur theater until moving to London to attend the Guildhall School of Music and Drama on scholarship. He then performed in repertory theater, deciding in 1939 to head for Hollywood, where he made his film debut in The Man in the Iron Mask . Other Hollywood films included A Chump at Oxford with Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy , Vigil in the Night and They Dare Not Love . However, after a short stay, he returned to England by way of New York (making brief appearances on Broadway) and Canada. Back in his homeland, he contributed to the war effort during World War II by joining the Entertainment National Services Association. After the war, he performed in the West End and had his big break appearing with Laurence Olivier in Hamlet , in which Cushing's future partner-in-horror Christopher Lee had a bit part. Both actors also appeared in Moulin Rouge but did not meet until their later horror films. During the 1950s, Cushing became a familiar face on British television, appearing in numerous teleplays, such as 1984 (1954) and Beau Brummell (1954), until the end of the decade when he began his legendary association with Hammer Film Productions in its remakes of the 1930s Universal horror classics. His first Hammer roles included Dr. Frankenstein in The Curse of Frankenstein , Dr. Van Helsing in Horror of Dracula , and Sherlock Holmes in The Hound of the Baskervilles . Cushing continued playing the roles of Drs. Frankenstein and Van Helsing, as well as taking on other horror characters, in Hammer films over the next 20 years. He also appeared in films for the other major horror producer of the time, Amicus Productions, including Dr. Terror's House of Horrors and its later horror anthologies, a couple of Dr. Who films (1965, 1966), I, Monster , and others. By the mid-1970s, these companies had stopped production, but Cushing, firmly established as a horror star, continued in the genre for some time thereafter. Perhaps his best-known appearance outside of horror films was as Grand Moff Tarkin in George Lucas ' phenomenally successful science fiction film Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope . Biggles: Adventures in Time was Cushing's last film before his retirement, during which he made a few television appearances, wrote two autobiographies and pursued his hobbies of bird watching and painting. In 1989, he was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in recognition of his contributions to the acting profession in Britain and worldwide. Peter Cushing died at age 81 of prostate cancer on August 11, 1994. Travis Fimmel Travis Fimmel was born near Echuca, Victoria, Australia, to Jennie, a recreation officer for the disabled, and Chris, a cattle farmer. He was raised on a 5500-acre farm located between Melbourne and Sydney. Until the age of seventeen, his life was spent at school and working on the family farm, morning and night-something he continues to relish on his trips back home. After high school, higher education called and he was accepted to Melbourne University. It was not long until his intense curiosity led him to begin his global adventures. While bar-tending in London, giving away almost as much beer as he sold, he met his would-be manager, David Seltzer. David saw a spark in Travis and suggested he move to the United States to become an actor and nurture his talent. Easily enticed by the arts, it was not long before Travis made the move to Los Angeles, and within a week began studying with renowned acting coach Ivana Chubbuck. The teaching veteran, in addition to Travis, has mentored Jake Gyllenhaal, Eva Mendes, Halle Berry, Brad Pitt and Charlize Theron. Years of struggling and hard work continue to pay off and Travis has chalked up starring roles in several projects including Rocky Point (with Lauren Holly), Southern Comfort (with Madeleine Stowe and Eric Roberts), Restraint (with True Blood's Stephen Moyer), Ivory (with Martin Landau and Peter Stomare), Surfer Dude (with Matthew McConaughey and Woody Harrelson), and AE's The Beast (with Patrick Swayze). Production has taken Travis all over the world but, between roles, he travels back to his family's farm as much as possible. Travis is quick to point out that it is his love for Australian Rules (AKA "No" Rules) Football, the countryside, his two older brothers, and a hard working lifestyle that keeps his feet firmly planted on the ground. Casey Affleck An accomplished and striking performer, Academy Award® nominee Casey Affleck has established himself as a powerful leading man with performances in multiple upcoming projects. Affleck will next be seen starring opposite Michelle Williams in Manchester by the Sea. The film tells the story of an uncle (Affleck) who is forced to take care of his teenage nephew after the boy's father dies. Written and directed by Kenneth Lonergan, the film will be released on November 18th by Amazon Studios. Affleck was last seen in Triple 9 opposite Woody Harrelson and Kate Winslet. The film follows a gang of criminals and corrupt cops who plan to murder a police office in order to pull off their biggest heist yet. The film was released by Open Road in February. Additionally, Affleck starred in The Finest Hours opposite Chris Pine. The Disney film recounts the story of the Coast Guard's daring rescue attempt off the coast of Cape Cod after a pair of oil tankers are destroyed during a blizzard in 1952. Additional credits include Christopher Nolan's Interstellar opposite Matthew McConaughey, Jessica Chastain, and Anne Hathaway; Out of the Furnace opposite Christian Bale; and Ain't Them Bodies Saints opposite Rooney Mara. Affleck was nominated for an Academy Award®, Golden Globe®, and Screen Actors Guild® Award for his performance in the character drama The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford. Written and directed by Andrew Dominik ("Chopper"), the Warner Bros. film stars Affleck as 'Ford' opposite Brad Pitt's 'Jesse James.' The story follows 'Ford's' sycophantic obsession with 'James' that quickly turns into growing resentment after he joins the legendary outlaw's gang, leading to his subsequent plan to murder 'James' and claim his rightful glory. Additionally, Casey garnered significant praise for his starring role in the Miramax film Gone, Baby Gone. Based on Dennis Lehane's novel of the same title, and adapted for the screen and featuring the directorial debut by Ben Affleck, the film is the story of two Boston detectives in search of a four-year-old girl who has been kidnapped. The film also stars Ed Harris, Morgan Freeman and Michelle Monaghan. In 2014, Affleck and John Powers Middleton formed The Affleck/Middleton Project, a full service production company designed to develop and produce film and television content across a variety of genres. With a mission to produce quality films and television series that connect with audiences, The Affleck/Middleton Project looks to develop and produce a new wave of great American entertainment. It was recently announced that The Affleck/Middleton Project has secured the rights to Far Bright Star, the second in the book series of the same name by 'Robert Olmstead;' Affleck will direct a script by Damien Ober with three-time Academy Award® nominee Joaquin Phoenix set to star. Affleck also directed I'm Still Here, which he also wrote and produced starring Joaquin Phoenix. On stage, Casey appeared in Kenneth Lonergan's West End debut of his award winning play This is Our Youth. Affleck played the role of 'Warren' alongside Matt Damon and Summer Phoenix. Affleck also co-wrote with and starred alongside Matt Damon in Gus Van Sant's independent road movie Gerry. He has also appeared in Van Sant's Good Will Hunting and To Die For, Hamlet with Ethan Hawke and Julia Stiles, the Oceans trilogy and Tony Goldwyn's The Last Kiss with Zach Braff and Blythe Danner. Ryan Gosling Ryan Thomas Gosling was born on November 12, 1980, in London, Ontario, Canada. He is the son of Donna (Wilson), a secretary, and Thomas Ray Gosling, a traveling salesman. Ryan was the second of their two children. His ancestry is French-Canadian, as well as English, Scottish, and German. The Gosling family moved to Cornwall, Ontario, where Ryan grew up and was home-schooled by his mother. Ryan attended Cornwall Collegiate and Vocational High School in Cornwall, where he excelled in Drama and Fine Arts. The family then relocated to Burlington, Ontario, where Ryan attended Lester B. Pearson High School in Burlington, Ontario. Ryan first performed as a singer at talent contests with his older sister Mandi. He attended an open audition in Montreal for the TV series "The Mickey Mouse Club" ( The All New Mickey Mouse Club ) in January 1993 and beat out 17,000 other aspiring actors for a a spot on the show. While appearing on "MMC" for two years, he lived with co-star Justin Timberlake 's family. Though he received no formal acting training, after "MMC," Gosling segued into an acting career, appearing on the TV series Young Hercules and Breaker High , as well as the films The Slaughter Rule , Murder by Numbers , and Remember the Titans . He first attracted serious critical attention with his performance as the Jewish neo-Nazi in the controversial film The Believer , which won the Grand Jury Prize at the 2001 Sundance Film Festival. He was cast in the part by writer-director Henry Bean , who believed that Gosling's strict upbringing gave him the insight to understand the character Danny, whose obsessiveness with the Judaism he was born into turns to hatred. He was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award as Best Male Lead in 2002 for the role and won the Golden Aries award from the Russian Guild of Film Critics. After appearing in the sleeper The Notebook in 2004, Gosling won the dubious honor of being named one of the 50 Hottest Bachelors by People Magazine. More significantly, he was named the Male Star of Tomorrow at the 2004 Show West convention of movie exhibitors. Gosling reached the summit of his profession with his performance in Half Nelson , which garnered him an Academy Award nomination as Best Actor. In a short time, he has established himself as one of the finest actors of his generation. Jared Leto In the vein of musicians-turned-actors, Jared Leto is a very familiar face in recent film history. Although he has always been the lead vocals, rhythm guitar, and songwriter for American band 30 Seconds to Mars , Leto will always be remembered as an accomplished actor for the numerous, challenging projects he has taken in his life. He is known to be selective about his film roles. Jared Leto was born in Bossier City, Louisiana, to Constance "Connie" (Metrejon) and Anthony L. "Tony" Bryant. The surname "Leto" is from his stepfather. His ancestry includes English, Cajun (French), as well as Irish, German, and Scottish. Jared and his family traveled across the United States throughout his childhood, living in such states as Wyoming, Virginia and Colorado. Leto would continue this trend when he initially dropped a study of painting at Philadelphia's University of the Arts in favor of a focus on acting at the School of Visual Arts in New York City. In 1992, Leto moved to Los Angeles to pursue a musical career, intending to take acting roles on the side. Leto's first appearances on screen were guest appearances on the short-lived television shows Camp Wilder , Almost Home and Rebel Highway . However, his next role would change everything for Leto. While searching for film roles, he was cast in the show, My So-Called Life (TV Series 1994-1995). Leto's character was "Jordan Catalano", the handsome, dyslexic slacker, the main love interest of "Angela" (played by Claire Danes ). Leto contributed to the soundtrack of the film, and so impressed the producers initially that he was soon a regular on the show until its end. Elsewhere, Leto began taking film roles. His first theatrically released film was the ensemble piece, How to Make an American Quilt , based on a novel of the same name and starring renowned actresses Winona Ryder , Anne Bancroft , Ellen Burstyn , Jean Simmons and Alfre Woodard . The film was a modest success and, while Leto's next film, The Last of the High Kings , was a failure, Leto secured his first leading role in Prefontaine , based on long-distance runner Steven Prefontaine. The film was a financial flop, but was praised by critics, notably Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert . He also took a supporting role in the action thriller, Switchback , which starred Dennis Quaid , but the film was another failure. Leto's work was slowly becoming recognized in Hollywood, and he continued to find work in film. In 1998, everything turned for the better on all fronts. This was the year that Leto founded the band, 30 Seconds to Mars , with his brother, Shannon Leto , as well as Matt Wachter (who later left the group), and after two guitarists joined and quit, Tomo Milicevic was brought in as lead guitarist and keyboardist. As well as the formation of his now-famous band, Leto's luck in film was suddenly shooting for the better. He was cast as the lead in the horror film, Urban Legend , which told a grisly tale of a murderer who kills his victims in the style of urban legends. The film was a massive success commercially, though critics mostly disliked the film. That same year, Leto also landed a supporting role in the film, The Thin Red Line . Renowned director Terrence Malick 's first film in nearly twenty years, the film had dozens of famous actors in the cast, including Sean Penn , Woody Harrelson , John Travolta , Nick Nolte and Elias Koteas , to name a few. The film went through much editing, leaving several actors out of the final version, but Leto luckily remained in the film. The Thin Red Line was nominated for seven Oscars and was a moderate success at the box office. Leto's fame had just begun. He had supporting roles in both James Mangold 's Girl, Interrupted , and in David Fincher 's cult classic, Fight Club , dealing with masculinity, commercialism, fascism and insomnia. While Edward Norton and Brad Pitt were the lead roles, Leto took a supporting role and dyed his hair blond. The film remains hailed by many, but at the time, Leto was already pushing himself further into controversial films. He played a supporting role of "Paul Allen" in the infamous American Psycho , starring Christian Bale , and he played the lead role in Darren Aronofsky 's Requiem for a Dream , which had Leto take grueling measures to prepare for his role as a heroin addict trying to put his plans to reality and escape the hell he is in. Both films were massive successes, if controversially received. The 2000s brought up new film opportunities for Leto. He reunited with David Fincher in Panic Room , which was another success for Leto, as well as Oliver Stone 's epic passion project, Alexander . The theatrical cut was poorly received domestically (although it recouped its budget through DVD sales and international profit), and though a Final Cut was released that much improved the film in all aspects, it continues to be frowned upon by the majority of film goers. Leto rebounded with Lord of War , which starred Nicolas Cage as an arms dealer who ships weapons to war zones, with Leto playing his hapless but more moral-minded brother. The film was an astounding look at the arms industry, but was not a big financial success. Leto's flush of successes suddenly ran dry when he acted in the period piece, Lonely Hearts , which had Leto playing "Ray Fernandez", one of the two infamous "Lonely Hearts Killers" in the 1940s. The film was a financial failure and only received mixed responses. Leto then underwent a massive weight gain to play "Mark David Chapman", infamous murderer of John Lennon , in the movie, Chapter 27 . While Leto did a fantastic job embodying the behavior and speech patterns of Chapman, the film was a complete flop, and was a critical bomb to boot. It was during this period that Leto focused increasingly on his band, turning down such films as Clint Eastwood 's World War 2 film, Flags of Our Fathers . In 2009, however, Leto returned to acting with Mr. Nobody . Leto's role as "Nemo Nobody" required him to play the character as far aged as 118, even as he undergoes a soul-searching as to whether his life turned out the way he wanted it to. The film was mostly funded through Belgian and French financiers, and was given limited release in only certain countries. Critical response, however, has praised the film's artistry and Leto's acting. He made his directorial debut in 2012 with the documentary film Artifact . Leto remains the lead vocalist, multi-instrumentalist and main songwriter for Thirty Seconds to Mars. Their debut album, 30 Seconds to Mars (2002), was released to positive reviews but only to limited success. The band achieved worldwide fame with the release of their second album A Beautiful Lie (2005). Their following releases, This Is War (2009) and Love, Lust, Faith and Dreams (2013), received further critical and commercial success. After a five years hiatus from filming, Leto returned to act in the drama Dallas Buyers Club (2013), directed by Jean-Marc Vallée and co-starring Matthew McConaughey. Leto portrayed Rayon, a drug-addicted transgender woman with AIDS who befriends McConaughey's character Ron Woodroof. Leto's performance earned him an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Supporting Actor. In order to accurately portray his role, Leto lost 30 pounds, shaved his eyebrows and waxed his entire body. He stated the portrayal was grounded in his meeting transgender people while researching the role. During filming, Leto refused to break character. Dallas Buyers Club received widespread critical acclaim and became a financial success, resulting in various accolades for Leto, who was awarded the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture, Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role and a variety of film critics' circle awards for the role. In 2016, he played the Joker in the supervillain film Suicide Squad . Leto is considered to be a method actor, known for his constant devotion to and research of his roles. He often remains completely in character for the duration of the shooting schedules of his films, even to the point of adversely affecting his health. Amy Adams Amy Lou Adams was born in Vicenza, Veneto, Italy, to American parents Kathryn (Hicken) and Richard Kent Adams, while her father was a U.S. serviceman. She was raised in a Mormon family of seven children in Castle Rock, Colorado, and has English, as well as smaller amounts of Danish, Swiss-German, and Norwegian, ancestry. Adams sang in the school choir at Douglas County High School and was an apprentice dancer at a local dance company, with the ambition of becoming a ballerina. However, she worked as a greeter at The Gap and as a Hooters hostess to support herself before finding work as a dancer at Boulder's Dinner Theatre and Country Dinner Playhouse in such productions as "Brigadoon" and "A Chorus Line". It was there that she was spotted by a Minneapolis dinner-theater director who asked her to move to Chanhassen, Minnesota for more regional dinner theater work. Nursing a pulled muscle that kept her from dancing, she was free to audition for a part in Drop Dead Gorgeous , which was filming nearby in Minnesota. During the filming, Kirstie Alley encouraged her to move to Los Angeles, where she soon won a part in the Fox television version of the film, Cruel Intentions , in the part played in the film by Sarah Michelle Gellar , "Kathryn Merteuil". Although three episodes were filmed, the troubled series never aired. Instead, parts of the episodes were cobbled together and released as the direct-to-video Cruel Intentions 2 . After more failed television spots, she landed a major role in Catch Me If You Can , playing opposite Leonardo DiCaprio . But this did not provide the break-through she might have hoped for, with no work being offered for about a year. She eventually returned to television, and joined the short-lived series, Dr. Vegas . Her role in the low-budget independent film Junebug (which was shot in 21 days) got her real attention, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress as well as other awards. The following year, her ability to look like a wide-eyed Disney animated heroine helped her to be chosen from about 300 actresses auditioning for the role of "Giselle" in the animated/live-action feature film, Enchanted , which would prove to be her major break-through role. Her vivacious yet innocent portrayal allowed her to use her singing and dancing talents. Her performance garnered a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. Adams next appeared in the major production, Charlie Wilson's War , and went on to act in the independent film, Sunshine Cleaning , which premiered at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. Her role as "Sister James" in Doubt brought her a second Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress, as well as nominations for a Golden Globe, a Screen Actors Guild award, and a British Academy Film award. She appeared as Amelia Earhart in Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian and as a post-9/11 hot line counselor, aspiring writer, amateur cook and blogger in Julie & Julia . More recently, she starred with Jason Segel in The Muppets and alongside Clint Eastwood in Trouble with the Curve . Michael Fassbender Michael Fassbender was born in Heidelberg, Germany, to a German father, Josef, and an Irish mother, Adele (originally from Larne, County Antrim, in Northern Ireland). Michael was raised in the town of Killarney, Co. Kerry, in south-west Ireland, where his family moved to when he was two years old. His parents ran a restaurant (his father is a chef). Fassbender is based in London, England, and became known in the U.S. after his role in the Quentin Tarantino 's Inglourious Basterds . In 2011, Fassbender debuted as the Marvel antihero Magneto in the prequel X-Men: First Class ; he would go on to share the role with Ian McKellen in X-Men: Days of Future Past . Also in 2011, Fassbender's performance as a sex addict in Shame received critical acclaim. He won the Volpi Cup for Best Actor at the Venice Film Festival and was nominated for Golden Globe and BAFTA Awards. In 2013, his role as slave owner Edwin Epps in slavery epic 12 Years a Slave was similarly praised, earning him his first Oscar nomination, for Best Supporting Actor. 12 Years a Slave marked Fassbender's third collaboration with Steve McQueen, who also directed Hunger and Shame. In 2013, Fassbender appeared in another Ridley Scott film, The Counselor . In 2015, he portrayed Steve Jobs in the Danny Boyle-directed biopic of the same name, and played Macbeth in Justin Kurzel's adaptation of William Shakespeare's play. For the former, he has received Academy Award, BAFTA, Golden Globe and SAG nominations for Best Actor. As well as acting, Fassbender produced the 2015 western Slow West , which he also starred in. Hayden Christensen Hayden Christensen was born April 19, 1981 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. His parents, Alie and David Christensen, are in the communications business. He is of Danish (father) and Swedish and Italian (mother) descent. Hayden grew up in Markham, Ontario, with siblings Kaylen, Hejsa, and Tove. Hayden set out to become an actor when a chance encounter at the age of eight placed him in his first commercial, for Pringles. When he was thirteen, he had starring roles in several dramatic television series. His biggest break was a major part in the Fox Family Network's Higher Ground . On the series, Hayden showed off his acting talent as a teen who was sexually molested by his stepmother, and turns to drugs in despair. Later, he appeared in the television movie Trapped in a Purple Haze , where he co-starred with his friend Jonathan Jackson . Hayden also had a role in the film The Virgin Suicides . On May 12, 2000, it was announced that Christensen would star as Anakin Skywalker in the prequels Star Wars: Episode II - Attack of the Clones and Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith . The star was chosen by director George Lucas because he felt that Hayden had raw talent and good chemistry with actress Natalie Portman . Lucas stunned the movie world by picking the then-unknown actor after he had turned down such big names as Leonardo DiCaprio and Jonathan Jackson , as well as 400 other candidates. His role as the troubled, misunderstood teenager Sam Monroe in Irwin Winkler 's Life as a House won him 'Breakthrough Performance of the Year' from the National Board of Review. The film also placed him as a nominee for 'Best Supporting Actor' at both the Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Awards. Hayden then starred in Shattered Glass , quoted by some of the real Stephen Glass' colleagues as giving an eerie and uncanny portrayal. Since his Star Wars days, Hayden has headlined several action films, including Jumper and Takers . When not working, he enjoys spending quality time with his family (such as big brother Tove), hanging out with his friends, and exploring other hobbies such as the blues, jazz and piano. Hayden has been in a relationship with actress Rachel Bilson for many years. The two have a child, born in 2014. Brad Pitt An actor and producer known as much for his versatility as he is for his handsome face, Golden Globe-winner Brad Pitt's most widely recognized role may be Tyler Durden in Fight Club . However, his portrayals of Billy Beane in Moneyball , and Rusty Ryan in the remake of Ocean's Eleven and its sequels, also loom large in his filmography. Pitt was born William Bradley Pitt on December 18th, 1963, in Shawnee, Oklahoma, and was raised in Springfield, Missouri. He is the son of Jane Etta (Hillhouse), a school counselor, and William Alvin Pitt, a truck company manager. He has a younger brother, Douglas (Doug) Pitt, and a younger sister, Julie Neal Pitt. At Kickapoo High School, Pitt was involved in sports, debating, student government and school musicals. Pitt attended the University of Missouri, where he majored in journalism with a focus on advertising. He occasionally acted in fraternity shows. He left college two credits short of graduating to move to California. Before he became successful at acting, Pitt supported himself by driving strippers in limos, moving refrigerators and dressing as a giant chicken while working for "el Pollo Loco". Pitt's earliest credited roles were in television, starting on the daytime soap opera Another World before appearing in the recurring role of Randy on the legendary prime time soap opera Dallas . Following a string of guest appearances on various television series through the 1980s, Pitt gained widespread attention with a small part in Thelma & Louise , in which he played a sexy criminal who romanced and conned Geena Davis . This lead to starring roles in badly received films such as Johnny Suede and Cool World . But Pitt's career hit an upswing with his casting in A River Runs Through It , which cemented his status as an multi-layered actor as opposed to just a pretty face. Pitt's subsequent projects were as quirky and varied in tone as his performances, ranging from his unforgettably comic cameo as stoner roommate Floyd in True Romance to romantic roles in such visually lavish films as Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles and Legends of the Fall , to an emotionally tortured detective in the horror-thriller Se7en . His portrayal of frenetic oddball Jeffrey Goines in Twelve Monkeys won him a Globe for Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role. Pitt's portrayal of Achilles in the big-budget period drama Troy helped establish his appeal as action star and was closely followed by a co-starring role in the stylish spy-versus-spy flick Mr. & Mrs. Smith . It was on the set of Mr. & Mrs. Smith that Pitt, who married Jennifer Aniston in a highly publicized ceremony in 2000, met his current partner Angelina Jolie . Pitt left Aniston for Jolie in 2005, a break-up that continues to fuel tabloid stories years after its occurrence. Gareth Edwards Gareth James Edwards was born on June 1, 1975 in the English town of Nuneaton, Warwickshire. Growing up, he admired movies such as the 1977 classic "Star Wars", and went on to pursue a film career. He even cites George Lucas and Steven Spielberg as his biggest influences. Edwards studied BA (Hons) Film & Video at the University for the Creative Arts in Farnham (formerly the Surrey Institute of Art & Design), graduating in 1996. In 2012, he received an honorary Master of Arts from UCA. Edwards got his start in special visual effects, working on visual f/x for programs that aired on networks such as PBS, BBC and the Discovery Channel. In 2008 he entered (and won) the Sci-Fi-London 48-hour film challenge, where a movie had to be created from start-to-finish in just two days, within certain criteria. Edwards wrote and directed his first full-length feature, "Monsters", which was shot in only three weeks. Edwards personally created the film's special effects by using off-the-shelf equipment. Asides from the two main actors (real-life couple Scoot McNairy and Whitney Able), the crew consisted of just five people. The $500,000 thriller received a riotous reception at the South by Southwest festival, and was released by Veritgo Films to great success. The success of "Monsters" resulted in Edwards getting offers from the major studios, especially Warner Bros., who tapped him to direct an English-language reboot of the 1954 Japanese classic "Gojira". Produced by Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures, "Godzilla" began development in 2011 with Edwards at the helm, and was released on May 16, 2014 to mixed reviews and tremendous box office success, grossing $529 million worldwide against a $160 million budget. Following the success of "Godzilla", producer Kathleen Kennedy tapped Edwards to helm a spin-off of "Star Wars" for Lucasfilm Limited. In 2015, it was revealed that Edwards' "Star Wars" spin-off, written Chris Weitz and Tony Gilroy, would be titled "Rogue One: A Star Wars Story", set for release on December 16, 2016. The film boasts an ensemble cast including Felicity Jones, Donnie Yen, Mad Mikkelsen and James Earl Jones among others. Milo Ventimiglia Milo Ventimiglia is an American actor. He was born in Anaheim, California, to Carol (Wilson) and Peter Ventimiglia. His father is of Italian/Sicilian descent, and his mother has English and Scottish ancestry. First coming of notice playing the reckless and too smart for his own good 'Jess' on WB's "Gilmore Girls", Ventimiglia moved on to NBC's "American Dreams", WB's "Bedford Diaries" (working with Tom Fontana) and finally landing back on NBC with their international phenomenon, "Heroes". Ventimiglia then appeared in TNT's "Mob City". Helmed by Frank Darabont and taking place in 1947 Los Angeles, Ventimiglia plays Ned Stax a fixer for Bugsy Seigels crime syndicate. Ventimiglia's film work includes both studio and independent movies, comedy and drama. Known for darker films "Pathology" (helmed by Neveldine/Taylor) and "The Divide" (directed by Xavier Gen), Ventimiglia also spent time on two comedies with Adam Sandler. Last years "That's My Boy" and "Grown Ups 2". Other releases include: "Killing Season" along side Robert Deniro and John Travolta, and the Weinstein companies "Grace of Monaco" starring Nicole Kidman, who plays princess Grace Kelly. Ventimiglia plays Kelly's press agent Rupert Allan. Behind the camera Ventimiglia and his partner at Divide Pictures Russ Cundiff are involved in traditional content having sold TV shows to NBC, SyFy and FX, and producing the independent feature TELL which Ventimiglia co-starred along side of Jason Lee and Katee Sackoff as well as STATIC, which Ventimiglia co-starred with Sarah Shahi and Sara Paxton. Ventimiglia also produced the web-series Chosen, now in it's second season for Sony's Crackle as well as directed other digital projects for American Eagle Outfitters, Cadillac, GQ and Liberty Mutual. Divide Pictures' latest web-series "The P.E.T. Squad" Files for CW's Seed, is about a group of amateur ghost hunters who chase fame without having seen an actual apparition. The show launches summer 2013 from San Diego Comicon. Ventimiglia's passion for comic books led him to produce two titles for Top Cow / Image Comics "Rest" and "Berserker" Ventimiglia spends his free time working with vets through the Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans of America as well as taking USO tours to troops abroad. Bryce Dallas Howard Bryce Dallas Howard was born on March 2, 1981, in Los Angeles, California. She was conceived in Dallas, Texas (the reason for her middle name). Her father, Ron Howard , is a former actor turned Oscar-winning director. Her mother is actress and writer Cheryl Howard (née Alley). Her famous relatives include her uncle, actor Clint Howard , and her grandparents, actors Rance Howard and Jean Speegle Howard . She also has two younger twin sisters, Jocelyn and Paige Howard (also an actress), born in 1985, and a brother, Reed Howard, born in 1987. Her ancestry includes German, English, Scottish, and Irish. Howard was raised in Greenwich, Connecticut, because her parents decided to raise their four children as far away from the trappings of showbiz milieu as possible. During most of her childhood she really did not have much access to a TV. She attended Greenwich Country Day School, and Byram Hills High School in Armonk, New York. At that time, she discovered existentialism and devoured books by Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre . She attended the prestigious Steppenwolf School and Stagedoor Manor Performing Arts camp at Catskills together with her friend Natalie Portman . She applied to drama school as Bryce Dallas, dropping her last name to eschew special treatment because of association with her renowned father. From 1999-2003, she studied at the Stella Adler Conservatory and at the New York University Tisch School of Arts and graduated with a BFA degree in Drama in 2003. At that time, she performed in Broadway productions of classical plays by George Bernard Shaw , William Shakespeare and Anton Chekhov . Young Howard appeared in three of her father's films as an extra, including her appearance as a child together with her mother in Apollo 13 . She made her feature-film debut as Heather, a supporting role in Book of Love by director Alan Brown . Director 'M. Night Shyamalan' was impressed by her performance in a Broadway play and cast her without an audition as a female lead in his two thrillers: The Village and Lady in the Water . Howard replaced Nicole Kidman in Dogville sequel, Manderlay . She stars as Rosalind in As You Like It , a reprise of her stage role that made such an impression on Shyamalan. She also played Gwen Stacy in the third installment of the Spider-Man franchise, Spider-Man 3 , and the female lead, Claire, in the sequel Jurassic World . Both films broke the records for highest openings weekends at the time of their release. Among Bryce's other major films are Terminator: Salvation (2009)_, _The Twilight Sage: Eclipse (2010)_, The Help , and 50/50 . Howard became a devoted vegan after Joaquin Phoenix showed her Earthlings , a documentary about animal cruelty. After seeing that, she has consumed no animal products, not even milk or eggs. Her other activities outside of the acting profession include playing basketball and writing. On June 17, 2006, in Connecticut, she married her long-term boyfriend, actor Seth Gabel , whom she met at New York University and had dated for five years. On February 16, 2007, Bryce and her husband, Seth, became parents of their first child, a boy, named Theodore Norman Howard Gabel. Their second child, a daughter, was born in 2012. Leonardo DiCaprio Few actors in the world have had a career quite as diverse as Leonardo DiCaprio's. DiCaprio has gone from relatively humble beginnings, as a supporting cast member of the sitcom Growing Pains and low budget horror movies, such as Critters 3 , to a major teenage heartthrob in the 1990s, as the hunky lead actor in movies such as Romeo + Juliet and Titanic , to then become a leading man in Hollywood blockbusters, made by internationally renowned directors such as Martin Scorsese and Christopher Nolan . Leonardo Wilhelm DiCaprio was born November 11, 1974 in Los Angeles, California, the only child of Irmelin DiCaprio (née Indenbirken) and former comic book artist George DiCaprio . His father is of Italian and German descent, and his mother, who is German-born, is of German and Russian ancestry. His middle name, "Wilhelm", was his maternal grandfather's first name. Leonardo's father had achieved minor status as an artist and distributor of cult comic book titles, and was even depicted in several issues of American Splendor, the cult semiautobiographical comic book series by the late 'Harvey Pekar', a friend of George's. Leonardo's performance skills became obvious to his parents early on, and after signing him up with a talent agent who wanted Leonardo to perform under the stage name "Lenny Williams", DiCaprio began appearing on a number of television commercials and educational programs. DiCaprio began attracting the attention of producers, who cast him in bit part roles in a number of television series, such as Roseanne and The New Lassie , but it wasn't until 1991 that DiCaprio made his film debut in Critters 3 , a low-budget horror movie. While Critters 3 did little to help showcase DiCaprio's acting abilities, it did help him develop his show-reel, and attract the attention of the people behind the hit sitcom Growing Pains , in which Leonardo was cast in the "Cousin Oliver" role of a young homeless boy who moves in with the Seavers. While DiCaprio's stint on Growing Pains was very short, as the sitcom was axed the year after he joined, it helped bring DiCaprio into the public's attention and, after the show ended, DiCaprio began auditioning for roles in which he would get the chance to prove his acting chops. Leonardo took up a diverse range of roles in the early 1990s, including a mentally challenged youth in What's Eating Gilbert Grape , a young gunslinger in The Quick and the Dead and a drug addict in one of his most challenging roles to date, "Jim Carroll", in The Basketball Diaries , a role which the late River Phoenix originally expressed interest in. While these diverse roles helped establish Leonardo's reputation as an actor, it wasn't until his role as "Romeo" in Baz Luhrmann 's Romeo + Juliet that Leonardo became a household name, a true movie star. The following year, DiCaprio starred in another movie about doomed lovers, Titanic , which went on to beat all box office records held before then, as, at the time, Titanic became the highest grossing movie of all time, and cemented DiCaprio's reputation as a teen heartthrob. Following his work on Titanic , DiCaprio kept a low profile for a number of years, with roles in The Man in the Iron Mask and the low-budget The Beach being some of his few notable roles during this period. In 2002, he burst back into screens throughout the world with leading roles in Catch Me If You Can and Gangs of New York , his first of many collaborations with director Martin Scorsese . With a current salary of $20 million a movie, DiCaprio is now one of the biggest movie stars in the world. However, he has not limited his professional career to just acting in movies, as DiCaprio is a committed environmentalist, who is actively involved in many environmental causes, and his commitment to this issue led to his involvement in The 11th Hour, a documentary movie about the state of the natural environment. As someone who has gone from bit parts in television commercials to one of the most respected actors in the world, DiCaprio has had one of the most diverse careers in cinema. DiCaprio continued to defy conventions about the types of roles he would accept, and with his career now seeing him leading all-star casts in action thrillers such as The Departed , Shutter Island and Christopher Nolan 's Inception , DiCaprio continues to wow audiences by refusing to conform to any cliché about actors. In 2012, he played a mustache-twirling villain in Django Unchained , and then tragic literary character Jay Gatsby in The Great Gatsby . DiCaprio is passionate about environmental and humanitarian causes, having donated $1,000,000 to earthquake relief efforts in 2010, the same year he contributed $1,000,000 to the Wildlife Conservation Society. Will Smith Willard Carroll "Will" Smith, Jr. (born September 25, 1968) is an American actor, comedian, producer, rapper, and songwriter. He has enjoyed success in television, film, and music. In April 2007, Newsweek called him "the most powerful actor in Hollywood". Smith has been nominated for five Golden Globe Awards, two Academy Awards, and has won four Grammy Awards. In the late 1980s, Smith achieved modest fame as a rapper under the name The Fresh Prince. In 1990, his popularity increased dramatically when he starred in the popular television series The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air. The show ran for six seasons (1990-96) on NBC and has been syndicated consistently on various networks since then. After the series ended, Smith moved from television to film, and ultimately starred in numerous blockbuster films. He is the only actor to have eight consecutive films gross over $100 million in the domestic box office, eleven consecutive films gross over $150 million internationally, and eight consecutive films in which he starred open at the number one spot in the domestic box office tally. Smith is ranked as the most bankable star worldwide by Forbes. As of 2014, 17 of the 21 films in which he has had leading roles have accumulated worldwide gross earnings of over $100 million each, five taking in over $500 million each in global box office receipts. As of 2014, his films have grossed $6.6 billion at the global box office. He has received Best Actor Oscar nominations for Ali and The Pursuit of Happyness. Smith was born in West Philadelphia, the son of Caroline (Bright), a Philadelphia school board administrator, and Willard Carroll Smith, Sr., a refrigeration engineer. He grew up in West Philadelphia's Wynnefield neighborhood, and was raised Baptist. He has three siblings, sister Pamela, who is four years older, and twins Harry and Ellen, who are three years younger. Smith attended Our Lady of Lourdes, a private Catholic elementary school in Philadelphia. His parents separated when he was 13, but did not actually divorce until around 2000. Smith attended Overbrook High School. Though widely reported, it is untrue that Smith turned down a scholarship to attend the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT); he never applied to college because he "wanted to rap." Smith says he was admitted to a "pre-engineering [summer] program" at MIT for high school students, but he did not attend. According to Smith, "My mother, who worked for the School Board of Philadelphia, had a friend who was the admissions officer at MIT. I had pretty high SAT scores and they needed black kids, so I probably could have gotten in. But I had no intention of going to college." Smith started as the MC of the hip-hop duo DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince, with his childhood friend Jeffrey "DJ Jazzy Jeff" Townes as producer, as well as Ready Rock C (Clarence Holmes) as the human beat box. The trio was known for performing humorous, radio-friendly songs, most notably "Parents Just Don't Understand" and "Summertime". They gained critical acclaim and won the first Grammy awarded in the Rap category (1988). Smith spent money freely around 1988 and 1989 and underpaid his income taxes. The Internal Revenue Service eventually assessed a $2.8 million tax debt against Smith, took many of his possessions, and garnished his income. Smith was nearly bankrupt in 1990, when the NBC television network signed him to a contract and built a sitcom, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, around him. The show was successful and began his acting career. Smith set for himself the goal of becoming "the biggest movie star in the world", studying box office successes' common characteristics. Smith's first major roles were in the drama Six Degrees of Separation (1993) and the action film Bad Boys (1995) in which he starred opposite Martin Lawrence. In 1996, Smith starred as part of an ensemble cast in Roland Emmerich's Independence Day. The film was a massive blockbuster, becoming the second highest grossing film in history at the time and establishing Smith as a prime box office draw. He later struck gold again in the summer of 1997 alongside Tommy Lee Jones in the summer hit Men in Black playing Agent J. In 1998, Smith starred with Gene Hackman in Enemy of the State. He turned down the role of Neo in The Matrix in favor of Wild Wild West (1999). Despite the disappointment of Wild Wild West, Smith has said that he harbors no regrets about his decision, asserting that Keanu Reeves's performance as Neo was superior to what Smith himself would have achieved, although in interviews subsequent to the release of Wild Wild West he stated that he "made a mistake on Wild Wild West. That could have been better." In 2005, Smith was entered into the Guinness Book of World Records for attending three premieres in a 24-hour time span. He has planned to star in a feature film remake of the television series It Takes a Thief. On December 10, 2007, Smith was honored at Grauman's Chinese Theatre on Hollywood Boulevard. Smith left an imprint of his hands and feet outside the world-renowned theater in front of many fans. Later that month, Smith starred in the film I Am Legend, released December 14, 2007. Despite marginally positive reviews, its opening was the largest ever for a film released in the United States during December. Smith himself has said that he considers the film to be "aggressively unique". A reviewer said that the film's commercial success "cemented [Smith's] standing as the number one box office draw in Hollywood." On December 1, 2008, TV Guide reported that Smith was selected as one of America's top ten most fascinating people of 2008 for a Barbara Walters ABC special that aired on December 4, 2008. In 2008 Smith was reported to be developing a film entitled The Last Pharaoh, in which he would be starring as Taharqa. It was in 2008 that Smith starred in the superhero movie Hancock. Men in Black III opened on May 25, 2012 with Smith again reprising his role as Agent J. This was his first major starring role in four years. On August 19, 2011, it was announced that Smith had returned to the studio with producer La Mar Edwards to work on his fifth studio album. Edwards has worked with artists such as T.I., Chris Brown, and Game. Smith's most recent studio album, Lost and Found, was released in 2005. Smith and his son Jaden played father and son in two productions: the 2006 biographical drama The Pursuit of Happyness, and the science fiction film After Earth, which was released on May 31, 2013. Smith starred opposite Margot Robbie in the romance drama Focus. He played Nicky Spurgeon, a veteran con artist who takes a young, attractive woman under his wing. Focus was released on February 27, 2015. Smith was set to star in the Sci-Fic thriller Brilliance, an adaptation of Marcus Sakey's novel of the same name scripted by Jurassic Park writer David Koepp. But he left the project. Smith played Dr. Bennet Omalu of the Brain Injury Research Institute in the sports-drama Concussion, who became the first person to discover chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in a football player's brain. CTE is a degenerative disease caused by severe trauma to the head that can be discovered only after death. Smith's involvement is mostly due to his last-minute exit from the Sci-Fi thriller-drama Brilliance. Concussion was directed by Peter Landesman and-bead filmed in Pittsburgh, according to the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. It received $14.4 million in film tax credits from Pennsylvania. Principal photography started on October 27, 2014. Actress Gugu Mbatha-Raw played his wife. Omalu served as a consultant. As of November 2015, Smith is set to star in the independent drama Collateral Beauty, which will be directed by David Frankel. Smith will play a New York advertising executive who succumbs to an deep depression after a personal tragedy. Nobel Peace Prize Concert December 11, 2009, in Oslo, Norway: Smith with wife Jada and children Jaden and Willow Smith married Sheree Zampino in 1992. They had one son, Trey Smith, born on November 11, 1992, and divorced in 1995. Trey appeared in his father's music video for the 1998 single "Just the Two of Us". He also acted in two episodes of the sitcom All of Us, and has appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show and on the David Blaine: Real or Magic TV special. Smith married actress Jada Koren Pinkett in 1997. Together they have two children: Jaden Christopher Syre Smith (born 1998), his co-star in The Pursuit of Happyness and After Earth, and Willow Camille Reign Smith (born 2000), who appeared as his daughter in I Am Legend. Smith and his brother Harry own Treyball Development Inc., a Beverly Hills-based company named after Trey. Smith and his family reside in Los Angeles, California. Smith was consistently listed in Fortune Magazine's "Richest 40" list of the forty wealthiest Americans under the age of 40. Marion Cotillard Academy Award-winning Actress Marion Cotillard was born on September 30, 1975 in Paris. Cotillard is the daughter of Jean-Claude Cotillard , an actor, playwright and director, and Niseema Theillaud , an actress and drama teacher. Her father's family is Breton and her mother has Kabyle ancestry. Raised in Orléans, France, she made her acting debut as a child with a role in one of her father's plays. She studied drama at the Conservatoire d'Art Dramatique in Orléans. After small appearances and performances in theater, Cotillard had occasional and minor roles in TV series such as Highlander and Extrême limite , but her career as a film actress began in the mid-1990s. While still a teenager, Cotillard made her cinema debut at the age of 18 in the film L'histoire du garçon qui voulait qu'on l'embrasse , and had small but noticeable roles in films such as Arnaud Desplechin 's My Sex Life... or How I Got Into an Argument and Coline Serreau 's comedy La belle verte . In 1996, she had her first lead role in the TV film Chloé , playing the title role - a teenage runaway who is forced into prostitution. Cotillard co-starred opposite Anna Karina , the muse of the Nouvelle Vague. In 1997, she won her first film award at the Festival Rencontres Cinématographiques d'Istres in France, for her performance as the young imprisoned Nathalie in the short film Affaire classée . Her first prominent screen role was Lilly Bertineau in Gérard Pirès 's box-office hit Taxi , a role which she reprised in two sequels: Taxi 2 and Taxi 3 , this role earned her first César award nomination (France's equivalent to the Oscar) for Most Promising Actress in 1999. In 1999, Cotillard starred as Julie Bonzon in the Swiss war drama War in the Highlands . For her performance in the film, she won the Best Actress award at the Autrans Film Festival in France. In 2001, Marion starred in Pretty Things as the twin sisters Marie and Lucie, and was nominated for her second César award for Most Promising Actress. Cotillard's breakthrough in France came in 2003, when she starred in Yann Samuell 's dark romantic comedy Love Me If You Dare , in which she played Sophie Kowalsky, the daughter of Polish immigrants who lives a love-hate relationship with her childhood friend. The film was a box-office hit in France, became a cult film abroad and led Cotillard to bigger projects. Her first Hollywood movie was Tim Burton 's Big Fish , in which she played Joséphine, the wife of William Bloom (played by Billy Crudup ). A few years later, Marion starred in Ridley Scott 's A Good Year playing Fanny Chenal, a French café owner who falls in love with Russell Crowe 's character. In 2004, she won the Chopard Thophy of Female Revelation at the Cannes Film Festival. In 2005, Cotillard won the César award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance of Tina Lombardi in Jean-Pierre Jeunet 's A Very Long Engagement . In 2007, Cotillard received international recognition for her iconic portrayal of Édith Piaf in La Vie en Rose . Director Olivier Dahan cast Cotillard to play the legendary French singer because to him, her eyes were like those of "Piaf". The fact that she can sing also helped Cotillard land the role of "Piaf", although most of the singing in the film is that of Piaf's. The role won Cotillard the Academy Award for Best Actress along with a César, a Lumière Award, a BAFTA Award, and a Golden Globe. That made her only the second actress to win an acting Oscar performing in a language other than English next to Sophia Loren ( Two Women ). Only two male performers ( Roberto Benigni for Life Is Beautiful and Robert De Niro for The Godfather: Part II ) have won an Oscar for solely non-English parts. Trevor Nunn called her portrayal of "Piaf" "one of the greatest performances on film ever". At the Berlin International Film Festival, where the film premiered, Cotillard was given a 15-minute standing ovation. When she won the César, Alain Delon presented the award and announced the winner as "La Môme Marion" (The Kid Marion), he also praised her at the stage saying: "Marion, I give you this César. I think this César is for a great great actress, and I know what I'm talking about". Cotillard has worked much more frequently in English-language movies following her Academy Award recognition. In 2009, she acted opposite Johnny Depp in Michael Mann 's Public Enemies , and later that year played Luisa Contini in Rob Marshall 's musical Nine and received a Golden Globe nomination for her performance. Time magazine ranked her as the fifth best performance by a female in 2009. The following year, she took on the main antagonist role, Mal, in Christopher Nolan 's Inception , and in 2011 she had memorable parts in Midnight in Paris and Contagion and reteamed with Christopher Nolan in The Dark Knight Rises . In 2011 and 2012 respectively, Cotillard appeared on the top of Le Figaro's list of the highest paid actors in France, it was the first time in nine years that a female topped the list. Cotillard was also the highest paid foreign actress in Hollywood. In 2012, Cotillard received wide-spread critical acclaim for her role as the legless orca trainer Stéphanie in Rust and Bone . The film was a box office hit in France and received a ten-minute standing ovation at the end of its screening at the 65th Cannes Film Festival. Cotillard won the Globe de Cristal (France's equivalent to the Golden Globe), the Étoile d'Or award and was nominated for the Golden Globes, SAG, BAFTA, Critics' Choice and César Awards for her performance in the film. Cate Blanchett wrote an op-ed for Variety praising Cotillard's performance in "Rust and Bone", the two actresses competed for the Academy Awards for Best Actress in 2008, Cate was nominated for her performance in The Golden Age and Marion for her performance in La Vie en Rose and Cotillard won the Oscar. She had her first leading role in an American movie in 2013, in James Gray 's The Immigrant , in which she played Ewa Cybulska, a Polish immigrant who wants to experience the American dream. Cotillard received wide-spread acclaim for her performance in the film at the 66th Cannes Film Festival, where the film premiered, and also won several critics awards. In 2014, Cotillard played Sandra in the Belgian film Two Days, One Night by the Dardenne brothers. Her performance was unanimously praised at the 67th Cannes Film Festival, earned several critics awards, Cotillard won her first European Award for Best Actress and also received her second Oscar nomination and her sixth César award nomination. In 2015, she played Lady Macbeth opposite Michael Fassbender in Justin Kurzel 's Macbeth and voiced two animated movies: The Little Prince in which she voiced The Rose, and April and the Extraordinary World , in which she voiced the lead role, Avril. Kate Beckinsale Kate Beckinsale was born on 26 July 1973 in England, and has resided in London for most of her life. Her mother is Judy Loe , who has appeared in a number of British dramas and sitcoms and continues to work as an actress, predominantly in British television productions. Her father was Richard Beckinsale , born in Nottingham, England. He starred in a number of popular British television comedies during the 1970s, most notably the series Rising Damp , Porridge and The Lovers . He passed away tragically early in 1979 at the age of 31. Kate attended the private school Godolphin and Latymer School in London for her grade and primary school education. In her teens she twice won the British bookseller W.H. Smith Young Writers' competition - once for three short stories and once for three poems. After a tumultuous adolescence (a bout of anorexia - cured - and a smoking habit which continues to this day), she gradually took up the profession of acting. Her major acting debut came in a TV film about World War II called One Against the Wind , filmed in Luxembourg during the summer of 1991. It first aired on American television that December. Kate began attending Oxford University's New College in the fall of 1991, majoring in French and Russian literature. She had already decided that she wanted to act, but to broaden her horizons she chose university over drama school. While in her first year at Oxford, Kate received her big break in Kenneth Branagh 's film adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Much Ado About Nothing . Kate worked in three other films while attending Oxford, beginning with a part in the medieval historical drama Royal Deceit , cast as Ethel. The film was shot during the spring of 1993 on location in Denmark, and she filmed her supporting part during New College's Easter break. Later in the summer of that year she played the lead in the contemporary mystery drama Uncovered . Before she went back to school, her third year at university was spent at Oxford's study-abroad program in Paris, France, immersing herself in the French language, Parisian culture and French cigarettes. A year away from the academic community and living on her own in the French capital caused her to re-evaluate the direction of her life. She faced a choice: continue with school or concentrate on her flourishing acting career. After much thought, she chose the acting career. In the spring of 1994 Kate left Oxford, after finishing three years of study. Kate appeared in the BBC/Thames Television satire Cold Comfort Farm , filmed in London and East Sussex during late summer 1994 and which opened to spectacular reviews in the United States, grossing over $5 million during its American run. It was re-released to U.K. theaters in the spring of 1997. Acting on the stage consumed the first part of 1995; she toured in England with the Thelma Holts Theatre Company production of Anton Chekhov 's "The Seagull". After turning down several mediocre scripts "and going nearly berserk with boredom", she waited seven months before another interesting role was offered to her. Her big movie of 1995 was the romance/horror movie Haunted , starring opposite Aidan Quinn and John Gielgud , and filmed in West Sussex. In this film she wanted to play "an object of desire", unlike her past performances where her characters were much less the siren and more the worldly innocent. Kate's first film project of 1996 was the British ITV production of Jane Austen 's novel Emma . Her last film of 1996 was the comedy Shooting Fish , filmed at Shepperton Studios in London during early fall. She played the part of Georgie, an altruistic con artist. She had a daughter, Lily, in 1999 with actor Michael Sheen . Scarlett Johansson Scarlett Johansson was born in New York City. Her mother, Melanie Sloan , is from an Ashkenazi Jewish family, and her father, Karsten Johansson , is Danish. She has a sister, Vanessa Johansson , who is also an actress, a brother, Adrian, a twin brother, Hunter Johansson , born three minutes after her, and a paternal half-brother, Christian. Her grandfather was writer Ejner Johansson . Johansson began acting during childhood, after her mother started taking her to auditions. She made her professional acting debut at the age of eight in the off-Broadway production of "Sophistry" with Ethan Hawke, at New York's Playwrights Horizons. She would audition for commercials but took rejection so hard her mother began limiting her to film tryouts. She made her film debut at the age of nine, as John Ritter's character's daughter in the 1994 fantasy comedy, North . Following minor roles in the 1995 film Just Cause , as the daughter of Sean Connery and Kate Capshaw's character, and If Lucy Fell , she played the role of Amanda in Manny & Lo . Her performance in Manny & Lo garnered a nomination for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Lead Female, and positive reviews, one noting, "[the film] grows on you, largely because of the charm of ... Scarlett Johansson", while San Francisco Chronicle critic Mick LaSalle commentated on her "peaceful aura", and wrote, "If she can get through puberty with that aura undisturbed, she could become an important actress." After appearing in minor roles in Fall and Home Alone 3 in 1997, Johansson garnered widely spread attention for her performance in the 1998 film The Horse Whisperer , directed by Robert Redford, where she played Grace MacLean, a teenager traumatized by a riding accident. She received a nomination for the Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Most Promising Actress for the film. In 1999, she appeared in My Brother the Pig and in 2001 in the Coen brothers film The Man Who Wasn't There. Also in 1999, she appeared in the music video for Mandy Moore's single, "Candy". Although the film was not a box office success, she received praise for her break-out role in Ghost World , credited with "sensitivity and talent [that] belie her age". She was also featured in the Coen Brothers' dark drama The Man Who Wasn't There , opposite Billy Bob Thornton and Frances McDormand. In 2002, she appeared in Eight Legged Freaks with David Arquette. In 2003, she was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards, one for drama ( Girl with a Pearl Earring ) and one for comedy ( Lost in Translation ), her breakout role, starring opposite Bill Murray , and receiving rave reviews and a Best Actress Award at the Venice Film Festival. Her 2004 film roles include the critically acclaimed Weitz brothers' film "In Good Company," as well as starring opposite John Travolta in "A Love Song For Bobby Long," which garnered her a Golden Globe nomination (her third in two years). She dropped out of Mission: Impossible III due to scheduling conflicts. Her next film role was in The Island alongside Ewan McGregor which earned weak reviews from U.S. critics. After this, she appeared in Woody Allen 's Match Point and was nominated again for a Golden Globe Award. In May 2008, she released her album "Anywhere I Lay My Head," a collection of Tom Waits covers featuring one original song. Also that year, she starred in Frank Miller's The Spirit , the Woody Allen film Vicky Cristina Barcelona , and played Mary Boleyn opposite Natalie Portman in The Other Boleyn Girl . Since then, she has appeared as part of an ensemble cast in the romantic comedy He's Just Not That Into You , the action superhero film Iron Man 2 , the comedy-drama We Bought a Zoo and started as the original scream queen, Janet Leigh , in Hitchcock . She then played her Iron Man 2 character, Black Widow, in the blockbuster action films The Avengers , Captain America: The Winter Soldier , and Avengers: Age of Ultron , and also headlined the science-fiction thriller Lucy , a box office success. With more than a decade of work already under her belt, Scarlett has proven to be one of Hollywood's most talented young actresses. Scarlett and Canadian actor Ryan Reynolds were engaged in May 2008 and married in September of that year. In 2010, the couple announced their separation, and subsequently divorced in 2011. In 2013, she became engaged to French journalist Romain Dauriac, and the couple, who have a daughter, married in 2014. Harrison Ford Harrison Ford was born on July 13, 1942 in Chicago, Illinois, to Dorothy (Nidelman), a radio actress, and Christopher Ford (born John William Ford), an actor turned advertising executive. His father was of Irish and German ancestry, while his maternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Minsk, Belarus. Harrison was a lackluster student at Maine Township High School East in Park Ridge Illinois (no athletic star, never above a C average). After dropping out of Ripon College in Wisconsin, where he did some acting and later summer stock, he signed a Hollywood contract with Columbia and later Universal. His roles in movies and television ( Ironside , The Virginian ) remained secondary and, discouraged, he turned to a career in professional carpentry. He came back big four years later, however, as Bob Falfa in American Graffiti . Four years after that, he hit colossal with the role of Han Solo in Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope . Another four years and Ford was Indiana Jones in Raiders of the Lost Ark . Four years later and he received Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for his role as John Book in Witness . All he managed four years after that was his third starring success as Indiana Jones; in fact, many of his earlier successful roles led to sequels as did his more recent portrayal of Jack Ryan in Patriot Games . Another Golden Globe nomination came his way for the part of Dr. Richard Kimble in The Fugitive . He is clearly a well-established Hollywood superstar. He also maintains an 800-acre ranch in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Ford is a private pilot of both fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, and owns an 800-acre (3.2 km2) ranch in Jackson, Wyoming, approximately half of which he has donated as a nature reserve. On several occasions, Ford has personally provided emergency helicopter services at the request of local authorities, in one instance rescuing a hiker overcome by dehydration. Ford began flight training in the 1960s at Wild Rose Idlewild Airport in Wild Rose, Wisconsin, flying in a Piper PA-22 Tri-Pacer, but at $15 an hour, he could not afford to continue the training. In the mid-1990s, he bought a used Gulfstream II and asked one of his pilots, Terry Bender, to give him flying lessons. They started flying a Cessna 182 out of Jackson, Wyoming, later switching to Teterboro, New Jersey, flying a Cessna 206, the aircraft he soloed in. Ford is an honorary board member of the humanitarian aviation organization Wings of Hope. On March 5, 2015, Ford's plane, believed to be a Ryan PT-22 Recruit, made an emergency landing on the Penmar Golf Course in Venice, California. Ford had radioed in to report that the plane had suffered engine failure. He was taken to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, where he was reported to be in fair to moderate condition. Ford suffered a broken pelvis and broken ankle during the accident, as well as other injuries. Jake Gyllenhaal Jacob Benjamin Gyllenhaal was born in Los Angeles, to producer/screenwriter Naomi Foner (née Achs) and director Stephen Gyllenhaal . He is the brother of actress Maggie Gyllenhaal , who played his sister in Donnie Darko . His godmother is actress Jamie Lee Curtis . His mother is from a Jewish family, and his father's ancestry includes Swedish, English, and Swiss-German. Gyllenhaal made his movie debut, at the age of eleven, in the film City Slickers , playing Billy Crystal 's character's son. He made an impact in various films in the late 1990s and early 2000s, in films such as October Sky , his breakthrough performance, and as the title role in the cult phenomenon psychological thriller, Donnie Darko , for which he received an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Actor, playing a psychologically troubled teenager. He followed this with roles encompassing many different genres, including the comedy film, Walt Disney romantic comedy, Bubble Boy ; opposite Jennifer Aniston in another Sundance favorite, The Good Girl , as a young man grieving the death of his fiancée in Moonlight Mile , and in the science fiction blockbuster, The Day After Tomorrow , portraying a student caught in a cataclysmic climate event, opposite Dennis Quaid . Making his theater debut, Gyllenhaal appeared on the London stage with a starring role in Kenneth Lonergan 's revival of "This Is Our Youth". The play was widely-received and played for eight weeks in London's West End. Gyllenhaal followed his successful theater en devour with a role in Jarhead , playing Anthony "Swoff" Swofford, an aggressive and masculine but equally vulnerable and sensitive Marine during the Gulf War, and Proof , as Gwyneth Paltrow's character's love interest. However, it was his follow-up performance that won critical acclaim in Brokeback Mountain , in which he co-starred with Australian actor Heath Ledger , as sheep herders who fall in love in the 1960s and depicts their relationship over the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s. For his role as Jack Twist, Gyllenhaal received critical acclaim and won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role and was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role, the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture, and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Since then, he has acted in a wide range of movies, ranging from the critically-acclaimed thriller, Zodiac , the drama Brothers , playing opposite Tobey Maguire as the title siblings, in the action adventure film, Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time , sporting a bulked-up physique, and the box office hit, Love & Other Drugs , in which he teamed up with Anne Hathaway , once again, and for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. In the 2010s, Gyllenhaal starred in several major films for which he received significant critical acclaim: science fiction thriller Source Code , police drama End of Watch , mystery Prisoners , dark media satire Nightcrawler , the boxing drama Southpaw , and the dramedy Demolition . For Nightcrawler, he was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role, and the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. Gyllenhaal is the godfather of Matilda Ledger (aka Matilda Rose Ledger), daughter of the late actor Heath Ledger and Michelle Williams . Gyllenhaal's most significant personal relationships have been with actresses Kirsten Dunst and Reese Witherspoon . He is friends with Maroon 5 front-man Adam Levine , having known him since kindergarten. He is a good friend of his sister's husband and Jarhead co-star, actor Peter Sarsgaard . Denzel Washington Denzel Washington is an American actor and filmmaker. He has received three Golden Globe awards, a Tony Award, and two Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actor for the historical war drama film Glory and Best Actor for his role as a corrupt cop in the crime thriller Training Day . Denzel Hayes Washington, Jr. was born on December 28, 1954 in Mount Vernon, New York. He is the middle of three children of a beautician mother, Lennis (Lowe), from Georgia, and a Pentecostal minister father, Denzel Washington, Sr., from Virginia. After graduating from high school, Denzel enrolled at Fordham University, intent on a career in journalism. However, he caught the acting bug while appearing in student drama productions and, upon graduation, he moved to San Francisco and enrolled at the American Conservatory Theater. He left A.C.T. after only one year to seek work as an actor. His first paid acting role was in a summer stock theater stage production in St. Mary's City, Maryland. The play was "Wings of the Morning", which is about the founding of the colony of Maryland (now the state of Maryland) and the early days of the Maryland colonial assembly (a legislative body). He played the part of a real historical character, Mathias Da Sousa, although much of the dialogue was created. Afterwards he began to pursue screen roles in earnest. With his acting versatility and powerful sexual presence, he had no difficulty finding work in numerous television productions. He made his first big screen appearance in Carbon Copy with George Segal . Through the 1980s, he worked in both movies and television and was chosen for the plum role of Dr. Philip Chandler in NBC's hit medical series St. Elsewhere , a role that he would play for six years. In 1989, his film career began to take precedence when he won the Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Tripp, the runaway slave in Edward Zwick 's powerful historical masterpiece Glory . Washington has received much critical acclaim for his film work since the 1990s, including his portrayals of real-life figures such as South African anti-apartheid activist Steve Biko in Cry Freedom , Muslim minister and human rights activist Malcolm X in Malcolm X , boxer Rubin "Hurricane" Carter in The Hurricane , football coach Herman Boone in Remember the Titans , poet and educator Melvin B. Tolson in The Great Debaters , and drug kingpin Frank Lucas in American Gangster . Malcolm X and The Hurricane garnered him Oscar nominations for Best Actor, before he finally won that statuette in 2002 for his lead role in Training Day . Juliette Lewis Juliette Lewis has been recognized as one of Hollywood's most talented and versatile actors of her generation since she first stunned audiences and critics alike with her Oscar-nominated performance as "Danielle Bowden" in Cape Fear . To date, she has worked with some of the most revered directors in the industry, including Martin Scorsese , Woody Allen , Lasse Hallström , Oliver Stone and Garry Marshall . Whether lending dramatic authenticity or a natural comedic flair to her roles, Lewis graces the screen with remarkable range and an original and captivating style. Lewis was born in Los Angeles, Californa, to Glenis (Duggan) Batley, a graphic designer, and Geoffrey Lewis , an actor. By the age of six, she knew she wanted to be a performer. At twelve, Lewis landed her first leading role in the Showtime miniseries Home Fires . After appearing in several TV sitcoms including The Wonder Years , she made her move to film, starring with Chevy Chase in National Lampoon's National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation and with Jennifer Jason Leigh in the drama Crooked Hearts . At 16, Lewis starred opposite Brad Pitt in the critically acclaimed television movie Too Young to Die? , catching the attention of Martin Scorsese , who cast her in his thriller Cape Fear . Her powerful scenes with Robert De Niro captured the quiet complexities of adolescence and earned her an Oscar nomination and Golden Globe nomination for "Best Supporting Actress". Her auditorium scene with De Niro went down in movie history as one of cinema's classic scenes. Morena Baccarin Morena Baccarin was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to actress Vera Setta and journalist Fernando Baccarin. Her uncle was actor Ivan Setta . Morena has Italian and Brazilian Portuguese ancestry. She moved to New York at the age of 10, when her father was transferred there. She attended the LaGuardia High School of Music and Performing Arts and then the Juilliard School. Staying in New York she, worked in the theater - notably in the Central Park production of Anton Chekhov 's "The Seagull" where she was also Natalie Portman 's understudy - and appeared in several movies. After making Roger Dodger she moved to Los Angeles where she came to the attention of Joss Whedon who cast her in his short-lived cult sci-fi show Firefly . Since then she has rarely been off our TV screens. Ben Affleck American actor and filmmaker Benjamin Géza Affleck-Boldt was born on August 15, 1972 in Berkeley, California, and was raised in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His mother, Chris Anne (née Boldt), is a school teacher, and his father, Timothy Byers Affleck, is a social worker; the two are divorced. Ben has a younger brother, actor Casey Affleck , who was born in 1975. He is of mostly English, Irish, German, and Scottish ancestry. His middle name, "Géza", is after a family friend. Affleck wanted to be an actor ever since he could remember, and his first acting experience was for a Burger King commercial, when he was on the PBS mini-series, The Voyage of the Mimi . It was also at that age when Ben met his lifelong friend and fellow actor, Matt Damon . They played little league together and took drama classes together. Ben's teen years consisted of mainly TV movies and small television appearances including Hands of a Stranger and The Second Voyage of the Mimi . He made his big introduction into feature films in 1993 when he was cast in Dazed and Confused . After that, he did mostly independent films like Kevin Smith 's Mallrats and Chasing Amy which were great for Ben's career, receiving renowned appreciation for his works at the Sundance film festival. But the success he was having in independent films didn't last much longer and things got a little shaky for Ben. He was living in an apartment with his brother Casey and friend Matt, getting tired of being turned down for the big roles in films and being given the forgettable supporting ones. Since Matt was having the same trouble, they decided to write their own script, where they could call all the shots. So, after finishing the script for Good Will Hunting , they gave it to their agent, Patrick Whitesell , who showed it to a few Hollywood studios, finally being accepted by Castle Rock. It was great news for the two, but Castle Rock wasn't willing to give Ben and Matt the control over the project they were hoping for. It was friend Kevin Smith who took it to the head of Miramax who bought the script giving Ben and Matt the control they wanted and, in December 5, 1997, Good Will Hunting was released, making the two unknown actors famous. The film was nominated for 9 Academy Awards and won two, including Best Original Screenplay for Ben and Matt. The film marked Ben's breakthrough role, in which he was given for the first time the chance to choose roles instead of having to go through grueling auditions constantly. Affleck chose such roles in the blockbusters Armageddon , Shakespeare in Love , and Pearl Harbor . In the early years of the 2000s, he also starred in the box office hits Changing Lanes , The Sum of All Fears , and Daredevil , as well as the disappointing comedies Gigli and Surviving Christmas . While the mid 2000s were considered a career downturn for Affleck, he received a Golden Globe nomination for his performance in Hollywoodland . In the several years following, he played supporting roles, including in the films Smokin' Aces , He's Just Not That Into You , State of Play , and Extract . He ventured into directing in 2007, with the thriller Gone Baby Gone , which starred his brother, Casey Affleck , and was well received. He then directed, co-wrote, and starred in The Town , which was named to the National Board of Review Top Ten Films of the year. For the political thriller Argo , which he directed and starred in, Affleck won the Golden Globe Award and BAFTA Award for Best Director, and the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, and BAFTA Award for Best Picture (Affleck's second Oscar win). In 2014, Affleck headlined the book adaptation thriller Gone Girl . He starred as Bruce Wayne/Batman in the superhero film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice , briefly reprised the character in Suicide Squad , and will do so again in Justice League , and other sequels. Affleck married actress Jennifer Garner in 2005. The couple has three children. Blake Lively Blake Lively was born Blake Ellender Brown in Tarzana, California, to a show business family. Her mother, Elaine Lively (née McAlpin), is an acting coach and talent manager, and her father, Ernie Lively (born Ernest Wilson Brown, Jr.), is an actor and teacher. Her brother is actor Eric Lively , and her half-siblings are actors Lori Lively , Robyn Lively and Jason Lively . She followed her parents' and siblings' steps. Her first role was Trixie, the Tooth Fairy in the musical movie Sandman , directed by her father. Her big break came along a few years later, though. Blake was up to finish high school when she got the co-starring role of Bridget in The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants . Blake was so perfect for the role of Bridget that, with no big references or even auditioning, she landed the role. According to her, all she did was walk in and leave a photo of herself. It was clear that she was the Bridget needed. After the film, Blake went back to high school for her senior year to have the life of a regular teenager -- or a very busy regular teenager. She was class president, a cheerleader, and performed with the choir. Eddie Redmayne Edward John David Redmayne was born and raised in London, England, the son of Patricia (Burke) and Richard Charles Tunstall Redmayne, a businessman. His great-grandfather was Sir Richard Augustine Studdert Redmayne, a noted civil and mining engineer. Eddie is one of five children. He has English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh ancestry. Redmayne is the only member of his family to follow a career in acting, and also modeled during his teen years. He was educated at Eton College before going on to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied History of Art. Encouraged by his parents, Redmayne took drama lessons from a young age. His first stage appearance was in the Sam Mendes production of Oliver!, in London's West End. He played a workhouse boy. Acting continued through school and university, including performing with the National Youth Music Theatre. Redmayne's first professional stage performance came in 2002 at Shakespeare's Globe Theatre where he played Viola in Twelfth Night. In 2004, he won the prestigious Evening Standard Outstanding Newcomer Award for his working in Edward Albee 's play 'The Goat'. Further stage successes followed and in 2009 he starred in John Logan's 'Red' at the Donmar Warehouse in London. He won huge critical acclaim for his role, winning an Oliver Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. The play transferred to Broadway in 2010, and Redmayne went on to win a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play. Peter Billingsley Peter Billingsley has been a member of the Hollywood community since he was a small child, achieving success and accolades, both behind the scenes and in front of the camera. The highly-successful child actor-turned-producer received an Emmy Award nomination, in 2005, as co-executive producer on the critically acclaimed Independent Film Channel show, Dinner for Five , with Jon Favreau . He also served as executive producer on the hit summer film, The Break-Up , and recently wrapped production on Marvel Comics feature film, Iron Man , directed by Jon Favreau . Billingsley also served as co-producer on the Artisan Entertainment classic, Made , starring Jon Favreau and Vince Vaughn , as well as Sony's recent science fiction release, Zathura: A Space Adventure , directed by Favreau. Billingsley recently became a principal in "Wild West Picture Show Productions". The production company, founded by Vince Vaughn , currently has a first look production deal with Universal Studios. Growing up in the public eye, Billingsley began his acting career, at the age of three, in some of the '70s most memorable television commercials. After appearing on numerous television shows and films during his youth, the Emmy Award-nominated actor delivered a performance for the ages in the beloved holiday film, A Christmas Story . Playing humorist Jean Shepherd 's youthful alter-ego "Ralphie", Billingsley's repeated requests, in the film, for a genuine Red Ryder B-B gun quickly catapulted the actor to instant stardom and has since driven the film into pop culture lore as the classic modern-day Christmas tale. Born in New York City, Billingsley currently resides in Los Angeles. Anna Kendrick Anna Kendrick was born in Portland, Maine, to Janice (Cooke), an accountant, and William Kendrick, a teacher. She has an older brother, Michael Cooke Kendrick , who has also acted. She is of English, Irish, and Scottish descent. For her role as "Dinah" in "High Society" on Broadway, Anna Kendrick was nominated for a Tony Award (second youngest ever), a Drama Desk Award, and a Fany Award (best actress featured in a musical). Her spectacular performance landed her the Drama League and Theatre World Award. She was a lead performer with Cabaret's Kit Kat Club at "Carnegie Hall Live" in My Favorite Broadway: The Leading Ladies (1999) (TV). She also had the privilege of working with director Scott Ellis and choreographer Susan Stroman at the New York City Opera House with Jeremy Irons amongst many more celebrity status actors, playing the role of "Fredrika" in "A Little Night Music". Anna work-shopped "Jane Eyre" & "The Little Princess" for Broadway and starred in the feature film Camp with director Todd Graff . Chloë Grace Moretz Chloë Grace Moretz was born in Atlanta, Georgia, to Teri (Duke), a nurse, and McCoy Lee Moretz, a plastic surgeon. She has four brothers, all older, including actor Trevor Duke-Moretz . Her ancestry is mostly German and English. Chloë's first two appearances were as Violet in two episodes of the series The Guardian . Her first movie role was as Molly in Heart of the Beholder , a story about a family that opened the first video rental store in 1980. This was followed by a small role in Family Plan as Young Charlie. After that, however, came Chloe's biggest role, and the one that made her famous: The Amityville Horror , the remake of the famous The Amityville Horror . Next she landed a small role in Today You Die as the Little Girl, and has since appeared in Room 6 and Big Momma's House 2 . She filmed Wicked Little Things in Bulgaria, in which she plays Emma Tunney. In 2007 she completed The Third Nail , in which she appeared as Hailey Deonte. In 2010 she appeared as Hit-Girl in director Matthew Vaughn 's action film Kick-Ass , based on the comic book series of the same name by Mark Millar and John Romita Jr. Although her role in the violent action film engendered some controversy, she received widespread critical acclaim for her portrayal. Moretz trained with Jackie Chan 's stunt crew for three months prior to filming "Kick-Ass" and did most of her own stunts in the film. Also that year she played Abby, a 12-year-old vampire, in Let Me In , the UK/US remake of the Swedish film Let the Right One In , which was released on October 1, 2010. She played Ann Sliger in the crime thriller Texas Killing Fields , released on October 14, 2011. Chloe next played Isabelle in Martin Scorsese 's Hugo , a film adaptation of "The Invention of Hugo Cabret". "Hugo", which was nominated for 11 Oscars, co-starred Asa Butterfield , Ben Kingsley , Sacha Baron Cohen and Helen McCrory . Moretz then starred in Hick , an adaptation of the novel by Andrea Portes . She was in Tim Burton 's Dark Shadows , based on the iconic TV series Dark Shadows , playing the role of Carolyn Stoddard, a rebellious teenage daughter. In 2013 she reprised her role as Hit-Girl in the sequel Kick-Ass 2 , which received mixed reviews, but once again her performance was highly praised. The same year she also appeared in a short segment in Movie 43 and played the title character in Carrie , a remake of Carrie , based on a Stephen King story and directed by Kimberly Peirce . In January 2013 Moretz was chosen to play Mia in the film adaptation of Gayle Forman 's If I Stay , which was released in August 2014. On January 16, 2014, it was announced Moretz would appear in an off-Broadway show directed by Steven Soderbergh entitled "The Library". In 2014 Chloë was in six films: a cameo as a newspaper girl in Muppets Most Wanted , the female lead of prostitute Teri alongside Denzel Washington in The Equalizer and teenage party girl Annika with Keira Knightley and Sam Rockwell in Laggies . In December she played the role of very young Hollywood actress with a scandalous reputation Jo-Ann Ellis alongside Kristen Stewart and Juliette Binoche in Clouds of Sils Maria . In April it was announced that Chloë would be playing the lead role of Cassie Sullivan in The 5th Wave , another adaptation similar to The Hunger Games , alongside Nick Robinson and Alex Roe . It was later announced that Chloë would play the lead female role of Digger in the movie adaptation of Sam Munson 's novel "November Criminals". Moretz's character is the best friend of Addison Schacht, played by Ansel Elgort , Johnny Depp Johnny Depp is perhaps one of the most versatile actors of his day and age in Hollywood. He was born John Christopher Depp II in Owensboro, Kentucky, on June 9, 1963, to Betty Sue (Wells), who worked as a waitress, and John Christopher Depp, a civil engineer. Depp was raised in Florida. He dropped out of school when he was 15, and fronted a series of music-garage bands, including one named 'The Kids'. However, it was when he married Lori Anne Allison ( Lori A. Depp ) that he took up the job of being a ballpoint-pen salesman to support himself and his wife. A visit to Los Angeles, California, with his wife, however, happened to be a blessing in disguise, when he met up with actor Nicolas Cage , who advised him to turn to acting, which culminated in Depp's film debut in the low-budget horror film, A Nightmare on Elm Street , where he played a teenager who falls prey to dream-stalking demon Freddy Krueger. In 1987 he shot to stardom when he replaced Jeff Yagher in the role of undercover cop Tommy Hanson in the popular TV series 21 Jump Street . In 1990, after numerous roles in teen-oriented films, his first of a handful of great collaborations with director Tim Burton came about when Depp played the title role in Edward Scissorhands . Following the film's success, Depp carved a niche for himself as a serious, somewhat dark, idiosyncratic performer, consistently selecting roles that surprised critics and audiences alike. He continued to gain critical acclaim and increasing popularity by appearing in many features before re-joining with Burton in the lead role of Ed Wood . In 1997 he played an undercover FBI agent in the fact-based film Donnie Brasco , opposite Al Pacino ; in 1998 he appeared in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas , directed by Terry Gilliam ; and then, in 1999, he appeared in the sci-fi/horror film The Astronaut's Wife . The same year he teamed up again with Burton in Sleepy Hollow , brilliantly portraying Ichabod Crane. Depp has played many characters in his career, including another fact-based one, Insp. Fred Abberline in From Hell . He stole the show from screen greats such as Antonio Banderas in the finale to Robert Rodriguez 's "mariachi" trilogy, Once Upon a Time in Mexico . In that same year he starred in the marvelous family blockbuster Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl , playing a character that only the likes of Depp could pull off: the charming, conniving and roguish Capt. Jack Sparrow. The film's enormous success has opened several doors for his career and included an Oscar nomination. He appeared as the central character in the Stephen King -based movie, Secret Window ; as the kind-hearted novelist James Barrie in the factually-based Finding Neverland , where he co-starred with Kate Winslet ; and Rochester in the British film, The Libertine . Depp collaborated again with Burton in a screen adaptation of Roald Dahl 's novel, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , and later in Alice in Wonderland and Dark Shadows . Off-screen, Depp has dated several female celebrities, and has been engaged to Sherilyn Fenn , Jennifer Grey , Winona Ryder and Kate Moss . He was married to Lori Anne Allison in 1983, but divorced her in 1985. Depp has two children with French singer/actress Vanessa Paradis : Lily-Rose Melody, born in 1999 and Jack, born in 2002. He married actress/producer Amber Heard in 2015. James Franco Known for his breakthrough starring role on Freaks and Geeks , James Franco was born in Palo Alto, California on April 19, 1978. His mother, Betsy Franco , is Jewish, and his father, Douglas Eugene "Doug" Franco, was of Portuguese and Swedish descent, and ran a Silicon Valley business. James's mother, a writer, has occasionally acted. Growing up with his two younger brothers, Dave Franco , also an actor, and Tom Franco , James graduated from Palo Alto High School in 1996 and went on to attend UCLA, majoring in English. To overcome his shyness, he got into acting while studying there, which, much to his parents' dismay, he left after only one year. After fifteen months of intensive study at Robert Carnegie's Playhouse West, James began actively pursuing his dream of finding work as an actor in Hollywood. In that short time, he landed himself a starring role on Freaks and Geeks . The show, however, was not a hit to its viewers at the time, and was canceled after its first year. Now, it has become a cult-hit. Prior to joining Freaks and Geeks , Franco starred in the TV miniseries To Serve and Protect . After that, he had a starring role in Whatever It Takes . Although he'd been working steadily, it wasn't until the TNT made-for-television movie, James Dean that James rose to fan-magazine fame and got to show off his talent. Since then, he has been working non-stop. After losing the lead role to Tobey Maguire , James settled for the part of "Harry Osborne", Spider-Man's best friend in the summer 2002 major hit Spider-Man . He returned to the Osborne role for the next two films in the trilogy. Rodrigo Santoro One of Brazil's most talented and famous actors, Rodrigo Junqueira dos Reis Santoro was born in Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to Maria José Junqueira dos Reis, an artist, and Francesco Santoro, an engineer. His father is Italian, while his mother, who is Brazilian, has Portuguese ancestry. Santoro is known for his performance in Warner Bros. 300, based on the Frank Miller's graphic novel, which broke box office records throughout the world. Rodrigo starred as Xerxes, the Persian King who sent his massive army to conquer Greece in 480 B.C. He was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Villain. Rodrigo has also gained attention for his role of Paulo in ABC's hit series Lost. In 2008, Santoro was featured in writer/director David Mamet's film Redbelt, the story of Mike Terry, a Jiu-jitsu master who has avoided the prize fighting circuit, instead choosing to pursue a life by operating a self-defense studio in Los Angeles. Also in 2008, Rodrigo was honored to receive the Ischia award for International Contribution at the 2008 Ischia Global Film Festival in Italy. In 2007, at the Cancun International Film Festival Rodrigo received a Best Actor award for his portrayal of an obsessive photographer in the Brazilian film "Nao por acaso" (Not By Chance). Santoro can be seen as Raul Castro, in Steve Soderbergh's film, Che. He can also be seen in Lion's Den by Pablo Trapero, which competed against Che at the Cannes Film Festival. In 2009, Rodrigo starred in Fox Searchlights' Post Grad along side Michael Keaton and Carol Burnett. You will also see Rodrigo in I Love You Phillip Morris with Jim Carrey and Ewan McGregor as Jim Carrey's first love. Rodrigo was part of the star-studded ensemble cast of Universal's romantic comedy Love Actually, starring alongside Hugh Grant, Emma Thompson, Colin Firth and Liam Neeson. In the role of Karl, he starred opposite Laura Linney as co-workers grappling with the dicey protocol of an office romance. Prior to this film, Rodrigo made his American debut in the highly sought after role of Randy Emmers in Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, directed by McG, starring Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore and Lucy Liu. Rodrigo has also been seen starring as the "mystery man" opposite Nicole Kidman in the Baz Luhrmann directed commercial for Chanel. In 2004 Rodrigo's starred in the Brazilian film, Carandiru, directed by Hector Babenco, which broke all Brazilian box office records for Brazil's entry in the Foreign Film category for the Academy Awards. Carandiru premiered at the Cannes Film Festival where Rodrigo received the Chopard Award for Male Revelation of the year. For his role in Carandiru he was also nominated for the Cinema Brazil Grand Prize of Best Actor and won for Best Supporting Actor at the Cartagena Film Festival. The movie was distributed in the US by Sony Pictures Classics and was a groundbreaking portrayal of the largest penitentiary in Latin America, the Sao Paulo House of Detention, and the lives of the people in it. Dr. Dráuzio Varella based the movie on the best-selling book "Carandiru Station". Rodrigo has won a total of eight Best Actor awards, including the first ever award for Best Actor from the Brazilian Academy of Arts and Film, for his portrayal of a young man forced into a mental institution by his parents in Brainstorm, the critically acclaimed film by director Lais Bodansky. For Rodrigo's role in Bicho de Sete Cabecas (2001) he won five of his eight Best Actor awards including, Best Actor for the Brazilia Festival of Brazilian Cinema, Best Actor for the Cartagena Film Festival, Best Actor for Cinema Brazil Grand Prize, Best Actor for Recife Cinema Festival, and Best Actor for the Sao Paulo Association of Art Critics Awards. He has also been celebrated for his performance in the Miramax film Behind the Sun directed by Walter Salles (Central Station), in which he played Tonio, the middle son of a Brazilian family caught in the middle of an age-old family feud in 1910. He is forced by tradition and honor to kill a member of the neighboring family, positioning him next in line to be killed. The heart of the movie finds Tonio and his little brother discovering a world outside their family and home. Behind the Sun was nominated for a Golden Globe in 2002 for Best Foreign Language Film. Previous to that Rodrigo appeared opposite Helen Mirren, Olivier Martinez and Anne Bancroft in The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone, directed by Robert Allan Ackerman, for Showtime. Based on the novella by Tennessee Williams, The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone was nominated for five Emmy Awards in 2003. Rodrigo Santoro resides in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil.	i don't know
'Germinal' and 'Nana' are literary works by which 19th century French author?	Nana: Emile Zola: 9780199538690: Literature: Amazon Canada 5.0 out of 5 stars Sex IS The City Feb. 18 2014 By Anne Mills - Published on Amazon.com Format: Kindle Edition Verified Purchase What happens when a woman with overwhelming sex appeal collides with the sex-obsessed male elite of a corrupt society? "Nana", that's what. She is both a creature of mid-19th century Paris, and an embodiment of that glittering, lascivious, and putrefying capital. Zola's novel about a Third Empire courtesan was intended as part of his naturalistic study of French society. The naturalism is brilliant. His description of places (theaters, ballrooms, and particularly bedrooms) is vivid, conveying an almost physical sense of what it was like to be there. He can also convey the beauty of a rural scene, the excitement of a race track, and the menacing sound and feel of fools marching off to war. But his naturalism is a vehicle for a moral stance -- nothing wrong with that at all, it's just important to note how selective his naturalism is. Moreover, in "Nana", his approach veers into an almost mythic exaltation of corruption -- operatic, if you will. Nana starts out as a young actress and courtesan, who matures into the Queen of Paris, the Bitch Goddess, the Whore of Babylon. Through all this, she remains a believable person; not a particularly nice person (though she does have her good points) but a fascinating one. The world she inhabits is as corrupt as she is herself, she's just better at it than anyone else. The subsidiary characters, who all revolve around Nana, are also interesting. A few created more emotional sympathy in me than did Nana herself, perhaps because Nana, for me, has an odd quality of emotional blankness. This is the first Zola I have read, and it makes me want to read more. A brilliant book, and one which does not feel in the least remote. 2 of 2 people found the following review helpful 3.0 out of 5 stars A wonderful novel until the end. Jan. 13 2013 By SpunStories B. - Published on Amazon.com Format: Paperback Verified Purchase NANA by Emile Zola is an interesting take on sex-obsessed Paris of the nineteenth century, the Paris that has now become a stereotype for sexual behavior in our own times. The heroine, Nana, is both available and unavailable. She gains notoriety when she bares all and appears on the stage in the nude as Venus. She is not shy at sharing her bed with several men. Yet when these men try to claim her, to possess her as their own, she turns away, preferring to be by herself. So this is a wonderful novel, until the end. It is all a question of taste. IMHO, the ending, when Nana meets her end, was both distasteful and over-the-top. The Author's Message and moralizing tone were too much. A pity, as it spoiled an otherwise great novel. Three stars. 2 of 2 people found the following review helpful 5.0 out of 5 stars The More Things Change . . . Jan. 11 2014 By Amazon Customer - Published on Amazon.com Format: Kindle Edition Verified Purchase A fascinating glimpse of the way things were in a time and place long gone--much attention to manners and dress codes, and matters of class and the furnishings of living accommodations, but light on details of sexual relationships, which is in fact the core of the novel. It is easy to see the people and their surroundings, but Zola falls short on letting us into the feelings of the main characters. Perhaps the book could not have been published if he had been more detailed in this regard. 1 of 1 people found the following review helpful	Émile Zola
Last held in 1437, which Scottish earldom was bestowed upon Prince William on the day of his wedding to Catherine Middleton?	Best Picture Oscar Winners of the 1930s Best Picture Oscar Winners of the 1930s Best Picture Oscar Winners of the 1930s Grand Adventures, Screwball Comedies, Historical Epics By Shawn Dwyer Updated February 17, 2016. Hollywood's first decade with sound gave rise to a number of staple genres like the screwball comedy, which featured rapid-fire dialogue laced with wit and whimsy, and lavish musicals . In the 1930s, Oscar rewarded these films with its highest honor. Also in the decade was the first Western to win Best Picture, the first-ever film to win the so-called Big Five awards and the most enduring romantic epic Hollywood has ever known. Universal Pictures Buy from Amazon One of the most realistic depictions of World War I, Lewis Milestone’s All Quiet on the Western Front was a powerful anti-war epic that dared to show the horrific realities of combat. The daring war film won the Oscar over Ernst Lubitsch ’s musical comedy The Love Parade, the marriage melodrama The Divorcee starring Norma Shearer, the Irving Thalberg-produced prison drama The Big House, and Disraeli, starring Best Actor winner George Arliss. Check Amazon rating » continue reading below our video 5 Urban Myths That Rule the Ages RKO Pictures 2. 1930/31 Best Picture – ‘Cimarron’ The 4th Annual Academy Awards marked the last time for over a decade where only five films were nominated for Best Picture. This epic depiction of the Oklahoma Land Rush is dated because of its portrayal of racial stereotypes while its place in history stands more on its epic depiction of the land rush rather than as a whole film. Still, it was the first Western to win Best Picture and beat out Frank Lloyd’s adaptation of East Lynne, the Howard Hughes-produced comedy The Front Page, Skippy starring youngest-ever Oscar winner Jackie Cooper, and the long-forgotten adventure epic Trader Horn. MGM Home Entertainment 3. 1931/32 Best Picture – ‘Grand Hotel' The Academy expanded its list of nominees to eight for the fifth awards ceremony, but that did not stop this ensemble drama starring Greta Garbo, John Barrymore, Joan Crawford and Wallace Beery from taking home the night’s top honor. Grand Hotel was the only Best Picture to win without any other nominations, and beat out the likes of John Ford ’s Arrowsmith, King Vidor’s The Champ, Josef von Sternberg’s Shanghai Express and Ernst Lubitsch’s The Smiling Lieutenant. 20th Century Fox 4. 1932/33 Best Picture – ‘Cavalcade’ This year marked the first time there were 10 nominees for Best Picture, a practice that persisted until 1943 and was revived in 2009. Frank Lloyd’s upstairs-downstairs domestic drama rose above competition that included the Ernest Hemingway adaptation A Farewell to Arms starring Gary Cooper and Helen Hayes, Alexander Korda’s history-stretching biography The Private Life of Henry VIII, George Cukor’s sentimental Little Women and Mervyn LeRoy’s stark crime drama I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang. Sony Pictures Home Entertainment 5. 1934 Best Picture – ‘It Happened One Night’ It Happened One Night finished its clean sweep of the Oscars in 1934 after winning the grand prize of the evening, becoming the first of three (to date) movies in Hollywood history to win the so-called Big Five Academy Awards. Frank Capra won for Best Director, Claudette Colbert for Best Actress and Clark Gable won his only statue for Best Actor. Even though there were nine other nominees that year, there wasn’t much in the way of competition for the immensely popular romantic comedy save for The Thin Man or Cecil B. DeMille’s epic Cleopatra. It Happened One Night also nabbed awards for Best Writing (Adaptation) and Best Director, and cemented its place in history. MGM Home Entertainment 6. 1935 Best Picture – ‘Mutiny on the Bounty’ Though Frank Lloyd lost out on Best Director to John Ford, who directed The Informer that year, he was surely vindicated when his grand action adventure won Best Picture. One of the biggest commercial hits of all time, Mutiny on the Bounty still faced stiff competition from The Informer, which won four out of six Oscars compared to Mutiny’s lone statue. Trailing not far behind in third place was Michael Curtiz ’s swashbuckling adventure, Captain Blood, starring Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland . Also on the list of 10 that year were George Cukor’s David Copperfield, the Darryl F. Zanuck-produced adaptation of Les Misérable and the romantic drama Alice Adams, starring Katharine Hepburn . MGM Home Entertainment 7. 1936 Best Picture – ‘The Great Ziegfeld’ This epic three-hour musical biography of theater impresario of Florenz Ziegfeld (William Powell) took liberties with historical facts, but also managed to take home the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Great Ziegfeld beat out nine films that included the years top-grossing hit San Francisco, Frank Capra’s masterful screwball comedy Mr. Deed Goes to Town and the stunning David O. Selznick-produced adaptation of Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities. Warner Bros. 8. 1937 Best Picture – ‘The Life of Emile Zola’ Another biographical film that took its share of liberties with history, The Life of Emile Zola was nonetheless an affecting drama about the life of the French artist (Paul Muni), whose rise to fame intersected with the political scandal of the Dreyfus affair. The films beat out a number of other worthy contenders like Gregory La Cava’s Stage Door, Frank Capra’s dramatic fantasy Lost Horizon, the Darryl F. Zanuck-produced drama In Old Chicago, and the Cary Grant -Irene Dunne screwball comedy The Awful Truth. Columbia TriStar 9. 1938 Best Picture – ‘You Can’t Take It With You’ Frank Capra’s whimsical screwball comedy starring John Barrymore and James Stewart was one of the director’s great masterpieces and the highest-grossing film from 1938, making it a favorite to win Best Picture. The also-rans were no slouches, as nominations were bestowed upon The Adventures of Robin Hood starring Errol Flynn in his most iconic performance, William Wyler’s Jezebel starring Best Actress winner Bette Davis , Jean Renoir’s richly textured war drama Grand Illusion, and the musical Four Daughters directed by workhorse Michael Curtiz. Warner Bros. 10. 1939 Best Picture – ‘Gone With the Wind’ The year 1939 has been regarded as the best in Hollywood’s history and judging from the list of Best Picture nominees it’s easy to see why. But it was Victor Fleming ’s iconic romantic epic that surpassed them all to win Oscar. Ironically, Fleming was brought onto the film to replace George Cukor after leaving The Wizard of Oz, which also received a nomination. Sam Wood replaced him for a couple weeks after Fleming suffered from exhaustion, and later saw his other picture, Goodbye, Mr. Chips, also get a Best Picture nod. Other notables where Frank Capra’s Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, Billy Wilder’s Ninotchka, John Ford’s Stagecoach and William Wyler ’s adaptation of Wuthering Heights. A great year indeed.	i don't know
The adjective 'pulmonary' means of, or pertaining to, which organ of the body?	What does cardiopulmonary mean? definition, meaning and audio pronunciation (Free English Language Dictionary) cardiopulmonary resuscitation Pertainym: heart (the hollow muscular organ located behind the sternum and between the lungs; its rhythmic contractions move the blood through the body) lung (either of two saclike respiratory organs in the chest of vertebrates; serves to remove carbon dioxide and provide oxygen to the blood) Learn English with... Proverbs of the week "A merry heart makes a long life." (English proverb) "The arrow of the accomplished master will not be seen when it is released; only when it hits the target." (Bhutanese proverb) "If you conduct yourself properly, fear no one." (Arabic proverb) "He who seeks, finds." (Corsican proverb) Related FAQs:	Lung
The adjective 'adrenal' means of, or pertaining to, which organ of the body?	Anatomy Glossary A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V X Z (type full word or first few letters) pachymeninx : Greek pachys = thick, and meninx = membrane; hence, the thick membrane covering the central nervous system, i.e., dura mater. palaeo : Greek palaios = old; hence, palaeocerebellum, the earliest stage in the evolution of the cerebellum. palate : Latin palatum = palate, adjective - palatal or palatine. paleo : Greek palaios = old; hence, paleocerebellum, the earliest stage in the evolution of the cerebellum. pallidus : adjective, Latin = pale. pallium : Latin = cloak; hence, the cerebral cortex forming the outer covering of the cerebral hemisphere. palma : Latin palma = palm; adjective, palmar - Latin palmaris. palpate : Latin palpare = to touch, and palpatus = touched; hence, to examine by feeling, and palpation, such an examination. palpebra : Latin = eyelid, probably from palpitare = to flutter. pampiniform : adjective, Latin pampinus = tendril, and forma = shape. pancreas : Greek = sweetbread, derived from Greek pan = all, and kreas = flesh; adjective - pancreatic. panniculus : diminutive of Latin pannus = cloth. papilla : Latin = nipple or teat; adjective - papillary. paradidymis : Greek para = beside of near, and didymis = twinned or paired, refers to testes; hence the collection of convoluted tubules in the spermatic cord, above the head of the epididymis. paraesthesia : Greek para = beside, and aisthesia = sensation; hence, abnormal sensation, usually burning or pricking. paralysis : Greek para = beside, near, lyein = to loosen; hence loss or impairment of muscle function. parametrium : Greek para = beside, and metra = womb; hence, connective tissue alongside the body of the uterus, within the broad ligament. paraplegia : Greek para = beside, and plege = a stroke; hence, paralysis of the lower limbs. pararenal : adjective, Greek para = beside, Latin ren = kidney; hence, beside the kidney, e.g., pararenal fat, the fatty capsule of the kidney. parasternal : adjective, Greek para = beside, and sternon = chest; hence, the parasternal line is a vertical line about midway between the sternal edge and the midclavicular line. parasympathetic : adjective, Greek para = beside, syn = with, and pathos = feeling; hence, the division of the autonomic nervous system complementary to the sympathetic system. parathyroid : adjective, Greek para = beside, and thyroid; hence, beside the thyroid gland. parenchyma : Greek para = beside or near, en = in, and chein = to pour; hence a general term to designate the functional elements of an organ, as opposed to the framework or stroma. paresis : Greek = relaxation, but has come to mean partial paralysis. parietal : adjective, Latin parietalis, pertaining to paries = wall. parotid : adjective, Greek para = beside, and otos = of the ear; hence, beside the ear. parous : adjective, Latin pario = I bear (children); hence, adjective, applied to woman who has borne one or more children (cf. nulliparous, multiparous). pecten : Latin = comb. pectinate : adjective, from Latin pecten = a comb; applied to structures having the appearance of parallel teeth arising from a straight back (musculi pectinati), or the sellar appearance of the superior pubic ramus, which may have resembled the body of antique combs. pectineal : adjective, from Latin pecten = a comb; applied to structures having the appearance of parallel teeth arising from a straight back (musculi pectinati), or the sellar appearance of the superior pubic ramus, which may have resembled the body of antique combs. pectineus : Latin, pecten = a comb; hence the muscle attaching to the pecten (pectineal line) of the pubic bone. pectoral : adjective, Latin pectoris = of the front of the chest. pectoralis : adjective, Latin pectoris = of the front of the chest. pedicle : diminutive of Latin pedis = of the foot. pedis : Latin = of the foot. peduncle : variation of pedicle. pellucidum : adjective, Latin per = through, and lucere - to shine; hence, translucent. pelvis : Latin = basin, adjective - pelvic. penis : Latin = tail, the male organ of copulation (cf. appendix, appendage). pennate : Latin penna = feather; hence, a muscle whose fibres approach the tendon from one direction is unipennate; from two, bipennate, and from more than two, multipennate. pennatus : (pinnate) - adjective, Latin penna = feather; hence, a muscle whose fibres approach the tendon from one direction is unipennate; from two, bipennate, and from more than two, multipennate. perianal : adjective, Greek peri = around, and Latin anus = lower opening of alimentary canal. pericardium : Greek peri = around, and kardia = heart; hence, the membranes enclosing the heart. perichondrium : Greek peri = around, and chondros = cartilage; hence, the membrane covering cartilage. pericranium : Greek peri = around, and kranion = skull; hence, the external periosteum of the skull. perilymph : Greek peri = around, and lympha - Latin = clear water; hence, the fluid in the bony labyrinth surrounding the membranous labyrinth (and continuous with the cerebrospinal fluid). perineum : Greek the caudal aspect of the trunk between the thighs, or, the region of the trunk below the pelvic diaphragm; adjective - perineal. periodontal : adjective, Greek peri = around, and odont = tooth. periosteum : Greek peri = around, and osteon = bone; hence, the membrane around a bone. peripheral : adjective, Greek peri = around and phero = carry; hence, away from the centre (cf. periphery). peristalsis : Greek peri = around, and stellein - to constrict; hence, a circular constriction passing as a wave along a tube; adjective - peristaltic. peritoneum : Greek periteino = to stretch around; hence, the membrane stretched around the internal surface of the walls and the external aspect of some of the contents of the abdomen; adjective - peritoneal. peroneal : adjective, Greek perone = clasp, brooch - see fibula. petrosal : adjective, Latin petrosus = rocky. petrous : adjective, Latin petrosus = rocky. phalanx : Latin = row of soldiers; hence, one of the small bones of a digit, plural - phalanges, adjective - phalangeal. phallus : Greek phallos = penis. pharynx : Greek = throat; adjective - pharyngeal. philtrum : Greek philtron - the median sulcus of the upper lip. Derivation doubtful. phonation : Greek phone = sound or voice; hence, the production of either. phrenic : Greek phren = diaphragm or mind; hence, diaphragmatic (cf. schizophrenic). pia : Latin = faithful, hence, the membrane which faithfully follows the contour of the brain and spinal cord. pilomotor : Latin pilus = a hair, and movere = to move; hence the action of the arrectores pilorum muscles. pilus : Latin = a hair. pineal : adjective, Latin pinea = a pine cone; hence, the pineal gland which is cone-shaped. piriform : adjective, Latin pirum = a pear; hence, pear-shaped. pisiform : adjective, Latin pisum = a pea; hence, pea-shaped. pituitary : Latin pituita = mucous or phlegm, the gland was thought to produce mucous that discharged through the nose. placenta : Latin = a flat, round cake. placode : Greek plax = plate or flat, and eidos = shape or form. plane : Latin planus = flat; hence, a real or imaginary flat surface. planta : Latin the sole of the foot; adjective - plantar or plantaris. plantar : adjective, Latin planta = the sole of the foot. platysma : Greek = flat object; hence, the flat subcutaneous muscle extending from below the clavicle to the mouth. pleura : Greek = a rib. Later used to name the serous membrane lining the chest walls and the lung on each side. plexus : Latin = a network or plait. plica : Latin plicare = to fold; hence, a fold. pneumon : Greek pneuma = air. pollicis : genitive (possessive case) of Latin pollex = thumb; hence of the thumb. pons : Latin = bridge; adjective - pontine; part of the brain stem. popliteus : Latin poples = the ham or thigh, and sometimes, the knee; adjective, popliteal, referring to the fossa behind the knee or its contents. porta : Latin = a gate, also Latin portare = to carry; hence, the portal system carries venous blood from the alimentary tract to the porta hepatis; adjective - portal. porus : Latin a pore or foramen; hence, the openings of the acoustic meatuses. posterior : adjective, Latin post = behind (in place or time). posture : Latin positus = placed; hence, the position of the body as a whole at a given moment, e.g. erect, recumbent, prone, supine, sitting, kneeling. precuneus : Latin pre = before, and cuneus = wedge; hence, the parietal lobule anterior to the cuneus. prepuce : Latin praeputium = foreskin (of penis or clitoris). princeps : Latin primus = chief, and capere = to take; hence chief or principal. procerus : Latin = slender, elongated; hence, the vertical slip of muscle between the medial part of frontalis and the root of the nose. process : Latin = going forwards, used to indicate growing out, i.e., an outgrowth, usually of bone, e.g., the zygomatic process of the temporal. processus : Latin going forwards, used to indicate growing out, i.e., an outgrowth, usually of bone, e.g., the zygomatic process of the temporal. profundus : Latin pro = before, and fundus = bottom; hence profundus = deep. prominens : Latin = projecting. promontory : Latin promontorium = a headland, i.e., part of land jutting into the sea - used for a bony prominence. pronate : Latin pronatus = bent forwards; hence to pronate = to turn the hand so that the palm faces posteriorly. prone : Latin pronatus = bent forwards; hence, recumbent face-down posture. proprioceptive : Latin proprius = one's own, and captum = taken; hence, sensory impulses received by the joints and muscles within one's own body. prosection : Latin pro = before, and sectum = cut. A dissection prepared for demonstration of anatomic structures. prosector : Latin pro = before, and sectum = cut. One who prepares a dissection for demonstration. prosencephalon : Latin pro = in front, and Greek enkephalos = brain; hence, the part of the brain rostral to the midbrain. prostate : Greek pro = before, and Latin = statum = stood; hence, something which stands before - the prostate stands before the urinary bladder. protract : Latin protractus = drawn out; hence, to put forwards (e.g., shoulder or mandible). Protraction - the act of protracting. protrude : Latin protrudo = thrust forwards, e.g. the tongue; protrusion - the act of protruding. protuberance : Latin protubero = I bulge out; hence, a bulging bony feature (see tuber). proximal : adjective, Latin proxime = nearest; hence, nearer to the root of a limb. psoas : Greek = loin. pterion : Greek pteron = wing; hence, the region where the tip of the greater wing of the sphenoid meets or is close to the parietal, separating the frontal from the squamous temporal; alternatively the region where these 4 bones meet. pterygoid : adjective, Greek pteryx = wing, and eidos = shape; hence, wing-shaped. ptosis : Greek = fall; hence, drooping of an eyelid, or descent of an internal organ. puberty : Latin puber = adult; hence, the time when hair appears in the pubic region - i.e., near the pubis - as a secondary sexual characteristic. pubes : Latin = adult or signs of manhood, hence the lower abdominal secondary sexual hair. pubis : Latin pubes (see pubes) pudendal : adjective, Latin pudendus = shameful; hence, pertaining to the external genitalia. pulmonary : adjective, Latin pulmo = lung. pulp : Latin pulpa = a soft part of the body or tooth. pulposus : Latin pulpa = a soft part of the body or tooth, hence pulpy or soft. pulvinar : Latin pulvinus = rounded cushion; the posterior end of the thalamus. punctum : Latin = a sharp point; hence a very small point or orifice. pupil : Latin pupilla = the central black orifice in the iris; adjective - pupillary. putamen : Latin = peel, husk or shell of fruit or seed (the external part of the lentiform nucleus). pyelogram : Greek pyelos = basin, and gramma = diagram; hence, radiograph of the renal pelvis (and usually of the ureter) after filling with contrast medium. pylorus : Greek = gate-keeper; hence, the part of the pyloric canal containing the sphincter, which guards the opening into the duodenum; adjective - pyloric. pyramid : Greek pyramis = a pyramid (solid with 3- or more-sided base, and flat sides meeting at the apex), adjective - pyramidal.	i don't know
One of the world's most visited art galleries, in which city is the Galleria dell 'Academia?	Accademia Gallery in Florence: Michelangelo's David, Accademia Gallery Tickets The Accademia Gallery Museum in Florence An Unofficial Guide to the Galleria dell’Accademia museum The Galleria dell’Accademia – or Accademia Gallery – in Florence, Italy , is without a doubt most famous for its sculptures by the great Renaissance artist, Michelangelo. His Prisoners (or Slaves), his St. Matthew and, above all, the magnificent statue of David within the Tribune are what first draw most of the hundreds of thousands of visitors the museum welcomes every year. The main halls at the Accademia also offers visitors works by great Italian artists such as Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Pontormo, Andrea del Sarto, Allessando Allori and Orcagna, to name just a few of the painters. Many of the works of art that were commissioned by and were part of the collection of the powerful Medici family were donated to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany by the last of the Medici so that these magnificent works could be enjoyed by everyone and are part of the cultural patrimony of humankind. The most recent section, the Museum of Musical Instruments , displays old, one-of-a-kind masterpieces by Stradivari and Bartolomeo Cristofori, inventor of the piano, also commissioned by the Medici. Give yourself time when visiting the Accademia Gallery, a must-see while in Florence. To better plan your visit to the museum, this online informational guide offers general information on opening hours, admissions and more in the Plan Your Visit section and details on the halls, main artworks and itineraries in Explore the Museum . If your time is limited in Florence and want to skip the long line in the busy seasons, we offer information on how and where you can buy your tickets to the Accademia as well as book a guided tour or private guide to accompany you as you discover the masterpieces of the past.	Florence
Which footballer, who has spent his entire career at Real Madrid, captained Spain during the 2010 World Cup Final?	Florence Private Art Tour: Uffizi Gallery and Accademia Florence Private Art Tour: Uffizi Gallery and Accademia Florence Private Art Tour: Uffizi Gallery and Accademia Product ID: 36574 Save time waiting in line with this ticket Save Time Waiting in Line Tired of queuing? With this ticket you can skip long lines, saving you precious time to spend enjoying your day. Was this helpful? Skip the long lines to the Uffizi Gallery and Galleria dell’Accademia See masterpieces by Italian Renaissance artists, including Botticelli's Venus and Madonna and Child Walk in the footsteps of Medici noblemen to admire Vasari's splendid Palazzo degli Uffizi Admire Giambologna’s Rape of the Sabine Women sculpture See Michelangelo's original David at the Galleria dell’Accademia Overview Discover some of the greatest art of the Renaissance on a private 4-hour tour of Florence’s Uffizi and Accademia galleries. Skip the long lines to see masterpieces by Michelangelo, Perugino, Botticelli and more from the vast Medici collections. What to Expect Discover 2 of the finest art galleries in the world on a 4-hour private tour of Florence, and skip the long lines to both the Uffizi Gallery and Galleria dell’Accademia. It was in 1559 that Cosimo de Medici, the Grand Duke of Florence, commissioned Giorgio Vasari to design a building for the offices of the government judiciary. The result was the Palazzo degli Uffizi (“uffizi” meaning “offices” in Italian), which would later become one of the world’s greatest art galleries. Skip the long lines to this spectacular - and immensely popular - attraction to see splendid art from the Italian Renaissance, including paintings, sculptures, and more than 100,000 drawings and prints. You will also skip the long lines to the Galleria dell’Accademia. Originally built as a convent, it was converted by Pietro Leopoldo as a study space for students of the adjoining Accademia della Belle Arti (Academy of Fine Arts). Here, they could study and admire the great works of the past. Now open to everyone, it is the 2nd most visited museum in Tuscany. With your fast track entry you can spend less time waiting and more time looking at some of its central pieces, including Michelangelo’s original “Statue of David.” What's Included Skip-the-line tickets to the Uffizi and Accademia Private guide	i don't know
Which alliteratively-named politician served as Lyndon B. Johnson's Vice-President between 1965 and 1969?	Lyndon B. Johnson \| Vietnam War Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia [1] [2] Lyndon Johnson in 1915 Lyndon Baines Johnson was born in Stonewall, Texas , in a small farmhouse on the Pedernales River , the oldest of five children. His parents, Samuel Ealy Johnson, Jr. , and Rebekah Baines, had three girls and two boys: Johnson and his brother, Sam Houston Johnson (1914–78), and sisters Rebekah (1910–78), Josefa (1912–61), and Lucia (1916–97). The nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas , was named after LBJ's father's cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia . Johnson had English, Ulster Scot , and German ancestry. [7 ] Johnson was maternally descended from a pioneer Baptist clergyman, George Washington Baines , who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana . Baines was also the president of Baylor University during the American Civil War . George Baines was the grandfather of Johnson's mother, Rebekah Baines Johnson (1881–1958). Johnson's grandfather, Samuel Ealy Johnson, Sr. , was raised as a Baptist. Subsequently, in his early adulthood, he became a member of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) . In his later years the grandfather became a Christadelphian ; Johnson's father also joined the Christadelphian Church toward the end of his life. [8 ] Later, as a politician, Johnson was influenced in his positive attitude toward Jews by the religious beliefs that his family, especially his grandfather, had shared with him (see Operation Texas ). [9 ] Johnson's favorite Bible verse came from the King James Version of Isaiah 1:18. "Come now, and let us reason together..." [10 ] In school, Johnson was an awkward, talkative youth and was elected president of his 11th-grade class. He graduated from Johnson City High School (1924), having participated in public speaking, debate, and baseball. [11 ] [12 ] In 1926, Johnson enrolled in Southwest Texas State Teachers' College (now Texas State University ). He worked his way through school, participated in debate and campus politics, and edited the school newspaper called The College Star, now known as The University Star . [13 ] The college years refined his skills of persuasion and political organization. For nine months, from 1928 to 1929, Johnson paused his studies to teach Mexican-American children at the segregated Welhausen School in Cotulla , some 90 miles (140 km) south of San Antonio in La Salle County . The job helped him save money to complete his education, and he graduated in 1930. He then taught in Pearsall High School in Pearsall, Texas , and afterwards took a position as teacher of public speaking at Sam Houston High School in Houston . [14 ] When he returned to San Marcos in 1965, after having signed the Higher Education Act of 1965 , Johnson looked back: "I shall never forget the faces of the boys and the girls in that little Welhausen Mexican School, and I remember even yet the pain of realizing and knowing then that college was closed to practically every one of those children because they were too poor. And I think it was then that I made up my mind that this nation could never rest while the door to knowledge remained closed to any American." [15 ] Early political career[ edit ] Edit [3] [4] Richard Kleberg, Congressman from Texas, on whose staff Johnson served. Johnson briefly taught public speaking and debate in a Houston high school, then entered politics. Johnson's father had served six terms in the Texas legislature and was a close friend of one of Texas's rising political figures, Congressman Sam Rayburn . In 1930, Johnson campaigned for Texas State Senator Welly Hopkins in his run for Congress. Hopkins recommended him to Congressman Richard M. Kleberg , who appointed Johnson as Kleberg's legislative secretary. Johnson was elected speaker of the "Little Congress," a group of Congressional aides, where he cultivated Congressmen, newspapermen and lobbyists. Johnson's friends soon included aides to President Franklin D. Roosevelt , as well as fellow Texans such as Vice President John Nance Garner . He became a surrogate son to Sam Rayburn. [5] [6] President Roosevelt, Governor James Allred of Texas, and Johnson, 1937. In later campaigns, Johnson edited Allred out of the picture to assist his campaign. Johnson married Claudia Alta Taylor (nicknamed "Lady Bird") of Karnack, Texas on November 17, 1934, after he attended Georgetown University Law Center for several months. They had two daughters, Lynda Bird , born in 1944, and Luci Baines , born in 1947. Johnson had a practice of giving people and animals names with his and his wife's initials, as he did with his daughters and with his dog, Little Beagle Johnson. [16 ] In 1935, he was appointed head of the Texas National Youth Administration , which enabled him to use the government to create education and job opportunities for young people. He resigned two years later to run for Congress. Johnson, a notoriously tough boss throughout his career, often demanded long workdays and work on weekends. [17 ] He was described by friends, fellow politicians, and historians as motivated throughout his life by an exceptional lust for power and control. As Johnson's biographer Robert Caro observes, "Johnson's ambition was uncommon—in the degree to which it was unencumbered by even the slightest excess weight of ideology, of philosophy, of principles, of beliefs." [18 ] Edit In 1937, Johnson successfully contested a special election for Texas's 10th congressional district , that covered Austin and the surrounding hill country. He ran on a New Deal platform and was effectively aided by his wife. He served in the House from April 10, 1937, to January 3, 1949. [19 ] President Franklin D. Roosevelt found Johnson to be a welcome ally and conduit for information, particularly with regard to issues concerning internal politics in Texas ( Operation Texas ) and the machinations of Vice President John Nance Garner and Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn . Johnson was immediately appointed to the Naval Affairs Committee . He worked for rural electrification and other improvements for his district. Johnson steered the projects towards contractors that he personally knew, such as the Brown Brothers, Herman and George, who would finance much of Johnson's future career. [12 ] In 1941, he ran for the U.S. Senate in a special election against the sitting Governor of Texas , radio personality W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel . Johnson lost the election. Edit [7] [8] Lyndon B. Johnson in the uniform of a U.S. Navy Lieutenant Commander, March 1942 After America entered World War II in December 1941, Johnson, still in Congress, became a commissioned officer in the Naval Reserve , then asked Undersecretary of the Navy James Forrestal for a combat assignment. [20 ] Instead he was sent to inspect the shipyard facilities in Texas and on the West Coast . In the spring of 1942, President Roosevelt needed his own reports on what conditions were like in the Southwest Pacific . Roosevelt felt information that flowed up the military chain of command needed to get delivered by a highly trusted political aide. From a suggestion by Forrestal, President Roosevelt assigned Johnson to a three-man survey team of the Southwest Pacific. Johnson reported to General Douglas MacArthur in Australia. Johnson and two Army officers went to the 22nd Bomb Group base, which was assigned the high risk mission of bombing the Japanese airbase at Lae in New Guinea . A colonel took Johnson's allocated seat on one bomber, and it was shot down with no survivors. Reports vary on what happened to the B-26 Marauder carrying Johnson. Lyndon Johnson said it was also attacked by Japanese fighters but survived, while others, including other members of the flight crew, claim it turned back because of generator trouble before reaching the objective and before encountering enemy aircraft and never came under fire, which is supported by official flight records. [21 ] Other airplanes that continued to the target did come under fire near the target at about the same time that Johnson's plane was recorded as having landed back at the original airbase. MacArthur awarded Johnson the Silver Star , the military's third-highest medal. [21 ] Johnson reported back to Roosevelt, to the Navy leaders, and to Congress that conditions were deplorable and unacceptable. He argued the South West Pacific urgently needed a higher priority and a larger share of war supplies. The warplanes sent there, for example, were "far inferior" to Japanese planes, and morale was bad. He told Forrestal that the Pacific Fleet had a "critical" need for 6,800 additional experienced men. Johnson prepared a twelve-point program to upgrade the effort in the region, stressing "greater cooperation and coordination within the various commands and between the different war theaters." Congress responded by making Johnson chairman of a high-powered subcommittee of the Naval Affairs committee. With a mission similar to that of the Truman Committee in the Senate, he probed into the peacetime "business as usual" inefficiencies that permeated the naval war and demanded that admirals shape up and get the job done. Johnson went too far when he proposed a bill that would crack down on the draft exemptions of shipyard workers if they were absent from work too often. Organized labor blocked the bill and denounced Johnson. Still, Johnson's mission had a substantial impact because it led to upgrading the South Pacific theater and aided the overall war effort immensely. Johnson's biographer concludes, "The mission was a temporary exposure to danger calculated to satisfy Johnson's personal and political wishes, but it also represented a genuine effort on his part, however misplaced, to improve the lot of America's fighting men." [22 ] Later in 1942, Roosevelt ordered all active duty Congressmen to return to Washington. Edit [9] [10] Lyndon B. Johnson as Senator from Texas In the 1948 elections , Johnson again ran for the Senate and won. This election was highly controversial: in a three-way Democratic Party primary Johnson faced a well-known former governor, Coke Stevenson , and a third candidate. Johnson drew crowds to fairgrounds with his rented helicopter dubbed "The Johnson City Windmill". He raised money to flood the state with campaign circulars and won over conservatives by voting for the Taft-Hartley act (curbing union power) as well as by criticizing unions. Stevenson came in first but lacked a majority, so a runoff was held. Johnson campaigned even harder this time around, while Stevenson's efforts were surprisingly poor. The runoff count took a week. The Democratic State Central Committee (not the State of Texas, because the matter was a party primary) handled the count, and it finally announced that Johnson had won by 87 votes. By a majority of one member (29–28) the committee voted to certify Johnson's nomination, with the last vote cast on Johnson's behalf by Temple, Texas , publisher Frank W. Mayborn , who rushed back to Texas from a business trip in Nashville, Tennessee . There were many allegations of fraud on both sides. Thus one writer alleges that Johnson's campaign manager, future Texas governor John B. Connally , was connected with 202 ballots in Precinct 13 in Jim Wells County that had curiously been cast in alphabetical order and just at the close of polling. Some of these voters swore that they had not voted that day. [23 ] Robert Caro argued in his 1989 book that Johnson had stolen the election in Jim Wells County and other counties in South Texas, as well as rigging 10,000 ballots in Bexar County alone. [24 ] An election judge, Luis Salas, said in 1977, that he had certified 202 fraudulent ballots for Johnson. [25 ] The state Democratic convention upheld Johnson. Stevenson went to court, but—with timely help from his friend Abe Fortas —Johnson prevailed. Johnson was elected senator in November and went to Washington tagged with the ironic label "Landslide Lyndon," which he often used deprecatingly to refer to himself. Edit Once in the Senate, Johnson was known among his colleagues for his highly successful "courtships" of older senators, especially Senator Richard Russell , Democrat from Georgia, the leader of the Conservative coalition and arguably the most powerful man in the Senate. Johnson proceeded to gain Russell's favor in the same way that he had "courted" Speaker Sam Rayburn and gained his crucial support in the House. Johnson was appointed to the Senate Armed Services Committee, and later in 1950, he helped create the Preparedness Investigating Subcommittee. Johnson became its chairman and conducted investigations of defense costs and efficiency. These investigations tended to dig out old forgotten investigations and demand actions that were already being taken by the Truman Administration, although it can be said that the committee's investigations caused the changes. Johnson's brilliant handling of the press, the efficiency with which his committee issued new reports, and the fact that he ensured every report was endorsed unanimously by the committee all brought him headlines and national attention. Johnson used his political influence in the Senate to receive broadcast licenses from the Federal Communications Commission in his wife's name. [25 ] [26 ] In 1951, Johnson was chosen as Senate Majority Whip under a new Majority Leader, Ernest McFarland of Arizona , and served from 1951 to 1953. [19 ] Senate Democratic leader[ edit ] Edit [11] [12] Senate Desk X, used by all Democratic leaders, including Johnson, since Joseph Taylor Robinson In the 1952 general election Republicans won a majority in both House and Senate. Among defeated Democrats that year was McFarland, who lost to then-little-known Barry Goldwater , Johnson's future presidential opponent. In January 1953, Johnson was chosen by his fellow Democrats to be the minority leader. Thus, he became the least senior Senator ever elected to this position, and one of the least senior party leaders in the history of the Senate. One of his first actions was to eliminate the seniority system in appointment to a committee, while retaining it in terms of chairmanships. In the 1954 election , Johnson was re-elected to the Senate, and since the Democrats won the majority in the Senate, Johnson became majority leader. Former majority leader William Knowland was elected minority leader. Johnson's duties were to schedule legislation and help pass measures favored by the Democrats. Johnson, Rayburn and President Dwight D. Eisenhower worked smoothly together in passing Eisenhower's domestic and foreign agenda. A 60-cigarette-per-day smoker, Johnson suffered a near-fatal heart attack on July 2, 1955. He completely gave up smoking as a result, with only a couple of exceptions, and did not resume the habit until he left the White House on January 20, 1969. During the Suez Crisis , Johnson supported the Anglo-French military attempt to topple the Egyptian president Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser , and tried to prevent the US government from criticizing the Israeli invasion of the Sinai peninsula. [13] [14] President Johnson giving "The Treatment" to Senator Richard Russell in 1963 Historians Caro and Dallek consider Lyndon Johnson the most effective Senate majority leader in history. He was unusually proficient at gathering information. One biographer suggests he was "the greatest intelligence gatherer Washington has ever known", discovering exactly where every Senator stood, his philosophy and prejudices, his strengths and weaknesses, and what it took to break him. [27 ] Robert Baker claimed that Johnson would occasionally send senators on NATO trips in order to avoid their dissenting votes. [28 ]Central to Johnson's control was "The Treatment", [29 ] described by two journalists: [30 ] The Treatment could last ten minutes or four hours. It came, enveloping its target, at the Johnson Ranch swimming pool, in one of Johnson's offices, in the Senate cloakroom, on the floor of the Senate itself — wherever Johnson might find a fellow Senator within his reach. Its tone could be supplication, accusation, cajolery, exuberance, scorn, tears, complaint and the hint of threat. It was all of these together. It ran the gamut of human emotions. Its velocity was breathtaking, and it was all in one direction. Interjections from the target were rare. Johnson anticipated them before they could be spoken. He moved in close, his face a scant millimeter from his target, his eyes widening and narrowing, his eyebrows rising and falling. From his pockets poured clippings, memos, statistics. Mimicry, humor, and the genius of analogy made The Treatment an almost hypnotic experience and rendered the target stunned and helpless. Along with the rest of the nation, Johnson was appalled by the threat of possible Soviet domination of space flight implied by the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite Sputnik 1 , and used his influence to assure passage of the 1958 National Aeronautics and Space Act , which established the civilian space agency NASA . Edit [15] [16] President Kennedy and Vice President Johnson prior to a ceremony After the election, Johnson found himself powerless. He initially attempted to transfer the authority of Senate majority leader to the vice presidency, since that office made him president of the Senate, but faced vehement opposition from the Democratic Caucus, including members he had counted as his supporters. [37 ] This episode led to a memorable quote from Johnson: I now know the difference between a caucus and a cactus: in a cactus, all the pricks are on the outside. [38 ] Johnson then also tried to gain advantage in the Executive Branch. Shortly after the inauguration, he sent a proposed executive order to the White House for Kennedy's signature, granting Johnson "general supervision" over matters of national security and requiring all government agencies to "cooperate fully with the vice president in the carrying out of these assignments." Kennedy's response was to sign a non-binding letter requesting Johnson to "review" national security policies instead. [39 ] Kennedy similarly turned down early requests from Johnson to be given an office adjacent to the Oval Office, and to employ a full-time Vice Presidential staff within the White House. [40 ] His lack of influence was thrown into relief later in 1961 when Kennedy appointed Johnson's friend Sarah T. Hughes to a federal judgeship; whereas Johnson had tried and failed to garner the nomination for Hughes at the beginning of his vice presidency, House Speaker Sam Rayburn wrangled the appointment from Kennedy in exchange for support of an administration bill. Moreover, many members of the Kennedy White House, including the president's brother and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy , were actively contemptuous of Johnson and ridiculed his brusque, crude manner. Congressman Tip O'Neill recalled that the Kennedy men "had a disdain for Johnson that they didn't even try to hide....They actually took pride in snubbing him." [41 ] Kennedy, however, made efforts to keep Johnson busy, informed, and at the White House often, telling aides "I can't afford to have my vice president, who knows every reporter in Washington, going around saying we're all screwed up, so we're going to keep him happy." [42 ] Kennedy appointed him to jobs such as head of the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunities, through which he worked with African Americans and other minorities. Though Kennedy may have intended this to remain a more nominal position, Taylor Branch in Pillar of Fire contends that Johnson served to push the Kennedy administration's actions for civil rights further and faster than Kennedy originally intended to go. Branch notes the irony of Johnson, who the Kennedy family hoped would appeal to conservative southern voters, being the advocate for civil rights . In particular he notes Johnson's Memorial Day 1963 speech at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania as being a catalyst that led to more action. Johnson took on numerous minor diplomatic missions, which gave him limited insights into global issues. He was allowed to observe Cabinet and National Security Council meetings. Kennedy gave Johnson control over all presidential appointments involving Texas, and appointed him chairman of the President's Ad Hoc Committee for Science. Kennedy also appointed Johnson to fill his role as Chairman of the National Aeronautics Space Council . When, in April 1961, the Soviets beat the US with the first manned spaceflight , Kennedy tasked Johnson with evaluating the state of the US space program, and recommending a project that would allow the US to catch up or beat the Soviets. [43 ] Johnson responded with a recommendation that the US gain the leadership role by committing the resources to embark on a project to land an American on the Moon in the 1960s . [44 ] [45 ] Johnson was touched by a Senate scandal in August 1963 when Bobby Baker , the Senate Majority Secretary and a protégé of Johnson's, came under investigation by the Senate Rules Committee for allegations of bribery and financial malfeasance. One witness alleged that Baker had arranged for the witness to give kickbacks for the Vice President. Baker resigned in October, and the investigation stopped from expanding to Johnson. The negative publicity from the affair fed rumors in Washington circles that Kennedy was planning on dropping Johnson from the Democratic ticket in the upcoming 1964 presidential election. However, when a reporter asked on October 31, 1963, if he intended and expected to have Johnson on the ticket the following year, Kennedy replied, "Yes to both those questions." [46 ] Presidency 1963–1969[ edit ] Edit [17] [18] Foreign trips of Lyndon Johnson during his presidency===Assassination of President John F. Kennedy[ edit ]=== [19] [20] Johnson being sworn in aboard Air Force One by Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes. On the right is Mrs. Kennedy; to the left is Mrs. Johnson; sitting down near the airplane window is Jack Valenti , White House aide. Assistant Press Secretary Malcolm Kilduff , at bottom left, records the event with a dictaphone .Main article: First inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson Johnson was sworn in as President on Air Force One at Dallas Love Field in Dallas on November 22, 1963, two hours and eight minutes after President Kennedy was assassinated in Dealey Plaza in Dallas. [47 ] He was sworn in by Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes , a family friend, making him the first (and so far only) President sworn in by a woman. He is also the only President to have been sworn in on Texas soil. Johnson did not swear on a Bible, as there was none on Air Force One; a Roman Catholic missal was found in Kennedy's desk and was used for the swearing-in ceremony. [48 ] Johnson being sworn in as president has become the most famous photo ever taken aboard a presidential aircraft. [49 ] [50 ] In the days following the assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson made an address to Congress: "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the Civil Rights Bill for which he fought so long." [51 ] The wave of national grief following the assassination gave enormous momentum to Johnson's promise to carry out Kennedy's programs. One week after the assassination, on November 29, Johnson issued an executive order to rename NASA's Apollo Launch Operations Center and the NASA/Air Force Cape Canaveral launch facilities as the John F. Kennedy Space Center. Canaveral became popularly known as "Cape Kennedy" for a decade. [52 ] On the same day, Johnson created a panel headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren , known as the Warren Commission , to investigate Kennedy's assassination. The commission conducted hearings and concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination. Not everyone agreed with the Warren Commission, and numerous public and private investigations continued for decades after Johnson left office. [53 ] Johnson retained senior Kennedy appointees, some for the full term of his presidency. The late President's brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy , with whom Johnson had a notoriously difficult relationship, remained in office for a few months until leaving in 1964, to run for the Senate. [54 ] Robert F. Kennedy has been quoted as saying that LBJ was "mean, bitter, vicious—[an] animal in many ways...I think his reactions on a lot of things are correct... but I think he's got this other side of him and his relationship with human beings which makes it difficult unless you want to 'kiss his behind' all the time. That is what Bob McNamara suggested to me...if I wanted to get along." [55 ] 1964 presidential election[ edit ] [21] [22] President Johnson, Issue of 1973 In mid-1964, the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) was organized with the purpose of challenging Mississippi's all-white and anti-civil rights delegation to the Democratic National Convention of that year as not representative of all Mississippians. At the national convention in Atlantic City , New Jersey the MFDP claimed the seats for delegates for Mississippi, not on the grounds of the Party rules, but because the official Mississippi delegation had been elected by a primary conducted under Jim Crow laws in which blacks were excluded because of poll taxes, literacy tests, and even violence against black voters. The national Party's liberal leaders supported a compromise in which the white delegation and the MFDP would have an even division of the seats; Johnson was concerned that, while the regular Democrats of Mississippi would probably vote for Goldwater anyway, if the Democratic Party rejected the regular Democrats, he would lose the Democratic Party political structure that he needed to win in the South. Eventually, Hubert Humphrey, Walter Reuther and black civil rights leaders (including Roy Wilkins , Martin Luther King , and Bayard Rustin ) worked out a compromise with MFDP leaders: the MFDP would receive two non-voting seats on the floor of the Convention; the regular Mississippi delegation would be required to pledge to support the party ticket; and no future Democratic convention would accept a delegation chosen by a discriminatory poll. When the leaders took the proposal back to the 64 members who had made the bus trip to Atlantic City, they voted it down. As MFDP Vice Chair Fannie Lou Hamer said, "We didn't come all the way up here to compromise for no more than we'd gotten here. We didn't come all this way for no two seats, 'cause all of us is tired." The failure of the compromise effort allowed the rest of the Democratic Party to conclude that the MFDP was simply being unreasonable, and they lost a great deal of their liberal support. After that, the convention went smoothly for Johnson without a searing battle over civil rights. [59 ] Despite the landslide victory, Johnson, who carried the South as a whole in the election, lost the Deep South states of Louisiana , Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia and South Carolina , the first time a Democratic candidate had done so since Reconstruction. Johnson began his elected presidential term, ready to fulfill his earlier commitment to "carry forward the plans and programs of John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Not because of our sorrow or sympathy, but because they are right." [60 ] "Remarks upon Signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964". MENU 0:00 audio only---- Problems playing these files? See media help . In conjunction with the Civil Rights Movement , Johnson overcame southern resistance and convinced the Democratic-Controlled Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which outlawed most forms of racial segregation. John F. Kennedy originally proposed the civil rights bill in June 1963. [61 ] In late October 1963, Kennedy officially called the House leaders to the White House to line up the necessary votes for passage. [62 ] [63 ] After Kennedy's death, Johnson took the initiative in finishing what Kennedy started and broke a filibuster by Southern Democrats in March 1964; as a result, this pushed the bill for passage in the Senate. [64 ] Johnson signed the revised and stronger bill into law on July 2, 1964. [64 ] Legend has it that, as he put down his pen, Johnson told an aide, "We have lost the South for a generation", anticipating a coming backlash from Southern whites against Johnson's Democratic Party. Moreover, Richard Nixon politically counterattacked with the Southern Strategy where it would "secure" votes for the Republican Party by grabbing the advocates of segregation as well as most of the Southern Democrats. [65 ] In 1965, he achieved passage of a second civil rights bill, the Voting Rights Act , which outlawed discrimination in voting, thus allowing millions of southern blacks to vote for the first time. In accordance with the act, several states, "seven of the eleven southern states of the former confederacy" – Alabama, South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Virginia — were subjected to the procedure of preclearance in 1965, while Texas, home to the majority of the African American population at the time, followed in 1975. [66 ] After the murder of civil rights worker Viola Liuzzo , Johnson went on television to announce the arrest of four Ku Klux Klansmen implicated in her death. He angrily denounced the Klan as a "hooded society of bigots," and warned them to "return to a decent society before it's too late." Johnson was the first President to arrest and prosecute members of the Klan since Ulysses S. Grant about 93 years earlier. [67 ] He turned the themes of Christian redemption to push for civil rights, thereby mobilizing support from churches North and South. [68 ] At the Howard University commencement address on June 4, 1965, he said that both the government and the nation needed to help achieve goals: “ To shatter forever not only the barriers of law and public practice, but the walls which bound the condition of many by the color of his skin. To dissolve, as best we can, the antique enmities of the heart which diminish the holder, divide the great democracy, and do wrong — great wrong — to the children of God... [69 ] ” In 1967, Johnson nominated civil rights attorney Thurgood Marshall to be the first African American Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. To head the new Department of Housing and Urban Development , Johnson appointed Robert C. Weaver —the first African-American cabinet secretary in any U.S. presidential administration. In 1968 Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1968 , which provided for equal housing opportunities regardless of race, creed, or national origin. The impetus for the law's passage came from the 1966 Chicago Open Housing Movement , the April 4, 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. , and the civil unrest across the country following King's death. [70 ] On April 5, Johnson wrote a letter to the United States House of Representatives urging passage of the Fair Housing Act. [71 ] With newly urgent attention from legislative director Joseph Califano and Democratic Speaker of the House John McCormack , the bill (which was previously stalled) passed the House by a wide margin on April 10. [70 ] [72 ] [25] [26] President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Immigration Act of 1965 at Liberty Island as Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Senator Edward Kennedy , Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and others look on. Johnson signed the Immigration Act of 1965 , [73 ] which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans. [74 ] According to OECD , "While European-born immigrants accounted for nearly 60% of the total foreign-born population in 1970, they accounted for only 15% in 2000." [75 ] Immigration doubled between 1965 and 1970, and doubled again between 1970 and 1990. [25 ] Since the liberalization of immigration policy in 1965, [76 ] the number of first-generation immigrants living in the United States has quadrupled, [77 ] from 9.6 million in 1970, to about 38 million in 2007. [78 ] Edit The Great Society program, with its name coined from one of Johnson's speeches, [25 ]became Johnson's agenda for Congress in January 1965: aid to education, attack on disease, Medicare, Medicaid, urban renewal , beautification, conservation, development of depressed regions, a wide-scale fight against poverty, control and prevention of crime, and removal of obstacles to the right to vote . Congress, at times augmenting or amending, enacted most of Johnson's recommendations. [79 ] Johnson's achievements in social policy were made possible by liberal strength, especially after the Democratic landslide of 1964. [80 ] After the Great Society legislation of the 1960s, for the first time a person who was not elderly or disabled could receive need-based aid from the U.S. government. [81 ] Federal funding for education[ edit ] [27] [28] Robert Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson Johnson had a lifelong commitment to the belief that education was the cure for both ignorance and poverty, and was an essential component of the American dream , especially for minorities who endured poor facilities and tight-fisted budgets from local taxes. [82 ] He made education a top priority of the Great Society, with an emphasis on helping poor children. After the 1964 landslide brought in many new liberal Congressmen, he had the votes for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. For the first time, large amounts of federal money went to public schools. In practice ESEA meant helping all public school districts, with more money going to districts that had large proportions of students from poor families (which included all the big cities). [83 ] For the first time private schools (most of them Catholic schools in the inner cities) received services, such as library funding, comprising about 12 percent of the ESEA budget. As Dallek reports, researchers[ who? ] soon found that poverty had more to do with family background and neighborhood conditions than the quantity of education a child received. Early studies suggested initial improvements for poor children helped by ESEA reading and math programs, but later assessments indicated that benefits faded quickly and left pupils little better off than those not in the schemes. Johnson's second major education program was the Higher Education Act of 1965 , which focused on funding for lower income students, including grants, work-study money, and government loans. He set up the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts , to support humanists and artists (as the WPA once did). Although ESEA solidified Johnson's support among K-12 teachers' unions, neither the Higher Education Act nor the new endowments mollified the college professors and students growing increasingly uneasy with the war in Vietnam. [84 ] In 1967, Johnson signed the Public Broadcasting Act to create educational television programs to supplement the broadcast networks. "War on Poverty" and healthcare reform[ edit ] Edit [29] [30] Truman (seated right) and his wife Bess (behind him) attend the signing of the Medicare Bill on July 30, 1965, by President Johnson. In 1964, upon Johnson's request, Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1964 and the Economic Opportunity Act , which was in association with the war on poverty . Johnson set in motion bills and acts, [85 ] creating programs such as Head Start , food stamps , Work Study , Medicare and Medicaid . During Johnson's years in office, national poverty declined significantly, with the percentage of Americans living below the poverty line dropping from 23% to 12%. [5 ] The Medicare program was established on July 30, 1965, to offer cheaper medical services to the elderly, [86 ] today covering tens of millions of Americans. Johnson gave the first two Medicare cards to former President Harry S Truman and his wife Bess after signing the Medicare bill at the Truman Library in Independence, Missouri . Lower-income groups receive government-sponsored medical coverage through the Medicaid program. [87 ] In 1965, Johnson signed the Coinage Act of 1965 , [88 ] changing the metal composition of US coins and calling silver a "scarce material". [89 ] Edit On October 22, 1968, Lyndon Johnson signed the Gun Control Act of 1968 , one of the largest and farthest-reaching federal gun control laws in American history. Much of the motivation for this large expansion of federal gun regulations came as a response to the assassinations of John F. Kennedy , Robert F. Kennedy , and Martin Luther King Jr. . Edit During Johnson's administration, NASA conducted the Gemini manned space program, developed the Saturn V rocket and its launch facility , and prepared to make the first manned Apollo program flights. On January 27, 1967, the nation was stunned when the entire crew of Apollo 1 was killed in a cabin fire during a spacecraft test on the launch pad, stopping Apollo in its tracks. Rather than appointing another Warren-style commission, Johnson accepted Administrator James E. Webb 's request for NASA to do its own investigation, holding itself accountable to Congress and the President. [90 ] Johnson maintained his staunch support of Apollo through Congressional and press controversy, and the program recovered. The first two manned missions, Apollo 7 and the first manned flight to the Moon, Apollo 8 , were completed by the end of Johnson's term. He congratulated the Apollo 8 crew, saying, "You've taken ... all of us, all over the world, into a new era." [91 ] [92 ] On July 16, 1969, Johnson attended the launch of the first Moon landing mission Apollo 11 , becoming the first former or incumbent US president to witness a rocket launch. Edit Major riots in black neighborhoods caused a series of "long hot summers." They started with a violent disturbance in Harlem riots in 1964, and the Watts district of Los Angeles in 1965, and extended to 1971. The biggest wave came in April 1968, when riots occurred in over a hundred cities in the wake of the assassination of Martin Luther King. Newark burned in 1967, where six days of rioting left 26 dead, 1500 injured, and the inner city a burned out shell. In Detroit in 1967 , Governor George Romney sent in 7400 national guard troops to quell fire bombings, looting, and attacks on businesses and on police. Johnson finally sent in federal troops with tanks and machine guns. Detroit continued to burn for three more days until finally 43 were dead, 2250 were injured, 4000 were arrested; property damage ranged into the hundreds of millions. Johnson called for even more billions to be spent in the cities and another federal civil rights law regarding housing, but his political capital had been spent, and his Great Society programs lost support. Johnson's popularity plummeted as a massive white political backlash took shape, reinforcing the sense Johnson had lost control of the streets of major cities as well as his party. [93 ] [31] [32] President Johnson with Australian Prime Minister Harold Holt at Government House ( Canberra , Australia) in October 1966 Johnson created the Kerner Commission to study the problem of urban riots, headed by Illinois Governor Otto Kerner . [25 ] Days after Johnson announced his withdrawal from the 1968 race, Martin Luther King, Jr., was assassinated in Memphis. In the next week, Johnson faced one of the biggest wave of riots the nation had ever seen. [72 ] According to press secretary George Christian, Johnson was unsurprised by the riots, saying: "What did you expect? I don't know why we're so surprised. When you put your foot on a man's neck and hold him down for three hundred years, and then you let him up, what's he going to do? He's going to knock your block off." [70 ] Backlash against Johnson: 1966–67[ edit ] [33] [34] Lyndon and Lady Bird Johnson with Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos on September 12, 1966 Johnson's problems began to mount in 1966. The press had sensed a " credibility gap " between what Johnson was saying in press conferences and what was happening on the ground in Vietnam, which led to much less favorable coverage of Johnson. [94 ] By year's end, the Democratic governor of Missouri , Warren E. Hearnes , warned that Johnson would lose the state by 100,000 votes, despite a winning by a 500,000 margin in 1964. "Frustration over Vietnam; too much federal spending and... taxation; no great public support for your Great Society programs; and ... public disenchantment with the civil rights programs" had eroded the President's standing, the governor reported. There were bright spots; in January 1967, Johnson boasted that wages were the highest in history, unemployment was at a 13-year low, and corporate profits and farm incomes were greater than ever; a 4.5% jump in consumer prices was worrisome, as was the rise in interest rates . Johnson asked for a temporary 6% surcharge in income taxes to cover the mounting deficit caused by increased spending. Johnson's approval ratings stayed below 50%; by January 1967, the number of his strong supporters had plunged to 16%, from 25% four months before. He ran about even with Republican George Romney in trial matchups that spring. Asked to explain why he was unpopular, Johnson responded, "I am a dominating personality, and when I get things done I don't always please all the people." Johnson also blamed the press, saying they showed "complete irresponsibility and lie and misstate facts and have no one to be answerable to." He also blamed "the preachers, liberals and professors" who had turned against him. [95 ] In the congressional elections of 1966 , the Republicans gained three seats in the Senate and 47 in the House, reinvigorating the conservative coalition and making it more difficult for Johnson to pass any additional Great Society legislation. However, in the end Congress passed almost 96% of the administration's Great Society programs, which Johnson then signed into law. [96 ] In October 1966, Johnson became the first serving U.S. president to visit Australia. His visit sparked demonstrations from anti-war protesters. [97 ] Edit [35] [36] Johnson awards a medal to a US soldier during a visit to Vietnam in 1966. [37] [38] Walt Whitman Rostow shows President Lyndon B. Johnson a model of the Khe Sanh area in February 1968. Johnson increasingly focused on the American military effort in Vietnam. He firmly believed in the Domino Theory and that his containment policy required America to make a serious effort to stop all Communist expansion. [98 ] At Kennedy's death, there were 16,000 American military advisors in Vietnam. [99 ] As President, Lyndon Johnson immediately reversed his predecessor's order to withdraw 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963 with his own NSAM No. 273 on November 26, 1963. [100 ] [101 ] [102 ] Johnson expanded the numbers and roles of the American military following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident (less than three weeks after the Republican Convention of 1964 , which had nominated Barry Goldwater for President). The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution , which gave the President the exclusive right to use military force without consulting the Senate, was based on a false pretext, as Johnson later admitted. [103 ] By the end of 1964, there were approximately 23,000 military personnel in South Vietnam. U.S. casualties for 1964 totaled 1,278. [99 ] Johnson began America's direct involvement in the ground war in Vietnam when the first U.S. combat troops began arriving in March 1965. [104 ] By 1968, over 550,000 American soldiers were in Vietnam; during 1967 and 1968 they were being killed at the rate of 1,000 a month. [105 ] [39] [40] By the time this photo was taken in Washington, D.C. in October 1967, support for the Vietnam War was dropping and the anti-Vietnam War movement was gaining momentum. Politically, Johnson closely watched the public opinion polls. His goal was not to adjust his policies to follow opinion, but rather to adjust opinion to support his policies. Until the Tet Offensive of 1968, he systematically downplayed the war; he made very few speeches about Vietnam, and held no rallies or parades or advertising campaigns. He feared that publicity would charge up the hawks who wanted victory, and weaken both his containment policy and his higher priorities in domestic issues. Jacobs and Shapiro conclude, "Although Johnson held a core of support for his position, the president was unable to move Americans who held hawkish and dovish positions." Polls showed that beginning in 1965, the public was consistently 40–50 percent hawkish and 10–25 percent dovish. Johnson's aides told him, "Both hawks and doves [are frustrated with the war] ... and take it out on you.". [106 ] Additionally, domestic issues were driving his polls down steadily from spring 1966 onward. A few analysts have theorized that "Vietnam had no independent impact on President Johnson's popularity at all after other effects, including a general overall downward trend in popularity, had been taken into account." [107 ] The war grew less popular, and continued to split the Democratic Party. The Republican Party was not completely pro or anti-war, and Nixon managed to get support from both groups by running on a reduction in troop levels with an eye toward eventually ending the campaign. He often privately cursed the Vietnam War , and in a conversation with Robert McNamara , Johnson assailed "the bunch of commies" running The New York Times for their articles against the war effort. [108 ] Johnson believed that America could not afford to lose and risk appearing weak in the eyes of the world. In a discussion about the war with former President Dwight Eisenhower on October 3, 1966, Johnson said he was "trying to win it just as fast as I can in every way that I know how" and later stated that he needed "all the help I can get." [109 ] Johnson escalated the war effort continuously from 1964 to 1968, and the number of American deaths rose. In two weeks in May 1968 alone American deaths numbered 1,800 with total casualties at 18,000. Alluding to the Domino Theory , he said, "If we allow Vietnam to fall, tomorrow we'll be fighting in Hawaii, and next week in San Francisco." After the Tet Offensive of January 1968, his presidency was dominated by the Vietnam War more than ever. Following evening news broadcaster Walter Cronkite 's editorial report during the Tet Offensive that the war was unwinnable, Johnson is reported to have said, "If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America." [110 ] As casualties mounted and success seemed further away than ever, Johnson's popularity plummeted. College students and others protested, burned draft cards, and chanted, "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?" [98 ] Johnson could scarcely travel anywhere without facing protests, and was not allowed by the Secret Service to attend the 1968 Democratic National Convention , where thousands of hippies , yippies , Black Panthers and other opponents of Johnson's policies both in Vietnam and in the ghettos converged to protest. [111 ] Thus by 1968, the public was polarized, with the "hawks" rejecting Johnson's refusal to continue the war indefinitely, and the "doves" rejecting his current war policies. Support for Johnson's middle position continued to shrink until he finally rejected containment and sought a peace settlement. By late summer, he realized that Nixon was closer to his position than Humphrey. He continued to support Humphrey publicly in the election, and personally despised Nixon. One of Johnson's well known quotes was "the Democratic party at its worst, is still better than the Republican party at its best". [112 ] Perhaps Johnson, himself, best summed up his involvement in the Vietnam War as President: “ I knew from the start that I was bound to be crucified either way I moved. If I left the woman I really loved—the Great Society —in order to get involved in that bitch of a war on the other side of the world, then I would lose everything at home. All my programs.... But if I left that war and let the Communists take over South Vietnam , then I would be seen as a coward and my nation would be seen as an appeaser and we would both find it impossible to accomplish anything for anybody anywhere on the entire globe. [113 ] ” Many political pundits and experts said that Johnson suffered "agonizing decisions" in foreign policy in the involvement in Vietnam and felt it caused divisions both in the U.S. and abroad. [114 ] Johnson was afraid that if he tried to defeat the North Vietnamese regime with an invasion of North Vietnam, rather than simply try to protect South Vietnam, he might provoke the Chinese to stage a full-scale military intervention similar to their intervention in 1950 during the Korean War , as well as provoke the Soviets into launching a full-scale military invasion of western Europe. It was not until the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s that it was finally confirmed that the Soviets had several thousand troops stationed in North Vietnam throughout the conflict, as did China. The Six Day War and Israel[ edit ] [41] [42] Johnson (right) next to Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin (left) during the Glassboro Summit Conference In a 1993 interview for the Johnson Presidential Library oral history archives, Johnson's Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that a carrier battle group , the U.S. 6th Fleet , sent on a training exercise toward Gibraltar was re-positioned back towards the eastern Mediterranean to be able to assist Israel during the Six Day War of June 1967. Given the rapid Israeli advances following their strike on Egypt, the administration "thought the situation was so tense in Israel that perhaps the Syrians, fearing Israel would attack them, or the Soviets supporting the Syrians might wish to redress the balance of power and might attack Israel". The Soviets learned of this course correction and regarded it as an offensive move. In a hotline message from Moscow, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin said, "If you want war you're going to get war." [115 ] The Soviet Union supported its Arab allies. [116 ] In May 1967, the Soviets started a surge deployment of their naval forces into the East Mediterranean. Early in the crisis they began to shadow the US and British carriers with destroyers and intelligence collecting vessels. The Soviet naval squadron in the Mediterranean was sufficiently strong to act as a major restraint on the U.S. Navy. [117 ] In a 1983 interview with The Boston Globe , McNamara claimed that "We damn near had war". He said Kosygin was angry that "we had turned around a carrier in the Mediterranean". [118 ] During his presidency, Johnson issued 1187 pardons and commutations , [119 ] granting over 20 percent of such requests. [120 ] 1968 presidential election[ edit ] Edit [43] [44] President Johnson meets with Republican candidate Richard Nixon in the White House, July 1968.Main article: United States presidential election, 1968 As he had served less than 24 months of President Kennedy's term, Johnson was constitutionally permitted to run for a second full term in the 1968 presidential election under the provisions of the 22nd Amendment . [121 ] [122 ] Initially, no prominent Democratic candidate was prepared to run against a sitting president of the Democratic party. Only Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota challenged Johnson as an anti-war candidate in the New Hampshire primary , hoping to pressure the Democrats to oppose the Vietnam War. On March 12, McCarthy won 42 percent of the primary vote to Johnson's 49 percent, an amazingly strong showing for such a challenger. Four days later, Sen. Robert F. Kennedy of New York entered the race. Internal polling by Johnson's campaign in Wisconsin , the next state to hold a primary election, showed the President trailing badly. Johnson did not leave the White House to campaign. By this time Johnson had lost control of the Democratic Party, which was splitting into four factions, each of which despised the other three. The first consisted of Johnson (and Humphrey), labor unions, and local party bosses (led by Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley ). The second group consisted of students and intellectuals who were vociferously against the war and rallied behind McCarthy. The third group were Catholics, Hispanics and African Americans, who rallied behind Robert Kennedy . The fourth group were traditionally segregationist white Southerners, who rallied behind George C. Wallace and the American Independent Party . Vietnam was one of many issues that splintered the party, and Johnson could see no way to win the war [98 ] and no way to unite the party long enough for him to win re-election. [123 ] In addition, although it was not made public at the time, Johnson became more worried about his failing health and was concerned that he might not live through another four-year term. Therefore, at the end of a March 31 speech, he shocked the nation when he announced he would not run for re-election by concluding with the line: "I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President." [124 ] The next day, his approval ratings increased from 36% to 49%. [125 ] Historians have debated the factors that led to Johnson's surprise decision. Shesol says Johnson wanted out of the White House but also wanted vindication; when the indicators turned negative he decided to leave. [126 ] Gould says that Johnson had neglected the party, was hurting it by his Vietnam policies, and underestimated McCarthy strength until the very last minute, when it was too late for Johnson to recover. [127 ] Woods said Johnson realized he needed to leave in order for the nation to heal. [128 ] Dallek says that Johnson had no further domestic goals, and realized that his personality had eroded his popularity. His health was not good, and he was preoccupied with the Kennedy campaign; his wife was pressing for his retirement and his base of support continued to shrink. Leaving the race would allow him to pose as a peacemaker. [129 ] Bennett, however, says Johnson, "had been forced out of a reelection race in 1968 by outrage over his policy in Southeast Asia. [130 ] Johnson did rally the party bosses and unions to give Humphrey the nomination at the 1968 Democratic National Convention . Personal correspondences between the President and some in the Republican Party suggested Johnson tacitly supported Nelson Rockefeller's campaign. He reportedly said that if Rockefeller became the Republican nominee, he would not campaign against him (and would not campaign for Humphrey). [131 ] In what was termed the October surprise , Johnson announced to the nation on October 31, 1968, that he had ordered a complete cessation of "all air, naval and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam ", effective November 1, should the Hanoi Government be willing to negotiate and citing progress with the Paris peace talks . In the end, Democrats did not fully unite behind Humphrey, enabling Republican candidate Richard Nixon to win the election. Administration and Cabinet[ edit ] Edit During 1973 testimony before Congress, the CEO of America's largest cooperative of milk producers said that while Johnson was President, his cooperative had leased Johnson's private jet at a "plush" price, which Johnson wanted to continue once he was out of office. [25 ] Johnson continued the FBI's wiretapping of Martin Luther King, Jr. that had been previously authorized by the Kennedy administration under Attorney General Robert Kennedy . [132 ] As a result of listening to the FBI's tapes, remarks on King's personal lifestyle were made by several prominent officials, including Johnson, who once said that King was a "hypocritical preacher." [133 ] Johnson also authorized the tapping of phone conversations of others, including the Vietnamese friends of a Nixon associate. [134 ] In Latin America, Johnson directly and indirectly supported the overthrow of left-wing, democratically elected president Juan Bosch of the Dominican Republic and João Goulart of Brazil , maintaining US support for anti-communist, authoritarian Latin American regimes. American foreign policy towards Latin America remained largely static until election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1977. Madeleine Duncan Brown was an American woman who alleged that she was Johnson's longtime mistress . [135 ] [136 ] [137 ] In addition to claiming that her second child was born out of that relationship, Brown also implicated Johnson in a conspiracy to assassinate President John F. Kennedy . [135 ] [136 ] [137 ] Brown's allegations have never been substantiated. [137 ] Personality and public image[ edit ] [49] [50] Johnson as he appears in the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. Johnson was often seen as a wildly ambitious, tireless, and imposing figure who was ruthlessly effective at getting legislation passed. He worked 18–20-hour days without break and was apparently absent of any leisure activities. "There was no more powerful majority leader in American history," biographer Robert Dallek writes. Dallek stated that Johnson had biographies on all the Senators, knew what their ambitions, hopes, and tastes were and used it to his advantage in securing votes. Another Johnson biographer noted, "He could get up every day and learn what their fears, their desires, their wishes, their wants were and he could then manipulate, dominate, persuade and cajole them." At 6 feet 4 inches (1.93 m) tall, Johnson had his own particular brand of persuasion, known as "The Johnson Treatment". [138 ] A contemporary writes, "It was an incredible blend of badgering, cajolery, reminders of past favors, promises of future favors, predictions of gloom if something doesn't happen. When that man started to work on you, all of a sudden, you just felt that you were standing under a waterfall and the stuff was pouring on you." [138 ] Johnson's cowboy hat and boots reflected his Texas roots and genuine love of the rural hill country. From 250 acres (100 ha) of land that he was given by an aunt in 1951, he created a 2,700-acre (1,100 ha) working ranch with 400 head of registered Hereford cattle. The National Park Service keeps a herd of Hereford cattle descended from Johnson's registered herd and maintains the ranch property. [139 ] Edit [51] [52] Johnson during an interview in August 1972, sporting longer hair After leaving the presidency in January 1969, Johnson went home to his ranch in Stonewall, Texas, accompanied by former Aide and speech writer Harry J. Middleton , who would draft Johnson's first book, The Choices We Face, and work with him on his memoirs entitled The Vantage Point: Perspectives of the Presidency 1963-1969, published in 1971. [140 ] That year, the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum opened near the campus of The University of Texas at Austin . He donated his Texas ranch in his will to the public to form the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park , with the provision that the ranch "remain a working ranch and not become a sterile relic of the past". [141 ] Johnson gave Nixon "high grades" in foreign policy, but worried that his successor was being pressured into removing U.S. forces too quickly, before the South Vietnamese were really able to defend themselves. "If the South falls to the Communists, we can have a serious backlash here at home," he warned. [142 ] During the 1972 presidential election , Johnson endorsed Democratic presidential nominee George S. McGovern , a Senator from South Dakota , although McGovern had long opposed Johnson's foreign and defense policies. The McGovern nomination and presidential platform dismayed him. Nixon could be defeated "if only the Democrats don't go too far left," he had insisted. Johnson had felt Edmund Muskie would be more likely to defeat Nixon; however, he declined an invitation to try to stop McGovern receiving the nomination as he felt his unpopularity within the Democratic party was such that anything he said was more likely to help McGovern. Johnson's protégé John Connally had served as President Nixon's Secretary of the Treasury and then stepped down to head " Democrats for Nixon ", a group funded by Republicans. It was the first time that Connally and Johnson were on opposite sides of a general election campaign. [143 ] [53] [54] Johnson at his ranch in Texas, 1972 In March 1970, Johnson was hospitalized at Brooke Army Medical Center in San Antonio, after suffering an attack of angina . He was urged to lose considerable weight. He had grown dangerously heavier since leaving the White House, gaining more than 25 pounds (11 kg) and weighing around 235 pounds (107 kg). The following summer, again gripped by chest pains, he embarked on a crash water diet, shedding about 15 pounds (6.8 kg) in less than a month. In April 1972, Johnson experienced a massive heart attack while visiting his daughter, Lynda, in Charlottesville, Virginia. "I'm hurting real bad," he confided to friends. The chest pains hit him nearly every afternoon – a series of sharp, jolting pains that left him scared and breathless. A portable oxygen tank stood next to his bed, and he periodically interrupted what he was doing to lie down and don the mask to gulp air. He continued to smoke heavily, and, although placed on a low-calorie, low-cholesterol diet, kept to it only in fits and starts. Meanwhile, he began experiencing severe stomach pains. Doctors diagnosed this problem as diverticulosis, pouches forming on the intestine. Also symptomatic of the aging process, the condition rapidly worsened and surgery was recommended. Johnson flew to Houston to consult with heart specialist Dr. Michael DeBakey , who decided that Johnson's heart condition presented too great a risk for any sort of surgery, including coronary bypass of two almost totally destroyed heart arteries. [142 ] Death and funeral[ edit ] —Historian Michael Beschloss . [144 ] Johnson died at his ranch at 3:39 p.m. CST on January 22, 1973, at age 64 after suffering a massive heart attack. His death came the day before a ceasefire was signed in Vietnam and just a month after former President Harry S. Truman died. (Truman's funeral on December 28, 1972 had been one of Johnson's last public appearances). His death also occurred just two days after the end of what would have been his final term in office had he successfully won reelection in 1968. His health had been affected by years of heavy smoking , poor diet, and extreme stress; the former president had advanced coronary artery disease . He had his first, nearly fatal, heart attack in July 1955 and suffered a second one in April 1972, but had been unable to quit smoking after he left the Oval Office in 1969. He was found dead by Secret Service agents, in his bed, with a telephone receiver in his hand. The agents were responding to a desperate call Johnson had made to the Secret Service compound on his ranch minutes earlier complaining of "massive chest pains". [145 ] Shortly after Johnson's death, his press secretary Tom Johnson (no relation to Johnson), telephoned Walter Cronkite at CBS; Cronkite was live on the air with the CBS Evening News at the time, and a report on Vietnam was cut abruptly while Cronkite was still on the line, so he could break the news. [146 ] [55] [56] A memorial wreath at President Johnson's grave in Texas Johnson was honored with a state funeral in which Texas Congressman J. J. Pickle and former Secretary of State Dean Rusk eulogized him at the Capitol . [2 ]The final services took place on January 25. The funeral was held at the National City Christian Church in Washington, D.C., where he had often worshiped as president. The service was presided over by President Richard Nixon and attended by foreign dignitaries, led by former Japanese prime minister Eisaku Satō , who served as Japanese prime minister during Johnson's presidency. [147 ]Eulogies were given by the Rev. Dr. George Davis, the church's pastor, and W. Marvin Watson , former postmaster general. [148 ] Nixon did not speak, though he attended, as is customary for presidents during state funerals, but the eulogists turned to him and lauded him for his tributes, [148 ]as Rusk did the day before, as Nixon mentioned Johnson's death in a speech he gave the day after Johnson died, announcing the peace agreement to end the Vietnam War. [149 ] [57] [58] Johnson lying in state in the United States Capitol rotunda Johnson was buried in his family cemetery (which, although it is part of the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park in Stonewall, Texas, is still privately owned by the Johnson family, who have requested that the public not enter the cemetery), a few yards from the house in which he was born. Eulogies were given by John Connally and the Rev. Billy Graham , the minister who officiated the burial rites. The state funeral, the last for a president until Ronald Reagan 's in 2004, was part of an unexpectedly busy week in Washington, as the Military District of Washington (MDW) dealt with their second major task in less than a week, beginning with Nixon's second inauguration . [150 ] The inauguration had an impact on the state funeral in various ways, because Johnson died only two days after the inauguration. [2 ] [150 ] The MDW and the Armed Forces Inaugural Committee canceled the remainder of the ceremonies surrounding the inauguration to allow for a full state funeral, [150 ] and many of the military men who participated in the inauguration took part in the funeral. [150 ] It also meant Johnson's casket traveled the entire length of the Capitol, entering through the Senate wing when taken into the rotunda to lie in state and exited through the House wing steps due to construction on the East Front steps. [2 ] The Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston was renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973, [151 ] and Texas created a legal state holiday to be observed on August 27 to mark Johnson's birthday. [152 ] It is known as Lyndon Baines Johnson Day . The Lyndon Baines Johnson Memorial Grove on the Potomac was dedicated on September 27, 1974. [61] [62] Lyndon B. Johnson with his family in the Yellow Oval Room, Christmas 1968 Lyndon B. Johnson Middle School in Melbourne, Florida , is his namesake. Interstate 635 in Dallas is named the Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway. Lyndon Baines Johnson Tropical Medical Center is named after the 36th President who visited American Samoa on October 18, 1966. This marked the beginning of construction of the hospital located in the village of Faga'alu, American Samoa . The facility was completed in 1968. Runway 17R/35L at Austin-Bergstrom International Airport is known as the Lyndon B. Johnson Runway. The student center at Texas State University is named after the former president and graduate. Johnson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in 1980. [153 ] A small village run by FELDA in Negeri Sembilan has been named FELDA L.B. Johnson to commemorate his visit to Malaysia in 1966. On March 23, 2007, President George W. Bush signed legislation naming the United States Department of Education headquarters after President Johnson. [154 ] [63] [64] Johnson shakes hands with people, 1966. [65] [66] LBJ smiles in the Oval Office in 1969, a few days before Richard Nixon's Inauguration. 2008 was the celebration of the Johnson Centennial featuring special programs, events, and parties across Texas and in Washington, D.C. Johnson would have been 100 years old on August 27, 2008.	Hubert Humphrey
Which alliteratively-named politician served as Abraham Lincoln's Vice-President between 1861 and 1865?	Lyndon B. Johnson \| Covert History Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia 30px Presidential Medal of Freedom (Posthumous; 1980) Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, was the 36th President of the United States (1963–1969), a position he assumed after his service as the 37th Vice President of the United States (1961–1963). He is one of only four people [1] who served in all four elected federal offices of the United States: Representative, Senator, Vice President, and President. [2] Johnson, a Democrat from Texas , served as a United States Representative from 1937–1949 and as a Senator from 1949–1961, including six years as United States Senate Majority Leader , two as Senate Minority Leader and two as Senate Majority Whip . After campaigning unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination in 1960, Johnson was asked by John F. Kennedy to be his running mate for the 1960 presidential election . Johnson succeeded to the presidency following the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, completed Kennedy's term and was elected President in his own right, winning by a large margin in the 1964 election . Johnson was greatly supported by the Democratic Party and as President, he was responsible for designing the " Great Society " legislation that included laws that upheld civil rights , public broadcasting , Medicare , Medicaid , environmental protection, aid to education, and his " War on Poverty ." Johnson was renowned for his domineering personality and the "Johnson treatment," his coercion of powerful politicians in order to advance legislation. Meanwhile, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War , from 16,000 American advisors/soldiers in 1963 to 550,000 combat troops in early 1968, as American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. The involvement stimulated a large angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U.S. and abroad. [3] Summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, and crime rates soared, as his opponents raised demands for "law and order" policies. The Democratic Party split in multiple feuding factions, and after Johnson did poorly in the 1968 New Hampshire primary, he ended his bid for reelection. Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him. Historians argue that Johnson's presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. However, Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his domestic policies. [4] [5] Contents File:Lyndon B. Johnson - 15-13-2 - ca. 1915.jpg Johnson was born in Stonewall, Texas , in a small farmhouse on the Pedernales River . His parents, Samuel Ealy Johnson, Jr. , and Rebekah Baines, had three girls and two boys: Johnson and his brother, Sam Houston Johnson (1914–78), and sisters Rebekah (1910–78), Josefa (1912–61), and Lucia (1916–97). The nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas , was named after LBJ's father's cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia . The Johnsons were of Ulster Scot and English ancestry. In school, Johnson was an awkward, talkative youth and was elected president of his 11th-grade class. He graduated from Johnson City High School (1924), having participated in public speaking, debate, and baseball. [6] [7] [ better source needed ] Johnson was maternally descended from a pioneer Baptist clergyman, George Washington Baines , who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana . Baines was also the president of Baylor University during the American Civil War . George Baines was the grandfather of Johnson's mother, Rebekah Baines Johnson (1881–1958). Johnson's grandfather, Samuel Ealy Johnson, Sr. , was raised as a Baptist. Subsequently, in his early adulthood, he became a member of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) . In his later years the grandfather became a Christadelphian ; Johnson's father also joined the Christadelphian Church toward the end of his life. [8] Later, as a politician, Johnson was influenced in his positive attitude toward Jews by the religious beliefs that his family, especially his grandfather, had shared with him (see Operation Texas ). [9] In 1926, Johnson enrolled in Southwest Texas State Teachers' College (now Texas State University-San Marcos ). He worked his way through school, participated in debate and campus politics, and edited the school newspaper called The College Star, now known as The University Star . [10] He dropped out of school in 1927, and returned one year later, graduating in 1930. The college years refined his skills of persuasion and political organization. In 1927, Johnson taught mostly Mexican children at the Welhausen School in Cotulla , some ninety miles south of San Antonio in La Salle County . In 1930, he taught in Pearsall High School in Pearsall, Texas , and afterwards took a position as teacher of public speaking at Sam Houston High School in Houston . [11] When he returned to San Marcos in 1965, after having signed the Higher Education Act of 1965 , Johnson looked back: "I shall never forget the faces of the boys and the girls in that little Welhausen Mexican School, and I remember even yet the pain of realizing and knowing then that college was closed to practically every one of those children because they were too poor. And I think it was then that I made up my mind that this nation could never rest while the door to knowledge remained closed to any American." [12] Early political career Edit Johnson briefly taught public speaking and debate in a Houston high school, then entered politics. Johnson's father had served six terms in the Texas legislature and was a close friend of one of Texas's rising political figures, Congressman Sam Rayburn . In 1930, Johnson campaigned for Texas State Senator Welly Hopkins in his run for Congress. Hopkins recommended him to Congressman Richard M. Kleberg , who appointed Johnson as Kleberg's legislative secretary. Johnson was elected speaker of the "Little Congress," a group of Congressional aides, where he cultivated Congressmen, newspapermen and lobbyists. Johnson's friends soon included aides to President Franklin D. Roosevelt , as well as fellow Texans such as Vice President John Nance Garner . He became a surrogate son to Sam Rayburn. File:FDR-LBJ.png Johnson married Claudia Alta Taylor (already nicknamed " Lady Bird ") of Karnack, Texas on November 17, 1934, after having attended Georgetown University Law Center for several months. They had two daughters, Lynda Bird , born in 1944, and Luci Baines , born in 1947. Johnson enjoyed giving people and animals his own initials; his daughters' given names are examples, as was his dog, Little Beagle Johnson. [13] In 1935, he was appointed head of the Texas National Youth Administration , which enabled him to use the government to create education and job opportunities for young people. He resigned two years later to run for Congress. Johnson, a notoriously tough boss throughout his career, often demanded long workdays and work on weekends. [14] He was described by friends, fellow politicians, and historians as motivated throughout his life by an exceptional lust for power and control. As Johnson's biographer Robert Caro observes, "Johnson's ambition was uncommon—in the degree to which it was unencumbered by even the slightest excess weight of ideology, of philosophy, of principles, of beliefs." [15] Congressional career Edit In 1937, Johnson successfully contested a special election for Texas's 10th congressional district , that covered Austin and the surrounding hill country. He ran on a New Deal platform and was effectively aided by his wife. He served in the House from April 10, 1937, to January 3, 1949. [16] President Franklin D. Roosevelt found Johnson to be a welcome ally and conduit for information, particularly with regard to issues concerning internal politics in Texas ( Operation Texas ) and the machinations of Vice President John Nance Garner and Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn . Johnson was immediately appointed to the Naval Affairs Committee . He worked for rural electrification and other improvements for his district. Johnson steered the projects towards contractors that he personally knew, such as the Brown Brothers, Herman and George, who would finance much of Johnson's future career. [17] [ better source needed ] In 1941, he ran for the U.S. Senate in a special election against the sitting Governor of Texas , radio personality W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel . Johnson lost the election. War record File:Portrait of Lyndon B. Johnson in Navy Uniform - 42-3-7 - 03-1942.jpg After America entered World War II in December 1941, Johnson, still in Congress, became a commissioned officer in the Naval Reserve , then asked Undersecretary of the Navy James Forrestal for a combat assignment. [18] Instead he was sent to inspect the shipyard facilities in Texas and on the West Coast . In the spring of 1942, President Roosevelt needed his own reports on what conditions were like in the Southwest Pacific . Roosevelt felt information that flowed up the military chain of command needed to be supplemented by a highly trusted political aide. From a suggestion by Forrestal, President Roosevelt assigned Johnson to a three-man survey team of the Southwest Pacific. Johnson reported to General Douglas MacArthur in Australia. Johnson and two Army officers went to the 22nd Bomb Group base, which was assigned the high risk mission of bombing the Japanese airbase at Lae in New Guinea . A colonel took Johnson's original seat on one bomber, and it was shot down with no survivors. Reports vary on what happened to the B-26 Marauder carrying Johnson. Lyndon Johnson said it was also attacked by Japanese fighters but survived, while others, including other members of the flight crew, claim it turned back because of generator trouble before reaching the objective and before encountering enemy aircraft and never came under fire, which is supported by official flight records. [19] Other airplanes that continued to the target did come under fire near the target at about the same time that Johnson's plane was recorded as having landed back at the original airbase. MacArthur awarded Johnson the Silver Star , the military's third-highest medal. [19] Johnson reported back to Roosevelt, to the Navy leaders, and to Congress that conditions were deplorable and unacceptable. He argued the South West Pacific urgently needed a higher priority and a larger share of war supplies. The warplanes sent there, for example, were "far inferior" to Japanese planes, and morale was bad. He told Forrestal that the Pacific Fleet had a "critical" need for 6,800 additional experienced men. Johnson prepared a twelve-point program to upgrade the effort in the region, stressing "greater cooperation and coordination within the various commands and between the different war theaters." Congress responded by making Johnson chairman of a high-powered subcommittee of the Naval Affairs committee. With a mission similar to that of the Truman Committee in the Senate, he probed into the peacetime "business as usual" inefficiencies that permeated the naval war and demanded that admirals shape up and get the job done. Johnson went too far when he proposed a bill that would crack down on the draft exemptions of shipyard workers if they were absent from work too often. Organized labor blocked the bill and denounced Johnson. Still, Johnson's mission had a substantial impact because it led to upgrading the South Pacific theater and aided the overall war effort immensely. Johnson's biographer concludes, "The mission was a temporary exposure to danger calculated to satisfy Johnson's personal and political wishes, but it also represented a genuine effort on his part, however misplaced, to improve the lot of America's fighting men." [20] Senate File:Senator Lyndon Johnson.jpg In the 1948 elections , Johnson again ran for the Senate and won. This election was highly controversial: in a three-way Democratic Party primary Johnson faced a well-known former governor, Coke Stevenson , and a third candidate. Johnson drew crowds to fairgrounds with his rented helicopter dubbed "The Johnson City Windmill". He raised money to flood the state with campaign circulars and won over conservatives by voting for the Taft-Hartley act (curbing union power) as well as by criticizing unions. Stevenson came in first but lacked a majority, so a runoff was held. Johnson campaigned even harder this time around, while Stevenson's efforts were surprisingly poor. The runoff count took a week. The Democratic State Central Committee (not the State of Texas, because the matter was a party primary) handled the count, and it finally announced that Johnson had won by 87 votes. By a majority of one member (29–28) the committee voted to certify Johnson's nomination, with the last vote cast on Johnson's behalf by Temple, Texas , publisher Frank W. Mayborn , who rushed back to Texas from a business trip in Nashville, Tennessee . There were many allegations of fraud on both sides. Thus one writer alleges that Johnson's campaign manager, future Texas governor John B. Connally , was connected with 202 ballots in Precinct 13 in Jim Wells County that had curiously been cast in alphabetical order and just at the close of polling, with all of the people whose names appeared on the ballots being dead on election day. Robert Caro argued in his 1989 book that Johnson had stolen the election in Jim Wells County and other counties in South Texas, as well as rigging 10,000 ballots in Bexar County alone. [21] An election judge, Luis Salas, said in 1977, that he had certified 202 fraudulent ballots for Johnson. [22] The state Democratic convention upheld Johnson. Stevenson went to court, but—with timely help from his friend Abe Fortas —Johnson prevailed. Johnson was elected senator in November and went to Washington tagged with the ironic label "Landslide Lyndon," which he often used deprecatingly to refer to himself. Freshman senator Edit Once in the Senate, Johnson was known among his colleagues for his highly successful "courtships" of older senators, especially Senator Richard Russell , Democrat from Georgia, and the leader of the Conservative coalition and arguably the most powerful man in the Senate. Johnson proceeded to gain Russell's favor in the same way that he had "courted" Speaker Sam Rayburn and gained his crucial support in the House. Johnson was appointed to the Senate Armed Services Committee, and later in 1950, he helped create the Preparedness Investigating Subcommittee. Johnson became its chairman and conducted investigations of defense costs and efficiency. These investigations tended to dig out old forgotten investigations and demand actions that were already being taken by the Truman Administration, although it can be said that the committee's investigations caused the changes. Johnson's brilliant handling of the press, the efficiency with which his committee issued new reports, and the fact that he ensured every report was endorsed unanimously by the committee all brought him headlines and national attention. Johnson used his political influence in the Senate to receive broadcast licenses from the Federal Communications Commission in his wife's name. [22] [23] In 1951, Johnson was chosen as Senate Majority Whip under a new Majority Leader, Ernest McFarland of Arizona , and served from 1951 to 1953. [16] Senate Democratic leader File:DemSenateLeadersDesk.jpg In the 1952 general election Republicans won a majority in both House and Senate. Among defeated Democrats that year was McFarland, who lost to then-little-known Barry Goldwater , Johnson's future presidential opponent. In January 1953, Johnson was chosen by his fellow Democrats to be the minority leader. Thus, he became the least senior Senator ever elected to this position, and one of the least senior party leaders in the history of the Senate. One of his first actions was to eliminate the seniority system in appointment to a committee, while retaining it in terms of chairmanships. In the 1954 election , Johnson was re-elected to the Senate, and since the Democrats won the majority in the Senate, Johnson became majority leader. Former majority leader William Knowland was elected minority leader. Johnson's duties were to schedule legislation and help pass measures favored by the Democrats. Johnson, Rayburn and President Dwight D. Eisenhower worked smoothly together in passing Eisenhower's domestic and foreign agenda. A 60 cigarette per day smoker, Johnson suffered a near-fatal heart attack on July 2, 1955. He completely gave up smoking as a result, with only a couple of exceptions, and did not resume the habit until he left the White House on January 20, 1969. During the Suez Crisis Johnson supported the Anglo-French military attempt to topple the Egyptian dictator Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser , and tried to prevent the US government from criticising the Israeli invasion of the Sinai peninsula. In sharp contrast to what would become during his Presidency, Johnson was strongly opposed as Senate Majority Leader to Eisenhower's 1957 Civil Rights Act , fearful that its passage would tear his party apart. Thus with the help of the judiciary committee led by Senator James Eastland, the bill ended up being far weaker than it originally started, but it still became law and Johnson tried to give himself credit for its passage. File:Lyndon Johnson and Richard Russell.jpg Historians Caro and Dallek consider Lyndon Johnson the most effective Senate majority leader in history. He was unusually proficient at gathering information. One biographer suggests he was "the greatest intelligence gatherer Washington has ever known", discovering exactly where every Senator stood, his philosophy and prejudices, his strengths and weaknesses, and what it took to break him. [24] Robert Baker claimed that Johnson would occasionally send senators on NATO trips in order to avoid their dissenting votes. [25] Central to Johnson's control was "The Treatment", [26] described by two journalists: [27] The Treatment could last ten minutes or four hours. It came, enveloping its target, at the Johnson Ranch swimming pool, in one of Johnson's offices, in the Senate cloakroom, on the floor of the Senate itself — wherever Johnson might find a fellow Senator within his reach. Its tone could be supplication, accusation, cajolery, exuberance, scorn, tears, complaint and the hint of threat. It was all of these together. It ran the gamut of human emotions. Its velocity was breathtaking, and it was all in one direction. Interjections from the target were rare. Johnson anticipated them before they could be spoken. He moved in close, his face a scant millimeter from his target, his eyes widening and narrowing, his eyebrows rising and falling. From his pockets poured clippings, memos, statistics. Mimicry, humor, and the genius of analogy made The Treatment an almost hypnotic experience and rendered the target stunned and helpless. Vice Presidency See also: United States presidential election, 1960 Johnson's success in the Senate made him a possible Democratic presidential candidate. He was the " favorite son " candidate of the Texas delegation at the Party's national convention in 1956. In 1960, after the failure of the "Stop Kennedy" coalition he had formed with Adlai Stevenson , Stuart Symington , and Hubert Humphrey , Johnson received 409 votes on the only ballot at the Democratic convention, which nominated John F. Kennedy. Tip O'Neill , then a representative from Kennedy's home state of Massachusetts , recalled that Johnson approached him at the convention and said, "Tip, I know you have to support Kennedy at the start, but I'd like to have you with me on the second ballot." O'Neill replied, "Senator, there's not going to be any second ballot." [28] Kennedy realized that he could not be elected without support of traditional Southern Democrats , most of whom had backed Johnson. Kennedy offered Johnson the vice-presidential nomination at the Los Angeles Biltmore Hotel at 10:15 a.m. on July 14, 1960, the morning after being nominated for president. [29] Robert F. Kennedy , who hated Johnson for his attacks on the Kennedy family, said later that his brother offered the position to Johnson as a courtesy and did not expect him to accept. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. and Seymour Hersh quote Robert Kennedy's version of events, writing that John Kennedy would have preferred Stuart Symington as his running-mate and that Johnson teamed with House Speaker Sam Rayburn to pressure Kennedy to offer the nomination. [30] Biographers Robert Caro and W. Marvin Watson offer a different perspective; they write that the Kennedy campaign was desperate to win what was forecast to be a very close 1960 election against Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. . Johnson was needed on the ticket to help carry Texas and the Southern states . Caro's research showed that on July 14, John Kennedy started the process while Johnson was still asleep. At 6:30 a.m. John Kennedy asked Robert Kennedy to prepare an estimate of upcoming electoral votes "including Texas". [29] Robert called Pierre Salinger and Kenneth O'Donnell to assist him. Realizing the ramifications of counting Texas votes as their own, Salinger asked him whether he was considering a Kennedy-Johnson ticket, and Robert replied, yes. [29] At 8 a.m. John Kennedy called Johnson to arrange a meeting. Some time between 9 and 10 a.m., he called Pennsylvania governor David L. Lawrence , a Johnson backer, to request that Lawrence nominate Johnson for vice president if Johnson were to accept the role. At 10:15 a.m. he went to Johnson's suite to discuss a mutual ticket; the two men were alone for about 30 minutes during which time Johnson said Kennedy would have trouble with those who were strongly against him. John Kennedy then returned to his suite to announce the Kennedy-Johnson ticket to his closest supporters and Northern political bosses. [29] O'Donnell remembers being angry at what he considered a betrayal by Kennedy who had previously cast Johnson as anti-labor and anti-liberal. Afterward, Robert Kennedy visited with labor leaders who were extremely unhappy with the choice of Johnson and after seeing the depth of labor opposition to Johnson, he ran messages between the hotel suites of his brother and Johnson—apparently trying to undermine the proposed ticket without John Kennedy's authorization. Robert Kennedy tried to get Johnson to agree to be the Democratic Party chairman rather than vice president. Johnson refused to accept a change in plans unless it came directly from John Kennedy. Despite his brother's interference, John Kennedy was firm that Johnson was who he wanted as running mate; he met with staffers such as Larry O'Brien , his national campaign manager, to say Johnson was to be vice president. O'Brien recalled later that John Kennedy's words were wholly unexpected, but that after a brief consideration of the electoral vote situation, he thought "it was a stroke of genius". [29] When John and Robert Kennedy next saw their father, Joe Kennedy , he told them signing Johnson as running mate was the smartest thing they had ever done. [31] At the same time as his Vice Presidential run, Johnson also sought a third term in the U.S. Senate. According to Robert Caro, "On November 5, 1960, Lyndon Johnson won election for both the vice presidency of the United States, on the Kennedy-Johnson ticket, and for a third term as Senator (he had Texas law changed to allow him to run for both offices). When he won the vice presidency, he made arrangements to resign from the Senate, as he was required to do under federal law, as soon as it convened on January 3, 1961." [32] (In 1988, Lloyd Bentsen , the Vice Presidential running mate of Democratic presidential candidate Michael Dukakis , and also a Senator from Texas, took advantage of "Lyndon's law," and was able to retain his seat in the Senate despite Dukakis' loss to George H. W. Bush . The same went for Senator Joe Lieberman of Connecticut in 2000 after Al Gore lost to George W. Bush . In 2008, Joseph Biden of Delaware was elected Vice President and was re-elected U.S. Senator, as Johnson had done in 1960.) Johnson was re-elected Senator with 1,306,605 votes (58 percent) to Republican John Tower 's 927,653 (41.1 percent). Fellow Democrat William A. Blakley was appointed to replace Johnson as Senator, but Blakley lost a special election in May 1961 to Tower. Office File:President Kennedy and Vice President Johnson prior to ceremony.jpg After the election, Johnson found himself powerless. He initially attempted to transfer the authority of Senate Majority Leader to the Vice Presidency, since that office made him President of the Senate, but faced vehement opposition from the Democratic Caucus, including members he'd counted as his supporters. [33] His lack of influence was thrown into relief later that year when Kennedy appointed Johnson's friend Sarah T. Hughes to a federal judgeship; whereas Johnson had tried and failed to garner the nomination for Hughes at the beginning of his vice presidency, House Speaker Sam Rayburn wrangled the appointment from Kennedy in exchange for support of an administration bill. Despite Kennedy's efforts to keep Johnson busy, informed, and at the White House often, JFK's advisors and some members of the Kennedy family were more dismissive to Johnson. Kennedy appointed him to jobs such as head of the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunities, through which he worked with African Americans and other minorities. Though Kennedy may have intended this to remain a more nominal position, Taylor Branch in Pillar of Fire contends that Johnson served to push the Kennedy administration's actions for civil rights further and faster than Kennedy originally intended to go. Branch notes the irony of Johnson, who the Kennedy family hoped would appeal to conservative southern voters, being the advocate for civil rights . In particular he notes Johnson's Memorial Day 1963 speech at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania as being a catalyst that led to more action. Johnson took on numerous minor diplomatic missions, which gave him limited insights into global issues. He was allowed to observe Cabinet and National Security Council meetings. Kennedy did give Johnson control over all presidential appointments involving Texas, and he was appointed chairman of the President's Ad Hoc Committee for Science. When, in April 1961, the Soviets beat the U.S. with the first manned spaceflight , Kennedy tasked Johnson with coming up with a program that would prove world leadership. Johnson knew that Project Apollo and an enlarged NASA were feasible, so he steered the recommendation towards a program for landing an American on the Moon. [34] Johnson was touched by a Senate scandal in August 1963 when Bobby Baker , the Senate Majority Secretary and a protégé of Johnson's, came under investigation by the Senate Rules Committee for allegations of bribery and financial malfeasance. One witness alleged that Baker had arranged for the witness to give kickbacks for the Vice President. Baker resigned in October, and the investigation stopped from expanding to Johnson. The negative publicity from the affair fed rumors in Washington circles that Kennedy was planning on dropping Johnson from the Democratic ticket in the upcoming 1964 presidential election. Presidency 1963–1969 Main article: Lyndon B. Johnson 1963 presidential inauguration Johnson was sworn in as President on Air Force One at Love Field Airport in Dallas on November 22, 1963 two hours and eight minutes after President Kennedy was assassinated in Dealey Plaza in Dallas. [35] He was sworn in by Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes , a family friend, making him the first President sworn in by a woman. He is also the only President to have been sworn in on Texas soil. Johnson did not swear on a Bible, as there were none on Air Force One; a Roman Catholic missal was found in Kennedy's desk and was used for the swearing-in ceremony. [36] Johnson being sworn in as president has become the most famous photo ever taken aboard a presidential aircraft. [37] [38] In the days following the assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson made an address to Congress: "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the Civil Rights Bill for which he fought so long." [39] The wave of national grief following the assassination gave enormous momentum to Johnson's promise to carry out Kennedy's programs. Johnson created a panel headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren , known as the Warren Commission , to investigate Kennedy's assassination. The commission conducted hearings and concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination. Not everyone agreed with the Warren Commission, and numerous public and private investigations continued for decades after Johnson left office. [40] Johnson retained senior Kennedy appointees, some for the full term of his presidency. The late President's brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy , with whom Johnson had a notoriously difficult relationship, remained in office for a few months until leaving in 1964, to run for the Senate. [41] Robert F. Kennedy has been quoted as saying that LBJ was "mean, bitter, vicious—[an] animal in many ways...I think his reactions on a lot of things are correct... but I think he's got this other side of him and his relationship with human beings which makes it difficult unless you want to 'kiss his behind' all the time. That is what Bob McNamara suggested to me...if I wanted to get along." [42] 1964 presidential election Main article: United States presidential election, 1964 On September 7, 1964, Johnson's campaign managers for the 1964 presidential election broadcast the " Daisy ad ". It portrayed a little girl picking petals from a daisy , counting up to ten. Then a baritone voice took over, counted down from ten to zero and the visual showed the explosion of a nuclear bomb. The message conveyed was that electing Barry Goldwater president held the danger of nuclear war. Although it only aired one time, it became an issue during the campaign. Johnson won the presidency by a landslide with 61 percent of the vote and the then-widest popular margin in the 20th century — more than 15 million votes (this was later surpassed by incumbent President Nixon's defeat of Senator McGovern in 1972 ). [43] Johnson's popular vote margin of over 22 percentage points is a record that stands to this day. File:L B Johnson 1973 Issue-8c.jpg In mid-1964, the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) was organized with the purpose of challenging Mississippi's all-white and anti-civil rights delegation to the Democratic National Convention of that year as not representative of all Mississippians. At the national convention in Atlantic City , New Jersey the MFDP claimed the seats for delegates for Mississippi, not on the grounds of the Party rules, but because the official Mississippi delegation had been elected by a primary conducted under Jim Crow laws in which blacks were excluded because of poll taxes, literacy tests, and even violence against black voters. The national Party's liberal leaders supported a compromise in which the white delegation and the MFDP would have an even division of the seats; Johnson was concerned that, while the regular Democrats of Mississippi would probably vote for Goldwater anyway, if the Democratic Party rejected the regular Democrats, he would lose the Democratic Party political structure that he needed to win in the South. Eventually, Hubert Humphrey, Walter Reuther and black civil rights leaders (including Roy Wilkins , Martin Luther King , and Bayard Rustin ) worked out a compromise with MFDP leaders: the MFDP would receive two non-voting seats on the floor of the Convention; the regular Mississippi delegation would be required to pledge to support the party ticket; and no future Democratic convention would accept a delegation chosen by a discriminatory poll. When the leaders took the proposal back to the 64 members who had made the bus trip to Atlantic City, they voted it down. As MFDP Vice Chair Fannie Lou Hamer said, "We didn't come all the way up here to compromise for no more than we'd gotten here. We didn't come all this way for no two seats, 'cause all of us is tired." The failure of the compromise effort allowed the rest of the Democratic Party to conclude that the MFDP was simply being unreasonable, and they lost a great deal of their liberal support. After that, the convention went smoothly for Johnson without a searing battle over civil rights. [44] Despite the landslide victory, Johnson, who carried the South as a whole in the election, lost the Deep South states of Louisiana , Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia and South Carolina , the first time a Democratic candidate had done so since Reconstruction. Johnson won the presidency by a majority of 61 percent, ready to fulfill his earlier commitment to "carry forward the plans and programs of John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Not because of our sorrow or sympathy, but because they are right." [45] Civil rights audio only Problems listening to these files? See media help . In conjunction with the civil rights movement , Johnson overcame southern resistance and convinced the Democratic-Controlled Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which outlawed most forms of racial segregation. John F. Kennedy originally proposed the civil rights bill in June 1963. [46] In late October 1963, Kennedy officially called the House leaders to the White House to line up the necessary votes for passage. [47] [48] After Kennedy's death, Johnson took the initiative in finishing what Kennedy started and broke a filibuster by Southern Democrats in March 1964; as a result, this pushed the bill for passage in the Senate. [49] Johnson signed the revised and stronger bill into law on July 2, 1964. [49] Legend has it that, as he put down his pen, Johnson told an aide, "We have lost the South for a generation", anticipating a coming backlash from Southern whites against Johnson's Democratic Party. Moreover, Richard Nixon politically counterattacked with the Southern Strategy where it would "secure" votes for the Republican Party by grabbing the advocates of segregation as well as most of the Southern Democrats. [50] In 1965, he achieved passage of a second civil rights bill, the Voting Rights Act , which outlawed discrimination in voting, thus allowing millions of southern blacks to vote for the first time. In accordance with the act, several states, "seven of the eleven southern states of the former confederacy" – Alabama, South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Virginia — were subjected to the procedure of preclearance in 1965, while Texas, home to the majority of the African American population at the time, followed in 1975. [51] After the murder of civil rights worker Viola Liuzzo , Johnson went on television to announce the arrest of four Ku Klux Klansmen implicated in her death. He angrily denounced the Klan as a "hooded society of bigots," and warned them to "return to a decent society before it's too late." Johnson was the first President to arrest and prosecute members of the Klan since Ulysses S. Grant about 93 years earlier. [52] He turned the themes of Christian redemption to push for civil rights, thereby mobilizing support from churches North and South. [53] At the Howard University commencement address on June 4, 1965, he said that both the government and the nation needed to help achieve goals: “ To shatter forever not only the barriers of law and public practice, but the walls which bound the condition of many by the color of his skin. To dissolve, as best we can, the antique enmities of the heart which diminish the holder, divide the great democracy, and do wrong — great wrong — to the children of God... [54] ” In 1967, Johnson nominated civil rights attorney Thurgood Marshall to be the first African American Associate Justice of the Supreme Court. Immigration File:Immigration Bill Signing - A1421-33a - 10-03-1965.jpg Johnson signed the Immigration Act of 1965 , [55] which substantially changed U.S. immigration policy toward non-Europeans. [56] According to OECD , "While European-born immigrants accounted for nearly 60% of the total foreign-born population in 1970, they accounted for only 15% in 2000." [57] Immigration doubled between 1965 and 1970, and doubled again between 1970 and 1990. [22] Since the liberalization of immigration policy in 1965, [58] the number of first-generation immigrants living in the United States has quadrupled, [59] from 9.6 million in 1970, to about 38 million in 2007. [60] Great Society Edit The Great Society program, with its name coined from one of Johnson's speeches, [22] became Johnson's agenda for Congress in January 1965: aid to education, attack on disease, Medicare, Medicaid, urban renewal , beautification, conservation, development of depressed regions, a wide-scale fight against poverty, control and prevention of crime, and removal of obstacles to the right to vote . Congress, at times augmenting or amending, enacted most of Johnson's recommendations. [61] After the Great Society legislation of the 1960s, for the first time a person who was not elderly or disabled could receive a living from the American government. [62] Federal funding for education Edit Johnson had a lifelong commitment to the belief that education was the cure for both ignorance and poverty, and was an essential component of the American Dream , especially for minorities who endured poor facilities and tight-fisted budgets from local taxes. [63] He made education a top priority of the Great Society, with an emphasis on helping poor children. After the 1964 landslide brought in many new liberal Congressmen, he had the votes for the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. For the first time, large amounts of federal money went to public schools. In practice ESEA meant helping all public school districts, with more money going to districts that had large proportions of students from poor families (which included all the big cities). [64] For the first time private schools (most of them Catholic schools in the inner cities) received services, such as library funding, comprising about 12 percent of the ESEA budget. As Dallek reports, researchers[ who? ] soon found that poverty had more to do with family background and neighborhood conditions than the quantity of education a child received. Early studies suggested initial improvements for poor children helped by ESEA reading and math programs, but later assessments indicated that benefits faded quickly and left pupils little better off than those not in the schemes. Johnson's second major education program was the Higher Education Act of 1965 , which focused on funding for lower income students, including grants, work-study money, and government loans. He set up the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts , to support humanists and artists (as the WPA once did). Although ESEA solidified Johnson's support among K-12 teachers' unions, neither the Higher Education Act nor the new endowments mollified the college professors and students growing increasingly uneasy with the war in Vietnam. [65] In 1967, Johnson signed the Public Broadcasting Act to create educational television programs to supplement the broadcast networks. "War on Poverty" and healthcare reform File:Lyndon Johnson signing Medicare bill, with Harry Truman, July 30, 1965.jpg In 1964, upon Johnson's request, Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1964 and the Economic Opportunity Act , which was in association with the war on poverty . Johnson set in motion bills and acts, [66] creating programs such as Head Start, food stamps, Work Study, Medicare and Medicaid. The Medicare program was established on July 30, 1965, to offer cheaper medical services to the elderly, [67] today covering tens of millions of Americans. Johnson gave the first two Medicare cards to former President Harry S Truman and his wife Bess after signing the Medicare bill at the Truman Library in Independence, Missouri . Lower income groups receive government-sponsored medical coverage through the Medicaid program. [68] During Johnson's years in office, national poverty declined significantly, with the percentage of Americans living below the poverty line dropping from 23% to 12%. [69] Gun control Edit On October 22, 1968, Lyndon Johnson signed the Gun Control Act of 1968 , one of the largest and farthest-reaching federal gun control laws in American history. Much of the motivation for this large expansion of federal gun regulations came as a response to the murders of John F. Kennedy , Robert F. Kennedy , and Martin Luther King Jr. . Space Program Edit During Johnson's administration, NASA conducted the Gemini manned space program and the Apollo program , including Apollo 7 ; and the first human spaceflight to the Moon, Apollo 8 , in December 1968. The president congratulated the Apollo 8 crew, saying, "You've taken ... all of us, all over the world, into a new era." [70] [71] On July 16, 1969, Johnson attended the Apollo 11 launch—the first former or incumbent US president to witness a rocket launch. All US manned flights after Gemini 3 were controlled from the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, renamed for Johnson in 1973. Urban riots Edit Major riots in black neighborhoods caused a series of "long hot summers." They started with a violent disturbance in Harlem riots in 1964, and the Watts district of Los Angeles in 1965, and extended to 1971. The biggest wave came in April 1968, when riots occurred in over a hundred cities in the wake of the assassination of Martin Luther King. Newark burned in 1967, where six days of rioting left 26 dead, 1500 injured, and the inner city a burned out shell. In Detroit in 1967 , Governor George Romney sent in 7400 national guard troops to quell fire bombings, looting, and attacks on businesses and on police. Johnson finally sent in federal troops with tanks and machine guns. Detroit continued to burn for three more days until finally 43 were dead, 2250 were injured, 4000 were arrested; property damage ranged into the hundreds of millions. Johnson called for even more billions to be spent in the cities and another federal civil rights law regarding housing, but his political capital had been spent, and his Great Society programs lost support. Johnson's popularity plummeted as a massive white political backlash took shape, reinforcing the sense Johnson had lost control of the streets of major cities as well as his party. [72] File:Harold Holt and Lyndon Johnson.jpg Johnson created the Kerner Commission to study the problem of urban riots, headed by Illinois Governor Otto Kerner . [22] Days after Johnson announced his withdrawal from the 1968 race, Martin Luther King, Jr., was assassinated in Memphis. In the next week, Johnson faced one of the biggest wave of riots the nation had ever seen. [73] According to press secretary George Christian, Johnson was unsurprised by the riots, saying: "What did you expect? I don't know why we're so surprised. When you put your foot on a man's neck and hold him down for three hundred years, and then you let him up, what's he going to do? He's going to knock your block off." File:Marcos visit Johnson 1966.jpg Johnson's problems began to mount in 1966. The press had sensed a " Credibility gap " between what Johnson was saying in press conferences and what was happening on the ground in Vietnam, which led to much less favorable coverage of Johnson. [75] By year's end, the Democratic governor of Missouri , Warren E. Hearnes , warned that Johnson would lose the state by 100,000 votes, despite a half-million margin in 1964. "Frustration over Vietnam; too much federal spending and... taxation; no great public support for your Great Society programs; and ... public disenchantment with the civil rights programs" had eroded the President's standing, the governor reported. There were bright spots; in January 1967, Johnson boasted that wages were the highest in history, unemployment was at a 13-year low, and corporate profits and farm incomes were greater than ever; a 4.5 percent jump in consumer prices was worrisome, as was the rise in interest rates . Johnson asked for a temporary 6 percent surcharge in income taxes to cover the mounting deficit caused by increased spending. Johnson's approval ratings stayed below 50 percent; by January 1967, the number of his strong supporters had plunged to 16 percent, from 25 percent four months before. He ran about even with Republican George Romney in trial matchups that spring. Asked to explain why he was unpopular, Johnson responded, "I am a dominating personality, and when I get things done I don't always please all the people." Johnson also blamed the press, saying they showed "complete irresponsibility and lie and misstate facts and have no one to be answerable to." He also blamed "the preachers, liberals and professors" who had turned against him. [76] In the congressional elections of 1966 , the Republicans gained three seats in the Senate and 47 in the House, reinvigorating the Conservative coalition and making it impossible for Johnson to pass any additional Great Society legislation. Johnson became the first serving President to visit Australia. It proved to be a visit that provoked many demonstrations against his visit, in the context of wider anti-war protests. Vietnam War File:L B Johnson Model Khe Sanh.jpeg Johnson increasingly focused on the American military effort in Vietnam. He firmly believed in the Domino Theory and that his containment policy required America to make a serious effort to stop all Communist expansion. [77] At Kennedy's death, there were 16,000 American military advisors in Vietnam. [78] As President, Lyndon Johnson immediately reversed his predecessor's order to withdraw 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963 with his own NSAM No. 273 on November 26, 1963. [79] [80] [81] Johnson expanded the numbers and roles of the American military following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident (less than three weeks after the Republican Convention of 1964 , which had nominated Barry Goldwater for President). The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution , which gave the President the exclusive right to use military force without consulting the Senate, was based on a false pretext, as Johnson later admitted. [82] By the end of 1964, there were approximately 23,000 military personnel in South Vietnam. U.S. casualties for 1964 totaled 1,278. [78] Johnson began America's direct involvement in the ground war in Vietnam when the first U.S. combat troops began arriving in March 1965. [83] By 1968, over 550,000 American soldiers were in Vietnam; during 1967 and 1968 they were being killed at the rate of 1,000 a month. [84] File:Vietnam War protestors at the March on the Pentagon.jpg Politically, Johnson closely watched the public opinion polls. His goal was not to adjust his policies to follow opinion, but rather to adjust opinion to support his policies. Until the Tet Offensive of 1968, he systematically downplayed the war; he made very few speeches about Vietnam, and held no rallies or parades or advertising campaigns. He feared that publicity would charge up the hawks who wanted victory, and weaken both his containment policy and his higher priorities in domestic issues. Jacobs and Shapiro conclude, "Although Johnson held a core of support for his position, the president was unable to move Americans who held hawkish and dovish positions." Polls showed that beginning in 1965, the public was consistently 40–50 percent hawkish and 10–25 percent dovish. Johnson's aides told him, "Both hawks and doves [are frustrated with the war] ... and take it out on you.". [85] Additionally, domestic issues were driving his polls down steadily from spring 1966 onward. A few analysts have theorized that "Vietnam had no independent impact on President Johnson's popularity at all after other effects, including a general overall downward trend in popularity, had been taken into account." [86] The war grew less popular, and continued to split the Democratic Party. The Republican Party was not completely pro or anti-war, and Nixon managed to get support from both groups by running on a reduction in troop levels with an eye toward eventually ending the campaign. He often privately cursed the Vietnam War , and in a conversation with Robert McNamara , Johnson assailed "the bunch of commies" running The New York Times for their articles against the war effort. [87] Johnson believed that America could not afford to lose and risk appearing weak in the eyes of the world. In a discussion about the war with former President Dwight Eisenhower on October 3, 1966, Johnson said he was "trying to win it just as fast as I can in every way that I know how" and later stated that he needed "all the help I can get." [88] Johnson escalated the war effort continuously from 1964 to 1968, and the number of American deaths rose. In two weeks in May 1968 alone American deaths numbered 1,800 with total casualties at 18,000. Alluding to the Domino Theory , he said, "If we allow Vietnam to fall, tomorrow we'll be fighting in Hawaii, and next week in San Francisco." After the Tet offensive of January 1968, his presidency was dominated by the Vietnam War more than ever. Following evening news broadcaster Walter Cronkite 's editorial report during the Tet Offensive that the war was unwinnable, Johnson is reported to have said, "If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost Middle America." [89] As casualties mounted and success seemed further away than ever, Johnson's popularity plummeted. College students and others protested, burned draft cards, and chanted, "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?" [77] Johnson could scarcely travel anywhere without facing protests, and was not allowed by the Secret Service to attend the 1968 Democratic National Convention , where thousands of hippies , yippies , Black Panthers and other opponents of Johnson's policies both in Vietnam and in the ghettos converged to protest. [90] Thus by 1968, the public was polarized, with the "hawks" rejecting Johnson's refusal to continue the war indefinitely, and the "doves" rejecting his current war policies. Support for Johnson's middle position continued to shrink until he finally rejected containment and sought a peace settlement. By late summer, he realized that Nixon was closer to his position than Humphrey. He continued to support Humphrey publicly in the election, and personally despised Nixon. One of Johnson's well known quotes was "the Democratic party at its worst, is still better than the Republican party at its best". [91] Perhaps Johnson, himself, best summed up his involvement in the Vietnam War as President: “ I knew from the start that I was bound to be crucified either way I moved. If I left the woman I really loved—the Great Society —in order to get involved in that bitch of a war on the other side of the world, then I would lose everything at home. All my programs.... But if I left that war and let the Communists take over South Vietnam , then I would be seen as a coward and my nation would be seen as an appeaser and we would both find it impossible to accomplish anything for anybody anywhere on the entire globe. [92] ” Many political pundits and experts said that Johnson suffered "agonizing decisions" in foreign policy in the involvement in Vietnam and felt it caused divisions both in the U.S. and abroad. [93] Johnson was afraid that if he tried to defeat the North Vietnamese regime with an invasion of North Vietnam, rather than simply try to protect South Vietnam, he might provoke the Chinese to stage a full-scale military intervention similar to their intervention in 1950 during the Korean War , as well as provoke the Soviets into launching a full scale military invasion of western Europe. It was not until the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s that it was finally confirmed that the Soviets had several thousand troops stationed in North Vietnam throughout the conflict, as did China. The Six Day War and Israel File:Glassboro-meeting1967.jpg In a 1993 interview for the Johnson Presidential Library oral history archives, Johnson's Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that a carrier battle group , the U.S. 6th Fleet , sent on a training exercise toward Gibraltar was re-positioned back towards the eastern Mediterranean to be able to defend Israel during the Six Day War of June 1967. Given the rapid Israeli advances following their preemptive strike on Egypt, the administration "thought the situation was so tense in Israel that perhaps the Syrians, fearing Israel would attack them, or the Soviets supporting the Syrians might wish to redress the balance of power and might attack Israel". The Soviets learned of this course correction and regarded it as an offensive move. In a hotline message from Moscow, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin said, "If you want war you're going to get war." [94] The Soviet Union supported its Arab allies. [95] In May 1967, the Soviets started a surge deployment of their naval forces into the East Mediterranean. Early in the crisis they began to shadow the US and British carriers with destroyers and intelligence collecting vessels. The Soviet naval squadron in the Mediterranean was sufficiently strong to act as a major restraint on the U.S. Navy. [96] In a 1983 interview with The Boston Globe , McNamara claimed that "We damn near had war". He said Kosygin was angry that "we had turned around a carrier in the Mediterranean". [97] Pardons During his presidency, Johnson issued 1187 pardons and commutations , [98] granting over 20 percent of such requests. [99] 1968 presidential election Main article: United States presidential election, 1968 As he had served less than 24 months of President Kennedy's term, Johnson was not disqualified from running for a second full term under the provisions of the 22nd Amendment . [100] [101] However, entering the 1968 election campaign, initially, no prominent Democratic candidate was prepared to run against a sitting president of the Democratic party. Only Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota challenged Johnson as an anti-war candidate in the New Hampshire primary , hoping to pressure the Democrats to oppose the Vietnam War. On March 12, McCarthy won 42 percent of the primary vote to Johnson's 49 percent, an amazingly strong showing for such a challenger. Four days later, Sen. Robert F. Kennedy of New York entered the race. Internal polling by Johnson's campaign in Wisconsin , the next state to hold a primary election, showed the President trailing badly. Johnson did not leave the White House to campaign. By this time Johnson had lost control of the Democratic Party, which was splitting into four factions, each of which despised the other three. The first consisted of Johnson (and Humphrey), labor unions, and local party bosses (led by Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley ). The second group consisted of students and intellectuals who were vociferously against the war and rallied behind McCarthy. The third group were Catholics, Hispanics and African Americans, who rallied behind Robert Kennedy . The fourth group were traditionally segregationist white Southerners, who rallied behind George C. Wallace and the American Independent Party . Vietnam was one of many issues that splintered the party, and Johnson could see no way to win the war [77] and no way to unite the party long enough for him to win re-election. [102] In addition, although it was not made public at the time, Johnson became more worried about his failing health and was concerned that he might not live through another four-year term. Therefore, at the end of a March 31 speech, he shocked the nation when he announced he would not run for re-election by concluding with the line: "I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President." [103] The next day, his approval ratings increased from 36% to 49%. [104] Johnson did rally the party bosses and unions to give Humphrey the nomination at the 1968 Democratic National Convention . Johnson had grown to dislike Humphrey by this time, and the President realized his position was actually closer to the Republican candidate Richard Nixon . Personal correspondences between the President and some in the Republican Party suggested Johnson tacitly supported Nelson Rockefeller's campaign. He reportedly said that if Rockefeller became the Republican nominee, he would not campaign against him (and would not campaign for Humphrey). [105] In what was termed the October surprise , Johnson announced to the nation on October 31, 1968, that he had ordered a complete cessation of "all air, naval and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam ", effective November 1, should the Hanoi Government be willing to negotiate and citing progress with the Paris peace talks . In the end, Democrats did not fully unite behind Humphrey, enabling Republican candidate Richard Nixon to win the election. Had Johnson stayed in the race, won, and served out the new term, he would have been president for nine years and two months, second only to Franklin Delano Roosevelt . Coincidentally, Johnson died just two days after what would have been the end of his second full term. Administration and Cabinet Thurgood Marshall –1967 (the first African-American) When Earl Warren announced his retirement in 1968, Johnson nominated Fortas to succeed him as Chief Justice of the United States , and nominated Homer Thornberry to succeed Fortas as Associate Justice. However, Fortas was filibustered by senators and neither nominee was voted upon by the full Senate. Other courts Main article: Lyndon B. Johnson judicial appointments In addition to his Supreme Court appointments, Johnson appointed 40 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 126 judges to the United States district courts . Johnson also had a small number of judicial appointment controversies , with one appellate and three district court nominees not being confirmed by the United States Senate before Johnson's presidency ended. Scandals and controversies Edit During 1973 testimony before Congress, the CEO of America's largest cooperative of milk producers said that while Johnson was President, his cooperative had leased Johnson's private jet at a "plush" price, which Johnson wanted to continue once he was out of office. [22] Johnson continued the FBI's wiretapping of Martin Luther King, Jr. that had been previously authorized by the Kennedy administration under Attorney General Robert Kennedy . [106] As a result of listening to the FBI's tapes, remarks on King's personal lifestyle were made by several prominent officials, including Johnson, who once said that King was a "hypocritical preacher." [107] Johnson also authorized the tapping of phone conversations of others, including the Vietnamese friends of a Nixon associate. [108] In Latin America, Johnson directly and indirectly supported the overthrow of left-wing, democratically elected president Juan Bosch of the Dominican Republic and João Goulart of Brazil , maintaining US support for anti-communist, authoritarian Latin American regimes. American foreign policy towards Latin America remained largely static until election of Jimmy Carter to the presidency in 1977. Personality and public image File:Lyndon B. Johnson at National Portrait Gallery IMG 4495.JPG Johnson was often seen as a wildly ambitious, tireless, and imposing figure who was ruthlessly effective at getting legislation passed. He worked 18–20 hour days without break and was apparently absent of any leisure activities. "There was no more powerful majority leader in American history," biographer Robert Dallek writes. Dallek stated that Johnson had biographies on all the Senators, knew what their ambitions, hopes, and tastes were and used it to his advantage in securing votes. Another Johnson biography writes, "He could get up every day and learn what their fears, their desires, their wishes, their wants were and he could then manipulate, dominate, persuade and cajole them." At six foot four inches tall, Johnson had his own particular brand of persuasion, known as "The Johnson Treatment". [109] A contemporary writes, "It was an incredible blend of badgering, cajolery, reminders of past favours, promises of future favours, predictions of gloom if something doesn't happen. When that man started to work on you, all of a sudden, you just felt that you were standing under a waterfall and the stuff was pouring on you." [109] Johnson also took on the image of the Texas cattle rancher, after buying a ranch in Texas and having himself photographed in cowboy attire. [109] Post-presidency File:Lyndon B. Johnson 1972.jpg After leaving the presidency in January 1969, Johnson went home to his ranch in Stonewall, Texas. In 1971, he published his memoirs, The Vantage Point. That year, the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum opened near the campus of The University of Texas at Austin . He donated his Texas ranch in his will to the public to form the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park , with the provision that the ranch "remain a working ranch and not become a sterile relic of the past". [110] Johnson gave Nixon "high grades" in foreign policy, but worried that his successor was being pressured into removing U.S. forces too quickly, before the South Vietnamese were really able to defend themselves. "If the South falls to the Communists, we can have a serious backlash here at home," he warned. [111] During the 1972 presidential election , Johnson endorsed Democratic presidential nominee George S. McGovern , a Senator from South Dakota , although McGovern had long opposed Johnson's foreign and defense policies. The McGovern nomination and presidential platform dismayed him. Nixon could be defeated "if only the Democrats don't go too far left," he had insisted. Johnson had felt Edmund Muskie would be more likely to defeat Nixon; however, he declined an invitation to try to stop McGovern receiving the nomination as he felt his unpopularity within the Democratic party was such that anything he said was more likely to help McGovern. Johnson's protégé John Connally had served as President Nixon's Secretary of the Treasury and then stepped down to head " Democrats for Nixon ", a group funded by Republicans. It was the first time that Connally and Johnson were on opposite sides of a general election campaign. [112] In March 1970, Johnson was hospitalized at Brooke Army Medical Center in San Antonio, after suffering an attack of angina . He was urged to lose considerable weight. He had grown dangerously heavier since leaving the White House, gaining more than 25 lbs and weighing around 235 lbs. The following summer, again gripped by chest pains, he embarked on a crash water diet, shedding about 15 lbs in less than a month. In April 1972, Johnson experienced a massive heart attack while visiting his daughter, Lynda, in Charlottesville, Virginia. "I'm hurting real bad," he confided to friends. The chest pains hit him nearly every afternoon – a series of sharp, jolting pains that left him scared and breathless. A portable oxygen tank stood next to his bed, and he periodically interrupted what he was doing to lie down and don the mask to gulp air. He continued to smoke heavily, and, although placed on a low-calorie, low-cholesterol diet, kept to it only in fits and starts. Meanwhile, he began experiencing severe stomach pains. Doctors diagnosed this problem as diverticulosis, pouches forming on the intestine. Also symptomatic of the aging process, the condition rapidly worsened and surgery was recommended. Johnson flew to Houston to consult with heart specialist Dr. Michael De Bakey, who decided that Johnson's heart condition presented too great a risk for any sort of surgery, including coronary bypass of two almost totally destroyed heart arteries. [113] Death and funeral Template:Vquote Lyndon Baines Johnson died at his ranch at 3:39 p.m CST (4:39 pm EST) on January 22, 1973 at age 64 after suffering a massive heart attack. His death came two days after the last day of his presidency if he had been re-elected in 1968. His death came the day before a ceasefire was signed in Vietnam and just a month after former president Harry S Truman died. (Truman's funeral on December 28, 1972 had been one of Johnson's last public appearances). His health had been affected by years of heavy smoking , poor diet, and extreme stress; the former president had advanced coronary artery disease . He had his first, nearly fatal, heart attack in July 1955 and suffered a second one in April 1972, but had been unable to quit smoking after he left the Oval Office in 1969. He was found dead by Secret Service agents, in his bed, with a telephone receiver in his hand. The agents were responding to a desperate call Johnson had made to the Secret Service compound on his ranch minutes earlier complaining of "massive chest pains". [114] Shortly after Johnson's death, his press secretary Tom Johnson telephoned Walter Cronkite at CBS; Cronkite was live on the air with the CBS Evening News at the time, and a report on Vietnam was cut abruptly while Cronkite was still on the line, so he could break the news. [115] File:Lyndon Baines Johnson grave cropped.jpeg Johnson was honored with a state funeral in which Texas Congressman J. J. Pickle and former Secretary of State Dean Rusk eulogized him at the Capitol . [2] The final services took place on January 25. The funeral was held at the National City Christian Church in Washington, D.C., where he had often worshiped as president. The service was presided over by President Richard Nixon and attended by foreign dignitaries, led by former Japanese prime minister Eisaku Satō , who served as Japanese prime minister during Johnson's presidency. [116] Eulogies were given by the Rev. Dr. George Davis, the church's pastor, and W. Marvin Watson , former postmaster general. [117] Nixon did not speak, though he attended, as is customary for presidents during state funerals, but the eulogists turned to him and lauded him for his tributes, [117] as Rusk did the day before, as Nixon mentioned Johnson's death in a speech he gave the day after Johnson died, announcing the peace agreement to end the Vietnam War. [118] Andrew, John A. Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society (1999) 224 pp. Bernstein, Irving. Guns or Butter: The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson 1994. Bornet, Vaughn Davis. The Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson. 1983 Brands, H. W. The Wages of Globalism: Lyndon Johnson and the Limits of American Power (1997) Caro, Robert A. The Years of Lyndon Johnson (4 volumes as of 2012): The Path to Power (1982); Means of Ascent (1990); Master of the Senate (2002); The Passage of Power (2012). The most detailed biography, extends to early 1964. Dallek, Robert. ' Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President (2004). A 400-page abridged version of his 2 volume scholarly biography, online edition of short version . Schulman, Bruce J. Lyndon B. Johnson and American Liberalism: A Brief Biography with Documents (1995) Woods, Randall. LBJ: Architect of American Ambition (2006). A highly detailed scholarly biography (1000 pages). External links	i don't know
One of the world's most visited art galleries, in which city is the Tretyakov Gallery?	Home » Sights » The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia The inspiration to invest in art came during Pavel Tretyakov's first-time journey to St. Petersburg. Before he opened his gallery he collected art for 4 decades. He bought his first acquisition, a group of 10 original works by Dutch masters, in 1854 shortly after inheriting a considerable estate worth some 3.8 million rubles from his father at the age of 18. The inheritance made him an important textile tycoon, a business that he and his brother Sergei expanded, opening new mills and employing thousands of Russians from various cities. Originally, Tretyakov had in mind a private collection of Russian art that he originally planned to leave to his descendants. Yet inspired by the St. Petersburg gallery of Fedor Pryanishnikov, Tretyakov came to the idea that there should exist a public gallery in which Russian art could inspire Russian ideas among its viewers. To realize this new and much larger goal, Tretyakov understood that he needed the best works that this huge country could produce. He even sponsored a society of great Moscow artists he called “The Wanderers” in 1870, who in turn provided him with an ever-growing collection of select work with which to fulfill his vision. Many of Russia’s best would find enough financial security to produce even greater works, for which Tretyakov would become almost immediately the collector. Tretyakov soon became known not only for his generosity to great artists, he also developed a renown for an almost legendary ability to discern the best in Russian art. The collection grew in both size and quality, but it finally took a dose of mortality before he was able to overcome the final obstruction to opening his gallery - perfectionism. The death of his brother Sergei finally convinced him to push for the opening of his great gallery of Russian art in mid-August 1894, and only 2 weeks later the city agreed to receive it as a public institution. Ever since, even during Soviet times, the Tretyakov has been synonymous with the best in Russian art and is considered to be the #1 art gallery in Moscow with more than 150,000 works of art as of today. You are here The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, Russia You are here	MoSCoW method
Released in 1989, 'Orange Crush' was the first UK top 40 hit for which rock group?	10 Must-See Masterpieces at the Tretyakov Gallery - Art in Russia 10 Must-See Masterpieces at the Tretyakov Gallery – August 6, 2014 Posted in: Artists , Moscow , Museums , Painting , Tsarist Era AdMe.ru , a Russian site dedicated to Russian popular culture and advertising, dug through the art museum’s collection and selected ten paintings with interesting histories. We hope they will inspire you to make a trip to the Tretyakov Gallery. You can read the original in Russian here . This has been translated for the first time into English by SRAS Translate Abroad intern Sophia Rehm. by Vasily Vereshchagin The Apotheosis of War by Vasily Vereshchagin This work was painted in 1871, and was influenced by Russia’s military operations in Turkestan, which were striking to witnesses for their brutality. The painting was initially called The Triumph of Tamerlane, after the ruler (also known as Timur) whose troops left behind pyramids of sculls. According to the story, the women of Baghdad and Damascus once complained to Tamerlane that their husbands were mired in sin and debauchery. The cruel commander ordered every soldier in his 200,000-strong army to bring him the severed head of one of these lecherous husbands. Once the order was carried out, seven pyramids were made from the heads. The artist later decided to give broader meaning to the painting. Vereshchagin wrote “The Apotheosis of War” on the frame, and added: “Dedicated to all the great conquerors, past, present and future.” by Vasily Pukirev The Unequal Marriage by Vasily Pukirev This painting depicts a wedding ceremony in an Orthodox church. The young, dowerless bride is marrying an old official against her will. According to one theory, the painting depicts the artist’s own romantic drama. Vasily Pukirev’s former bride-to-be served as the prototype for the image of the bride. Also, the image of the best man, shown behind the bride at the edge of the painting, with his arms across his chest, portrays the artist himself. by Vasily Surikov Boyarynya Morozova by Vasily Surikov This giant painting (10 ft. by 20 ft.) by Vasily Surikov depicts a scene from the history of the 17th century schism of the Russian Orthodox Church. The painting is dedicated to Feodosia Prokopiyevna Morozova, an associate of archpriest Avvakum, who was a spiritual leader of the Old Believers. Around 1670 she secretly became a nun, in 1671 she was arrested, and in 1673 she was sent to the Pafnutevo-Borovski Monastery, where she was starved to death in an earthen prison. The painting depicts an episode when the boyarynya (boyar’s wife) Morozova is transported through Moscow to the place of captivity. Next to Morozova is her sister Yevdokiya Urusova, who shared the dissenter’s fate; in the background is a pilgrim, in whose face the artist’s features can be found. by Ilya Repin Unexpected Return by Ilya Repin There are two versions of the painting Unexpected Return. The first of them was begun in 1888, and it depicted a student returning to her family. This version was painted in oil on wood. The second painting, painted in 1884-1888, depicts the moment of the unexpected return home of a political exile. The little boy and the woman at the piano (seemingly his wife) are delighted; the little girl looks at him warily; the chambermaid is incredulous; and in the foreground, the hunched figure of his mother conveys deep emotional shock. Today, both paintings belong to the Tretyakov Gallery’s collection. Note that the title of the work is sometimes translated as An Unexpected Visitor or as They Did Not Expect Him. We have used the translation used by the Tretyakov Gallery here. by Andrei Rublev Trinity by Andrei Rublev The Tretyakov Gallery has a rich collection of Old Russian paintings of the 11th-17th centuries, including the works of Dionisius, Simon Ushakov, and Andrei Rublev. In the Tretyakov’s Exhibition Hall 60 hangs one of the most famous and celebrated icons in the world: Trinity, painted by Andrei Rublev in the first quarter of the 15th century. Three angels are gathered around a table for a quiet, unhurried conversation. On the table sits a sacrificial bowl. Trinity is kept in Tretyakov’s Hall of Old Russian Art, in a special glass enclosure, which maintains constant temperature and humidity and protects the icon from any damage. Portrait of an Unknown Woman by Ivan Kramskoi Portrait of an Unknown Woman by Ivan Kramskoi There is no doubt as to this painting’s setting: St. Petersburg’s Nevsky Prospekt, specifically the Anichkov Bridge. But the image of the woman still remains the artist’s secret. Kramskoi left no references to the identity of the unknown woman in letters or journals. Critics have associated the image with Lev Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina, Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Nastasya Filipovna, and other famous women. There is also a theory that the painting depicts the artist’s daughter, Sophia Ivanovna Kramskaya. In Soviet times, Kramskoi’s Portrait of an Unknown Woman became practically a Russian Sistine Madonna – the ideal embodiment of unearthly beauty and spirituality. It hung in every respectable Soviet home. by Boris Kustodiev Beauty by Boris Kustodiev The artist’s son recalls how Kustodiev painted one of his most famous paintings: “He worked on the painting every day, beginning at six or seven o’clock in the morning and working all day. The painting was based on a drawing done in pencil and red chalk, from life (the model was an actress from the Moscow Art Theater). The down blanket, which my mother gave my father for his birthday, was also painted from life. “My grandmother, who was living in St. Petersburg that summer, once brought us three plaster figurines she bought at the Sytny Market. My father loved them, and he painted them into the painting (on the bureau, to the right). In our home, we had a wonderful antique chest., It had an iron face painted with red roses in a vase on a black background. My father used this motif for the pattern on the chest in the painting, although he changed the color.” by Viktor Vasnetsov Bogatyrs by Viktor Vasnetsov Vasnetsov worked on this painting for almost twenty years. It was finished on April 23, 1898, and soon bought by Pavel Tretyakov for his gallery. In Russian epics, Dobrynya and Alyosha (two of the three famous fairytale “bogatyrs,” or knights) are young, but for some reason Vasnetsov portrayed Dobrynya as a grown man with a lush beard. Some researchers think that Dobrynya’s features resemble those of the artist himself. The prototype for Ilya Muromets (the third bogatyr) was a peasant from the Vladimir Province, Ivan Petrov, whom Vasnetsov had rendered before in one of his studies. It’s worth mentioning that Ilya Muromets is not a fairy-tale character, but a historical figure. The story of his life and feats of arms describe real events. When he grew old and finished toiling to protect his homeland, he became a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, where he died in 1188. Bathing of a Red Horse by Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin Bathing of a Red Horse by Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin The painting Bathing of a Red Horse, which amazed contemporaries with its monumentality and significance, brought artist Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin world fame. The Red Horse stands for the Fate of Russia, which the fragile, young rider cannot rein in. According to another interpretation, the Red Horse is Russia itself. In this case, it is impossible not to note the artist’s prophetic gift: in this painting he symbolically predicted the “red” fate of Russia in the 20th century. Petrov-Vodkin painted the horse from a real stallion named “Boy.” For the image of the youth sitting astride the horse, the artist used the features of his pupil, the artist Sergey Kalmykov: “For the information of my future biographers. My dear Kuzma Sergeevich painted me on the red horse… I was the model forthe languid youth in the painting.” by Mikhail Vrubel The Swan Princess by Mikhail Vrubel This work was painted in 1900 based on the stage version of the heroine of Rimsky-Korsakov’s opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan, from the fairy-tale of the same name by Alexander Pushkin. Vrubel designed the set of the performance, and the artist’s wife, Nadezhda Zabela-Vrubel, played the part of the Swan Princess. “Most singers sing like birds, but Nadya sings like a human being!” Vrubel said of her. SRAS students come from around the world to study, intern, or research in Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine, or Russia. They often write while abroad and, on occasion, SRAS will request to publish exceptional works. This account on Students Abroad will serve as platform to publish single contributions from individual students. SRAS Students	i don't know
Which English town shares its name with the capital of the Caribbean island of Tobago?	Islands in Brief in Caribbean \| Frommer's advertisement Anguilla Although it's developing rapidly as vacationers discover its 19km (12 miles) of arid but spectacular beaches, Anguilla (rhymes with "vanilla") is still quiet, sleepy, and relatively free of racial tensions. A flat coral island, it maintains a maritime tradition of proud fishermen, many of whom still make a living from the sea, catching lobsters and selling them at high prices to expensive resorts and restaurants. Although the island has a handful of moderately priced accommodations, Anguilla is a very expensive destination, with small and rather exclusive resorts. It's as posh as St. Barts, but without all the snobbery. There are no casinos (and that's the way most of the locals want it). In fact, there's not much to do here except lie in the sun, bask in luxury, and enjoy fine dining. Antigua Antigua is famous for having a different beach for every day of the year, but it lacks the lushness of such islands as Dominica and Jamaica. Some British traditions (including a passion for cricket) linger, even though the nation became independent in 1981. The island's population of 80,000 is mostly descended from the African slaves of plantation owners. Antigua's resorts are isolated and conservative but very glamorous, its highways are horribly maintained, and its historic naval sites are interesting. Antigua is politically linked to the sparsely inhabited and largely undeveloped island of Barbuda, about 50km (31 miles) north. In spite of its small size, Barbuda has two posh, pricey resorts. Aruba Until its beaches were "discovered" in the late 1970s, Aruba, with its desertlike terrain and lunarlike interior landscapes, was an almost-forgotten outpost of Holland, valued mostly for its oil refineries and salt factories. Today vacationers come for the dependable sunshine (it rains less here than anywhere else in the Caribbean), the spectacular beaches, and an almost total lack of racial tensions despite a culturally diverse population. The high-rise hotels of Aruba are within walking distance of each other along a strip of fabulous beach. You don't stay in old, converted, family-run sugar mills here, and you don't come for history. You come if you're interested in gambling and splashy high-rise resorts. Barbados Originally founded on a plantation economy that made its aristocracy rich on the backs of slave laborers, this Atlantic outpost was a staunchly loyal member of the British Commonwealth for generations. Barbados is the Caribbean's easternmost island, a great coral reef floating in the mid-Atlantic and ringed with glorious beige-sand beaches. Cosmopolitan Barbados has the densest population of any island in the Caribbean, with few racial tensions despite its history of slavery. A loyal group of return visitors appreciates its stylish, medium-size hotels (many of which carry a hefty price tag). Usually, service is extremely good, a byproduct of the British mores that have flourished here for a century. Topography varies from rolling hills and savage waves on the eastern (Atlantic) coast to densely populated flatlands, rows of hotels and apartments, and sheltered beaches in the southwest. If you're looking for a Las Vegas-type atmosphere and fine beaches, go to Aruba. If you want history (there are lots of great houses and old churches to explore); a quiet, conservative atmosphere; and fine beaches, come here. Bonaire Its strongest historical and cultural links are to Holland. Although long considered a poor relation of nearby Curaçao, Bonaire has better scuba diving and better bird life than any of its larger and richer neighbors. The terrain is as dry and inhospitable as anything you'll find in the Caribbean, a sparse desert landscape offset by a wealth of marine life that thrives along miles of offshore reefs. The island isn't overly blessed with natural resources, but those coral reefs around most of the island attract divers and snorkelers from all over the world. The casino and party crowds should head for Aruba instead. The British Virgin Islands (B.V.I.) Still a British Crown Colony, this lushly forested chain consists of about 50 small, mountainous islands (depending on how many rocks, cays, and uninhabited islets you want to include). Superb for sailors, the B.V.I. are less populated and less developed, and have fewer social problems than the U.S. Virgin Islands. Tortola is the main island, followed by Virgin Gorda, where you'll find some of the poshest hotels in the West Indies. Anegada, a coral atoll geologically different from the other members of the B.V.I., mainly attracts the yachting set. Come here for the laid-back lifestyle, the lovely sandy beaches, the friendly people, and the small, intimate inns. The Cayman Islands This trio of islands is set near the southern coast of Cuba. It's a prosperous, tiny nation dependent on Britain for its economic survival and attracting millionaire expatriates from all over the world by means of some very lenient tax and banking laws. Relatively flat and unattractive, these islands are covered with scrubland and swamp, but they have more than their share of expensive private homes and condominiums. Until the millennium, Grand Cayman enjoyed one of the most closely knit societies in the Caribbean, although recent prosperity has created some socioeconomic divisions. The warm, crystal-clear waters and the colorful marine life in the offshore reefs surrounding the island attract scuba divers and snorkelers. Many hotels line the luscious sands of Seven Mile Beach. Curaçao Because much of the island's surface is an arid desert that grows only cactus, its canny Dutch settlers ruled out farming and made Curaçao (Coo-ra-sow) into one of the Dutch empire's busiest trading posts. Until the post-World War II collapse of the oil refineries, Curaçao was a thriving mercantile society with a capital (Willemstad) that somewhat resembled Amsterdam and a population with a curious mixture of bloodlines, including African, Dutch, Venezuelan, and Pakistani. The main language here is Papiamento, a mixture of African and European dialects, though Dutch, Spanish, and English are also spoken. Tourism began to develop during the 1980s, and many hotels have been built since then. The island has a few interesting historic sights, and Willemstad is one of the most charming towns in the Caribbean. If you're choosing among the Dutch ABC islands, go to Aruba for beaches and gambling, Bonaire for scuba diving, and Curaçao for little cove beaches, shopping, history, and its distinctive "Dutch in the Caribbean" culture. Dominica An English-speaking island set midway between Guadeloupe and Martinique, Dominica (Doh-mi-nee-kah), the largest and most mountainous island of the Windward Islands, is not to be confused with the Dominican Republic . A mysterious, little-visited land of waterfalls, rushing streams, and rainforests, it has only a few beaches, most of which are lined with black volcanic sand. But if you like the offbeat and unusual, you may find this lush island the most fascinating in the Caribbean. Some 85,000 people live here, including 2,000 descendants of the Carib Indians. Roseau, one of the smallest capitals in the Caribbean, is more like an overgrown Creole village than a city. Dominica is one of the poorest islands in the Caribbean, and it has the misfortune of lying directly in the hurricane belt. The Dominican Republic Occupying the eastern two-thirds of Hispaniola, the island it shares with Haiti, the mountainous Dominican Republic is the second-largest country of the Caribbean. Long a victim of various military dictatorships, it now has a more favorable political climate and is one of the most affordable destinations in the Caribbean. Its crowded capital is Santo Domingo, with a population of two million. The island offers lots of Latin color, zesty merengue music, and many opportunities to dance, drink, and party. Unfortunately, the contrast between the wealth of foreign tourists and the poverty of locals is particularly conspicuous, and it's not the safest island. For fun in the sun and good beaches, head for La Romana in the southeast, Punta Cana on the easternmost shore, Puerto Plata in the northwest, or any resorts along the Amber Coast in the north. Grenada The southernmost nation of the Windward Islands, Grenada (Gre-nay-dah) is one of the lushest islands in the Caribbean. With its gentle climate and extravagantly fertile volcanic soil, it's one of the largest producers of spices in the Western Hemisphere. There's a lot of very appealing local color on Grenada, particularly since the political troubles of the 1980s seem, at least for the moment, to have ended. There are beautiful white-sand beaches, and the populace (a mixture of English expatriates and islanders of African descent) is friendly. Once a British Crown Colony but now independent, the island nation also incorporates two smaller islands: Carriacou and Petit Martinique, neither of which has many tourist facilities. Grenada's capital, St. George's, is one of the most charming towns in the Caribbean. Guadeloupe Although it isn't as sophisticated or cosmopolitan as the two outlying islands over which it holds administrative authority -- St. Barthélemy and the French section of St. Martin -- there's a lot of natural beauty in this département of mainland France. With a relatively low population density (only 440,000 people live here, mostly along the coast), butterfly-shaped Guadeloupe is actually two distinctly different volcanic islands separated by a narrow saltwater strait, the Rivière Salée. It's ideal for scenic drives and Creole color, offering an unusual insight into the French colonial world. The island has a lot of good beaches, each one different, and a vast national park (a huge tropical forest with everything from wild orchids to coffee and vanilla plants). It's life à la française in the tropics, but we'd give the nod to Martinique if you can visit only one French island. Jamaica A favorite of North American honeymooners, Jamaica is a mountainous island that rises abruptly from the sea 145km (90 miles) south of Cuba and about 160km (99 miles) west of Haiti. One of the most densely populated nations in the Caribbean, with a vivid sense of its own identity, Jamaica has a history rooted in the plantation economy and some of the most turbulent and impassioned politics in the Western Hemisphere. In spite of its economic and social problems, Jamaica is one of the most successful black democracies in the world. The island is large enough to allow the more or less peaceful coexistence of all kinds of people within its beach-lined borders -- everyone from expatriate English aristocrats to dyed-in-the-wool Rastafarians. Its tourist industry has been plagued by the island's reputation for aggressive vendors and racial tension, but it is taking steps to improve the situation. Overall, and despite its long history of social unrest, increasing crime, and poverty, Jamaica is a fascinating island. It offers excellent beaches, golf, eco-tourism adventures, and fine hotels in all price brackets, making it one of the most popular destinations in the Caribbean, especially since you can find package deals galore. Martinique One of the most exotic French-speaking destinations in the Caribbean, Martinique was the site of a settlement demolished by volcanic activity (St. Pierre, now only a pale shadow of a once-thriving city). Like Guadeloupe and St. Barts, Martinique is legally and culturally French (certainly, many islanders drive with a Gallic panache -- read: very badly), although many Creole customs and traditions continue to flourish. The beaches are beautiful, the Creole cuisine is full of flavor and flair, and the island has lots of tropical charm. Even more than Guadeloupe, this is the social and cultural center of the French Antilles. If you'd like to visit a charmingly beautiful island with elegant people, the Martiniquaise will wish you bonjour. Puerto Rico Home to more than four million people whose primary language is Spanish (though English is widely spoken, too), the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is under the jurisdiction of the United States and has a more or less comfortable mix of Latin culture with imports from the U.S. mainland. It's the most urban island of the Caribbean, with lots of traffic and relatively high crime, though it compensates with great beaches, glittering casinos, hotels in all price brackets, sports and eco-tourism offerings, good hearty food, and sizzling salsa clubs. The island's interior is filled with rainforests and ancient volcanic mountains; the coastline is ringed with gorgeous sandy beaches. The commonwealth also includes a trio of small offshore islands: Culebra, Mona, and Vieques (the last has the most tourist facilities). San Juan, the island's capital, has some of the most extensive and best-preserved Spanish colonial neighborhoods in the New World, with historic sites and much to see and do, and a steady flow of cruise-ship passengers who keep the stores and casinos filled throughout much of the year. You can usually find great package deals through Puerto Rico's hotels and resorts. Saba Saba is a cone-shaped extinct volcano that rises abruptly and steeply from the watery depths of the Caribbean. With no beaches or historic sights to speak of, the local Dutch- and English-speaking populace has traditionally made a living from fishing, trade, and needlework, rather than tourism. Hotel choices are limited. Saba's thrifty, seafaring folk can offer insights into the old-fashioned lifestyle of the Netherlands Antilles. There's only one road on the island, and unless you opt to hike away from its edges, you'll have to follow the traffic along its narrow, winding route. Basically, you come here if you want to hang out at your hotel pool, climb up to a rainforest, go diving, and perhaps make a day trip to one of the nearby islands. Saba is a place to visit if you like to collect untouristy islands. You may want to come just for the afternoon -- you can do this by plane or trimaran. St. Barthélemy (St. Barts) Part of the French département of Guadeloupe, lying 24km (15 miles) from St. Martin, St. Barts is a small, hilly island with a population of 7,000 people who live on 34 sq. km (13 sq. miles) of verdant terrain ringed by pleasant white-sand beaches. A small number of African descendants live harmoniously on this chic Caribbean island with descendants of Norman and Breton mariners and a colony of more recent expatriates from Europe. An expensive and exclusive stomping ground of the rich and famous, with a distinctive seafaring tradition and a decidedly French flavor, St. Barts has a lovely "storybook" capital in Gustavia. For sophistication and luxury living, St. Barts is equaled in the Caribbean only by Anguilla, and the price tag isn't cheap. It's a place to visit if you want to wind down from a stressful life. St. Eustatius (also known as Statia) Statia is part of the Netherlands Antilles and the Leeward Islands, lying to the south of Dutch St. Maarten. During the 1700s, this Dutch-controlled island ("the Golden Rock") was one of the most important trading posts in the Caribbean. During the U.S. War of Independence, a brisk arms trade helped to bolster the local economy, but the glamour ended in 1781, when British Admiral Romney sacked the port, hauled off most of the island's wealth, and propelled St. Eustatius onto a path of obscurity -- where it remained for almost 200 years, until the advent of tourism. Today the island is among the poorest in the Caribbean, with 21 sq. km (8 sq. miles) of arid landscape, beaches with strong and sometimes dangerous undertows, a population of around 3,000 people, and a sleepy capital, Oranjestad. Out of desperation, the island is very committed to maintaining its political and fiscal links to the Netherlands. This is a destination for people who are interested in American Revolution-era history and who like hanging out around a pool at a friendly, informal local inn. Most people will want to make a day trip to see the historic sites, have lunch, and leave. St. Kitts & Nevis The first English settlement in the Leeward Islands, St. Kitts has a rich sense of British maritime history. With 176 sq. km (68 sq. miles) of land, St. Kitts enjoyed one of the richest sugar-cane economies of the plantation age. This island lies somewhat off the beaten tourist track and has a very appealing, intimate charm. A lush, fertile mountain island with a rainforest and waterfalls, it is crowned by the 1,138m (3,734-ft.) Mount Liamuiga, a crater that, thankfully, has remained dormant (unlike the one at Montserrat). St. Kitts is home to some 38,000 people and Brimstone Hill, the Caribbean's most impressive fortress. Come here for the beaches and the history, for lush natural scenery, and to stay at a restored plantation home that's been turned into a charming inn. Lots of sporting activities, ranging from mountain climbing to horseback riding, are also available. Many Nevisians feel strongly about eventually breaking away from St. Kitts, from which Nevis is separated by 3km (2 miles) of water. Nevis was spotted by Columbus in 1493 on his second voyage to the New World. He called it Nieves -- Spanish for "snows" -- when he saw the cloud-crowned volcanic isle that evoked for him the snow-capped peaks of the Pyrenees. Known for its long beaches of both black and white sand, Nevis, more than any other island in the Caribbean, has turned its former great houses, built during the plantation era, into some of the most charming and atmospheric inns in the West Indies. It also has the Four Seasons Resort for those who want world-class elegance and service. The capital city of Charlestown looks like a real Caribbean backwater, though it is home to hundreds of worldwide businesses that are drawn to Nevis for its tax laws and bank secrecy. St. Lucia St. Lucia (Loo-sha), 39km (24 miles) south of Martinique, is the second largest of the Windward Islands. Although in 1803 Britain eventually won control of the island, French influence is still evident in the Creole dialect spoken here. A volcanic island with lots of rainfall and great natural beauty, it has white- and black-sand beaches, bubbling sulfur springs, and beautiful mountain scenery. Most tourism is concentrated on the island's northwestern tip, near the capital (Castries), but the arrival of up to 200,000 visitors a year has altered the old agrarian lifestyle throughout the island. Come here for the posh resorts and the gorgeous beaches, the rainforests, and the lush tropical foliage. St. Maarten/St. Martin Lying 232km (144 miles) east of Puerto Rico, this scrub-covered island has been divided between the Dutch (Sint Maarten) and the French (Saint Martin) since 1648. Regardless of how you spell its name, it's the same island on both sides of the unguarded border -- though the two halves are quite different. The Dutch side contains the island's major airport, more shops, and more tourist facilities; the French side has some of the poshest hotels and superior food. Both are modern, urbanized, and cosmopolitan, and both suffer from traffic jams, a lack of parking space in the capitals, tourist-industry burnout (especially on the Dutch side), and a disturbing increase in crime. In spite of the drawbacks, there's a lot to attract you here -- great beaches, the shopping (some of the Caribbean's best), the gambling, the self-contained resorts, the nonstop flights from the U.S., the nightlife, and some of the best restaurants in the Caribbean. For a day trip from here, you can fly to St. Eustatius or Saba. St. Vincent & the Grenadines The natural beauty of this miniarchipelago has long been known to divers and the yachting set, who consider its north-to-south string of cays and coral islets one of the loveliest sailing regions in the world. St. Vincent (29km/18 miles long and 18km/11 miles wide) is by far the largest and most fertile island in the country. Its capital is the sleepy, somewhat dilapidated town of Kingstown (not to be confused with Kingston, Jamaica). The Grenadines, some 32 neighboring islands, stretch like a pearl necklace to the south of St. Vincent. These include the charming boat-building communities of Bequia and Mustique, where the late Princess Margaret had a home. Less densely populated islands in the chain include the tiny outposts of Mayreau, Canouan, Palm Island, and Petit St. Vincent, which was mostly covered with scrub until hotel owners planted much-needed groves of palm and hardwood trees and opened resorts. Trinidad & Tobago The southernmost of the West Indies, this two-island nation lies just 11km (6 3/4 miles) off the coast of Venezuela. Both islands once had sugar-plantation economies and enjoyed fantastic wealth during the 18th century. Trinidad is the most industrialized island in the Caribbean, with oil deposits and a polyglot population from India, Pakistan, Venezuela, Africa, and Europe. Known for its calypso music and Carnival celebrations, it is also one of the most culturally distinctive nations in the Caribbean, with a rich artistic tradition. In its 4,662 sq. km (1,800 sq. miles), you'll find a bustling capital (Port-of-Spain), wildlife sanctuaries, and an impressive variety of exotic flora and fauna. What you won't necessarily find are beaches: While Trinidad has some excellent ones, they are far removed from the capital and hard to locate. For beach life, head for Tobago, which is about 30km (19 miles) northeast of Trinidad. Tiny Tobago (14km/8 3/4 miles wide and 42km/26 miles long) is calmer and less heavily forested, with a rather dull capital (Scarborough) and an impressive array of white-sand beaches. While Trinidad seems to consider tourism only one of many viable industries, Tobago is absolutely dependent on it. Life is sleepy on Tobago, unlike bustling Trinidad. Tobago has coral reefs ideal for scuba diving, rainforests, powdery sands, shoreline drives, lanes of coconut palms, and a soothing get-away-from-it-all atmosphere. We hope it stays that way. Turks & Caicos Although these islands are actually part of the Bahamian archipelago -- they are to the east of the southernmost islands of the Bahamas, directly north of Haiti and the Dominican Republic -- they are governed separately. Home of Cockburn Town, the capital of Turks and Caicos (Kayk-us), Grand Turk nevertheless has a small-town atmosphere. The farthest island from Florida, it totals 23 sq. km (8 4/5 sq. miles). Grand Turk is ringed by abundant marine life, but most of the island's surface is flat, rocky, and dry. The diving is world class -- the main draw for most visitors. Grand Turk has a relatively undeveloped tourist infrastructure, although it offers a scattering of inns and hotels. One of the larger islands of Turks and Caicos, Providenciales, or Provo, is green but arid, with miles of scrubland and stunted trees covering the island's low, undulating hills. Whatever Turks and Caicos has to offer in organized sports is here, including the nation's only golf course, boat tours, and diving excursions. The 19km (12-mile) beach and pristine coastline of Provo were a tourist development waiting to happen. In the late 1970s, hotel megaliths such as Club Med poured money into increasingly popular low-rise eco-conscious resorts. Now Provo's tourist infrastructure far surpasses that of Grand Turk. The island also has the best cuisine and the finest entertainment in Turks and Caicos, but it's still much sleepier than the big developments of Aruba. The U.S. Virgin Islands Formerly Danish possessions, these islands became part of the United States in 1917. Originally based on a plantation economy, St. Croix is the largest and flattest of the U.S. Virgins, and St. Thomas and St. John are more mountainous. All three islands offer stunning beaches, great snorkeling, sailing, and lovely scenery, but they are rather expensive destinations. If you want great shopping and lots of diversions, facilities, bars, restaurants, and modern resort hotels, go to overbuilt St. Thomas, sometimes referred to as the shopping mall of the Caribbean. Cruise-ship passengers pass through constantly. St. Croix also has good facilities, though not as many as St. Thomas. It's more laid-back, a better place to escape for peace and quiet. St. John is most often visited on a day trip from St. Thomas. Much of this island is devoted to a national park, a gift from Laurance Rockefeller to the national park system. Petty crime is on the increase, however -- an unfortunate fly in the ointment of this otherwise soothing corner of paradise. Note: This information was accurate when it was published, but can change without notice. Please be sure to confirm all rates and details directly with the companies in question before planning your trip. advertisement	Scarborough
Which American car make, owned by General Motors, took its name from the French explorer who founded Detroit in 1701?	DEC Heritage Festival Tobago is a hub for festivals and events all year round. From carnivals and food festivals to boat racing, if you time your trip right you can experience the vibrancy of the Caribbean island’s culture in its full glory. Check the annual calendar of events before you book to find the perfect one for you. Scuba Diving We can’t talk about Tobago without mentioning scuba diving. The dive sites dotted around its coast are amongst the best in the world, full of exotic marine life and coral reefs. One of the most popular spots is Flying Reef where you can swim alongside anything from stingrays to turtles. Tobago Jazz Festival At the heart of island’s music scene is jazz and every April stars from around the world such as John Legend and Jennifer Hudson arrive to enjoy the eleven-day Tobago Jazz Festival. The performances during the day turn into festivities that carry on late into the night. It really is a great time to experience the Caribbean lifestyle. Windsurfing With the Caribbean Sea on one side and the Atlantic Ocean on the other, Tobago offers perfect conditions for all kinds of water sports. Windsurfing is one of the most popular, particularly between December and June when the waters off Pigeon Point become scattered with adrenaline seekers. Scarborough Port Scarborough is the capital Tobago and its pretty harbour is the star attraction. Dotted with cruise ships and yachts throughout the year, it’s a great base to explore the rest of the island. The influences from different countries including the Netherlands and France also add an international flavour, making for some delicious Caribbean-fusion food. 10 facts about Tobago 1. The islands of Trinidad & Tobago are part of the same country, though each have different scenery, cultures, cuisines and festivities. 2.	i don't know
Which city in southeast France lies at the confluence of the Rhone and Durance rivers?	Durance \| river, France \| Britannica.com Durance River Severn Durance, Latin Druentia, principal river draining the French side of the Alps toward the Mediterranean. From its origin in the Montgenèvre region, Hautes-Alpes département, to its confluence with the Rhône below Avignon , it is 189 mi (304 km) long. The Clairée and Guisane rivers, both of which are longer and more powerful streams than the Durance, join it above and in Briançon , through which it flows as a torrent. Receiving other tributaries, it passes through spectacular gorges and a stony valley to skirt Embrun. There it is tamed by the Serre-Ponçon Dam, 16 mi downstream, which has formed a lake covering 10.5 sq mi (27 sq km) in the valleys of the Durance and of the converging Ubaye River. The Durance at Sisteron, France. © Elena Elisseeva/Shutterstock.com After entering the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence département, it is joined by the wild Buech torrent above Sisteron. Dammed again below the town, it forms another artificial lake above the Château-Arnoux Dam, after which it is joined by the Bléone and the Asse rivers. After receiving the Vernon River, the Durance turns west along the departmental border of Bouches-du-Rhône and Vaucluse to join the Rhône River . Several other large dams were constructed on the lower Durance and its tributaries, and extensive hydroelectric-power and irrigation-water supply projects were established after World War II . Learn More in these related articles:	Avignon
Which English city shares its name with the capital of the Caribbean island of Monserrat that was destroyed by the Soufriere Hills volcanic eruption in 1995?	Take a day out to visit one of the world's most famous wine regions, Saint-Emilion, listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. You'll sample the region's fine wines, take a cellar tour and visit the medieval village of Saint-Emilion. Highlights Led by a local guide Free drinks included The day begins with a tour of a Classified Growth (Clos Fourtet or Chateau Beau-Sejour Becot) in the Saint-Emilion appellation, followed by a wine grower's lunch at Chateau Haut-Sarpe. Your excursion ends with a visit to the medieval town of Saint-Emilion and its underground monuments. Dax - Dax is the top spa retreat in France providing temperate weather due to its proximity to the Atlantic and Europe's largest forest. Pau - Since the 19th century Pau has been extremely popular with English tourists for health reasons due to its favorable climate, both summer and winter. Saint Jean de Luz - With the Pyrenees as a back frame, this idyllic little commune is a convenient launching spot to the Basque region containing both French and Spanish cities. Regional capital: Clermont-Ferrand The mountainous features of this region, in central France, have always contributed to its relative isolation feeling of going back in time. Towns in Auvergne Aurillac - Former the umbrella capital of France, the frosty town of Aurillac is generally considered one of the coldest cities in the country. Clermont-Ferrand - Surrounded by a chain of volcanoes and a major industrial area, the city of Clermont-Ferrand is one of the oldest in Europe. La Bourboule - This tiny commune in the Auvergne region is a get-away spa destination located in a scenic narrow valley. Montlucon - In central France on the Cher River, Montlucon is an industrial commune. Vichy - Renown for its therapeutic waters since Roma's founding of the city, circa 52 B. C., contemporary Vichy continues the therapeutic tradition with increasing attention to beauty products and health aids in general. Regional capital: Rennes Brittany currently is the main agricultural area of France and improved roadways and railroads have spurred new industrial development in its cities (motor vehicle plants in Rennes, engineering and electronics in Brest). Tourism also plays an active economic role. Towns in Bretagne Brest - Yachting, windsurfing, and fishing are popular activities here. Interesting culinary offerings include Traou Mad (butter biscuit), Breton crepe, and Breton cider. Carnac - Close to the seaside resort of Carnac-Plage, this small town is also well known for it camping activities and lakes. Dinan - Dinan contains well-preserved ramparts, towers, and a castle complete with entrancing art and buildings. Dinard - What was once a nondescript fishing commune is currently a popular resort. Lorient - Lorient is a commune/seaport that welcomes the rivers Scorff and Blavet. Both empty into the Atlantic Ocean there. Quimper - Unlike its almost namesake, Quimperle, Quimper is more populous and has a renown pottery industry featuring traditional Breton blue and yellow designs. Rennes - Modern Rennes offers a diverse economy of tourism, telecommunications, and automobile (Citroen) production. Saint Malo - Saint Malo's swashbuckling past includes a period of time in the 16th century when it was under the control of an aggressive band of buccaneers. Vannes - Established more than 2,000 years ago, Vannes is situated at the joining of the Vannes River and Gulf of Morbihan. Burgundy can be likened to a great autobahn on the north-south axis of the European continent. Towns in Bourgogne Auxerre - This lovely town in Burgundy has an active commercial life and is located on two hills northwest of Dijon, above the left bank of the Yonne River. Beaune - Historically, Beaune flourished as a residence of the dukes of Burgundy. Dijon Tours - Dijon's patron saint, Saint Kelly, reportedly introduced Christianity to the region before embracing (worshipfully, we might add) martyrdom. Online Reservations Situated in the heart of Burgundy, the Cote d'Or is worthy of its name, the Golden Ridge. The autumn vineyards are rich with a myriad of colors. Today you will journey through the vineyards of the Cote de Nuits wine district, traveling through the villages of Fixin, Gevrey Chambertin, Morey Saint Denis, Chambolle-Musigny, Vougeot, Vosne-Romanee and Nuits St Georges on the Route des Grands Crus and along small vineyard roads. Your wine specialist-guide will explain the different varieties and wine qualities as well as different tasks performed throughout the year to care for the vines, the harvest, and historical aspects of the vines and villages. The tour stops for two guided cellar visits and comprehensive wine tasting where everything you've learnt throughout the day comes together. Enjoy the delights of Burgundy one sip at a time. Macon - The Macon wines are predominantly light red, must be imbibed young for their best effect, and are most compatible with red meat and mild cheeses. This region is of very high agricultural importance to France's cereal production. Towns in Centre Amboise - Amboise is located on the Loire's left bank and was formerly home of the French royal court and the focus of much political intrigue, religious and secular. Blois - During the Medieval era Blois was the home for more than 400 years of French Kings and Queens. Bourges - Bourges sits at the convergence of the Yevre and Aveyron Rivers, and hosts a university and major industries devoted to armaments, tyres, and engineering. Chartres - Chartres is considered the commercial focal point of the plains of Beauce, known as the granary of France. Chateauroux - Local fare in Chateauroux is basic but savory as it is enhanced by a selection of interesting goat cheeses and wines. Chinon - On the banks of the Vienne River, Chinon is noted for its fine Cabernet Franc red wine. Orleans - Somewhat less than a 100 miles southwest of Paris on the Loire River, Orleans was established by an influential Celtic tribe and later became a Roman outpost. Tours - Tours is also referred to as the "garden of France? because of its plentiful city public gardens. Regional capital: Chalons-en-Champagne The Champagne region sports rich agricultural resources such as cereal crops and vineyards which produce the famous vintage, Champagne. Towns in Champagne-Ardenne Chalons-en-Champagne - Capital of the Champagne-Ardenne region, Chalons-en-Champagne sits along the right bank of the Marne River. Epernay - Epernay is the 2nd largest producer of champagne (after Reims) though it is only 1/6th as populous as its more acclaimed competitor. Reims - Reims is one of the most historically significant cities in France as the coronation site for French kings from 988 to 1825. It also was the site where Germany surrendered in a formal ceremony to the Allies in May 1945. Regional capital: Ajaccio The island of Corsica is a self-contained region with a small population attributed to emigration, based upon poor economic prospects. Besanonc is the hub of France's watch and clock-making and high precision engineering industries. Towns in Franche-Comte Besancon - Besancon has won the title of France's greenest city and offers a fine university and many types of festivals. Dole - Another of France's lovely communes, located on the Doubs River. Dole is the birthplace of Louis Pasteur and a popular barge tour destination. Montbeliard - Dating from the 8th century A.D., Montbeliard's economy is almost exclusively devoted to the Peugeot plant that employs two-thirds of its working citizens. Regional capital: Paris The region includes about 1/5 of the population of France, including the Paris metropolis, and has the highest concentration of economic activities in the country. Towns in Ile-de-France Chaumont - A suburb of Paris. Fontainebleau - This city lies 35 miles southeast of Paris in the largest state forest in France (50,000 acres) and is a favorite weekend get away for Parisians. Montigny-le-Roi - A small hamlet, Montigny-le-roi is a rural area located near a densely-forested area, approximately equidistant from Dijon and Nancy. Paris - The capital of France, Paris is, arguably, the most popular tourist destination in the world. Online Reservations Cruise down the Seine River on a dinner cruise which combines Paris sightseeing, French cuisine and evening entertainment in one unforgettable package. During dinner there's sophisticated entertainment from a singer and band as you glide along the Seine River. Your fabulous three-course French dinner is prepared on board by Chef Gras, an Academie Culinaire de France chef, and his team. While enjoying the dishes, you'll glide down the Seine River aboard a Bateaux Parisiens boat. Bateaux Parisiens boats have a unique glass roof and panoramic windows, providing unobstructed views of the illuminated riverside sights of Paris. The cruise departs from the Eiffel Tower and sails along the Left Bank to the illuminated Ministry of Finance building at Bercy. The cruises return to the lights of the Eiffel Tower via the Right Bank. Highlights See the sights illuminated at night Choice of seating available Several menus to choose from Free drinks included Travel by boat and see the sights from the water Dinner included Provins - Over the years Provins and its historical ruins have been chronicled by Marcel Proust, Umberto Eco, Victor Hugo, Honore de Balzac, and others. Regional capital: Montpellier Languedoc-Roussillon is currently enjoying a rebirth as a result of agricultural diversification, expansion of tourism, and the establishment of advanced technology industries and research, especially around Montpellier, an important university center. Towns in Languedoc-Roussillon Aigues Mortes - This is an attractive medieval walled city with ancient Roman roots that, to its benefit, has not been unduly restored. Albi - Constructed from red materials from the River Tarn, Albi is a charming town in appearance and an unexpected site of much of the art of Henri Tolouse-Lautrec. Ales - Punky Connors Irish Pub is supposed to have a brilliant lamb stew. No report in, thus far, on the Ales but we suspect the Porter might be quite good. Beziers - An industrial city in southern France, Beziers was formerly a Gallic fortress; currently has an important wine trading industry. Carcassonne - The enclosed section of this town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that presents itself as a walled, Medieval city. La Grande Motte - A well-known, beach resort by the Mediterranean in southern France, La Grande Motte has modern marinas and sporting facilities. Montpellier - Modern Montpellier is a mult-national city with only about 20 percent of its populace being native. This is a rare circumstance in France. Narbonne - The first French area colonized by the Roman Empire, Narbonne today is a beautiful, wine-growing community with other industries that produce sulphur, clothing, and copper. Nimes Tours - Attractively situated at the base of the Cevennes mountains, Nimes sports an active textile industry, Perpignan - Perpignan lies on the Tet River in southern France with easy access to Spain and the Mediterranean. Saint Paul de Vence - Saint Paul de Vence encompasses a village-fortress-on a narrow ridge between two deep valleys-and outlying residences. Sete - An important commercial and fishing port, Sete lies at the foot of Mont St-Clair and is crossed by an elaborate canal system with 14 bridges. Regional capital: Limoges Limousin is important for its agri-foodstuffs and leather industries. The "Porcelaine de Limoges" which produces world renown wares is also here. Towns in Limousin Brive - Brive still retains its medieval center, though it is now commercialised with retail shops and cafes. Limoges - A major crossroads on the Vienne River, Limoges can be discovered in an appealing agricultural area of central France. Regional capital: Metz Lorraine is now engaged in a far-reaching program of industrial conversion and diversification of activities in Metz and Nancy, the university center. Towns in Lorraine Epinal - Cloaked with extensive forests on both banks of the Moselle River, this city is famed for its colored prints. Metz - Of no little historical import, Charles II (Charles the Bald) was crowned in Metz in the 9th century A.D. Nancy - Nancy, another industrial city, is located in northeastern France on the Meurthe River with habitation roots dating to 800 B.C. The largest of metropolitan France's 22 regions and traditionally an agricultural area. Towns in Midi-Pyrenees Cahors - Cahors, on the River Lot, can be discovered in southwest France along with some interesting, yet little known, wines. Castres - Castres has been a textile hub since the 13th century and currently also produces furniture and pharmaceuticals. Figeac - Primarily a market town, Figeac can be found on the Cele River. Lourdes - Comfortably situated in the foothills of the Pyrenees Mountains, Lourdes' quantity of hotels are said to be exceeded only by those in Paris. Moissac - The town is known for its foie gras and an extremely tasty gold grape, the Chasselas de Moissac AOC. Montauban - The second oldest bastide (a medieval fortress or town), after Mont-de-Marsan, Montauban dates from 1144 A.D. Montbard - Montbard is a small, industrial commune in eastern France on the Brenne River. Rocamadour - Known as one of seven most famous pilgrimage sites during the 10th through 12th centuries, Rocamadour borrows its name from Saint Amadour, whose well preserved body was uncovered there in 1166. Rodez - Aside from tourism, Rodez has an agriculturally-based economy. Tarbes - Tarbes is situated on the Adour River within a large fertile plain. It is ideally placed for access to the Pyrenees National Parc and religious activities in Lourdes. Toulouse - Toulouse is the focal point of European aerospace activities and home to Airbus. Regional capital: Lille Tours The Province, France's major industrial region in the 19th century (thanks to the coal and textile industries) and the most heavily populated. Towns in Nord Pas-de-Calais Arras Tours - Arras has a different ambience than many French towns due to its spacious arcades and burgher-type residences that lend a Flemish flavor. Berck Sur Mer - Berck is a seaside resort in northern France that hosts giant kite festivals attracting fans and participants world from Australia, Europe, the United States, China and other countries. Calais - Old Calais is encircled by canals and harbors and rests on a man-made island. It is considered the most English of French communes. Cambrai - A textile town since the 14th century, Cambrai is noted for fine linen. Its surroundings are fertile fields used for growing cereals and beets. Douai - Douai is a community in northern France on the Scarpe River that produced English translations of the Bible in the 15th and 16th centuries. Dunkerque - Exporter of steel products, sugar, fruits and vegetables, and cement, this town has historical note as a place of infamy for the British army retreat during World War II. Le Touquet - This town is a forested, seaside resort with numerous luxury hotels on the north coast of France, and enjoys a reputation as a playground for uber wealthy Parisians. Lens - Lens is a coal mining hub that has been the focus of many historical struggles for this "black gold." Lille Tours - Situated in the far northern reaches of France near Belgium, Lille sits astride the Deule River and recalls its wealthy past thanks to coal mining and textile (Lille cloth) industries. A practical must-have, the Lille City Pass is the answer to all your visiting needs, whether you're staying one day or longer. Make considerable savings in Lille, the capital of the Nord-Pas de Calais region. Save money with the Lille City Pass The pass gives you free Access to 27 tourist and cultural sites including the Fine Arts Museum of Lille, the City Tour, Charles de Gaulle's Birthplace, Museum of the Hospice Comtesse and many more. Highlights of the Lille City Pass Free access to the Lille urban area public transport system (buses, metro and tramway) 5% rebate on certain products at the boutique of the Lille Tourist Office Reductions and discounts in selected stores and restaurants 10% discount in the Les Galeries Lafayette store A glass of aperitif maison with a meal purchased at member of the Club des Tables Gourmandes Reduced price on segway rental 10% discount in Meert restaurant at La Piscine museum in Roubaix An discount check book with offered at Mc Arthur Glen in Roubaix 10% discount in Le Paradoxe restaurant in Tourcoing Reduced price for the spectacles of Atelier Lyrique de Tourcoing. Special price at the Cinema from Le Fresnoy in Tourcoing. The three day Lille City Pass gives you all of the above as well as free access to 8 tourist attractions in the Nord-Pas de Calais region and free access to the TER (regional express trains) network. Some museums are closed on Mondays and/or Tuesdays as well as on the first weekend of September. Maubeuge - Maubeuge has primarily a manufacturing economy delivering machine tools, glassware, china, and railroad equipment. Montreuil-sur-Mer - Encircled by mediaeval ramparts, Montreuil-sur-Mer was the staging ground for the early action in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables. Saint Omer - This is a market village with additional industries of paper and glass manufacturing and textiles. Regional capital: Caen Formerly, an agricultural region its economy has undergone some change recently with the development of the agri-foodstuffs industry and the creation of a number of light industries (engineering, automobiles, electronics). Towns in Basse-Normandie Alencon - Out-of-doors devotees will relish a visit to Alencon for easy access to the Normandie-Maine Regional Nature Park nearby. Antibes Juan Les Pins - Antibes is a French Riviera (Cote d'Azur) community located on the western edge of the Bay of Angels. Bagnoles-de-l'Orne - This town is famous for its hydrotherapy baths, reputed to have healing powers for rheumatic, gynecologic and circulatory problems. Bayeux Tours - A town in northern France best known for the Bayeux Tapestry, one of the few remaining artifacts recording the defeat of King Harold and the subsequent conquest of England by William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, in 1066. Online Reservations If time is tight and you'd like to tour the Normandy beaches, this quick morning tour from Bayeux will show you all the poignant highlights of these important World War II battle sites. Caen - Caen is located 5 miles from the English Channel, has historical structures that date to the reign of William the Conquerer (11th century A.D.). Cabourg - Reputedly Marcel Proust's favorite vacation spot in early 1800's, Cabourg is a popular Normandy seaside resort. Cherbourg - One of two seaports in Normandy, Cherbourg is also teeming with gardens and exotic plants. Coutances - Coutances is a venerable city located on a long hill above extensive plains in Basse-Normandy. Deauville-Trouville - The general area was popularized in the mid 19th century due to the visits of Napoleon III, who was once referred to as an "imperial jackass." Honfleur - Situated on what is known as the "Flower Coast" of France Honfleur is a small port city that shares a common geography with the British Channel and the Seine estuary. Lisieux - St. Therese, canonized in 1925, is buried in Lisieux and spent much of her childhood there. Pilgrimages are still made to her final resting site in the Basilica of St. Therese. Mont St Michel Tours - Connected by causeway to the mainland, Mont St Michel dates to the early 700's A.D. Regional capital: Rouen The main feature of Upper Normandy economy is the extensive development of the Lower Seine with its two major ports of Le Havre and Rouen (France's 2nd and 5th largest). Towns in Haute-Normandie Dieppe - This town is a pacific, seaside resort on the Atlantic and provides important ferry and maritime industries. Eu-Le Treport - Generally considered two separate resort communities in Normandy, Eu is located near the edge of a forest, while Le Treport is noted for its seaport. Evreux - An important commercial and market city in northern France, near the Iton River, whose name derives from a Gallic tribe (Eburovices), literally meaning "those who were overcome by the yew." Giverny - Giverny is best known for Monet's Garden. Le Havre - This town reputedly was the most heavily damaged port during War World II resulting in a paucity of post-war buildings. Pont Audemer - A small agricultural hamlet, Pont-Audemer delights in its attractive architectural legacy. Rouen - Rouen is the site where Joan d'Arc was burned at the stake in 1431. Regional capital: Nantes The region is second in France in terms of agricultural production and first place for livestock breeding. Towns in Pays de la Loire Angers - At various times Angers has been the capital of the country of Anjou, an English possession, and home to the polish provisional government. Cholet - Cholet sits on the right bank of the Moine River and is noted for its linen products. La Baule - The nearby bay is said to be the most beautiful in Europe. La Roche Sur Yon - This government developed community in western France is primarily an agricultural center but does have tanning, hardware, and household appliances industries. Laval - Modern Laval is an industrial community in northwestern France situated on the west bank of the Mayenne River. Le Mans - Located on the Sarthe River Le Mans beckons to auto racing enthusiasts everywhere and is also known as the birthplace of Henry II of England in 1133. Les Sables d'Olonne - This community offers a diversion from the exaggerated tourism world of Paris with its efforts to out-French the Capital. Nantes - A city in western France on the Loire River, Nantes traces its lineage to a Celtic tribe (Namneti) about 70 B.C. Saumur - Another former Roman outpost and occupying a bank of the Loire River, Saumur has a highly-regarded religious medal industry that originated in the 17th century. Picardy is another rich agricultural area which has an enhanced agri-foodstuffs industry (sugar, flour mills). Towns in Picardy Amiens - Sited on the left bank of the Somme River and famed for its linen, wool, and cotton ware, Amiens was previously, a chief town of the Ambiani, a Celtic tribe conquered by Caesar. Beauvais - Among Beauvais' economies is the interesting enterprise of tapestry manufacturing begun in the 17th century. Chantilly - Located near Paris, Chantilly has parks, lakes and beautiful countryside. Chateau-Thierry - This small town, located on the Marne River, was a prominent location of the last German offensive of World War I. Compiegne - Compiegne is an industrial city on the Oise River noted for its large glassworks. Regional capital: Poitiers The Poitou-Charentes region has been experiencing increased industrialization for the last few decades after evolving from an agrarian economy devoted essentially to cattle raising and vineyards to produce Cognac. Towns in Poitou-Charentes Angouleme - Angouleme is the centre of cartoon enterprises in France. Cognac - The name of the town is synonymous with the world's finest brandy, which is produced here by Remy-Martin, Courvoisier, Camus, Hennessy and other prominent firms. Ile de Re - A popular island resort off the west coast of France, Ile de Re is accessible by motorcars by a 3 kilometer (2 mile) long bridge. La Rochelle - Though located at the same latitude as Montreal, Canada, this city is remarkably warm during the winter as a result of the gulf stream and certain geographical features. Le Vigeant - This small community is located in a beautiful river valley fed by the Vienne River and contains a motor racing circuit. Niort - Discover Niort in western France on the Sevre Niortaise River where it is famed for its angelica herb cultivations. Noirmoutier - Noirmoutier's economy boasts tourism, oyster harvesting, fishing, and sea salt exports from its extensive salt marshes. Poitiers - Home to the 2nd oldest university in France, with Francis Bacon, Francois Rabelais, and and Rene Decartes as former students, Poiters also offers an economy based upon agriculture, communication services, and other industries. Saintes - In Saintes one can find physical reminders associated with the Gothic, Roman, and Romanesque dominions in the array of stone monuments remaining. Regional capital: Marseille Tours Provence is called Provence, because it was the Roman Province where they loved to come to escape the heat of Rome. The place is built out of Roman ruins, some of which are still standing like the Antique (meaning old) theatre in Orange, a glorious amphitheatre where Pavarotti once sang, and one of the original Arcs de Triomphe, which is riddled with very un-Roman bullet holes. This region owes its wealth to its Mediterranean coastline, excellent climate and natural beauty. Towns in Provence Aix-en-Provence - Site of thermal baths developed circa 15 B.C. from local mineral springs. Aix-en-Provence is home of art schools and several universities and features many fountains, museums, and historical architecture. Arles - There are a large number of Roman structures and ruins around Arles that are UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHO). Aubagne - This is another one of those prosaic, Cote d'Azur communities located about 10 miles east of Marseille. Avignon Tours - Not just another boringly beautiful Cote d'Azur city, Avignon is considered one of the most attractive towns in France. Online Reservations On this Grand tour of Provence you will first visit Orange, founded by the Romans in the 1st century BC. You will see the Triumphal Arch, one of the most remarkable of its kind in France. The arch is decorated with friezes commemorating Julius Caesar's victories over the Gauls in 49BC. You will also visit the Antic theater, built during the time of August Caesar. Enjoy a scenic drive in the vineyards around Chateauneuf du pape, where you will learn about grape varieties, vinification and aging cellars and wine tasting. Your tour will continue to the Pont du Gard, the best preserved roman aqueduct, Les Baux de Provence, a picturesque medieval village in the Alpilles mountains, and then in the Luberon region, the famous villages of Gordes and Roussillon which rank among the most beautiful villages in France. Bandol - A port and holiday spot between Toulon and Marseilles, Bandol has two beaches of fine sand and one with coarse sand and pebbles, and its promenades delight the eye with a profusion of floral designs, palm trees, and pine trees. Cannes Tours - Home of the internationally famous Cannes Film Festival (held annually in May), this city enjoys its place in the sun on the French Riviera. Most of the eye-candy beaches are open to the public. Online Reservations Enjoy the glamorous atmosphere of Monaco with its amazing cars and beautiful people. Drive along the seaside, stop by the Palace and after a 3 course dinner enjoy free time to explore Monte Carlo at your leisure. Drive along the Corniche road, enjoying its panoramic view points on the way to Monaco. On arrival at the Palace and you will have free time to have a look around before continuing on for a tour of the Formula One Grand Prix circuit before stopping in Monte-Carlo. You will then spend around 2.5 to 3 hours enjoying the glamorous atmosphere of Monte Carlo. During this time you will dine on a 3 course meal at Le Bistroquet overlooking the Grand Prix circuit, beside Casino Square. The choice of dishes is from the "gourmet" menu and 1/2 a bottle of wine or a beer or soft drink is included plus coffee. After dinner you are free to explore at your leisure. If you wish to enter Monte Carlo Casino, you will need to pay EUR10 directly to the Casino and you must bring your passport. This tour is conducted by 8 seater minivan with an English speaking guide. Cavaillon - Situated smartly on the right bank of the river Durance, Cavaillon has thriving canning and melon-growing industries. Draguignan - Primarily an agricultural haven in southeast France, Draguignan is the self-proclaimed City of Artillery. Gap - Gap is located in an alpine setting on the Luye River near its confluence with the Durance River. Hyeres - The roots of this city can be traced to Greek and Roman artifacts found there dating to the fourth century B.C. Les Baux-de-Provence Tours - The community is said to have inspired Dante in his place renderings in "Purgatory", and many artists, including Van Gogh. Mandelieu-La-Napoule - A renown beach resort located 5 miles from Cannes at the base of the Tanneron-Massif and mouth of the Siagne River, Mandelieu-La-Napoule affords all the modern delights. Marseille Tours - The largest port in France, Marseille is the oldest city in France, tracing its roots back 30,000 years. It is also the oldest city in France, tracing its roots back 30,000 years. Marseille has also won the honor of being the European Capital of Culture in 2013. Online Reservations It is while driving along the Mirabeau Court, decorated with fountains and edged of 19th century's private hotels, that you will enter the heart of Aix en Provence. Discover the architectural wealth of the city while driving by the 4 Dolphins Fountain, the Fountain of the Preachy, the Place Albertas, the Place of the city hall, the Place of the Cardeurs, and the Cathedral Saint Sauveur. Then, you will be able to join the workshop of Cezanne, small pavilion of the Lauves, before coming back to enjoy the shady squares of the painter's city. Martigues - About 20 miles northwest of Marseille, one can discover the ancient town of Martigues located on the Canal de Caronte. Menton - Menton enjoys a Mediterranean climate that is quite supportive of its renown gardens and citrus industry. Nice Tours - Because of its historical vassalage to varied nations and cultures, Nice offers a potpourri of linguistic dialects and culinary features. Online Reservations Discover the picture-postcard city of Nice on the French Riviera on a small group morning or afternoon sightseeing tour by minivan. Enjoy panoramic views over Nice from Mt. Boron, visit the Castel Park, and see the famous Promenade des Anglais. Start your Nice City Sightseeing Tour with a visit to Castel Park overlooking the Bay of Angels and Old Town, site of the trading town founded by the Greeks 2,700 years ago. Immerse yourself in Nice's history on Place Garibaldi in the Old Town and marvel at the modern New Town as you stroll along along Promenade des Arts, home to the Modern Art Museum, Sosno's library and the Acropolis center. Arriving in Cimiez, winter home of Queen Victoria, you will have the opportunity to visit the Matisse Museum (closed on Tuesday) or walk among the olive tree gardens and the 15th century garden of the Franciscan Monastery. You will also visit the extraordinary Russian Cathedral, the most beautiful outside of Russia. Return by Promenade des Anglais passing its famous landmarks and "Belle Epoque" buildings. End your Nice City Sightseeing Tour with a visit to the flower market in Cours Saleya. Minivans hold a maximum of eight passengers, and a small group tour is the perfect way to see all that Nice has to offer. Orange - Recognized for its Roman architecture and as having one of the best kept Roman theaters in Europe, you can find this Orange in southeastern France. Saint Raphael - Saint Raphael is a Cote d'Azur resort that is especially noted for its winding streets, tree-lined promenade, excellent beaches, and period villas of Palladian and Belle Epoque styles. Saint Remy de Provence Tours - Celebrated as the birthplace of Nostradamus (Michel de Nostredame), Saint Remy de Provence is also considered a hermitage for celebrities seeking privacy on the Cote d'Azur. Saint Tropez Tours - A post-War World II summer refuge for French existentialists, Saint Tropez first achieved its exalted status in the 1950's due to its selection as a site for several movies. Salon-de-Provence - One of the most ancient Provence communes, Salon offers beautiful views of countryside where the olive tree is venerated. Its oldest section rests on a small rise overseeing the narrow city byways. Toulon - Harboring a large French naval base Toulon is also fortunately situated on the Cote d'Azur with all of its amazing beauty and attractions. Rhone-Alpes ranks second in importance in population and economic development among metropolitan France's 22 regions. Towns in Rhone-Alpes Aix-les-Bains - Aix-les-Bains is a spa resort in eastern France whose sulfur springs and hot baths are popular with tourists. Annecy - Annecy has sometimes been called the Venice of the Alps because of its extensive canal system. Chambery - This city can be found in southeast France, between the massifs of Beauges and La Grande Chartreuse. Its industry includes metallurgy, confectionary and shoe factories. Evian-les-Bains - Evian is an internationally famous resort and natural spa on the south bank of Lake Geneva. Grenoble - A former site of the Winter Olympics, Grenoble is also an industrial hub on the Isere River located amidst three ranges of the Alps. Lyon Tours - Credited with having made major historical cinematic contributions, Lyon is also touted as the culinary arts capital of France and has earned a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation. Geographically, Lyon displays intriguing features attributable to the confluence of the Rhone and Saone rivers to the south, two large hills-one to the north and one to the south, and a large flatland expanding to the east of the original downtown. This is your passport for exploring Lyon, a UNESCO World Heritage site. The easy-to-use city card offers total freedom for making the most of your stay in Lyon. The Lyon City card includes unlimited access to 19 of the most prestigious museums in and around Lyon, but restricted to one entrance per day and per museum. Enjoy guided tours, self-guided audio tours, boat tours (April 01 to October 30) of the city as well as unlimited use of the public transport system. Montelimar - Highly regarded as the nougat capital of the world by some sources, Montelimar offers two variants, brown and white. Roanne - Located on the Loire River Roanne's chief products are cotton and metal goods with secondary industries of automobile manufacturing, tanning, and artificial silk spinning. Saint-Etienne - Saint-Etienne is now noteworthy for its major bicycle manufacturing activities and has often played host to a stage of the Tour de France. Valence - Valence is a terraced city on the Rhone River in southeast France with roots dating to the 4th century A.D. Villefranche-Sur-Saone - On the Saone River, Villefranche-Sur-Saone is a port and trade center for Beaujolais wine produced in the area.	i don't know
Which American car make, owned by General Motors, took its name from the Native American chief who led a rebellion against English rule in 1763?	:: History \| United States of the America:: United States History I. Introduction United States History, story of how the republic developed from colonial beginnings in the 16th century, when the first European explorers arrived, until modern times. As the nation developed, it expanded westward from small settlements along the Atlantic Coast, eventually including all the territory between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans across the middle of the North American continent, as well as two noncontiguous states and a number of territories. At the same time, the population and the economy of the United States grew and changed dramatically. The population diversified as immigrants arrived from all countries of the world. From its beginnings as a remote English colony, the United States has developed the largest economy in the world. Throughout its history, the United States has faced struggles, both within the countryï¿½between various ethnic, religious, political, and economic groupsï¿½and with other nations. The efforts to deal with and resolve these struggles have shaped the United States of America into the 21st century. II. Early Cultural Interaction Early American history began in the collision of European, West African, and Native American peoples in North America. Europeans ï¿½discoveredï¿½ America by accident, then created empires out of the conquest of indigenous peoples and the enslavement of Africans. Yet conquest and enslavement were accompanied by centuries of cultural interactionï¿½interaction that spelled disaster for Africans and Native Americans and triumph for Europeans, to be sure, but interaction that transformed all three peoples in the process. A. Native America in 1580 The lands and human societies that European explorers called a New World were in fact very old. During the Ice Ages much of the worldï¿½s water was bound up in glaciers. Sea level dropped by hundreds of feet, creating a land bridge between Alaska and Siberia. Asians walked across to become the first human inhabitants of the Americas. Precisely when this happened remains unknown, but most scientists believe it occured before 15,000 years ago. When the last glaciers receded about 10,000 years ago (thus ending this first great migration to America), ancestors of the Native Americans filled nearly all of the habitable parts of North and South America. They lived in isolation from the historyï¿½and particularly from the diseasesï¿½of what became known as the Old World. See also First Americans. The Native Americans who greeted the first Europeans had become diverse peoples. They spoke between 300 and 350 distinct languages, and their societies and ways of living varied tremendously. The Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru built great empires (see Aztec Empire; Inca Empire). In what is now the United States, the Mississippians (see Mound Builders) built cities surrounded by farmland between presentï¿½day St. Louis, Missouri, (where their city of Cahokia was larger than medieval London) and Natchez, Mississippi. The Mississippiansï¿½ ï¿½Great Sunï¿½ king ruled authoritatively and was carried from place to place by servants, preceded by fluteï¿½players. The Pueblo peoples of the Southwest lived in large towns, irrigated their dry land with river water, and traded with peoples as far away as Mexico and California. In the East, the peoples who eventually encountered English settlers were varied, but they lived in similar ways. All of them grew much of their food. Women farmed and gathered food in the woods. Men hunted, fished, and made war. None of these peoples kept herds of domestic animals; they relied on abundant wild game for protein. All lived in family groups, but owed their principal loyalties to a wider network of kin and to their clans. Someï¿½the Iroquois in upstate New York and the Powhatan confederacy in Virginiaï¿½formed alliances called confederacies for the purposes of keeping peace among neighbors and making war on outsiders. Even within these confederacies, however, everyday political organization seldom extended beyond villages, and village chiefs ruled their independentï¿½minded people by consent. B. West Africa in 1580 In Central and West Africa, the great inland kingdoms of Mali and Ghana were influenced (and largely converted) by Islam, and these kingdoms had traded with the Muslim world for hundreds of years. From the beginning, slaves were among the articles of trade. These earliest enslaved Africans were criminals, war captives, and people sold by their relatives to settle debts. New World demand increased the slave trade and changed it. Some of the coastal kingdoms of presentï¿½day Togo and Benin entered the trade as middlemen. They conducted raids into the interior and sold their captives to European slavers. Nearly all of the Africans enslaved and brought to America by this trade were natives of the western coastal rain forests and the inland forests of the Congo and Central Africa. About half of all Africans who were captured, enslaved, and sent to the Americas were Bantuï¿½speaking peoples. Others were from smaller ethnic and language groups. Most had been farmers in their homeland. The men hunted, fished, and tended animals, while women and men worked the fields cooperatively and in large groups. They lived in kinï¿½based villages that were parts of small kingdoms. They practiced polygyny (men often had several wives, each of whom maintained a separate household), and their societies tended to give very specific spiritual duties to women and men. Adolescent girls and boys were inducted into secret societies in which they learned the sacred and separate duties of women and men. These secret societies provided supernatural help from the spirits that governed tasks such as hunting, farming, fertility, and childbirth. Although formal political leaders were all men, older, privileged women exercised great power over other women. Thus enslaved African peoples in the New World came from societies in which women raised children and governed one another, and where men and women were more nearly equal than in America or Europe. C. European Exploration In the century before Columbus sailed to America, Western Europeans were unlikely candidates for worldwide exploration. The Chinese possessed the wealth and the seafaring skills that would have enabled them to explore, but they had little interest in the world outside of China. The Arabs and other Islamic peoples also possessed wealth and skills. But they expanded into territories that were next to themï¿½and not across uncharted oceans. The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in 1453 and by the 1520s had nearly reached Vienna. These conquests gave them control over the overland trade routes to Asia as well as the sea route through the Persian Gulf. The conquests also gave them an expanding empire to occupy their attention. Western Europeans, on the other hand, were developing the necessary wealth and technology and a compelling need to explore. A group of new monarchs were making nation-states in Britain and in continental Europeï¿½states with unprecedentedly large treasuries and military establishments. The population of Western European nations was growing, providing a tax base and a labor force for new classes of large landholders. These ï¿½elitesï¿½ provided markets for goods that were available only through trade with Asia. When the expansion of Islam gave control of eastern trade routes to Islamic middlemen, Western Europeans had strong incentives to find other ways to get to Asia. They were also developing sailing technology and knowledge of currents and winds to travel long distances on the open sea. The Portuguese led the way. They copied and improved upon the designs of Arab sailing ships and learned to mount cannons on those ships. In the 15th century they began exploring the west coast of Africaï¿½bypassing Arab merchants to trade directly for African gold and slaves. They also colonized the Madeira Islands, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands and turned them into the first European slave plantations. The European explorers were all looking for an ocean route to Asia. Christopher Columbus sailed for the monarchs of Spain in 1492. He used the familiar prevailing winds to the Canary Islands, off the northwest coast of Africa, and then sailed on. In about two months he landed in the Caribbean on an island in the Bahamas, thinking he had reached the East Indies. Columbus made three more voyages. He died in 1506, still believing that he had discovered a water route to Asia. The Spanish investigated further. Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci sailed to the northern coast of South America in 1499 and pronounced the land a new continent. European mapmakers named it America in his honor. Spanish explorer Vasco Nï¿½ï¿½ez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and in 1513 became the first of the European explorers of America to see the Pacific Ocean. That same year another Spaniard, Juan Ponce de Leï¿½n, explored the Bahamas and Florida in search of the fountain of youth. The first European voyages to the northern coast of America were old and forgotten: The Norsemen (Scandinavian Vikings) sailed from Greenland and stayed in Newfoundland for a time around 1000. Some scholars argue that European fishermen had discovered the fishing waters off eastern Canada by 1480. But the first recorded voyage was made by John Cabot, an Italian navigator in the service of England, who sailed from England to Newfoundland in 1497. Giovanni da Verrazzano, in 1524, and Jacques Cartier, in 1534, explored nearly the whole Atlantic coast of the present United States for France. By that time, Europeans had scouted the American coast from Newfoundland to Brazil. While they continued to look for shortcuts to Asia, Europeans began to think of America for its own sake. Spain again led the way: Hernï¿½n Cortï¿½s invaded Mexico in 1519, and Francisco Pizarro did the same in Peru in 1532. D. Cultural Interaction: The Columbian Exchange What was to become American history began in a biological and cultural collision of Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans. Europeans initiated this contact and often dictated its terms. For Native Americans and Africans, American history began in disaster. Native Americans suffered heavily because of their isolation from the rest of the world. Europe, Africa, and Asia had been trading knowledge and technologies for centuries. Societies on all three continents had learned to use iron and kept herds of domestic animals. Europeans had acquired gunpowder, paper, and navigational equipment from the Chinese. Native Americans, on the other hand, had none of these. They were often helpless against European conquerors with horses, firearms, andï¿½especiallyï¿½armor and weapons. The most disastrous consequence of the long-term isolation of the Americas was biological. Asians, Africans, and Europeans had been exposed to one anotherï¿½s diseases for millennia; by 1500 they had developed an Old World immune system that partially protected them from most diseases. On average, Native Americans were bigger and healthier than the Europeans who first encountered them. But they were helpless against European and African diseases. Smallpox was the biggest killer, but illnesses such as measles and influenza also killed millions of people. The indigenous population of Mexico, for example, was more than 17 million when Cortï¿½s landed in 1519. By 1630 it had dropped to 750,000, largely as a result of disease. Scholars estimate that on average the population of a Native American people dropped 90 percent in the first century of contact. The worst wave of epidemics in human history cleared the way for European conquest. See also United States (People): Disease and Death in Early America. Europeans used the new lands as sources of precious metals and plantation agriculture. Both were complex operations that required labor in large, closely supervised groups. Attempts to enslave indigenous peoples failed, and attempts to force them into other forms of bound labor were slightly more successful but also failed because workers died of disease. Europeans turned to the African slave trade as a source of labor for the Americas. During the colonial periods of North and South America and the Caribbean, far more Africans than Europeans came to the New World. The slave trade brought wealth to some Europeans and some Africans, but the growth of the slave trade disrupted African political systems, turned slave raiding into fullï¿½scale war, and robbed many African societies of their young men. The European success story in the Americas was achieved at horrendous expense for the millions of Native Americans who died and for the millions of Africans who were enslaved. III. Colonial Experiments Beginning in 1519, Spain, Portugal, France, The Netherlands, and England established colonies in the Americas. Spain made a great mining and agricultural empire in Mexico, South America, and the Caribbean. Portugal created a slave-based agricultural colony in Brazil. In North America the French and Dutch established rudimentary European societies and, more importantly, elaborate, long-term trading networks with the indigenous peoples. Among the European invaders of North America, only the English established colonies of agricultural settlers, whose interests in Native Americans was less about trade than about the acquisition of land. That fact would have huge implications in the long struggle for control of North America. A. New Spain Spain was the first European nation to colonize America. Cortï¿½s invaded Mexico and (with the help of smallpox and other Native Americans) defeated the Aztec Empire between 1519 and 1521. By 1533 Pizarro had conquered the Incas of Peru. Both civilizations possessed artifacts made of precious metals, and the Spanish searched for rumored piles of gold and silver. They sent expeditions under Hernando de Soto, Francisco Vï¿½squez de Coronado, and ï¿½lvar Nï¿½ï¿½ez Cabeza de Vaca as far north as what is now Kansas and Colorado. They were looking for cities made of gold and did not find them. But in 1545 they did discover silver at Potosï¿½, in what is now Bolivia, and in Mexico around the same time. New World gold and silver mines were the base of Spanish wealth and power for the next hundred years. Shortly after the conquests, Catholic missionariesï¿½Jesuits until 1571, Franciscans and Dominicans after thatï¿½attempted to convert Native Americans to Christianity. They established missions not only at the centers of the new empire but also in New Mexico and Florida. Spanish Jesuits even built a shortï¿½lived mission outpost in Virginia. After defeating indigenous peoples, Spanish conquerors established a system of forced labor called encomienda. However, Spanish governmental and religious officials disliked the brutality of this system. As time passed, Spanish settlers claimed land rather than labor, establishing large estates called haciendas. By the time French, Dutch, Swedish, and English colonists began arriving in the New World in the early 17th century, the Spanish colonies in New Spain (Mexico), New Granada (Colombia), and the Caribbean were nearly 100 years old. The colonies were a source of power for Spain, and a source of jealousy from other European nations. B. New France By the 1530s French explorers had scouted the coast of America from Newfoundland to the Carolinas. Samuel de Champlain built the foundations of what would become French Canada (New France). From 1604 to 1606 he established a settlement at Acadia in Nova Scotia, and in 1608 he traveled up the St. Lawrence River, made contact with the Huron and Algonquin peoples, and established a French settlement at Quï¿½bec. From the beginning, New France concentrated on two activities: fur trade and Catholic missions. Missionaries and traders were often at odds, but both knew that the success of New France depended upon friendly relations with the native peoples. While Jesuits converted thousands of Native Americans, French traders roamed the forests. Both were among the first white explorers of the interior of North America, and Franceï¿½s ties with Native Americans would have important implications for the next 150 years. By 1700 the French population of New France was 14,000. French Canada was a strategically crucial brake on English settlement. But the much smaller sugar islands in the Caribbeanï¿½Saint-Domingue (Haiti), Guadeloupe, and Martiniqueï¿½were economically far more valuable to France. C. Dutch Settlements Another contender for influence in North America was the Dutch, inhabitants of the leading commercial nation in the early 17th century. Sailing for the Dutch in 1609, Henry Hudson explored the river that now bears his name. The Dutch established a string of agricultural settlements between New Amsterdam (New York City) and Fort Orange (Albany, New York) after 1614. They became the chief European traders with the Iroquois, supplying them with firearms, blankets, metal tools, and other European trade goods in exchange for furs. The Iroquois used those goods to nearly destroy the Huron and to push the Algonquins into Illinois and Michigan. As a result, the Iroquois gained control of the Native American side of the fur trade. The Dutch settlements, known as New Netherland, grew slowly at first and became more urban as trade with the indigenous peoples outdistanced agriculture as a source of income. The colony was prosperous and tolerated different religions. As a result, it attracted a steady and diverse stream of European immigrants. In the 1640s the 450 inhabitants of New Amsterdam spoke 18 different languages. The colony had grown to a European population of 6,000 (double that of New France) on the eve of its takeover by England in 1664. D. First English Settlements The Spanish, French, and Dutch wanted to find precious metals in the Americas, to trade with the indigenous peoples, and to convert them to Christianity. Their agricultural colonies in the Caribbean, Mexico, and South America were worked by African slaves and by unwilling native peoples, and relatively few Europeans settled permanently in those places. In contrast, England, a latecomer to New World colonization, sent more people to the Americas than other European nationsï¿½about 400,000 in the 17th centuryï¿½and established more permanent agricultural colonies. English migrants came to America for two main reasons. The first reason was tied to the English Reformation. King Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church in the 1530s. Through a series of political and religious twists and turns, the new Church of England developed a Protestant theology, but it retained much of Catholic liturgy and ritual forms. Within the Church of England, radical Protestants, later called Puritans, wanted to suppress the remaining Catholic forms. The fortunes of the Puritans depended on the religious preferences of English monarchs. Queen Mary I, who ruled from 1553 to 1558, was a committed Catholic who tried to roll back the tide of religious change; she executed hundreds of Protestants and chased many more into exile. Her successor, Elizabeth I, invited the exiles back and tried to resolve differences within the English church. The Stuart kings who followed her, James I and Charles I, again persecuted Puritans. As a result, Puritans became willing to immigrate to America. The second reason for English colonization was that land in England had become scarce. The population of England doubled from 1530 to 1680. In the same years, many of Englandï¿½s largest landholders evicted tenants from their lands, fenced the lands, and raised sheep for the expanding wool trade. The result was a growing number of young, poor, underemployed, and often desperate English men and women. It was from their ranks that colonizers recruited most of the English population of the mainland colonies. IV. Growth of the English Colonies Permanent English settlement began in the Chesapeake Bay area in 1607 and in Massachusetts in 1620. The histories of the two regions during their first century and a half are almost opposite. Virginia began as a misguided business venture and as a disorderly society of young men. Massachusetts settlers were Puritans. They arrived as whole families and sometimes as whole congregations, and they lived by laws derived from the Old Testament. Over time, however, Virginia was transformed into a slave-based tobacco colony where slaves were carefully disciplined, where most white families owned land, and where a wealthy and stable planter-slaveholder class provided much of the leadership of revolutionary and early national America. New England, on the other hand, evolved into a more secularized and increasingly overpopulated society based on family farms and inherited landï¿½land that was becoming scarce to the point that increasing numbers of whites were slipping into poverty. A. The Chesapeake A.1. Virginia Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in America, began as a business venture that failed. The Virginia Company of London, a joint stock company organized much like a modern corporation, sent 104 colonists to Chesapeake Bay in 1607. The company wanted to repeat the successes of the Spanish: The colonists were to look for gold and silver, for a passage to Asia, and for other discoveries that would quickly reward investors. If the work was heavy, the colonists were to force indigenous peoples to help them. The composition of the group sent to Jamestown reflected the companyï¿½s expectations for life in the colony. Colonists included silversmiths, goldsmiths, even a perfumer, and far too many gentlemen who were unprepared for rugged colonial life. The colonists found a defensible spot on low ground and named it Jamestown. None of their plans worked out, and the settlers began to die of dysentery and typhoid fever. At the end of the first year, only about one-third remained alive. The Native Americans were troublesome, too. Organized into the large and powerful Powhatan confederacy, they grew tired of demands for food and launched a war against the settlers that continued intermittently from 1609 to 1614. In 1619 the Virginia Company reorganized. The colony gave up the search for quick profits and turned to growing tobacco. Under the new plan, colonists received 50 acres from the company for paying a personï¿½s passage to Virginia. The new settlers were indentured servants who agreed to work off the price of their passage. Thus settlers who could afford it received land and labor at the same time. In 1624 King James I of England made Virginia the first royal colony. He revoked the Virginia Companyï¿½s charter and appointed a royal governor and council, and established a House of Burgesses elected by the settlers. Despite fights with the Powhatan confederacy (about 350 settlers died in one attack in 1622), the Virginia colony began to prosper. It had found a cash crop, a source of labor, and a stable government. A.2. Maryland In 1634 Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, founded Maryland under a royal charter, which made the colony Baltimoreï¿½s personal property. Baltimore, a Catholic nobleman, hoped to establish a refuge for English Catholics and sell large estates to individuals who would operate as feudal lords. Neither the plans for feudalism nor for a Catholic refuge worked out, however. More Protestants than Catholics immigrated to Maryland. In 1649 Baltimore granted religious toleration to all Christians, but Protestants did not stop opposing him. They even overthrew Baltimoreï¿½s government on several occasions. Baltimoreï¿½s dreams of feudalism failed as well. Freed servants preferred farming on their own to staying on as tenants, and the colony quickly evolved as Virginia had: Planters (many of them former servants) imported servants from England and grew tobacco. A.3. Mortality Rate Chesapeake tobacco growers needed ableï¿½bodied servants. Most of those imported to Virginia and Maryland were young, poor, single men. Disease, bad water, and hostile native peoples produced a horrific death rate. In 1618 there were 700 English settlers in Virginia. The reorganized Virginia Company sent 3,000 more before 1622. A headcount that year found only about 1,200 still alive. Still, surviving planters continued to import servants. Some servants lived long enough to end their indentures, but many others died. In addition, there were too few women in the Chesapeake to enable surviving men to build families and produce new Virginians. More than two-thirds of men never married, and the white population of Virginia did not begin to sustain itself until at least the 1680s. Before that, the colony survived only by importing new people to replace those who died. A.4. Introduction of Slavery White servants worked Chesapeake tobacco farms until the late 17th century. But earlier in the century, English tobacco and sugar planters in the Caribbean had adopted African slavery, long the chief labor system in Portuguese and Spanish sugar colonies in the Caribbean. By 1700 the English islands were characterized by large plantations and by populations that were overwhelmingly African. These African slaves were victims of a particularly brutal and unhealthy plantation system that killed most of them. It was not a coincidence that these islands produced more wealth for England than its other colonies. See also Slavery in the United States: Introduction of Slavery. Before the 1680s, Chesapeake planters purchased few African slaves, and the status of Africans in Virginia and Maryland was unclear. Some were slaves, some were servants, some were free, and no legal code defined their standing. The reasons for the slow growth of slavery in the Chesapeake were not moral but economic. First, slave traders received high prices for slaves in the Caribbeanï¿½higher than Virginians could afford, particularly when these expensive laborers were likely to die. White indentured servants cost less, and planters lost little when they died. But Chesapeake colonistsï¿½both English and Africanï¿½grew healthier as they became ï¿½seasonedï¿½ on their new continent. At the same time, the English economic crisis that had supplied servants to the colonies diminished. These changes made African slaves a better longï¿½term investment: The initial cost was higher, but the slaves lived and reproduced. Beginning around 1675, Virginia and Maryland began importing large numbers of African slaves. By 1690 black slaves outnumbered white servants in those colonies. Virginia now gave white servants who survived their indentures 50 acres of land, thus making them a part of the white landholding class. At the same time, the House of Burgesses drew up legal codes that assumed a lifetime of bondage for blacks. In the early 18th century, the Chesapeake emerged as a society of planters and small farmers who grew tobacco with the labor of African slaves. There had been slaves in Virginia since 1619. But it was not until nearly 100 years later that Virginia became a slave society. B. The Beginnings of New England New England began as a refuge for religious radicals. The first English settlers were the Pilgrims. They were Separatistsï¿½Protestants who, unlike the Puritans, seceded from the Church of England rather than try to reform it. They sailed for the New World in 1620. After difficult early years, they established a community of farms at Plymouth that was ultimately absorbed by the Massachusetts Bay Company. B.1. Religion in the New England Colonies A much larger Puritan migration began in 1630. The Puritans objected to the corruption and extravagance of the Stuart kings, who considered alliances with Catholic monarchs and paid no attention to Puritan demands for religious reform. The Puritans came to believe that God would destroy England for these sins. They obtained a charter from the Massachusetts Bay Company and made plans to emigrateï¿½not to hide in the wilderness from Godï¿½s wrath, but to preserve Protestant beliefs and to act as a beacon of truth for the world. A thousand Puritans migrated to Massachusetts in 1630. But this Great Migration ended in 1642, when the Puritans became involved in a civil war against the Stuart kings. The Puritans eventually won and ruled England until 1660. When the migration ended, Massachusetts had 13,000 European inhabitants. The Puritans left England because of religious persecution, but they, too, were intolerant. In Massachusetts they established laws derived from the Bible, and they punished or expelled those who did not share their beliefs. The Puritans established a governor and a general court (an assembly elected by adult male church members) and governed themselves. Although they refused to secede from the Church of England, they did away with bishops and church hierarchy and invented congregationalism. In this type of Protestantism, each congregation selected its own minister and governed its own religious life (although outside authority sometimes intervened to punish heresy). Government officials were expected to enforce godly authority, which often meant punishing religious heresy. Roger Williams was a Separatist who refused to worship with anyone who, like nearly all Puritans, remained part of the Church of England. Massachusetts banished him, and he and a few followers founded Providence in what is now Rhode Island. Anne Hutchinson was a merchantï¿½s wife and a devout Puritan, but she claimed that she received messages directly from God and was beyond earthly authority. This belief was a heresy, a belief contrary to church teachings, known as Antinomianism. She, too, was banished and she moved to Rhode Island. Puritan magistrates continued to enforce religious laws: In the 1650s they persecuted Quakers, and in the 1690s they executed people accused of witchcraft. B.2. Growth of New Englandï¿½s Population Once the Puritan migration to New England stopped in 1642, the region would receive few immigrants for the next 200 years. Yet the population grew dramatically, to nearly 120,000 in 1700. Two reasons explain this. First, in sharp contrast to the unhealthy Chesapeake, Massachusetts streams provided relatively safe drinking water, and New Englandï¿½s cold winters kept dangerous microbes to a minimum. Thus disease and early death were not the problems that they were farther south. Second (again in contrast to the Chesapeake) the Puritans migrated in families, and there were about two women for every three men, even in the early years. Nearly all colonists married (typically in their midï¿½20s for men and early 20s for women), and then produced children at two-year intervals. With both a higher birth rate and a longer life expectancy than in England, the Puritan population grew rapidly almost from the beginning. C. The Restoration Colonies By 1640 England had founded 6 of the 13 colonies that would become the original United States. In 1660, after the end of Puritan rule, Charles II was crowned king of England, an event known as the Restoration. Charles founded or took over six more colonies: New York (taken from the Dutch in 1664), New Jersey, Pennsylvania (including what became Delaware), and North and South Carolina. All were proprietary coloniesï¿½huge land grants to individuals or small groups who had been loyal to the king during the civil war. These colonies shared other similarities as well. None of them was wellï¿½funded; they could ill afford to import colonists from overseas. Thus they tried to attract settlers from other colonies as much as from the Old World. These colonies made it easy to own land, and they tended to grant religious toleration to all Christians. The result (even though Pennsylvania began as a Quaker colony under the wealthy proprietor William Penn) was a more ethnically mixed and religiously pluralistic European population than had come to New England or to the Chesapeake. These new colonies were populated not only by the English, but also by the Dutch and eventually by Scots, Scotsï¿½Irish, and Germans. Their populations included Quakers and other religious dissenters. D. Settlers and Native Americans The French and Spanish came to the New World to trade with the indigenous peoples, to convert them to Christianity, and sometimes to turn them into a labor force for mining and agriculture. In contrast, the English settlers wanted farmland. Thus they posed a far greater threat to the Native Americans. Wars were the result. In New England a Wampanoag chief named Metacomet (the English called him King Philip) became worried about English intrusion on his land and ordered attacks on the settlements in 1675. For the next year Metacomet and his allies destroyed 12 of 90 Puritan towns and attacked 40 others, capturing or killing one in ten adult male English settlers. The Puritans counterattacked in the summer of 1676. They killed Metacomet, sold his wife and chief supporters into slavery in the West Indies, and scattered his coalition. With that, the power of coastal Native Americans in New England was broken. In the same years (1675 to 1676) in Virginia, landï¿½hungry settlers led by a planter named Nathaniel Bacon picked a fight with the Susquehannock people. The settlersï¿½ goal was simply to end Native American occupation of lands that whites wanted. When Governor William Berkeley objected, the rebellious settlers forced the House of Burgesses to back their war (see Baconï¿½s Rebellion). Later, they marched on Jamestown and burned the colonial capital. Shortly after that, Bacon died of disease, and his rebellion sputtered out. But a new treaty signed with the Native Americans in 1677 made much of their land available to white settlers. E. The English and their Empire The English had colonies before they had a colonial policy or an empire. The English government had little interest in directly governing its colonies. The government was, however, mercantilist: It wanted colonial economic activity to serve England. The Navigation Act of 1651 stipulated that imports into British harbors and colonies could be carried only in British ships or those of the producing country. A second Navigation Act in 1660 decreed that colonial trade could be carried only in English ships and that crucial commodities such as tobacco and sugar could be sent only to England or another English colony. Further Navigation Acts in 1663 and 1696 regulated the shipment of goods into the colonies and strengthened the customs service. For the most part, the Navigation Acts succeeded in making colonial trade serve England. They also made the colonists accustomed to and dependent upon imported English goods. But the acts did not amount to a colonial administration. Private companies, wealthy proprietors, and the settlers themselves did what they wanted without official English interference. King James II tried to change that. In 1684 he revoked the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company. Then in 1686 he created the Dominion of New England from the colonies of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Plymouth, and Connecticut (all colonies that had been derived from the original Massachusetts Bay colony), along with New York and New Jersey. The king sent Sir Edmund Andros to be royal governor of this huge area. However, the king had problems at home. He was a Catholic, and he threatened to leave the throne in the hands of his Catholic son. In 1688 Englandï¿½s ruling elites deposed James II and replaced him with his daughter Mary and her husband, a militant Dutch Protestant, William of Orange. As part of the agreement that made him king, William issued the English Bill of Rights that ended absolutist royal government in England. The ascension of William and Mary is known in English history as the Glorious Revolution. American colonists staged smaller versions of the Glorious Revolution. Massachusetts and New York revolted against the Dominion of New England. At the same time, the Protestant majority in Maryland revolted against Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore, and his Catholic elite. William could have punished all these rebels and reï¿½established the Dominion of New England. Instead, he reorganized Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland as royal colonies with elected legislative assemblies and royally appointed governors. By 1720 the crown had transformed all the mainland colonies along these lines except for Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware. The Glorious Revolution ended absolutism in England, and it ensured that government in the mainland colonies would be both royal and representative. F. Colonial Society The colonies over which the English were beginning to exercise control were growing rapidly. In 1700 approximately 250,000 Europeans and Africans were living in what would become the United States. In 1775 there were approximately 2.5 million. Much of the increase was due to immigration: the forced migration of enslaved Africans, and the willing migration of English, Scots-Irish, and Germans. See also United States (People): European and African Immigration in the Colonies. The middle colonies were much more diverse than the northern colonies. The English majority contended with a variety of European settlers, with a large Native American presence on the western edges, and with a significant minority of African slaves. In Maryland and Virginia, the early English settlers had been joined, particularly in the western counties, by Scots, Scotsï¿½Irish, and Germans. In the eastern counties, African slavesï¿½many of them natives of Africaï¿½often outnumbered whites. South Carolina and Georgia had white populations as diverse as those in the Chesapeake, and their slave populations were Africanï¿½born and ethnically diverse. One historian has noted that a slave would have met more different kinds of Africans in one day in South Carolina rice fields than in a lifetime in Africa. By far the greatest source of population growth, however, was a phenomenal birth rate and a relatively low death rate. Americans in the 18th century had many children, who in turn survived to have children of their own. American population growth in these years may have been unprecedented in human history. See also United States (People): Birthrates in Native America and Colonial America. The household was the central institution of colonial society. In Puritan society in particular, families were the cornerstone of godly government. As one historian put it, Puritans experienced authority as a hierarchy of strong fathersï¿½beginning with God, descending down through government officials and ministers, and ending with the fathers of families. These families were patriarchal: Fathers ruled households, made family decisions, organized household labor, and were the representatives of Godï¿½s authority within the family. Fathers passed that authority on to their sons. Puritan magistrates inspected families to ensure that they were orderly, and it was a capital crime (at least in the law books) to commit adultery or to strike oneï¿½s father. Households in other 18thï¿½century colonies may have been less godly, but they were almost equally dominated by fathers, and most white men had the opportunity to become patriarchs. Land was relatively abundant, and Americans seldom practiced primogeniture and entail, which gave oldest sons their fathersï¿½ full estates and prevented men from dividing their land. Fathers tended to supply all of their sons with land (daughters received personal property as a dowry). Thus most American white men eventually owned their own land and headed their own households. As populations grew and as colonial economies developed, however, that independence based on property ownership was endangered. Good farmland in the south came to be dominated by a class of planters, while growing numbers of poor whites became tenants. The pressure of a growing population on the supply of farmland made tenancy even more common in New Jersey and Pennsylvania (research puts the proportion at about 25 percent by mid-century), while in New England more and more fathers found themselves unable to provide for their sons. On the eve of the American Revolution (1775-1783), American white men prided themselves on a widespread liberty that was based on economic independence. Meanwhile, the land ownership that upheld that independence was being undermined. G. 18th-Century Slavery In the first half of the 18th century, the mainland colonies grew dramatically but in very different ways. The Chesapeake and the Carolinas grew plantation staples for world marketsï¿½tobacco in the Chesapeake and North Carolina, rice and indigo in the coastal regions of South Carolina and Georgiaï¿½and they were committed to African slave labor. Fully 70 percent of South Carolinaï¿½s population was black; nearly all Africans were imported directly to the colony in the 18th century. The numbers were so huge and the malarial wetlands they worked on were so unhealthy that masters encouraged slaves to organize their own labor and to work unsupervised. Because so many slaves lived and worked relatively unsupervised in this area, African culturesï¿½language, handicrafts, religious experience and belief, and moreï¿½survived most fully among American slaves in South Carolina. Rice planters of South Carolina permitted this cultural independence because it was easier and because the slaves made them lots of money. South Carolinaï¿½s lowland planters were the wealthiest group in the mainland colonies. Further north, the tobacco colonies of Virginia and Maryland were equally committed to slave labor, but slaves led somewhat different lives here than in the deep South. The African population in these colonies began to replace itself through reproduction as early as 1720 (compared with 1770 in South Carolina). Still, Chesapeake planters continued to import new slaves from Africa; about 70,000 went to Virginia in the 18th century and about 25,000 to Maryland. Slaves in these colonies tended to live and work in smaller, more closely supervised groups than slaves farther south, and their cultural memory of Africa, although often strong, was less pervasive than that of Carolina slaves. In addition, white Virginians and Marylanders were turning to wheat as a secondary crop, a development that required mills and towns, and thus slave labor in construction, road building, and some of the skilled crafts. H. Northern Agriculture Around the middle of the 18th century, a heavily populated and increasingly urbanized Europe lost the capacity to feed itself, providing an important market for North American farmers. The middle colonies, particularly Pennsylvania, became the breadbasket of America. After Pennsylvania farmers provided for their families from their farms and by trading with neighbors, they sent their surplus production of corn and wheat, as much as 40 percent of what they produced, on to the Atlantic market. New England farmers worked soil that was poor and rocky, but used the same system. Economists call this system safetyï¿½first or subsistenceï¿½plus agriculture: Farmers provided for household and neighborhood needs before risking their surplus in distant and unpredictable markets. In profitable years, farmers were able to buy finished cloth, dishes and crockery, tea and coffee, and other goods that colonial trade with England providedï¿½goods on which more and more Americans depended by 1770. I. Religion British North America in the 18th century was a religiously and ethnically diverse string of settlements. New Englandï¿½s population was overwhelmingly English, descended from the Great Migration of the 1630s. New England had a reputation for poor land and intolerance of outsiders, and immigrants avoided the region. New Englanders continued to practice congregationalism, although by the 18th century they seldom thought of themselves as the spearhead of the Reformation. A wave of revivals known as the Great Awakening swept New England beginning in the 1720s, dividing churchgoers into New Light (evangelical Calvinists) and Old Light (more moderate) wings. An increasing minority were calling themselves Baptists. Nearly all Europeans in these colonies were Protestants, but individual denominations were very different. There were Presbyterians, Lutherans, Baptists, Anglicans, Dutch Reformed, Mennonites, and Quakers. While the Church of England was the established church (the official, governmentï¿½supported church) in the Chesapeake colonies, German and Scottish non-Anglicans were migrating south from the middle colonies, and Baptists were making their first southern converts. Although most Chesapeake slaves were Americanï¿½born by the late 18th century, they practiced what they remembered of African religions, while some became Christians in 18th-century revivals. See also United States (People): Religion in the Colonies. V. Resistance and Revolution A. The Wars for North America, 1689ï¿½1763 Seventeenthï¿½century colonists fought wars with the coastal Native American peoples upon whom they had intruded. Eighteenth-century colonial wars, in contrast, usually began in Europe, and they pitted the English colonies against French and Spanish empires in North America. These empires posed a number of problems for English colonists. Spanish Florida offered refuge to runaway slaves from the southeastern colonies. The French built an interior arc of settlements from Quï¿½bec to New Orleans; they also made trading agreements with Native Americans. The French trading empire impeded the expansion of English settlements, and the strength of the French and their Native American allies was a constant concern to the British and to American settlers. The English and French fought frequently: in King Williamï¿½s War (1689-1697; known in Europe as the War of the League of Augsburg), in Queen Anneï¿½s War (1702-1713; the War of the Spanish Succession), in King Georgeï¿½s War (1744-1748; War of the Austrian Succession), and in the French and Indian War (the Seven Yearsï¿½ War), which began in America in 1754 and ended in Europe in 1763. In all of these wars, the French had the assistance of most Native Americans of the interior. During the course of these wars, the English gained strength in relation to their French and Spanish rivals, and in the French and Indian War, with strong help from colonial militias, they expelled the French from mainland North America. In 1763 Britain became the lone European imperial power in North America between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mississippi River. (The Spanish, allies of the French, gave up Florida but took over French claims in New Orleans and in lands west of the Mississippi as compensation.) Within 20 years the British would lose most of what they had gained. Victory in the French and Indian War gave the British an enlarged mainland empire but also brought new problems. First, the war had been expensive: The interest alone on Britainï¿½s debt required half the governmentï¿½s revenues, and the overtaxed British people could not be asked to pay more. Second, the acquisition of French and Spanish territory gave the British new administrative tasks. They acquired not only vast tracts of land, but also the French settlers and indigenous peoples who lived there. The difficulties became clear in early 1763, when an Ottawa chief named Pontiac became worried about losing the French allies who had helped keep British settlers out of the interior. Pontiac led an uprising of a broad Native American coalition that included Seneca, Wyandots, Delawares, Shawnee, Miami, Ottawa, and other nations. They attacked British forts and frontier settlements in Pennsylvania and Virginia. During the summer of 1763 they killed as many as 2,000 settlers, but they could not dislodge the British from their fortified strongholds at Detroit, Niagara, and other places in the interior. Settlers responded by murdering Native Americans, most of whom had done nothing. The British government realized that it needed not only more revenue but also a military presence and a colonial administrative policy to establish British authority and keep the peace in North America. B. Break with Britain B.1. Constitutional Understandings: Britain British officials believed that the British governmentï¿½and Parliament in particularï¿½had the constitutional power to tax and govern the American colonies. The rulers of Parliament assumed what they called parliamentary sovereignty. Parliament, they insisted, was dominant within the British constitution. Parliament was a brake against arbitrary monarchs; Parliament alone could tax or write legislation, and Parliament could not consent to divide that authority with any other body. As Thomas Hutchinson, the royal governor of Massachusetts, put it, there could be no compromise ï¿½between the supreme authority of Parliament and the total independence of the colonies. It is impossible there should be two independent legislatures in one and the same state.ï¿½ B.2. Constitutional Understandings: America The Americans, however, had developed a very different opinion of how they should be governed. By the 1720s all but two colonies had an elected assembly and an appointed governor. Contests between the two were common, with governors generally exercising greater power in the northern colonies and assemblies wielding more power in the south. Governors technically had great power. Most were appointed by the king and stood for him in colonial government. Governors also had the power to make appointments, and thus to pack the government with their followers. The assemblies, however, had the ï¿½power of the purseï¿½: Only they could pass revenue (tax) bills. Assemblies often used that power to gain control over appointments, and sometimes to coerce the governor himself. This was particularly true during the French and Indian War, when governors often asked assemblies to approve revenue bills and requisitions to fund the fighting. Assemblies used their influence over finances to gain power in relation to governors. Colonists tended to view their elected assemblies as defenders against the king, against Parliament, and against colonial governors, who were attempting to increase their power at the expense of popular liberty. Thus when the British Parliament asserted its right to tax and govern the colonies (something it had never done before), ideals clashed. The British eliteï¿½s idea of the power that its Parliament had gained since 1689 collided with the American eliteï¿½s idea of the sovereignty of its own parliaments. The British assumed that their Parliament legislated for the whole empire. The Americans assumed that while the parts of the empire shared British liberties and the British king, the colonies could be taxed and governed only by their own elected representatives. The British attempt to tax the colonies was certain to start a fight. B.3. Toward Independence Parliament passed the Sugar and Currency acts in 1764. The Sugar Act strengthened the customs service, and on the surface it looked like the old Navigation Acts. The Sugar Act was different, however, because it was designed not so much to regulate trade (a power that colonists had not questioned) but rather to raise revenue (a power that colonists denied to Parliament). The Currency Act forbade colonies to issue paper moneyï¿½a move that many colonies saw as an unconstitutional intervention in their internal affairs. Individual colonies petitioned against these measures, but a unified colonial response to British colonial reform did not come until 1765. B.3.a. The Stamp Act Crisis That year, Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which required all legal documents, licenses, commercial contracts, newspapers, pamphlets, dice, and playing cards to carry a tax stamp. The Stamp Tax raised revenue from thousands of daily transactions in all of the colonies. In addition, those accused of violating the act would be tried in Viceï¿½Admiralty Courtsï¿½royal tribunals without juries that formerly heard only cases involving maritime law. The colonial assemblies petitioned the British, insisting that only they could tax Americans. The assemblies also sent delegates to a Stamp Act Congress, which adopted a moderate petition of protest and sent it to England. Other Americans took more forceful measures. Before the Act went into effect, in every large colonial town, mobs of artisans and laborers, sometimes including blacks and women, attacked men who accepted appointments as Stamp Act commissioners, usually forcing them to resign. American merchants also organized nonimportation agreements, which put pressure on English merchants, who in turn pressured the British government. In spring 1766 a newly elected Parliament repealed the Stamp Tax, believing it had been unwise. Parliament did not, however, doubt its right to tax the colonies. When it repealed the Stamp Act, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, which reaffirmed Parliamentï¿½s right to legislate for the colonies ï¿½in all cases whatsoever.ï¿½ B.3.b. Townshend Acts In 1767 a new ministry led by chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend addressed the North American situation. Townshend drew up new taxes on imports (tea, lead, paper, glass, paint) that Americans could receive only from Britain. More ominously, he earmarked the revenue from these duties for the salaries of colonial governors and judges, thus making them independent of the colonial assemblies. He also strengthened the organization responsible for enforcing customs duties and located its headquarters in Boston, the center of opposition to the Stamp Act. Finally, he moved many units of the British army away from the frontier and nearer the centers of white population. Clearly, the Townshend Acts were meant not only to tax the colonies but also to exert British authority. When colonial assemblies protested the duties, Townshend dissolved the assemblies. Americans rioted. They also agreed to boycott all imported British goodsï¿½particularly tea. The British responded by landing troops at Boston (the center of resistance) in October 1768. Tensions between townspeople and soldiers were constant for the next year and a half. On March 5, 1770, tensions exploded into the Boston Massacre, when British soldiers fired into a mob of Americans, killing five men. In Britain on the day of the Boston Massacre, Parliament repealed all of the Townshend Duties except the one on teaï¿½a powerful reminder that it would never relinquish its right to tax and govern Americans. The Americans, in turn, resumed imports of other goods, but continued to boycott tea. B.3.c. Other British Measures The Tea Act of 1773 maintained the tax on tea and gave the English East India Company a monopoly on the export of that commodity. The companyï¿½s tea ships ran into trouble in American ports, most notably in Boston, where on December 16, 1773, colonials dressed as Native Americans dumped a shipload of tea into the harbor (see Boston Tea Party). Britain responded to this Boston Tea Party with the Intolerable Acts of 1774, which closed the port of Boston until Bostonians paid for the tea. The acts also permitted the British army to quarter its troops in civilian households, allowed British soldiers accused of crimes while on duty in America to be tried in Britain or in another colony, and revised the Massachusetts Charter to abolish its elected legislature. At the same time, the Quï¿½bec Act organized a British government in Canada that frightened many Protestant, libertarian Americans: It allowed the Catholic Church to remain established in French Canada, and it established a government with fewer liberties than Americans enjoyed. Some Americans saw the act as a model for what the British had in mind for them. Along with the Intolerable Acts and the Quï¿½bec Act came clear signs that Britain would use whatever military force it needed to subdue the Americans. B.3.d. Continental Congress In September 1774 every colony but Georgia sent delegates to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Congress refused to recognize the authority of Parliament and instead sent a petition to the king. The petition stated the principle that Parliament could not legislate for the colonies without their consent and extended this principle beyond taxation to any legislation. While the British army occupied Boston, Massachusetts established a provincial congress that met in Concord. The new congress became the de facto government of Massachusetts. The British responded by sending an army out from Boston to seize arms and American leaders at Concord. They were met by Massachusetts militiamen, and colonial protest turned into revolutionary war at the battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. A Second Continental Congress met the following month and proclaimed the militia that had routed the British in the countryside a Continental Army, with George Washington as its leader. In August, King George III proclaimed the colonies to be in rebellion. The British army, after a costly victory at the Battle of Bunker Hill, left Boston and sailed for Nova Scotia. With that, there was virtually no British military presence in the rebellious 13 colonies. Through 1775 and into 1776, the Americans fought without agreeing on what the fight was about: Many wanted independence, while others wanted to reconcile with the king but not with Parliament. The pamphlet Common Sense by Anglo-American philosopher Thomas Paine presented powerful arguments opposing kings and supporting a pure republic. It changed the minds of many colonists. The British hired about 30,000 German mercenaries (Hessians) to help put down the Americans, and that, too, convinced some Americans that there could be no reconciliation. Congress appointed a committee to draft a declaration of independence. Thomas Jefferson, a congressman from Virginia, took on the job of writing the first draft. Congress voted for independence on July 2, 1776, and signed the formal declaration two days later. The Declaration of Independence was primarily a list of grievances against the king. But the opening paragraphs amounted to a republican manifesto. The preamble declared (and committed future generations of Americans to the proposition) that ï¿½all men are created equal,ï¿½ and that they possess natural rights that include ï¿½Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.ï¿½ Perhaps most important, the declaration insisted that governments derive their powers only by consent of the governed. Protest against British colonial rule had been transformed into a republican revolution. C. The American Revolution In 1776 the prospects for American victory seemed small. Britain had a population more than three times that of the colonies, and the British army was large, wellï¿½trained, and experienced. The Americans, on the other hand, had undisciplined militia and only the beginnings of a regular army or even a government. But Americans had powerful advantages that in the end were decisive. They fought on their own territory, and in order to win they did not have to defeat the British but only to convince the British that the colonists could not be defeated. The British fought in a huge, hostile territory. They could occupy the cities and control the land on which their army stood, but they could not subdue the American colonists. Two decisive battles of the warï¿½Saratoga and Yorktownï¿½are cases in point. At Saratoga, New York, a British army descending on the Hudson Valley from Canada outran its supply lines, became tangled in the wilderness, and was surrounded by Americans. The Americans defeated a British detachment that was foraging for food near Bennington, Vermont, then attacked the main body of the British army at Saratoga. The British surrendered an army of about 5,800 (see Battles of Saratoga). More important, the American victory at Saratoga convinced France that an alliance with the Americans would be a good gamble. The French provided loans, a few troops, and, most importantly, naval support for the Americans. The French alliance also turned the rebellion into a wider war in which the British had to contend not only with the colonials but also with a French navy in the Caribbean and on the American coast. In the battle of Yorktown, the climactic campaign of the war, the vastness of America again defeated the British. In 1781 Lord Charles Cornwallis led an army through Virginia almost without opposition, then retreated to a peninsula at Yorktown. There he was besieged by George Washingtonï¿½s army and held in check by the French navy. Unable to escape or to get help, Cornwallis surrendered an entire British army. His defeat effectively ended the war. In the Treaty of Paris of 1783, the British recognized the independence of the United States and relinquished its territory from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. D. The Revolution: Winners and Losers Colonial elitesï¿½large landholders and plantation mastersï¿½benefited most from American independence: They continued to rule at home without outside interference. Below them, propertyï¿½holding white men who became full citizens of the American republic enjoyed the ï¿½life, liberty, and propertyï¿½ for which they had fought. White women remained excluded from public life, as did most white men without property. But the Americans for whom the legacy of revolution proved disastrousï¿½or at best ambiguousï¿½were Native Americans and African American slaves. In 1760 the British defeated the French in North America, and Native Americans lost the French alliance that had helped protect and strengthen them for 150 years. In the Revolution, they tended to side with the British or to remain neutral, knowing that an independent republic of landï¿½hungry farmers posed a serious threat. The six Iroquois nations divided on this question, splitting a powerful confederacy that had lasted more than 200 years. When some Iroquois raided colonial settlements, Americans responded by invading and destroying the whole Iroquois homeland in 1779. Further south, the Cherokee people sided with the British and lost heavily. Up and down the frontier, Native Americans and backcountry militia kept up unsettling and sporadic fighting throughout the war. After the British ceded territory on both sides of the Appalachians to the Americans in 1783, Native Americansï¿½who had not been defeatedï¿½ignored maps drawn by whites and continued to fight through the 1790s. Native American military power east of the Mississippi was not broken until 1815. The key to that defeat was the fact that the independent American republic was now expanding without opposition from either France or Britain. The results of the American Revolution for American slaves were ambiguous. Early in the war, the governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, had promised freedom to any Virginia slave who joined the British army. Thousands took the offer, and many more thousands seized wartime opportunities to disappear. (When Colonel Banastre Tarleton raided Charlottesville, Virginia, many of Thomas Jeffersonï¿½s slaves cheered the British as liberators.) On the other hand, thousands of blacks (primarily in the North) fought on the patriot side. American independence had differing effects on blacks. On the one hand, it created an independent nation in which slaveholders wielded real powerï¿½something that slaves would remember in the 1830s, when Parliament freed slaves in the British Caribbean without asking the planters. On the other hand, the ideology of natural rights that was fundamental to the Revolution was difficult to contain. Many whites, particularly in the North, came to see emancipation as a logical outcome of the Revolution. Vermont outlawed slavery in its constitution, and in the 1780s and 1790s most Northern states took steps to emancipate their slaves. Even Chesapeake planters flirted seriously with emancipation. Perhaps most important, slaves themselves absorbed revolutionary notions of natural rights. Following the Revolution, slave protests and slave rebellions were drenched in the rhetoric of revolutionary republicanism. Thus American independence was a shortï¿½term disaster for the slaves, but at the same time, it set in motion a chain of events that would destroy American slavery. VI. Forging a New Nation A. State Constitutions In May 1776, even before declaring national independence, the Second Continental Congress told the states to draw up constitutions to replace their colonial regimes. A few ordered their legislatures to draw up constitutions. By 1777, however, the states had recognized the people as the originators of government power. State constitutions were written by conventions elected by the voters (generally white men who held a minimum amount of property), and in a few states the finished constitutions were then submitted to voters for ratification. The Americans (white men who owned property, that is) were determined to create their own governments, not simply to have them handed down by higher authorities. Without exception, the states rejected the unwritten constitution of Britainï¿½a jumble of precedents, common law, and statutes that Americans thought had led to arbitrary rule. The new American states produced written constitutions that carefully specified the powers and limits of government. They also wrote the natural rights philosophy of the Declaration of Independence into bills of rights that protected freedom of speech and of the press, guaranteed trial by jury, forbade searching without specific warrants, and forbade taxation without consent. Seven states appended these to their constitutions; some of the other states guaranteed these rights through clauses within their constitutions. These first state constitutions, although all republican and all demonstrating distrust of government powerï¿½particularly of the executiveï¿½varied a great deal. In Pennsylvania, radicals wrote the most democratic constitution, in 1776. It established a unicameral (oneï¿½house) legislature to be chosen in annual secret-ballot elections that were open to all male taxpayers; the executive was a 12ï¿½man committee without real power. Nearly all of the other states adopted constitutions with twoï¿½house legislatures, usually with longer terms and higher property qualifications for the upper house. They had elective governors who could veto legislation, but who lacked the arbitrary powers of prerevolutionary executives. They could not dissolve the legislature, they could not corrupt the legislature by appointing its members to executive office, and the legislature could override their vetoes. In these revolutionary constitutionsï¿½drawn up hurriedly in the midst of warï¿½Americans were groping toward written constitutions with clearly specified powers. These constitutions featured limits for legislatures, executives, and the courts, with a clear separation of power among the three. They also guaranteed the citizens certain inalienable rights and made them the constituent power. On the whole, state constitutions reflected fear of government (and particularly executive) tyranny more than they reflected the need to create forceful, effective government. B. The Articles of Confederation Americans began their revolution without a national government, but the Continental Congress recognized the need for a government that could conduct the war, form relations with other countries, borrow money, and regulate trade. Eight days after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, a committee headed by John Dickinson of Pennsylvania submitted a blueprint for a powerful national government. Among other things, Dickinsonï¿½s plan gave all the statesï¿½ western land claims to the national government, and it created a congress in which states were represented equally rather than by population. The plan shocked delegates who considered the new nation a loose confederation of independent states, and they rejected it. The Articles of Confederation, which included a strong affirmation of state sovereignty, went into effect in March 1781. They created a unicameral legislature in which each state had one vote. The articles gave the confederation jurisdiction in relations with other nations and in disputes between states, and the articles won control of western lands for the national government. In ordinances passed in 1784, 1785, and 1787 the Confederation Congress organized the new federal lands east of the Mississippi and between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes as the Northwest Territory. This legislation organized the land into townships six miles square, provided land to support public schools, and organized the sale of land to developers and settlers. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 guaranteed civil liberties in the territory and banned the importation of slaves north of the Ohio River. The creation of the territory was among the solid accomplishments of the Confederation government. Still, the government lacked important powers. It could not directly tax Americans, and the articles could be amended only by a unanimous vote of the states. Revolutionary fear of centralized tyranny had created a very weak national government. The weakness of the national government made resolving questions of currency and finance particularly difficult. Neither the national government nor the states dared to tax Americans. To pay the minimal costs of government and the huge costs of fighting the war, both simply printed paper money. While this money was honored early in the war, citizens learned to distrust it. By 1780 it took 40 paper dollars to buy one silver dollar. When the Confederation Congress requisitioned funds from the states, the states were very slow in paying. And when the Congress asked permission to establish a 5 percent tax on imports (which would have required an amendment to the articles), important states refused. Under these circumstances the national government could neither strengthen the currency nor generate a stable income for itself. The Confederation also had problems dealing with other countries. In the Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolution, for instance, Americans agreed to pay prerevolutionary debts owed to British merchants, and to restore confiscated property to colonists who had remained loyal to the king (Loyalists). States refused to enforce these provisions, giving the British an excuse to occupy forts in what was now the Northwest Territory of the United States. In 1784 Spain closed the port of New Orleans to Americans, thus isolating farmers in the western settlements whose only access to the rest of the world was through the Mississippi River that ended below that port. The Confederation Congress could do little about these developments. These problems also extended to international trade. In the 1780s Britain, France, and Spain all made it difficult for Americans to trade with their colonies; at the same time, the British flooded American ports with their goods. Gold and silver flowed out of the country. The result was a deep depression throughout most of the 1780s. The Confederation Congress could do nothing about it. The Confederation also had trouble dealing with Native Americans. The Confederation Congress negotiated doubtful landï¿½cession treaties with the Iroquois in New York and with the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw nations in the South. The Creeks (as well as many of the Native Americans supposedly represented at the negotiations) resisted the onslaught of white settlers, and the Confederation was powerless to do anything about the wars that resulted. The Confederation had internal problems as well. The economic disruptions of the Revolution and the 1780s left many farmers unable to keep up with their mortgages and other debts. State governments had often met this problem by printing paper money and by passing stay laws that prevented creditors from seizing the property of their debtors. In Massachusetts, however, the upper house of the legislature protected the investments of creditors by voting down debtorï¿½relief legislation. In 1786 farmers in the western counties, led by revolutionary veteran Daniel Shays, held conventions to demand the abolition of the upper house. They then mobbed county courthouses and destroyed the records of many of their debts. They then marched on a federal arsenal at Springfield, where they were repulsed and scattered by the militia (see Shaysï¿½ Rebellion). Yet Shaysï¿½ rebels retained enough support to elect a legislature that in the following year enacted a stay law. C. The Constitutional Convention International troubles, the postwar depression, and the nearï¿½war in Massachusetts (as well as similar but less spectacular events in other states) led to calls for stronger government at both the state and national levels. Supporters wanted a government that could deal with other countries, create a stable (deflated) currency, and maintain order in a society that some thought was becoming too democratic. Some historians call the citizens who felt this way cosmopolitans. They tended to be wealthy, with their fortunes tied to international trade. They included seaport merchants and artisans, southern planters, and commercial farmers whose foreign markets had been closed. Most of their leaders were former officers of the Continental (national) army and officials of the Confederation governmentï¿½men whose wartime experiences had given them a political vision that was national and not local. In the 1780s cosmopolitans were outnumbered by so-called locals, who tended to be farmers living in isolated, inland communities with only marginal ties to the market economy, and who tended to be in debt to cosmopolitans. In the Revolution, most locals had served in militias rather than in the national army, and they preserved a localist, rather than nationalist, view of politics. They also preserved a distrust of any government not subject to direct oversight by citizens. The new state governments had often reapportioned legislative districts to give new, fast-growing western counties greater representation. Locals tended to control legislatures and (as in Shaysï¿½ Massachusetts) promote debtor relief, low taxes, and inactive governmentï¿½a situation that caused cosmopolitans to fear that the republic was degenerating into democracy and chaos. In September 1786 delegates from several states met at Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss ways to improve American trade. They decided instead, with the backing of the Confederation Congress, to call a national convention to discuss ways of strengthening the Union. In May 1787, 55 delegates (representing every state but Rhode Island, whose legislature had voted not to send a delegation) convened in Philadelphia and drew up a new Constitution of the United States. The delegates were cosmopolitans who wanted to strengthen national government, but they had to compromise on a number of issues among themselves. In addition, the delegates realized that their Constitution would have to be ratified by the citizenry, and they began compromising not only among themselves but also on their notions of what ordinary Americans would accept. The result was a Constitution that was both conservative and revolutionary. The biggest compromise was between large and small states. States with large populations favored a Virginia Plan that would create a twoï¿½house legislature in which population determined representation in both houses. This legislature would then appoint the executive and the judiciary, and it would have the power to veto state laws. The small states countered with a plan for a oneï¿½house legislature in which every state, regardless of population, would have one vote. In the resulting compromise, the Constitution mandated a two-house legislature (see Congress of the United States). Representatives would be elected to the lower house based on population, but in the upper house two senators would represent each state, regardless of population. Another compromise settled an argument over whether slaves would be counted as part of a stateï¿½s population (if they were counted, Southern representation would increase). The convention agreed to count each slave as threeï¿½fifths of a person. The president would be selected by an electoral college, in which each stateï¿½s number of votes equaled its congressional representation. Once elected, the president would have important powers: The president appointed other officers of the executive department as well as federal judges. Commander-in-chief of the military, the president also directed foreign affairs, and could veto laws passed by Congress. These powers, however, were balanced by congressional oversight. Congress, or just the Senate, had to ratify major appointments and treaties with foreign countries, and only Congress could declare war. Congress also had the power to impeach the president or federal judges, and Congress could override a presidentï¿½s veto. The Constitution also declared itself the supreme law of the land, and listed powers that the states could not exercise. See also United States (Government). Thus the Constitution carefully separated and defined the powers of the three branches of the national government and of the national and state governments. It established checks and balances between the branchesï¿½and put it all in writing. The stated purpose of the document was to make a strong national government that could never become tyrannical. D. Ratification The proceedings of the Constitutional Convention were kept secret until late September 1787. The Confederation Congress sent the completed Constitution out for ratification by state conventions elected for that purposeï¿½not by state legislatures, many of which were hostile to the new document. Thus the Constitutionï¿½which began ï¿½We the peopleï¿½ï¿½created a government with the people, and not the state legislatures, as the constituent power. The Federalists, as proponents of the Constitution called themselves, were cosmopolitans who were better organized than their opponents. Particularly in the beginning of the ratification effort, they made greater use of pamphlets and newspapers. In New York, Federalist leaders Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison composed the powerful and enduring Federalist papers to counter doubts about the proposed new government. By January 1788 conventions in Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut had ratified the Constitution. Opponents of the Constitution, who called themselves Antiï¿½Federalists, were locals who feared a strong national government that would be run by educated and wealthy cosmopolitans who operated far away from most citizens. They were particularly distrustful of a Constitution that lacked a bill of rights protecting citizens from government attacks on their liberties. Ratification contests in the remaining states were close, but by July 1788, 11 states had ratified, often with promises that the new government would enact a bill of rights. (North Carolina eventually ratified in 1789. The last state, Rhode Island, did not send delegates to the Constitutional Convention and did not ratify the Constitution until 1790.) VII. Launching the Nation: Federalists and Jeffersonians George Washington was unanimously elected the first president of the United States in 1789. He presided over a revolutionary republic that was overwhelmingly rural. The countryï¿½s 4 million people filled the nationï¿½s territory at only 1.7 per square km (4.5 per square mile; the comparable figure for 1998 was 29.5 per square km, or 76.4 per square mile). A. Americans and their Government, 1790ï¿½1815 Most Americans lived in rural, selfï¿½sufficient neighborhoods. Farm families produced a variety of plants and animals, consumed much of what they produced, and traded much of the rest within their neighborhoods. Since the midï¿½18th century Americans had been sending surpluses to Europe and to the slave islands of the Caribbean; in return they received molasses, rum, crockery, tea and coffee, readyï¿½made cloth, and other European (primarily British) manufactured goods. Two groups were more heavily dependent on international trade, and both had tended to support the new Constitution. The plantation slaveï¿½masters of the South grew staple crops for world markets: rice and indigo in South Carolina and Georgia, tobacco in North Carolina and the Chesapeake. The markets for these goods were in Europe (again, primarily England). Northeastern seaport merchants also had a vital stake in overseas trade. From the 1790s to 1820, southern farms and slavery changed dramatically. In the Chesapeake, tobacco had worn out much of the soil, and world markets for the crop were down. Chesapeake planters began growing less tobacco and more grain, a change that required fewer slaves. Many planters trained their slaves as carpenters, blacksmiths, and other craftsmen and rented them to employers in the towns. Other planters, believing that the natural rights philosophy of the revolution left little moral room for slavery, freed their slaves; but many more simply sold their slaves at high prices to cotton planters farther south and west. In the 1790s planters south of Virginia had found that they could make money by growing cotton, thanks to the cotton gin invented by American Eli Whitney to separate sticky seeds from the cotton fibers. The result was a stunning boom in cotton. The United States produced only 3,000 bales of cotton in 1790; that figure jumped to 335,000 by 1820. The cotton boom created a brisk market in slaves. From 1778 to 1808 the United States imported as many African slaves as it had imported during the whole previous history of the slave trade. Nearly all of these slaves entered the country through Charleston or Savannah and ended up working the cotton plantations of the Deep South. Another reason for the rise in slave imports was a promise in the Constitution that the national government would not end the nationï¿½s participation in the international slave trade until 1808, and planters wished to stock up before the market closed. The slaveï¿½driven economy of the late 18th and early 19th centuries produced huge amounts of plantation staples, nearly all of them sold to international (primarily English) buyers. In 1790 there were few cities. Only 5 percent of the population lived in towns with more than 2,500 inhabitants. And only five communities (Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Charleston) had more than 10,000 inhabitants. Each of these five cities was an Atlantic seaport and handled the exporting of American farm staples and the importing of Old World manufactured goods. They performed very little manufacturing of their own. After 1793, when Britain and France entered a long period of war, American seaports handled increased exports as warï¿½torn Europe bought a lot of American food. They also began to handle more of the trade between European countries and their island colonies in the Caribbean. Thus the work of the plantations, the seaport towns, and (to a lesser extent) the farms of the United States was tied to foreign trade. The new government of the United States worked to foster and protect that trade, and these efforts led the new nation into the War of 1812. A.1. Growth of Democracy Another potential problem for members of the new government who prized order was the rapid growth and increasing democracy of American society. The revolutionary rhetoric of equality and natural rights seeped into every corner of American life. Even the poorest white men demanded the basic dignity that republics promised their citizens. Some women began to dream in that direction, as did slaves. In 1800 a slave named Gabriel led a slave revolt in Richmond, Virginia. His small army marched into the state capital under the banner ï¿½Death or Liberty.ï¿½ Religious change also contributed to the new democratic character of the republic. The established churches of colonial days (Congregationalists in New England, Anglicansï¿½now renamed Episcopaliansï¿½further south) declined, in part because they were relatively cold and formal, and also because their status as established churches aroused democratic resentment. At the same time, a great revival among the common people made Baptists and Methodists the largest American churches. Baptists grew from 400 to 2,700 congregations between 1783 and 1820; Methodists grew from 50 to 2,700 churches in the same years. These churches emphasized preaching over ritual, stressed Bibleï¿½reading congregations over educated ministers, favored spiritual freedom over old forms of hierarchical discipline, and encouraged conversions. Of crucial importance to the revival was the conversion of slaves and, in turn, the slavesï¿½ transformation of Christianity into a religion of their own. By the second decade of the 19th century, most American slaves were Christiansï¿½primarily Baptists and Methodists. Slaves and free blacks participated in the revival and were taken into white churches. But white prejudice and blacksï¿½ desire for autonomy soon resulted in separate African American congregations. By the early 19th century black Methodist and Baptist congregations had become fundamental to a growing African American cultural identity. Finally, at the western edges of this increasingly disorderly and democratic republic were Native American peoples who remained free and on their own land. The Shawnee, Delaware, and other peoples north of the Ohio River in particular had not been defeated in the Revolution and did not accept the jurisdiction of the United States over their land. These northwestern tribes could also rely on help from the British in Canada. Thus at the edges of the republicï¿½in the forests of the interior and on the Atlantic Oceanï¿½the new government faced important problems of diplomacy, problems that sometimes degenerated into war. Within the republic, the government had to contend with a democratic citizenry, many of whom deeply distrusted law and authority that came from a distant capital. A.2. The Bill of Rights The new government of the United States convened in New York City in early 1789. The First Congress immediately passed a tariff on imports that would provide 90 percent of the governmentï¿½s revenue. It also created a system of federal courts. Congressmen then turned to the bill of rights that some of the state ratifying conventions had promised their citizens. Congress ultimately passed 12 amendments to the Constitution. Ten of these were ratified by the states and became the Bill of Rights. The First Amendment protected the freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and religion from federal legislation. The Second and Third amendments guaranteed the right to bear arms and made it difficult for the government to house soldiers in private homesï¿½provisions favoring a citizen militia over a professional army. The Fourth through Eighth amendments defined a citizenï¿½s rights in court and when under arrest. The Ninth Amendment stated that the enumeration of these rights did not endanger other rights, and the Tenth Amendment said that powers not granted the national government by the Constitution remained with the states and citizens. B. The Debate over Federalism The new national government was dominated by men who had led the movement for the Constitution, most of whom called themselves Federalists. They were committed to making an authoritative and stable national state. This became clear early on when President Washington asked Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton to offer solutions to the problems of the national debt and government finances. Hamilton proposed that the federal government assume the revolutionary war debts of the states and combine them with the debt of the United States into one national debt. The federal government would pay off the parts of the debt that were owed to foreigners, thus establishing the international credit of the new government. But the new government would make the domestic debt permanent, selling government bonds that paid a guaranteed high interest rate. Hamilton also proposed a national bank to hold treasury funds and print and back the federal currency. The bank would be a government-chartered and governmentï¿½regulated private corporation. The bank and the permanent debt would cement ties between private financiers and the government, and they would require an enlarged government bureaucracy and federal taxation. Hamilton asked for a federal excise tax on coffee, tea, wine, and spirits. The latter included whiskey, and the excise quickly became known as the Whiskey Tax. The tax would provide some of the funds to pay interest on the national debt. It would also announce to western farmers that they had a national government that could tax them. Hamiltonï¿½s plan increased the power of the national government. See also Federalism. Hamiltonï¿½s measures promised to stabilize government finances and to establish the governmentï¿½s reputation internationally and its authority in every corner of the republic. They would also dramatically centralize power in the national government. Many citizens and members of Congress distrusted Hamiltonï¿½s plans. The assumption of state debts, the funding of the national debt, and stock sales for the Bank of the United States would reward commercial interests, nearly all of them from the Northeast, who invested in the bank and the bonds to pay the debt. Also, establishment of the bank required Congress to use the clause in the Constitution that empowers the legislature ï¿½to make all laws which shall be necessary and properï¿½ to carry out its specified powersï¿½a clause that some feared might allow Congress to do anything it wanted. Finally, the government would require a large civil service to administer the debt and collect taxesï¿½a civil service that would be appointed by the executive. To Madison, Jefferson, and many others, Hamiltonï¿½s plans for the national government too closely duplicated the powerful, debtï¿½driven, patronageï¿½wielding British government against which they had fought the revolution. Jefferson became the leader of a group that called themselves Democratic Republicans. They wanted the United States to remain a republic of the small, property-holding farmers who, they believed, were its most trustworthy citizens. Democratic Republicans envisioned a central government that was strong enough to protect property but not strong or active enough to threaten property or other republican rights. Jefferson feared the national debt, the federal taxes, and the enlarged civil service that Hamiltonï¿½s plans required. When Jefferson was elected president in 1800, he paid off much of the debt that Hamilton had envisioned as a permanent fixture of government. The Jeffersonians then abolished federal taxes other than the tariff, reduced the number of government employees, and drastically reduced the size of the military. They did, however, retain the Bank of the United States. Internationally, the Jeffersonians had no ambitions other than free tradeï¿½the right of Americans to trade the produce of their plantations and farms for finished goods from other countries. C. Foreign Affairs, 1789ï¿½1812 Unfortunately for both Federalists and Democratic Republicans, it was very hard for the United States to act as a free and neutral country in the international arena because of the wars that followed the establishment of a republic in France (see French Revolution; Napoleonic Wars). The French republic became violent and expansionist, and Britain led three coalitions of European powers in wars against its expansionist activities. These wars affected the domestic policy and the foreign policy of the new United States (see American Foreign Policy). Federalists valued American sovereignty, but they also valued the old trading relationship with Britain; Americans did 90 percent of their trade with Britain. The Federalists also admired British political stability, and they sided with Britain in its wars against France. In Jayï¿½s Treaty of 1794 the Washington administration tried to create a postrevolutionary relationship with Britain. The British agreed to abandon the forts they occupied in the Northwest Territory. An American army under General Anthony Wayne had defeated the northwestern Native Americans at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, and the British were glad to leave. But the British refused to allow Americans to trade internationally on any basis other than as part of the British mercantile system. The Federalists, knowing that they could ask for nothing better, agreed. The French regarded Jayï¿½s Treaty as an Angloï¿½American alliance. They recalled their ambassador and began harassing American merchant ships at sea. By 1798 the Americans and the French were fighting an undeclared naval war in the Caribbean. During this crisis, Federalists passed the Alien and Sedition Acts. These acts undermined civil liberties and were clearly directed against Jeffersonian newspaper editors, who were critical of the Federalist-dominated government. The Federalist government also began to raise a large army. The size of the Federalist government and the danger of Federalist repression were the principal issues in the election of 1800. Campaigning for civil liberties and limited government, Thomas Jefferson was elected president. Jeffersonians cared more about farmers than about the merchants who carried their produce to Europe and imported European goodsï¿½particularly when those merchants operated within established British trade networks and voted for Federalist candidates. Jeffersonians demanded that the United States be free to trade with any nation (a demand unlikely to be granted during wartime) and that both France and Britain respect American sovereignty and neutral rights. During most of Jeffersonï¿½s first term, Europe was at peace during a break in the Napoleonic Wars. The one major foreign policy issue was a huge success: Jeffersonï¿½s purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803 (see Louisiana Purchase). The purchase gave western farmers free use of the river system that emptied below New Orleans, removed the French presence from the western border of the United States, and provided American farmers with vast new lands on which to expand their rural republic. Ignoring the fact that independent Native American peoples occupied the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson proclaimed his new land a great ï¿½empire of liberty.ï¿½ Britain and France again went to war a few weeks after the Louisiana Purchase. Americans once again tried to sell food and plantation crops and to carry goods between the warring European powers and their Caribbean colonies. Both sides permitted this trade when it benefited them and tampered with it when it did not. In 1805 the British destroyed the French navy at the Battle of Trafalgar off the Spanish coast and became dominant on the ocean. Britain outlawed American trade with France and maintained a loose blockade of the American coast, seizing American ships and often kidnapping American sailors into the Royal Navy. This happened to as many as 6,000 Americans between 1803 and 1812. The Americans could not fight the British navy, and President Jefferson responded with ï¿½peaceable coercion.ï¿½ Believing that Britain needed American food more than America needed British manufactures, he asked Congress in 1807 for an embargo that would suspend all U.S. trade with foreign nations. Jefferson hoped to coerce Britain and France into respecting American sovereignty. The embargo did not work, however. Britain found other sources of food, and the American economyï¿½particularly in the seaportsï¿½stopped. American exports were valued at $108 million in 1807. They dropped to $22 million the following year. In 1808 James Madison, Jeffersonï¿½s friend and chosen successor, easily won the presidential election against a Federalist opposition. D. The Threat of a Second War with Britain The United States declared war on Britain in 1812. The first cause of the war was British interference with American shipping. The second was military assistance that the British in Canada were providing to the Native American peoples of the United States interior. In Ohio, Native Americans defeated two American armies before being defeated themselves by American troops under General ï¿½Madï¿½ Anthony Wayne in 1795. They and indigenous peoples in other parts of the Northwest Territory continued to resist white encroachment. Beginning in 1805, the Shawnee, Delaware, and other northern tribes formed an unprecedentedly large political and military alliance under the Shawnee leader Tecumseh. Americans under William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, attacked and defeated them at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811. But Tecumsehï¿½s army, along with Creeks from the South who had joined him, were a serious threat to white settlement. All of this Native American resistance was encouraged and supplied by the British in Canada. After the embargo failed, most northeastern representatives in Congress were willing to reconcile with Britain on British terms. Westerners and Southerners, however, would not compromise the safety of western settlements and the freedom of the seas. Led by young members who came to be called War Hawks (including Henry Clay, the 34ï¿½yearï¿½old Speaker of the House), Congress prepared for war. It would be the first war declared under the Constitution, and President Madison was careful to leave the actual declaration to Congress. But in June 1812 he sent a message to Congress listing British crimes on the ocean and on the frontier. The message ended ï¿½We behold ï¿½ on the side of Britain a state of war against the United States, and on the side of the United States a state of peace toward Britain.ï¿½ Congress, led by Southern and Western Jeffersonians, declared war two weeks later. E. The War of 1812 The United States entered the War of 1812 to defend its sovereignty, its western settlements, and its maritime rights. American leaders knew that they could not fight the British navy. They decided instead to fight a land war, with Canada as the prize. Americans reasoned that they could get to the British settlements in Canada more easily than the British could. The capture of Canada would cut western Native Americans off from British supplies and allow Americans to hold a valuable colony hostage until the British agreed to their demands. General William Hull, governor of the Michigan Territory, led an American invasion of Canada in 1812. The British and Native Americans threw him back, besieged him at Detroit, and forced him to surrender his whole army. A second invasion of Canada from western New York failed when New York militiamen refused to cross into Canada to back up American regulars who had captured Queenston Heights below Niagara Falls (see Battle of Queenston Heights). Tecumsehï¿½s northern Native American confederacy was an important part of the British effort. In the South, Creek warriors terrorized Tennessee and killed about 250 settlers who had taken refuge at Fort Mims in Alabama (see Massacre of Fort Mims). The war went better for the Americans in 1813. Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry defeated a British fleet and gained control of Lake Erieï¿½and thus of the supply lines between British Canada and the American Northwest. Americans sailed across Lake Ontario and raided and burned York (now Toronto). Further west, Americans led by William Henry Harrison chased the British and Native Americans back into Canada. At the Battle of the Thames in October, Americans killed Tecumseh. The following spring, American General Andrew Jackson, with Cherokee allies, defeated and then slaughtered the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend in Alabama. With these two battles the military power of Native Americans east of the Mississippi River was finally broken. The British went on the offensive in 1814. The Royal Navy had blockaded the Atlantic Coast throughout the war and now began raiding American cities. In the summer, the British raided Washington, D.C., and burned down the Capitol and the White House. In September the British attacked Baltimore, but were held off by Americans at Fort McHenry who defended the harbor. (It was this engagement that inspired a witness, American poet Francis Scott Key, to write ï¿½The Star-Spangled Banner,ï¿½ which later became the national anthem.) The British then moved their attention to the Gulf Coast. At New Orleans, Andrew Jacksonï¿½s army soundly defeated the British on January 8, 1815. Neither side in the Battle of New Orleans knew that the war had ended the previous month with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. New England Federalists, opponents of the war, were also unaware of the treaty when they met at Hartford, Connecticut, in December 1814. With their commerce destroyed, some wanted to secede from the United States and make a separate peace with Britain. But the Hartford Convention settled for proposed amendments to the Constitution (all of which were directed at the Jeffersonian Republicansï¿½ southern and western majority). However, when members of the Hartford Convention carried their proposals to Washington in February, they found the capital celebrating Jacksonï¿½s victory at New Orleans and the end of the war. Thus the Hartford Convention became the final disgrace for the New England Federalists. The War of 1812 had been a product of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. After Napoleon was defeated in 1814, neither the Americans nor the British cared to keep on fighting. In the treaty, the British abandoned their Native American allies, and the Americans dropped their complaints about maritime rights. Both assumed that peace would eliminate issues that had been created by war in Europe. VIII. United States Expansion A. Era of Good Feelings The year 1815 marks a watershed in American history. Before that date American history was closely tied to European historyï¿½particularly to the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. With Napoleonï¿½s defeat and the success of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, a long period of peace began in Europe. American leaders paid less attention to European trade and European war, and more to the internal development of the United States. This was bad news for Native Americans east of the Mississippi River, who had lost their last European ally, Britain, in 1815. Now they faced only landï¿½hungry Americans who were determined to turn Native American hunting lands into farms. By the 1830s the federal government was moving the eastern Native Americans to new lands beyond the Mississippi, while whites filled their old lands with farms and plantations and began eyeing more lands to the west. B. Expansion: Northwest Territory In the 1780s there were few white settlers in the Northwest Territory (the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and eastern Minnesota). By 1860 more than one in five Americans lived in the Northwest, and the geographic center of the population of the United States was near Chillicothe, Ohio. Nearly all white migrants were farmers, and they reached the area in two streams. Before 1830 most migrants were Southerners, mainly poor and middling farmers from Kentucky, Tennessee, and western Virginia. In the southern regions of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, they settled near rivers that empty into the Ohio River, providing access to the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. Southern migrants in the Northwest worked their land Southern style. They planted cornfields but left most of their land wooded, allowing hogs to roam freely and fend for themselves. In this way farmers subsisted (within their households and through bartering with neighbors) with relatively little labor or reliance on outside markets. Trade down the Mississippi became safe only after Jefferson purchased the Louisiana Territory in 1803 and the army ended Native American resistance in the Northwest and Southwest in the War of 1812. The trade route became efficient and profitable only with the development of river steamboats in the 1810s. After 1830 a new stream of migration reached the Northwest Territory from the northeastern states. Most of the new settlers were New Englanders (many of whom had spent a generation in western New York) who reached their new lands via New Yorkï¿½s Erie Canal, Great Lakes steamboats, and other new forms of transportation. By the 1840s they were joined by immigrants from Germany and Scandinavia. Most of these were intensive commercial farmers. Rather than allow cattle and hogs to roam freely (often trampling tilled fields), they put their animals in pens. They also planted huge fields of grain and put up fences. In 1820 the Northwest Territory sent only 12 percent of its farm produce to markets outside the regionï¿½a sign that nearly all Northwestern farmers limited their economic lives to their families and neighbors. By 1840 exports accounted for 27 percent of what Northwestern farmers produced, and by 1860ï¿½with railroad connections to the east completedï¿½the figure stood at 70 percent. The figures were even higher in the northern, grainï¿½growing areas. Increasingly, the market for Northwestern farm products was not in Europe but in the towns and cities of the east as well as such local centers as Cincinnati, Ohio, and Chicago, Illinois. In turn, these cities provided farmers with manufactured goods. Land that only a generation earlier had been occupied by independent Native American peoples was now the center of a great internal commercial revolution. C. Expansion: The Southwest Equally dramatic was the rapid settlement of the trans-Appalachian South. At the conclusion of the War of 1812, Andrew Jackson forced the Creeks to cede huge territories in the Southwest. Settlers, often with the help of state governments, began pressuring the Cherokee, Choctaw, and other tribes to give up their lands. The land was eagerly sought by Southeastern whites who had small, wornï¿½out farms, and who faced lives of tenancy and rural poverty. The best lands, however, were taken by planters who since the 1790s had been reaping huge profits from the cotton boom. Fertile land beside navigable rivers in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri became slave plantations devoted to cotton. These cotton farms were among the largest, the most intensely commercialized, and the most profitable business operations in the Western Hemisphere. Farmers who owned few or no slaves took higher, more isolated, and less fertile land in the same states. Like their cousins who settled north of the Ohio River, they practiced a mixed agriculture that included animals and plants (primarily hogs and corn), provided for themselves and their neighbors, and sold the surplus to outside markets. Some of those markets were reached by floating produce downriver to the seaports, while other markets were on plantations that grew only cotton and that bought food from farmers in their region. The big cotton farms relied on slave labor, and slaves performed the immense task of turning a huge transï¿½Appalachian wilderness into cotton farms. Much of the slave population that was moved west came from the slave centers of South Carolina and coastal Georgia. But the cotton boom also provided a market for Virginia and Maryland slaves who were not as economically useful as they had been in the 18th century. In the 1790s, as the cotton boom began, about 1 in 12 Chesapeake slaves was moved south and west. Chesapeake slave exports rose to 1 in 10 in the first decade of the 19th century and 1 in 5 between 1810 and 1820. The movement of slaves from the Chesapeake to the new cotton states was immense. The Cotton Belt of the Deep South had become the center of American slavery. See also Slavery in the United States: Growth of Slavery. D. The Indian Removal Act With the expansion of the white agricultural frontier came the final blows to Native American independence east of the Mississippi. In New York, the once mighty Iroquois were limited to reservations near the new towns of Buffalo and Syracuse; many of the Iroquois moved to Canada. The Shawnee, who had led Native American resistance in the Northwest Territory until 1815, were scattered. Many of the most defiant members moved to Canada. Others relocated to Missouri, then to Mexican territory in east Texas or to eastern Kansas. In the South the 60,000 remaining Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole were pressured by the national government to sell away most of their land at pennies per acre. Legislation passed in 1819 provided small amounts of government money to train southern Native Americans in plow agriculture and Christianity on their reduced lands. The plan took hold among many of them, and whites began calling them the Five Civilized Tribes. But even as these efforts continued, settlers moved onto lands that Native Americans had not ceded while the federal government looked the other way. In his final annual message to Congress in 1824, President James Monroe recommended that the indigenous peoples who remained in the east be removed to new lands west of the Mississippi. The Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, and Chickasaw nations rejected the idea of removal and insisted that the national government live up to the treaties that guaranteed them what was left of their territory. At the same time, Southern state governments insisted that they and not the federal government had jurisdiction over Native American lands within their borders. The claim reinforced southern notions of statesï¿½ rights; it also held the promise of more Native American land for settlers. The situation reached a crisis in Georgia, where Governor George Troup extended state jurisdiction to Native American lands and began giving the lands to poor whites by means of a lottery in 1825. Troup also sent state surveyors onto Creek lands and warned President John Quincy Adams not to interfere with this exercise of state authority. Faced with this threatening situation the Creek and the Cherokee reorganized themselves as political nations, stripping local chiefs of power and giving it to national councils. In 1827 the Cherokee nation declared itself a republic with its own government, courts, police, and constitution. By 1830 the situation had become a crisis. New president Andrew Jackson, a Tennessee plantation owner and a famous fighter of Native Americans, refused to exercise federal jurisdiction over Native American affairs, allowing southern states to find their own solutions. The Cherokee took the state of Georgia to court, and in 1832, in the case of Worcester v. Georgia, John Marshall, chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, ruled that Georgiaï¿½s extension of its authority over Cherokee land was unconstitutional. President Jackson simply refused to enforce the decision, allowing southern states to continue to encroach on Native American lands. In the Indian Removal Act of 1830, Congressï¿½with Jacksonï¿½s blessingï¿½offered Native American peoples east of the Mississippi federal land to the west, where the United States government had the authority to protect them. Many of them accepted. Then in 1838, Jacksonï¿½s successor, Martin Van Buren, sent the U.S. Army to evict 18,000 to 20,000 Cherokee remaining in the South and move them to what is today Oklahoma. In all, 4,000 Native Americans died on the march that became known as the Trail of Tears. Jackson, who more than any other person was responsible for this removal policy, argued, ï¿½What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns and prosperous farms, embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion?ï¿½ Again, the white empire of land and liberty came at the expense of other races. See also Indian Wars: Native American Removal Policy. E. The Trans-Mississippi West, 1803ï¿½1840s In 1804, a year after the Louisiana Purchase, President Jefferson sent an expedition under Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the purchase and to continue on to the Pacific Ocean. The Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled up the Missouri River, spent the winter of 1804 to 1805 with the Mandan people, and with the help of a Shoshone woman named Sacagawea traveled west along the Snake River to the Columbia River and on to the Pacific. Even as they traveled, mounted bands of Sioux were conquering the northern Great Plains. The Sioux had already cut off the Pawnee, Otoe, and other peoples of the lower Missouri from the western buffalo herds and were threatening the Mandan and other agricultural peoples on the upper reaches of the river. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, epidemics of European diseases traveled up the Missouri River. The worst of them came in the 1830s, when smallpox killed half the Native Americans along the river. The Sioux, who lived in small bands and moved constantly, were not as badly hurt as others were. They used that advantage to complete their conquest of the northern sections of Jeffersonï¿½s great ï¿½Empire of Liberty.ï¿½ Farther south, white settlers were crossing the Mississippi onto the new lands. Louisiana, already the site of New Orleans and of Spanish and French plantations, became the first state west of the Mississippi in 1812. Southerners were also moving into the Arkansas and Missouri territories. Missouri entered the Union in 1821, Arkansas in 1836. Settlers also began moving into Texas, in the northeastern reaches of the Republic of Mexico, which won its independence from Spain in 1821. Mexico at first encouraged them but demanded that new settlers become Catholics and Mexican citizens. Mexico also demanded that they respect the Mexican governmentï¿½s abolition of slavery within its territory. Settlers tended to ignore these demands, and they continued to stream into Texas even when the Mexican government tried to stop the migration. By 1835 the 30,000 Americans in Texas outnumbered Mexicans six to one. When the Mexican government tried to strengthen its authority in Texas, the American settlers (with the help of many of the Mexicans living in that province) went into an armed revolt known as the Texas Revolution. Volunteers from the southern United States crossed the border to help, and in 1836 the Americans won. They declared their land the independent Republic of Texas and asked that it be annexed to the United States. The question of Texas annexation would stir national politics for the next ten years. Americans considered the plains that formed most of the Louisiana Purchase (the lands over which the Sioux had established control) to be a desert unsuitable for farming. Congress designated the area west of Arkansas, Missouri, and Iowa and north of Texas as Indian Territory in the 1840s. But Americans were already crossing that ground to reach more fertile territory on the Pacific, in California and Oregon (which included present-day Washington and much of presentï¿½day British Columbia). See also American Westward Movement: Beyond the Mississippi. These lands were formally owned by other countries and occupied by independent indigenous peoples. California was part of Mexico. The Oregon country was jointly occupied (and hotly contested) by Britain and the United States. American settlers, most of them from the Ohio Valley, crossed the plains and poured into Oregon and the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys in California after 1841. As populations in those areas grew, members of the new Mormon Church, after violent troubles with their neighbors in Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois, trekked across the plains and the Rocky Mountains in 1847 and settled on Mexican territory in the Salt Lake Valley. F. The Monroe Doctrine The American government in these years was expansionist. With the end of the second war between Britain and the United States, the heated foreign policy debate that had divided Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans since the 1790s quieted down. In the years after 1815 most American politicians agreed on an aggressively nationalist and expansionist foreign policy. John Quincy Adams, who served as secretary of state under James Monroe, did the most to articulate that policy. In the Rush-Bagot Convention of 1817 he worked out agreements with Britain to reduce naval forces on the Great Lakes and establish the U.S.-Canadian border from Minnesota to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel. For the first time in their history, Americans did not have to worry about an unfriendly Canada. Americans turned their attention south and west, and to Spainï¿½s crumbling empire in the New World. In the Adamsï¿½Onï¿½s Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded Florida to the United States. The treaty also established the border between Louisiana and Spanish Texas, a border that ran west along the Arkansas River, over the Rocky Mountains, and to the Pacific along the present southern borders of Idaho and Oregon. Thus the treaty gave the United States its first claim to land bordering the Pacific Ocean, although it shared that claim with Britain. In part, the Spanish were willing to give up territory because they had bigger things to worry about: Their South American colonies were in revolt, establishing themselves as independent republics. Spain asked the European powers that had stopped Napoleonï¿½s France to help it stop revolutionary republicanism in Spanish America. Britain, however, did not agree and instead proposed a joint Britishï¿½United States statement, in which both nations would oppose European intervention in Latin America and would agree not to annex any of the former Spanish territories. Secretary Adams answered with what became known as the Monroe Doctrine. In it, the United States independently declared that further European colonization in the Americas would be considered an unfriendly act (which agreed with the British proposal). The Monroe Doctrine did not, however, include the British clause that would have prevented annexation of former Spanish territory. Although he had no immediate plans to annex them, Adams believed that at least Texas and Cuba would eventually become American possessions. At the same time, the United States extended diplomatic recognition to the new Latin American republics. In short, the Monroe Doctrine declared the western hemisphere closed to European colonization while leaving open the possibility of United States expansion. G. Manifest Destiny Few American migrants questioned their right to move into Texas, Oregon, and California. By the midï¿½1840s expansion was supported by a well-developed popular ideology that it was inevitable and good that the United States occupy the continent ï¿½from sea to shining sea.ï¿½ Some talked of expanding freedom to new areas. Others talked of spreading the American ethic of hard work and economic progress. Still others imagined a United States with Pacific ports that could open Asian markets. Before long, some were imagining a North America without what they considered the savagery of Native Americans, the laziness and political instability of Mexicans, or the corrupt and dying monarchism of the British. God, they said, clearly wanted hardï¿½working American republicans to occupy North America. In 1845 a New York City journalist named John L. Oï¿½Sullivan gave these ideas a name: Manifest Destiny. It is, he wrote, ï¿½our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.ï¿½ H. Annexation: Oregon and Texas The new Republic of Texas asked to be annexed to the United States as early as 1837. The governments of Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren took no action for two reasons. First, the question of Texas annexation divided the North and South. Up to the 1840s, transï¿½Mississippi expansion had extended Southern society: Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri were all slave states. Texas would be another, and Northerners who disliked slavery and Southern political power imagined that the Texas territory could become as many as 11 new slave states with 22 new proslavery senators. Annexation of Texas was certain to arouse Northern and antislavery opposition. President John Tyler, who supported the South, tried to annex Texas in 1844 but was defeated by congressional Northerners and by some Southern members of the anti-Jacksonian Whig Party. The second reason for avoiding annexation was that Mexico still considered Texas its own territory. Annexation would create a diplomatic crisis, and perhaps lead to war. In the presidential election of 1844 the Whig Party nominated Henry Clay of Kentucky. Clay refused to take a stand on the annexation of Texas. The Democrats rejected former president Martin Van Buren, who opposed annexation, and nominated James K. Polk of Tennessee. Polk ran on a pro-annexation platform: He would annex Texas, and he would assert American ownership of all of Oregonï¿½s territory disputed with Britain. Polkï¿½s position on Oregon was intended to reassure Northerners that expansion would benefit them as well as the South. This position on Oregon was, however, a radical change from earlier policies. Previously, Americans had not claimed land north of the 49th parallel, the present-day United Statesï¿½Canada border on the Pacific. Polk claimed all the land up to latitude 54ï¿½40ï¿½ north, the present southern boundary of Alaska, which at the time was owned by Russia. The British, on the other hand, claimed territory as far south as the Columbia River. After Polk won the election, both sides sought to avoid a serious dispute; they backed down and accepted the boundary that exists today between Washington State and British Columbia. The compromise avoided war, but it convinced Northern expansionists that Polk (and behind him, the Democratic Party) cared more about Southern expansion than about Northern expansion. I. War with Mexico There was ample reason for that suspicion. While Polk compromised with Britain on the Oregon boundary, he stood adamant against Mexico on the question of Texas. Mexico warned that it would consider the annexation of Texas by the United States a declaration of war. A Texas convention voted to join the Union on July 4, 1845. Polk and a Congress strongly favoring annexation not only offered to take Texas into the Union, they also set the southern boundary of the new state at the Rio Grandeï¿½150 miles south of what most people had agreed was the Texasï¿½Mexico border. The new boundary gave Texas far more Mexican land (including much of present-day New Mexico and Colorado) than the Texas Revolution had given it. Polk knew that the additional territory would provide a gateway to New Mexico and California, territories of northern Mexico that he and other expansionists coveted along with Texas. While annexing Texas, Polk offered to buy New Mexico and California from Mexico for $30 million in late 1845ï¿½an offer that the Mexicans angrily refused. Polk then provoked a war with Mexico in which he would win all that he had offered to buy. As Mexico prepared for war, Polk sent troops into the disputed area north of the Rio Grande. Mexico sent troops north of the Rio Grande and in spring 1846 fought a skirmish in which the Americans suffered more than a dozen casualties. Congress declared war on Mexico that May. Nearï¿½unanimous congressional support for the declaration hid the fact that most Whigs and many Northern Democrats were deeply suspicious of a Southern war to annex new territory for slavery. In the war the Americans launched a threeï¿½pronged offensive. General Zachary Taylor invaded northern Mexico from Texas, capturing the city of Monterrey in September 1846. A second American army under General Stephen Kearny occupied Santa Fe in August of that year. Kearny then sent part of his force to join Taylor at Monterrey and marched the rest of his army west to California, where American settlers had already established an independent ï¿½Bear Flag Republic.ï¿½ At the same time, the U.S. Navy seized California ports. Having lost Texas, California, New Mexico, and large portions of Chihuahua and Sonora in northern Mexico, the Mexicans marched toward Taylorï¿½s army near Monterrey. Taylor held off determined attacks by a Mexican army about three times as large as his own and won the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847. The next month the third prong of the U.S. offensive was launched when General Winfield Scott landed at Veracruz. Five months later he had fought his way to Mexico City. As happened in much of the war, the Mexican army was larger and fought bravely, but the Mexican government and high command were divided and often incompetent, and the Americans were better armed and better led. In particular, the Mexicans had no answer to American artillery. After a series of bloody battles in September 1847, Scottï¿½s army occupied Mexico City, and the war was over. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 ceded Texas (with the Rio Grande boundary), California, and New Mexico to the United States, which agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. The Mexican Cession gave the United States presentï¿½day west Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, most of Colorado, and part of Wyoming. The northern third of Mexico had become the southwestern quarter of the United States. The Mexican War was a straightforward landï¿½grab. The ease with which the United States won and the arrogance with which it behaved created a distrustful and sometimes violent southern border area for the country. More immediately, the lands ceded by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo became the object of contest and resentment between the slave and free statesï¿½a conflict that would widen into the American Civil War 13 years later. IX. Social Development: North and South The regions of the United States that argued about the Mexican War and its aftermath had grown in divergent ways since agreeing to be a nation in 1788. The North had experienced a market revolution based on commercial agriculture and the growth of cities and industry. The South, on the other hand, remained tied to a plantation system that depended on slave labor and international markets. The plantation system enslaved the one-third of all Southerners who were black and excluded more and more poor whites. A. The Market Revolution in the North By the 1820s, farmers no longer produced mainly for themselves and their neighbors, selling any excess production on international markets. Most Northern farms had become business operations. They specialized in a small range of marketable crops (grain, meat, dairy products) and sold the food they produced to an internal market made up of Americans who had moved to towns, cities, and industrial villages. In turn, these urbanized and industrialized Northerners provided farmers with finished goods (hats, shoes, cotton cloth, furniture, tools) that had previously been made in rural households and neighborhoods or imported from Europe. With this selfï¿½sustaining internal market, the North stepped out of the old colonial relationship in which America produced food and raw materials for Europe (primarily Britain) in exchange for foreign finished goods. The northern United States was no longer on the colonial periphery of the world market economy. It was taking its place as part of the financial and industrial center. See also Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution in the United States. This internal market revolution would have been impossible without dramatic improvements in transportation. After 1815 Congress repeatedly considered nationally planned and funded internal improvements. But these plans were voted down by congressmen who favored statesï¿½ rights and a strict construction of the Constitutionï¿½the notion that Congress could legislate only in areas explicitly granted to it by the Constitution. State governments took up the slack by building roads and canals themselves and by subsidizing private corporations that built them. The result was a system of roads, canals, andï¿½by the 1840s and 1850sï¿½railroads that reflected no single vision of a national system. Instead, the transportation map reflected the ambitions of the most prosperous and active states. The first and most spectacular example was the Erie Canal, completed by the state of New York in 1825. It connected the Hudson River at Albany with Lake Erie at Buffalo. The canal provided farmers in western New York and in the sections of the Northwest that drained into the Great Lakes with a continuous water route east to New York Cityï¿½and from there to national and international markets. Steamboats provided a similar service for farms in areas that drained into the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. The upriver trip from New Orleans to Louisville, Kentucky, had taken three to four months via keelboat before 1815. Steamboats cut that time to one month. In the 1850s railroads, although more expensive than water routes, brought the manufacturing towns and the foodï¿½producing farmers even closer together. These improvements quickly reduced the cost of transportation. The cost of moving farm produce and manufactured goods over long distances fell 95 percent between 1815 and 1860. With that drop, farmers could grow wheat in Indiana and sell it at a profit in New York City, while New England manufacturers could make work shoes and sell them to the farmers of Indiana. Transportation had transformed the old Northeast and the new Northwest into an integrated market society. B. The Growth of Cities In the 1820s the urban population of the United States began growing faster than the rural population, and from 1820 to 1870 American cities grew faster than they ever had or ever would again. For the most part, that explosive urban growth was driven by the commercialization of agriculture. In the early republic every American city was an Atlantic seaport engaged in international trade. After 1820 new inland towns and cities rose up to serve farmersï¿½ commercial operations. The fastest growing urban area in the country in the 1820s, for instance, was Rochester, New York, a flourï¿½milling and shipping center serving the farmers of western New York. In subsequent decades western cities such as Cincinnati and Chicago grew quickly. At the same time, towns devoted to manufacturing for rural markets across the nationï¿½towns such as Lowell, Massachusettsï¿½grew at an almost equal rate. Even in the old seaports, the fastest growing sectors of the economy were not in the docks and warehouses of the old mercantile economy but in neighborhoods devoted to manufacturing for the American market, or among wholesalers who served that market. The huge internal market provided by northern and western farm families was by far the biggest source of urban growth in these years. C. Standards of Living The commercial and industrial transformation of the North and West increased standards of living. Food was abundant, and manufactured goods found their way into even the poorest homes. Yet the bounty of progress was distributed much more unevenly than in the past, and thousands made the transition to commercialï¿½urban society at the expense of economic independence. As American cities grew, the nature of work and society in the city changed in fundamental ways. In 1800 nearly all manufacturing was performed by master artisans who owned their own workshops and hired at most a few journeymen (wage-earning craftsmen) and apprentices. After 1815 the nature of manufacturing work changed. As production speeded up, many masters stopped performing manual work and spent their time dealing with customers and suppliers and keeping records. The number of journeymen increased, and they often worked in workshops separate from the store. Increasingly, less-skilled work (sewing together pieces of shoes, assembling readyï¿½made clothing from pieces cut in uniform sizes) was farmed out to women who worked in their homes. Thus successful masters became businessmen, while most skilled men and thousands of semiskilled women became members of a permanent working class. Although there had been rich and poor neighborhoods in early seaport towns, class segregation and stark contrasts between rich and poor became much more prevalent after 1820. In the northern and western countryside there were signs of prosperity. Wallpaper, manufactured dishes and furniture, and other finished goods were finding their way into most farmhouses, and paint, ornamental trees, and flowers were dressing up the outside. Yet even in the countryside, the distance between rich and poor increased, and the old neighborhood relationships through which much of the local economy had been transacted became weaker. Debt, for instance, had always been a local, informal relationship between neighbors. After 1830 a farmerï¿½s most important and pressing debts were to banks, which required annual payments in cash. Commercial society also demanded good roads to transport products, and public schools to teach literacy and arithmetic; local taxes rose accordingly. Farmers spent less effort maintaining necessary relations with neighbors and more effort earning cash income to pay taxes and debts. Those who could not establish or maintain themselves as farmers tended to move out of agriculture and into towns and cities. Women and men who left rural communities to take up wage labor experienced the transition in different ways. White men, whose citizenship and social standing had rested on being independent property owners with patriarchal responsibilities, experienced wage labor as a catastrophic fall from grace. Relatively few, however, ended up in factories, and those who did took more-skilled and better-paying jobs. Until the 1840s the factory work force of the Northeast was made up primarily of women and children. Women who left poor New England farms (and the crumbling patriarchy that often governed them) and moved into factory villages valued the independence that wage labor provided them. D. Immigrants Beginning in the midï¿½1840s, New Englandï¿½s factory work force was increasingly dominated by Irish immigrantsï¿½refugees who often saw factory work in America as a big improvement over famine and colonialism back home. Much of the labor force in Northern cities and factory towns and on the new transportation projects was composed of German and, particularly, Irish immigrants. A trickle of Irish and German newcomers had been coming to America since the 18th century. There were large German-speaking areas in the mid-Atlantic states, and the Irish were sufficiently numerous and politically active to become the targets of the Federalistsï¿½ Alien Act of 1798. These early immigrants possessed craft or agricultural skills, and most of them, like their British neighbors, were Protestants. A newer immigration grew quickly after 1815, peaking in the 1840s. The new immigrants were landless peasants driven from their homelands by famine (see Irish Famine). They took menial, low-paying jobs in factories and as servants, day laborers, and transport workersï¿½replacing white women in factories and blacks in household service and on the docks. Most of these new immigrants were Catholics, and they arrived in such numbers that by 1850 Catholics were the largest single denomination in the United States. They overwhelmingly sided with the Democratic Party in politics. Many American entrepreneurs welcomed this new supply of cheap labor. But militant Protestants and many native-born working people perceived the immigrants as a cultural and economic threat. Arguments over immigration would shape Northern politics for more than a century after 1830. E. Northern Blacks As the North passed gradual emancipation laws, freed slaves moved toward cities. In 1820 African Americans made up about one-tenth of the populations of Philadelphia and New York City. They were excluded from white churches and public schools and, increasingly, from the skilled crafts, dock labor, and household service at which they had been employed. Attacks on individual blacks were routine, and occasionally, full-blown racist riots eruptedï¿½in Cincinnati in 1829 and in New York and Philadelphia in 1834, for instance. African Americans responded by building their own institutions: Methodist and Baptist churches, Masonic lodges, schools, charitable and social organizations, and newspapers. It was from within this web of institutions that they protected themselves and eventually demanded freedom for Southern slaves. See also African American History: Free Black Population. F. The Market Revolution in the South The South experienced a market revolution of a different kind. In the years leading to the American Civil War, the South provided threeï¿½fourths of the worldï¿½s supply of cotton, which was a crucial raw material for the international industrial revolution. In the same years, cotton accounted for oneï¿½half to twoï¿½thirds of the value of all American exports, contributing mightily to a favorable balance of trade. The plantation was a business of worldwide significance, and the cotton boom made thousands of planters rich. At the same time, however, the Southï¿½s commitment to plantation agriculture stunted other areas of its economy, opened the region to intense international criticism over slavery, and led ultimately to political and economic disaster. Plantation agriculture led to an undemocratic distribution of wealth among whites. The plantation economy rewarded size: Big farms were more profitable than small ones. Successful planters were able to buy more slaves and good land, depriving less-successful planters of these benefits and concentrating wealth in fewer and fewer hands. In 1830, 35 percent of Southern households included slaves. By 1860 the figure stood at 26 percent, with fewer than 5 percent of white households owning 20 or more slaves. Most whites lacked the fertile land, the slave labor force, and the availability of transportation to bring them into the market economy. Along with slaves, most whites formed a huge majority of Southerners who had minimal ties to the market and who bought few manufactured goods. The result was that the South remained in a colonial trade position in relation to Britain and, increasingly, to the northeastern United States. Without regional markets, there was very little urbanization or industrialization in the South. Southern states financed few internal improvements: Plantations tended to send goods to markets via the river system, and smaller farmers preferred low taxes and unobtrusive government to roads and canals. The few Southern cities and large towns were ports on the ocean or on the river system. These cities were shipping centers for cotton exports and for imports of manufactured goods. Manufacturing, shipping, banking, insurance, and other profitable and powerful functions of the market economy stayed in London andï¿½increasinglyï¿½in New York. F.1. Changes in Slavery During the cotton boom, slaveholders attempted to organize plantation slavery as a paternalistic system in which the planter exercised a fatherly authority in every area of slavesï¿½ lives. Some evidence suggests that discipline of slaves became more strict and systematic in the second quarter of the 19th century, and that whippings and other forms of physical punishment persisted. The brisk interstate slave trade often destroyed family and community ties among slaves. At the same time, however, the food eaten by slaves improved, and more slave families lived in individual cabins than had in the past. After 1830, masters who had participated in Baptist and Methodist revivals (and who had been frightened by a bloody Virginia slave revolt led by Baptist preacher Nat Turner) provided religious instruction to their slaves. The goal of these changes, proudly stated by the planters, was to create not only economic dependence but also emotional dependence of the slaves upon their masters. For their part, slaves learned to put the mastersï¿½ paternalistic efforts to their own uses. They accepted the food and housing, listened to the preachers, endured the labor discipline, and then made their own lives within slavery. Slave family forms, for instance, were a mix of the European nuclear model and African matriarchy and village kinship, shaped by the limits imposed by slavery. And while they became Christians, slaves transformed Christianity into a distinctly African American faith that served their own spiritual interests. In particular, Moses the liberator (not the slaveholdersï¿½ patriarchal Abraham) was the central figure in slave Christianity. F.2. Growing Isolation of the South The slaveï¿½based plantation economy of the South was economically successful: Planters were making a lot of money. But in the long term, Southern commitment to slavery isolated the region morally and politically and led to disaster because most other white societies were branding the institution as barbarism. Northern states abolished slavery soon after the revolution. Slaves in Haiti revolted and formed an independent black republic in 1804 (see Haitian Slave Revolt). Four years later the British (whose navy controlled the oceans) outlawed the African slave trade. In ensuing years, the Republic of Colombia, or Gran Colombia (present-day Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, and Colombia), Mexico, Peru, Chile, and other mainland colonies won wars of independence against Spain. Each of the new South and Central American republics outlawed slavery. Finally, the British Parliament emancipated slaves on British islands in the Caribbean in 1833. By then Brazil, Cuba, and the southern United States were the only remaining large-scale slave societies in the world. Southern slavery was producing profits for the masters, and political and moral isolation for the region. X. Jacksonian Democracy A. Transforming Democracy After 1815 Americans transformed the republic of the Founding Fathers into a democracy. State after state revoked property qualifications for voting and holding officeï¿½thus transforming Jeffersonï¿½s republic of property holders into Andrew Jacksonï¿½s mass democracy. Democracy, however, was not for everyone. While states extended political rights to all white men, they often withdrew or limited such rights for blacks. As part of the same trend, the state of New Jersey took the vote away from propertied women, who formerly had possessed that right. Thus the democratization of citizenship applied exclusively to white men. In the midï¿½19th century, these men went to the polls in record numbers. The election of 1828 attracted 1.2 million voters; that number jumped to 1.5 million in 1836 and to 2.4 million in 1840. Turnout of eligible voters by 1840 was well over 60 percentï¿½higher than it had ever been, and much higher than it is now. At the same time, however, popular political activity other than voting declined. Judging by available evidence, state and national governments received fewer petitions than in the past, and they paid less attention to the ones they received. In the 1830s, when Congress received hundreds of antislavery petitions, it simply refused to read them. Petitioning, parading, and mobbing (each of which included Americans who were not white males) had all been crucial to the American Revolutionary movement, and they had continued to play important roles in Jeffersonian America. By the 1830s and 1840s, spontaneous parades and mob actions played smaller roles in political life, and more-respectable citizens viewed such activities as disorderly and criminal. Popular participation in politics was more and more limited to voting. Furthermore, voting was organized not by the voice of the citizenry, but by a national twoï¿½party system staffed by disciplined professionals. These professionals included candidates, appointed office holders, newspaper editors, and local leaders who organized voters, wrote party platforms, and developed party ideologies in ways that only partially and indirectly reflected popular wishes. Thus political participation was democratized by the 1830s. But democracy included only white men, and even they were transformed from citizens to spectators. B. Origins of the Party System Neither the Jeffersonians nor their Federalist opponents admitted to being a political party. To them the term party meant the same as faction. It also meant the victory of selfishness and contention over the selfless unanimity they felt a republic needed. However, two events caused important politicians to reconsider the value of parties. First, the Panic of 1819, an economic downturn, introduced Americans to a cycle of booming economy followed by bust, a cycle that would come to characterize the new market economy during the 19th century. Some Jeffersonians blamed the panic on the Bank of the United States, which had been rechartered in 1816. They argued that if the disciplined coalition of Southern and Western farmers that had elected Jefferson had still been in place in 1816, Congress would not have rechartered the bank and the panic would not have happened. The second event that caused politicians to reconsider the value of political parties was Missouri Territoryï¿½s application for admission to the Union in 1818. Missouriï¿½s proposed constitution allowed slavery, and that provision caused heated argument in Congress, revealing angry differences between representatives of slave states and free states. Congress ultimately compromised, balancing the new slave state of Missouri by admitting Maine as a free state (see Missouri Compromise). Congress then declared that slavery would be allowed in the Louisiana Purchase territories south of a line drawn west from the southern border of Missouri. Slavery would be banned north of that line. The immediate crisis was solved, but the fault line between slave and free states remained open. The same politicians (Martin Van Buren of New York was the most active of them) who opposed the Bank of the United States also argued that Jeffersonï¿½s coalition of slaveholding and nonslaveholding farmers would never have permitted the dangerous, divisive question of slavery to get into congressional debate. They organized a disciplined coalition for statesï¿½ rights and limited government that supported Andrew Jackson for the presidency in 1828. That coalition became the Democratic Party. In the 1820s, many politicians had come to believe that organized parties were essential to democracy. Parties gave ordinary men the power to compete with the wealth, education, and social connections of traditional leaders. Parties also created disciplined organizations that could control political debate. C. Democrats and Whigs Beginning with Jacksonï¿½s administration, the Democrats were opposed by the Whig Party. The Whigs were led by Henry Clay of Kentucky, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts, and others who called for an active national government and who had a nationalist answer to the growing problem of slavery. The Whigs proposed what they called the American System. They wanted a high tariff that would protect Northeastern factories from European competition while it generated revenue for the national government. They proposed high prices for government land in the Westï¿½a policy that would slow westward movement and that also would increase federal revenue. They insisted that the Bank of the United States be maintained to stabilize currency and to discipline smaller banks. And they wanted to use the money that tariffs and the sale of lands would give the government to build and maintain roads and other internal improvements. The result, they promised, would be a society with a national market under a government that fostered prosperity and order. At the same time, the national character of the Whig economy would discourage arguments among the three sections of the nationï¿½the Northeast, the South, and the West. The Northeast would manufacture goods for the South and West. The South would supply cotton to Northeastern factories, and the West would provide food for both the South and the Northeast. The prosperity of each section would depend on friendly relations with the other two, and none of them would want to bring up the divisive question of slavery. Andrew Jackson and his Democratic successors proposed to limit the role of government in the market revolution and in resolving the tensions among the sections. They wanted to abolish the Bank of the United States, set tariffs at low levels, sell government land at low rates, and leave the question of internal improvements to the states. Democrats hoped to create a national government that never meddled in local affairs (one of the most important of those affairs being slavery), that played no favorites, and that kept taxes low. On the question of slavery and statesï¿½ rights, Jacksonians favored minimal central government within a permanent union. When South Carolina threatened the Union by attempting to nullify the protective tariff of 1828 (Southerners termed it the Tariff of Abominations because it penalized Southern states that exported cotton and imported Old World manufactured goods), Jackson threatened South Carolina with a federal invasion (see Nullification). At the same time, he let Southerners know that slavery was safe as long as a Democratic Party committed to statesï¿½ rights was in power. Even more than the Whigs, the Democrats were committed to avoiding any congressional debate that could possibly affect slavery. In the 1830s and 1840s Democrats and Whigs built the most completely national twoï¿½party system that Americans have ever hadï¿½both parties relied on support from all sections of the country, and both were evenly matched in most states. Within that system, politicians knew that arguments between the North and South must be avoided. Such arguments would, first of all, split the Whig and Democratic parties in which politicians were making their careers. Second, and more dangerous, the breakdown of the national twoï¿½party system could realign the parties along Northï¿½South lines and focus national politics on the differences between the North and South. Political leaders feared that such a breakdown could lead ultimately to disunion and perhaps civil war. Most historians agree that the national party systemï¿½s eventual breakdown was a crucial cause of the American Civil War (1861-1865). D. Social Reforms In the second quarter of the 19th century Americans built a number of institutions and social movements dedicated to improving the morals of individuals and of society in general. The most prominent reformers were Northern, middleï¿½class Whigs who had been influenced by evangelical revivals in the 1820s and 1830s. Those revivals taught an ethic of improvement: Sin and disorder, they said, were not inevitable results of Adamï¿½s fall (as described in the Bible). They were the results of bad choices made by free and morally accountable men and women. Beginning in the 1820s, these middleï¿½class evangelicals proposed reforms that would teach Americans to make good moral choices and thus, one individual at a time, improve society and perhaps make it perfect. D.1. Schools The most pervasive and enduring result of these movements was a system of taxï¿½supported public schools. The great school reformers were Northern Whigs such as Horace Mann of Massachusetts and Calvin Stowe of Ohio (husband of novelist Harriet Beecher Stowe). They proposed public school systems that were centralized at the state level and that made attendance mandatory. These schools were geared to teaching patriotism, manners, and civility, along with reading, writing, and arithmetic. Among Whig reformers, the goal of public schools was to build character in individual students. Ultimately, reformers wished to make a perfect society by filling it with perfect individuals. Democrats supported the schools, but saw them as a means of providing equal opportunity to all whites. Democrats, and Southerners from both parties, also tended to support local control over schools, to favor shorter school years, and to make efforts to keep taxes low. D.2. Prisons A second institutional reform was concerned with prisons and asylums. Northern Whig evangelicals proposed new forms of prisons that were meant less to punish the bodies of criminals (through whippings, incarceration, and execution) than to improve their souls. Pennsylvania built a prison in which convicts sat alone in their cells with only Bibles to keep them company. Most other states adopted the Auburn System, which took its name from a pioneering prison in New York. Under this system, prisoners slept in solitary cells but worked in groupsï¿½although a policy of absolute silence was enforced. The products of prison workshops were sold to outside markets. Whigs favored this system because it promised to rehabilitate criminals by teaching them personal discipline and respect for work, property, and other people. D.3. Temperance The largest and most sustained organized social movement in American history was the temperance crusade against the use of alcohol that began in the 1820s. Again, Northern Whig evangelicals took the lead. They argued that alcohol abuse as well as the violence and personal and social disintegration associated with it had gotten out of control. In fact, per capita alcohol consumption, which had grown steadily since the 1790s, was at an allï¿½time high in the 1820s. Middleï¿½class evangelicals assumed that poverty, crime, family violence, poor child rearing, and almost every other social ill was traceable to heavy drinking. A sober citizenry, they argued, would result in a society free of crime and violence, filled with happy homes and quiet streets. In the 1840s working people formed their own temperance movementï¿½first through the Washingtonian Temperance Society, and then through temperance lodges. Members of both groups turned in the 1850s to campaigns for statewide prohibition. Beginning with Maine in 1851, 13 states adopted legislation that outlawed alcohol by 1855. Of those states, all but Delaware were in the North. E. Radical Reform The great belief of Northern middleï¿½class evangelicalismï¿½a belief behind most middleï¿½class reformï¿½was that human nature was not irreparably damaged by original sin. In the 17th and 18th centuries Protestants had been certain that nearly all of mankind was damned. Only a few would be saved, they believed, and those only by the arbitrary grace of God, not by their own efforts. These Protestants also thought that most human beings were incapable of correct moral behavior unless they were coerced. In the first half of the 19th century, most Americansï¿½including nearly all Southern whitesï¿½continued to believe that people were morally defective. Coercive institutions, such as the patriarchal family and slavery, were necessary to impose order on naturally disorderly people. Northern middle-class evangelicalism promoted the belief that human beings could change. Evangelists preached that women and men were moral free agents who could give themselves to God and thus escape a life of sin. In this view of human nature, institutions that hindered individual freedom were unnecessary. Such institutions prevented men and women from assuming responsibility for themselves, thus making it impossible for them to freely give themselves to God and to a life of Christian love and moral improvement. The implications of this view were individualistic and antiï¿½institutional. Some rejected all human government. A few who believed in no government joined utopian communities such as one at Oneida, New York, which practiced a form of free love to remove elements of power from relations between men and women (see Oneida Community). Others, including many utopians, became radical feminists and abolitionists. E.1. Womenï¿½s Rights The delegates to the first Womenï¿½s Rights Convention at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 were veterans of other reforms. They were members of missionary societies, of the temperance movement, and of the moral reform crusade (a movement to end prostitution, obscenity, and lewdness). Most of all, they were veterans of an antislavery movement that attacked patriarchy and hierarchy in all forms. Many applied the logic of social reform to themselves, and they began to think of themselves as human beings first and as women second. See also Womenï¿½s Rights: Early Struggles for Equal Rights in the United States. Noting that Jesus made no distinction between the proper duties of women and men, delegates to the Seneca Falls convention attacked the subordinate status of women. Beginning with a manifesto based on the Declaration of Independence, women at Seneca Falls demanded civil and legal equality for women. In particular, they wanted the right to vote. In the American republic, political participation, they argued, separated people who counted from those who did not. E.2. Abolition The logic of Northern social reform applied more clearly to slavery than to nearly any other habit or institution. From the beginning, slaves resisted their own enslavement. In the 18th century, Quakers and a few other whites opposed the institution. The American Revolution, with its rhetoric of universal natural rights, called slavery into serious question. Northern states abolished it, and Southern evangelicals, along with some of the leading slaveholders of the upper South, thought about liberating the slaves. After 1816 the American Colonization Society proposed to ï¿½repatriateï¿½ freed slaves to Africa, although the intent of this organization was less to liberate slaves than to deport free blacks. Free blacks understood that, and most of them opposed returning to Africa. But it was not until the 1830s that significant numbers of middleï¿½class Northerners began to agitate for the immediate emancipation of slaves and for their incorporation as equals into the republic. Like other social reforms, abolitionism took root among the most radical Northern Whigs, and it was based in the middleï¿½class revivals of the 1820s and 1830s. In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison, a Boston abolitionist, published the first issue of The Liberator, an antislavery newspaper. In 1833 Garrison helped form the American Antiï¿½Slavery Society. The new movement included Northeastern Quakers and Unitarians and Northern blacks. Abolitionismï¿½s largest base of support, however, was among the evangelical middle class of New England, upstate New York, and the Old Northwest (the former Northwest Territory). These people lived in a reform culture that saw moral free will and Christian love as pitted against brutality and power. As the New England Antiï¿½Slavery Society put it in 1833, antislavery ï¿½means, finally, that right shall take the supremacy over wrong, principle over brute force, humanity over cruelty, honesty over theft, purity over lust, honor over baseness, love over hatred, and religion over heathenism.ï¿½ It was in such stark opposites that evangelical reformers viewed the world. Sometimes working with white abolitionists, sometimes working independently, Northern free blacks also demanded freedom for the slaves. Hundreds of anonymous women and men operated an Underground Railroad that hid escaped slaves, often smuggling them to Canada. Along with pamphleteer David Walker, orator and editor Frederick Douglass, and uncompromising mystic Sojourner Truth, they formed a dedicated wing of the antislavery movement. Abolitionists knew that they were a minority. They also knew that the two partiesï¿½Democrats in particularï¿½wanted to keep moral and sectional questions out of politics and would try to ignore the abolition movement. They decided to attack the party system as well as slavery. They organized a postal campaign in 1835, sending massive amounts of antislavery literature through the mails. Southerners and most Northerners branded this literature as dangerous, and the Democratic administration could not avoid the issue. In the next year, abolitionists began sending hundreds of petitions to Congress. Some of the petitions were against annexation of slaveholding Texas; others demanded the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia or the end of the interstate slave trade. Each of these issues was within the constitutional sphere assigned to Congress. In the process of building these campaigns, abolitionists turned themselves into an organized movement. They also urged the national government to debate slaveryï¿½something that most congressmen from both sections and both parties wanted to avoid. President Andrew Jackson, rather than formally censor the mail, simply allowed local postmasters to destroy mail that they considered dangerous. And Democrats in Congress, with help from Southern Whigs, devised a gag rule whereby Congress tabled antislavery petitions without reading them. At the same time, Northern mobs attacked abolitionists and their sympathizers as threats to racial purity and social order. These measures gave abolitionists what many of them had wanted: They tied the defense of slavery to assaults on free speech and the right of petition. No less a figure than ex-president John Quincy Adams, who had returned to government as a congressman from Massachusetts, led the fight against the gag rule. It was a fight that convinced many Northerners that Southern slavery corrupted republican government and threatened Northern civil liberties. Beginning as a tiny radical minority, abolitionists had helped force the nation to confront the troublesome problem of slavery. XI. Coming of the Civil War A. An Overview As early as the Constitutional Convention of 1787, American leaders had known that they could not settle the differences between the states committed to slavery and those that were not. The threeï¿½fifths rule, the constitutional promise not to halt the international slave trade until 1808, and the banning of slavery in the Northwest Territory were all attempts to avoid confronting differences between the North and South. Some Northerners thought Southerners would recognize the inefficiency of slavery and end it voluntarilyï¿½a hope that was dashed by the cotton boom and the Southï¿½s recommitment to slavery. Many Southerners thought that an agrarian coalition uniting the South and West could keep Northeastern commercial interests from running the country. They realized that hope when a Southï¿½West coalition elected Thomas Jefferson president in 1800. But by the 1830s the market revolution had tied Northeastern factories and Northwestern farms into a roughly unified, commercialized North. Most Northerners were committed to freeï¿½market capitalism, individual opportunity, and free labor, and many contrasted what they believed to be the civilizing effects of hard work and commerce with the supposed laziness and barbarism of the slave South. For their part, white Southerners began to see themselves as a beleaguered minority. Following the 1819 crisis over statehood for Missouri, a national twoï¿½party system developed, and both parties worked to prevent sectional differences from becoming the focus of politics. They were successful until the Mexican War gave the United States huge new territories. Territorial questions had to be handled by Congress, and the question of whether slavery would be allowed into lands ceded by Mexico immediately became the allï¿½consuming issue in national politics. By the midï¿½1850s the old party system was in ruins. An antislavery Republican Party became dominant in the North and elected Abraham Lincoln president in 1860. With an antislavery party in control of the White House, slave states seceded beginning in December 1860. The Union refused to let them go, and the Civil War began. B. The Wilmot Proviso Both the North and the South saw the issue of slavery in the territories as a simple question of right and wrong, but the issue traveled through elaborate twists and turns from 1846 through the beginning of the Civil War. Many Northern Democrats in Congress were disappointed with President James K. Polk (1845-1849). Some represented marketï¿½oriented constituencies that supported a moderately protective tariff and federal internal improvements. Polk was a Southerner and an old Jacksonian, and he opposed both of those measures. Northern Democrats also disliked Polkï¿½s willingness to compromise with the British on expansion into Oregon, while he went to war with Mexico over Texas. It looked to many Democratic Northerners as though the Democratic Party was less interested in the expansion of the agrarian republic than in the expansion of slavery. Among these Democrats was Congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania. In 1846, during the war with Mexico, he proposed what became known as the Wilmot Proviso, banning slavery from all territory taken from Mexico. In subsequent years the proviso was repeatedly attached to territorial legislation. In the House, combinations of Northern Whigs and Democrats passed it several times, but the proviso was always stopped in the Senate. The Wilmot Proviso would become the principal plank in the platform of the Republican Party. President Polk and his cabinet favored extending the Missouri Compromise line west to the Pacific, a solution that would allow slavery in the New Mexico Territory and in Southern California, but ban it from Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and Northern California. Neither the North nor the South favored Polkï¿½s solution. In 1849 President Zachary Taylor proposed allowing the residents of individual territories to decide the question of slavery for themselvesï¿½a solution that became known as popular sovereignty. Again, there was too little support. While the Wilmot Proviso stood as the extreme Northern position, John C. Calhoun, a senator for South Carolina, staked out an extreme position for the South. Slaves, he said, were property, and masters could carry their slaves into any territory of the United States. C. The Compromise of 1850 Although no proposed solution was acceptable to all sides, the question of slavery in the territories could not be postponed. In 1848 gold was discovered in California, and thousands of Americans rushed to the region (see Gold Rush of 1849). The previous year, Brigham Young had led Mormon settlers to the Salt Lake Valley, in what became the northeastern corner of the Mexican Cession in 1848. At the same time, slaveholding Texas claimed half of New Mexico. It was at this point that politicians proposed a series of measures that became known as the Compromise of 1850. California was admitted as a free state. The remainder of the land taken from Mexico was divided into Utah and New Mexico territories and organized under popular sovereignty. The Texas claims in New Mexico were denied. The slave trade (but not slavery) was banned in the District of Columbia, and a stronger fugitive slave law went into effect. These measures resolved the question of slavery in the territories in ways that tended to favor the North, then enacted additional measures important to both antislavery and proslavery forces. The compromise was less a permanent solution than an answer to an immediate crisis. It would satisfy neither section. One historian has called it the Armistice of 1850. D. The Fugitive Slave Law The one element of the Compromise of 1850 that explicitly favored the South was the Fugitive Slave Law. A federal law of 1793 required that slaves who escaped to a free state be returned if the master could offer proof of ownership to a state court. The new law turned these cases over to federal commissioners, and it denied a captured slave the right to testify in his or her own behalf or to be tried before a jury. The law violated Northernersï¿½ notions of statesï¿½ rights, it infringed on civil liberties in the North, and it turned Northerners into direct participants in Southern slavery. Northern citizens, even those who had not previously opposed slavery, refused to support the law. While some hid fugitives or helped spirit them into Canada, nine Northern states passed personal liberty laws that forbade state officials from helping to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law. In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe published a sentimental antislavery novel, Uncle Tomï¿½s Cabin, as a direct challenge to slavery in general and the Fugitive Slave Law in particular. It sold 300,000 copies that year, and 1.2 million by summer 1853. E. The Kansasï¿½Nebraska Act The Compromise of 1850 created a smoldering truce that lasted only a few years. By 1853 settlers had moved west of Missouri into what is now Kansas. Congress drew up legislation organizing the remaining federal lands in the Louisiana Purchase into the Kansas and Nebraska territories. Under the Missouri Compromise, none of this land was open to slavery. But Southerners, along with 15 of 20 Northern Democrats in the Senate, organized the new territories under popular sovereignty: The new states could decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery. The Kansasï¿½Nebraska Act thus abolished the Missouri Compromise line and enacted popular sovereigntyï¿½a measure that was becoming the Democratic Partyï¿½s answer to the question of slavery in the territories. Northern Whigs in Congress all voted against the act, leading Southern Whigs to leave the party and join the Democrats. At the same time, many Northern Democrats openly opposed the legislation. Thus the Democratic Party shifted and became more overtly Southern, while Northern Whigs and many Northern Democrats joined coalitions that in 1854 became the Republican Party, exclusively Northern and antislavery. Political parties were reorganizing along sectional lines. F. Bleeding Kansas With the territory organized under popular sovereignty, voters would decide the question of slavery in Kansas. Antislavery settlers flooded the territory, and in response, proslavery Missourians moved in. When elections were held for the territorial legislature in 1854, about 5,000 Missourians crossed the border to vote illegally for proslavery candidates. The resulting legislature legalized slavery in Kansas. Antislavery forces refused to accept these results. They organized a convention that wrote an antislavery constitution and they elected their own legislature. While this controversy raged in Kansas, Charles Sumner, an antislavery senator from Massachusetts, gave an impassioned antislavery speech in which he insulted a number of Southern senators. He said that one of them, Andrew Butler, ï¿½had chosen a mistress to whom he has made his vows ï¿½ the harlot, Slavery.ï¿½ Congressman Preston Brooks of South Carolina was Butlerï¿½s nephew. He was determined to punish Sumnerï¿½s attack upon his familyï¿½s honor. He walked onto the floor of the Senate, found Sumner at his desk, and beat him unconscious with a cane. White Southerners almost unanimously applauded Brooks, while Northerners ranted against Southern savagery. At almost the same time as the attack on Sumner, in May 1856, proslavery Kansans attacked an antislavery stronghold at Lawrence. In retribution, an antislavery fanatic named John Brown murdered five proslavery settlers in what became known as the Pottawatomie Massacre. A smallï¿½scale civil war was being fought in Kansas. G. The Dred Scott Case At this point the Supreme Court, with a Southern majority among the justices, tried to settle the problem of slavery in the territories. It chose the Dred Scott case to do so. Scott was a slave owned by a U.S. Army doctor who had brought him to the free state of Illinois and the Territory of Wisconsin, which was free under the Missouri Compromise. Scott sued for his freedom on that basis. The Supreme Court answered with a powerful proslavery decision in 1857. First, the majority stated that blacks (whether free or slaves) could not be citizens of the United States. As a result, Dred Scottï¿½s case should never have entered the federal courts. The court went on to declare that the Missouri Compromise was invalid because Congress had no right to exclude slaves (who were legal property and therefore protected under the Constitution) from any territory. With that, the Supreme Court had adopted the extreme Southern position on the question of slavery in the territories, and declared the policy of the Republican Party and of a majority of Northerners unconstitutional. Meanwhile, Kansas submitted two constitutions in its application for statehoodï¿½one that permitted slavery and one that did not. President James Buchanan, a Northern Democrat and a solid supporter of the South, sent the Lecompton (proslavery) Constitution to Congress with a strong recommendation that it be accepted. In a congressional debate that at one point broke into a fistfight, enough Northern Democrats finally defected from their party to reject the Lecompton Constitution. The controversy deeply divided the Democratic Party in the North and made the election of an antislavery Republican as president in 1860 very likely. H. The Election of 1860 The breakup of the party system produced four presidential candidates in the election of 1860. The Democratic Party split angrily into Northern and Southern wings. Southern Democrats nominated Buchananï¿½s vice president, John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, while Northern Democrats chose Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. What remained of the Whigs renamed themselves Constitutional Unionists and nominated Senator John Bell of Tennessee (see Constitutional Union Party). Republicans passed over betterï¿½known candidates and nominated Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. Lincoln had become known nationally when he staked out the Republican position on slavery in the territories and held his own in a series of public debates in a Senate race with Douglas in 1858. He was also known for a speech in which he stated that the United States could not long endure as a ï¿½house dividedï¿½ between Northern freeï¿½labor capitalism and Southern slavery. On the crucial question of slavery in the territories, Lincoln assured the South that no president could constitutionally dismantle the institution in the states. But he would preserve the territories for free labor, thus putting slavery ï¿½in the course of ultimate extinction.ï¿½ The election results were starkly sectional. Breckinridge carried 11 states in the Deep South. Bell carried a few Upper South states. Douglas, while coming in second in the popular vote, won only in Missouri and a part of New Jersey. Lincoln carried every Northern state and thus won an overwhelming victory in the Electoral Collegeï¿½and he did so without a single electoral vote from a slave state. The Republican Party, with an antislavery platform and an entirely Northern constituency, had elected a president of the United States. No possible new coalition would enable the South to keep that from happening repeatedly. XII. The Civil War A. The South Secedes White Southerners fully realized what had happened: National politics now pitted the North against the South, and the North had a solid and growing majority. The South would never again control the federal government or see it controlled by friendly Northerners. Many saw no alternative to seceding from the Union. Southerners justified secession with what was called the compact theory. This theory held that the Constitution had created not a perpetual union but a compact between independent states that retained their sovereignty. The compact could be broken in the same way that it had been created: with state conventions called for that purpose. By this means South Carolina seceded from the Union in late December 1860. By February 1 (before Lincolnï¿½s inauguration) six more states from the Deep South had left the Union. Northernersï¿½including President Buchanan, Stephen Douglas, and other Democratsï¿½denied the right of secession. The more lawyerly among them reminded the South that the Constitution was written ï¿½to form a more perfect Unionï¿½ than the Articles of Confederation. The Constitution had stated that ï¿½the union shall be perpetual.ï¿½ Thus secession was a legal impossibility. And in practical terms, Northerners argued, secession would be a fatal disaster to the American republic. Republics had a history of splitting into smaller parts and descending into anarchy. Secession, Lincoln argued, was revolution. Many Southerners agreed and claimed that they were exercising their sacred right to revolt against oppressive government. Congress tried to come up with compromise measures in early 1861, but there was no way of compromising in the argument over secession. The seven states of the lower South (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) formed themselves into the Confederate States of America. Their Constitution was nearly identical to the Constitution of the United States, although it affirmed state sovereignty, guaranteed slavery, and limited the president to a single sixï¿½year term. In his inaugural address, Lincoln was conciliatory without compromising on secession. He also hinted that the national government would use force to protect military garrisons in the Confederate statesï¿½in particular, Fort Moultrie in Charleston Harbor in South Carolina. When he tried to resupply the garrison (which had moved to the stronger Fort Sumter), the South Carolina militia fired thousands of artillery rounds into the fort, forcing its surrender. With that, the Civil War began. With the beginning of the war, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded and joined the Confederacy. Unionist legislative majorities kept the remaining slave states of Maryland, Kentucky, Delaware, and Missouri from joining the rebel states. Meanwhile the western counties of Virginia seceded from that state when Virginia seceded from the Union and became the new state of West Virginia. Thousands of men from these border states, however, traveled south and joined the Confederate Army. B. North vs. South On paper, the North possessed overwhelming military superiority over the South. The North had a free population of about 22 million. The South had a population of 9 million, including almost 4 million slaves. The North was a modern industrial power; the South was overwhelmingly rural. The North possessed nineï¿½tenths of the nationï¿½s industrial capacity, fourï¿½fifths of its bank capital, and threeï¿½fourths of its taxable wealth. The North financed 60 percent of its war effort through the sale of bonds in its prosperous region. Its paper currency inflated by only 80 percent during the whole war. The South, on the other hand, had to finance the war by printing paper money that inflated 9,000 percent in four years. Yet the South had advantages as well. To succeed, the South did not have to invade and conquer the North. The South had only to prevent the North from invading and conquering the Confederacy. In a similar situation during the American Revolution, the British had far greater military superiority over the Americans than the Union possessed over the Confederacy, but the British failed to subdue the American revolutionaries. Many predicted that the Union would fail as well. The South had only to prolong the war until the North gave up and went home. In addition, the Southï¿½s economic backwardness was an advantage: Northern armies had to operate in hostile territory in which transportation and communications were very difficult. Finally, improved weapons (most notably rifled muskets that were accurate at more than 300 yards) gave a lethal advantage to entrenched defenders over opponents who attacked them across open ground. Union soldiers did most of the attacking. Differing objectives of North and South and the topography of the contested ground helped determine the nature of the war. In the west, Northern armies used the Mississippi and Tennessee rivers (navigable streams that ran into the South) to capture Confederate territory and to control the river system. By the spring of 1863 the Union controlled all of the Mississippi River except a Confederate stronghold at Vicksburg, Mississippi. That city fell in July, and the Confederacy was cut in half (see Campaign of Vicksburg). In northern Virginia, however, the South defended land with Chesapeake inlets and eastï¿½west rivers that the Union had to cross. In this theater the South also had General Robert E. Lee, an almost mystically skilled commander who constantly outthought his attackers and forced them to assault him under bad conditions. On two occasions, Lee invaded Northern territory. He suffered defeats at the Battle of Antietam (in Maryland) in 1862 and the Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in 1863. For the remainder of the war he fought defensively. General Ulysses S. Grant took control of the Union Army opposed to Lee in early 1864 and attacked Lee that spring. In horrific battles at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor (all in northern Virginia), Grant took heavy casualties before trapping and besieging Lee at Petersburg, south of Richmond, Virginia. At the same time, Union General William Tecumseh Sherman marched from Chattanooga, Tennessee, to Atlanta, Georgia. After a monthlong siege, he captured and burned Atlanta. While Atlanta and Petersburg were besieged, Northern voters reelected Lincoln in 1864 in an election that was regarded as a referendum on the war. The South had succeeded in avoiding defeat and in turning the contest into a war of attrition. But it had not, as Southerners had hoped, broken the Northï¿½s will to continue fighting. While Grant and Lee faced each other at Petersburg, Sherman left Atlanta and set out across country to Savannah, Georgia, destroying everything in his path that was of military value and much that was not (see Shermanï¿½s March to the Sea). Sherman then turned north, burned the South Carolina capital at Columbia and kept moving into North Carolina. Before Sherman could join Grant, Leeï¿½s army fled Petersburg. Grant caught him at Appomattox, and Lee surrendered. At a cost of 360,000 Union dead and 260,000 Confederate dead, the United States had been preserved. C. The Emancipation Proclamation At first, the Union and the Confederacy fought only over the question of secession. The leaders of both sides wanted to avoid talking about slaveryï¿½which all of them knew was the root cause of the war. Southerners did not present the war as a defense of slavery for two reasons. First, most white Southerners owned no slaves and might not fight to protect slavery. Second, the South was trying to win recognition and help from Britain and Franceï¿½neither of which would have supported a war for slavery. The North included many abolitionists, but it also included Democrats and borderï¿½state slaveholders who would fight for the Union but not for abolition. As the war dragged on, however, even Northern antiï¿½abolitionists came to see slaves as a great economic and military asset for the South. Slaves grew most of the Southï¿½s food and performed work that freed white Southerners for military service. At the same time, thousands of slaves made the issue of slavery unavoidable by abandoning their mastersï¿½even those in the border states who were Unionistsï¿½and fleeing to Union lines. Union Army commanders called these escaped slaves contrabands (captured property). As the number of contrabands grew, President Lincoln proposed a gradual, compensated emancipation of slaves in border states. Lincoln hated slavery on moral grounds. But he could justify emancipation only as a military necessity in the war to save the Union. In a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, issued after the Northern victory at Antietam in September 1862, Lincoln declared that slaves in all states that remained in rebellion on January 1, 1863, would be ï¿½forever free.ï¿½ The proclamation exempted proï¿½Union border states and parts of the Confederacy already under Union occupation, and it was carefully worded as a measure to assist the North in preserving the Union. But it transformed the Union Army into an army of liberationï¿½fighting to end slavery as well as to preserve the Union. Blacks confirmed their emancipation by enlisting in the Union Army. The North resorted to conscription in 1863 and gladly accepted volunteers from among freed slaves. Blacks were first used as support troops and were paid less than white soldiers, but beginning in 1864 they became combatants serving at equal pay. In January 1865 Congress passed the 13th Amendment, which ended slavery forever. It was ratified and became part of the Constitution in December 1865. D. Results of the Civil War The Civil War finally established the United States as a nationï¿½state. Secession and state veto power had been recurring questions from the beginning of government under the Constitution. Americans before the Civil War spoke of the United States as a plural noun. Walt Whitman, the great poet of the Union, declared in the prewar years that ï¿½the United States need poets.ï¿½ Since the Civil War the United States has been a singular noun (The United States is ï¿½). Thus at the highest constitutional levels, the Foundersï¿½ Latin motto E Pluribus Unum (ï¿½From many, oneï¿½) finally became a reality. However, the unification of the country went further than most Northerners had wanted. The enormous government debt incurred during the war, followed by the postwar occupation of the South, created a central government more powerful than even the most nationalistic Americans had imagined before the war. The many had indeed become one, but only under a national government that would have frightened most of the Founding Fathers. The Civil War had long-term economic and social results as well. The South was the theater of war, and the physical destruction of that region was enormous. White Southerners lost their plantation labor system and their huge investment in slaves. Egyptian and Indian cotton had entered world markets during the war, and American cotton never regained its prewar dominance. The South remained the poorest region of the United States for a very long time. The Northeastï¿½s economic dominance was secured by the war, andï¿½although historians debate this pointï¿½the war seems to have sped Northern economic development. Finally, the status of the transï¿½Mississippi West (the great prize in the argument between North and South) was settled on Northern terms. In 1862 Republicans and Northern Democrats passed the Homestead Act, which gave free government land to settlers if they turned the land into farms (see Homestead Laws). In the same year Congress subsidized private companies that built a railroad from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento, California. The same Congress, in the Morrill Landï¿½Grant College Act, gave huge amounts of federal land to state governments for the purpose of establishing state universities. Southerners had blocked similar bills for many years. With the South out of Congress, Northerners imposed their blueprint for Northernï¿½style family farms, public education, and market society upon the West. Disfranchised groups often saw their positions improve as a result of the war. Irish and German immigrants had experienced (and returned) the hostility of nativeï¿½born Americans in the decades before the war. About one in four Union soldiers was an immigrant, and their help in defeating the South temporarily eased antiï¿½immigrant feeling. Northern women saw new possibilities open up during and after the war. In wartime they often took jobs previously done by men on farms and in factories, and thousands served in the Union nursing corps. Partly as a result, postwar womenï¿½s political and reform groups were larger and more militant than the groups that preceded them. Finally and perhaps most importantly, the Civil War was a watershed in the history of African Americans. The war permanently ended slavery. At the same time, it raised questions about the economic, social, and political place of African Americans in the United States. Those questions have been near the center of American public life ever since, providing the strongest evidence that E Pluribus Unum is a contested possibility and not an established fact of American history. XIII. Reconstruction As the Civil War ended, the United States faced unprecedented tasks: to bring the defeated Confederate states back into the Union and to determine the status in American society of almost 4 million former slaves. These goals dominated the years from 1865 to 1877, the era known as Reconstruction. During these years, Congress imposed a legislative revolution that transformed the South. Republican legislators passed ambitious laws, approved major constitutional amendments, overhauled Southern state governments, and spurred extensive change in the former Confederacy. The most significant change that Congress made was to enfranchise African American men. The pivot of reconstruction policy, black suffrage was the eraï¿½s major achievement. For more information, see African American History: Reconstruction. A. Congress vs. Johnson The process of reconstruction (the process by which the divided nation was reunited) had in fact begun in 1863 when President Lincoln announced a plan to restore the Southern states to the Union. Radical Republicans in Congress opposed Lincolnï¿½s plan. After Lincoln was assassinated in April 1865, they turned hopefully to President Andrew Johnson. In May 1865 Johnson announced his restoration plan, called Presidential Reconstruction. His plan disqualified former Confederate civil and military officers from holding office but brought the ex-Confederate states back into the Union on undemanding terms. Presidential Reconstruction took effect in the summer of 1865. Johnson gave pardons to thousands of Southerners, and former Confederate states passed ï¿½black codesï¿½ that curtailed the freed slavesï¿½ rights. Enraged Republicans united in opposition to Johnson, denouncing the black codes and the president. When the 39th Congress, dominated by Republicans, convened in December 1865, Republicans planned to revoke the black codes and to replace Johnsonï¿½s program. In 1866 they passed two laws over the presidentï¿½s vetoes: the Civil Rights Act to protect the rights of freed slaves and an act that extended the life of the Freedmenï¿½s Bureau. The bureau was designed as a relief organization for blacks and whites who were left destitute by the war. It also helped blacks by establishing schools, supervising labor relations, and protecting them from violence and intimidation. Johnsonï¿½s vetoes provoked Republicans to pass the 14th Amendment, which guaranteed the civil rights of all citizens, whatever their race, and restricted the political power of former Confederates. Johnson denounced the proposed amendment because he believed it was an unconstitutional invasion of statesï¿½ rights. After the congressional elections of 1866, Republicans maintained enough power to pass their own reconstruction program. In 1867 Congress passed the Reconstruction Act, followed by three supplemental acts passed later the same year and in 1868. These acts invalidated the state governments formed under Lincolnï¿½s and Johnsonï¿½s plans and divided the ex-Confederacy into five military districts. The acts also provided that votersï¿½all black men and white men not disqualified by the 14th Amendmentï¿½could elect delegates to write new state constitutions that ensured black male suffrage. A state could be readmitted to the Union once it had met a series of requirements, including ratification of the 14th Amendment. Black enfranchisement made Congressional Reconstruction more radical than Johnsonï¿½s plan. Still, even Congressional Reconstruction provided only a temporary period of military rule, and it did not take property away from former Confederates or punish them for treason. When President Johnson tried to block the new Reconstruction laws, Republicans again united, this time in order to remove him from office. The House approved 11 charges of impeachment, but Johnson escaped conviction in the Senate by one vote. Congress then passed the 15th Amendment, which guaranteed black suffrage. Womenï¿½s rights advocates complained that the new amendment ignored their demands for enfranchising women, but to Republican leaders the woman suffrage issue was not vital. Black suffrage, in contrast, was imperative: Only with the votes of African Americans could Republicans control the former Confederate states. B. Political Developments in the South With Congressional Reconstruction in place, the Southern states, supervised by federal troops, formed new state governments that were dominated by Republicans. By the end of March 1870 all of the former Confederate states had been readmitted to the Union. Black male suffrage was vital to the Congressional plan. By giving 700,000 former slaves the right to vote, Congressional Reconstruction created a new electorate in the South; blacks held voting majorities in five states. Reconstruction-era voters provided support for a Southern Republican Party, a fragile coalition made up of carpetbaggers (Northerners who moved south after the war), scalawags (Southerners, usually former Whigs who joined the Republicans), and African Americans. Under Republican rule, Southern states built roads and bridges, promoted railroad development, funded state institutions, started state school systems, enlarged state government, and increased state budgets. Republican rule, however, was brief, less than five years in most states. Southern Democrats, white landowners, and white voters generally opposed Republican rule. They tried to dismantle Republican power by terrorizing blacks to prevent them from voting. Without black votes, the Democrats would be able to defeat the Republican Party and reclaim their power. The best-known terrorist group was the Ku Klux Klan, formed in 1866 to suppress black suffrage and restore white supremacy. Klan members attacked Freedmenï¿½s Bureau officers, white Republicans, and black voters. Republicans in Congress tried to combat terrorism with three ï¿½enforcement actsï¿½ of 1870 and 1871. The acts sought to protect voters, supervise elections, and punish those who impeded black suffrage. Federal efforts virtually suppressed the Ku Klux Klan, but violence and intimidation continued, and ex-Confederate hostility to emancipation seethed. C. Freedom for Blacks Emancipation was a momentous experience; to former slaves, it represented autonomy and freedom from white control. Freedom brought waves of migration within the former Confederacy. Newly freed peoples moved to cities or to other plantations, sought out family members from whom they had been separated, and secured legal marriages, sometimes in mass ceremonies. They also formed new institutions. Black churches provided former slaves with spiritual support. Seeking literacy for themselves and their children, former slaves started freedmenï¿½s schools. The Freedmenï¿½s Bureau and Northern philanthropy helped establish more than 4,000 African American schools and some advanced institutions, such as Howard University in Washington, D.C. In several locales, blacks strove for integrated public facilities. In 1875 Congress passed a Civil Rights Act to bar segregation in public places. Typically, former slaves sought not integration with whites but freedom from white interference. A paramount black goal was to own land, which signified independence, but Southern whites retained control over the land. Reconstruction did not redistribute land in the South, and most former slaves lacked the resources to buy it. From 1865 to 1866, newly freed African Americans began to sign labor contacts with planters to do field work in exchange for wages, housing, food, and clothing. But they found the new system too similar to slavery, and planters disliked it, too. The labor system that evolved, sharecropping, seemed preferable. Under this system, landowners divided plantations into small units and rented them to blacks for a portion of the crop, usually one-third or one-half. Former slaves favored the new sharecropping system, which provided more independence than the wage system. Planters also appreciated the sharecropping system because they retained control of their land and split the risk of planting with sharecroppers. Owners of large plantations held on to their powerful positions in society. A major depression in 1873 drove many white farmers into sharecropping as well. By 1880 sharecroppers, black and white, farmed four-fifths of the land in the cotton states. Many sharecroppers were forced into a cycle of debt; rural merchants who loaned money to buy supplies charged high interest rates for the loans and secured them with liens or claims on the next yearï¿½s crop. Frequently the loans could not be repaid, and sharecroppers fell into debt. Sharecropping bound the South to easily marketable cash crops that brought in the most income. Southerners did not diversify their crops or protect their land against soil depletion. As a result, the productivity of Southern agriculture declined over the years. D. Political Developments in the North While Southern Republicans struggled to keep Reconstruction afloat, their Northern counterparts faced a changing economy and other problems. During the Reconstruction years, the North industrialized rapidly and also endured a massive depression. At the same time, political corruption became commonplace. These problems distracted Northerners from the goals of Reconstruction. The administration of Ulysses S. Grant, who won the presidential election of 1868 on the votes of newly enfranchised freedmen, was ridden with scandal. But fraud, bribery, and corruption in office were not limited to the Grant administration. In New York City, Democratic boss William M. Tweed looted the city treasury. In the election of 1872 the Republican Party split over corruption in the Grant administration, and some Republicans formed the Liberal Republican Party. The split failed to dislodge Grant, but it meant dwindling support for Reconstruction policy. A devastating five-year depression that began with the panic of 1873 also shifted the focus of Republicans in the North. Banks closed, jobs were destroyed, and businesses went bankrupt. Labor protests multiplied, and violent incidents occurred; industrial conflict began to replace regional conflict. Disputes also arose over currency, notably over inflationary greenbacks, first issued during the Civil War. As a result of the depression, prices for farm products fell. Forced to take on more debt, farmers began to call for an increase in the amount of money in circulation. They believed that a larger money supply would cause prices to rise, increase the price of their crops, and raise their incomes. Those who favored a stable currency, in contrast, urged withdrawal of greenbacks from circulation. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court began to roll back Reconstruction policy. In the Slaughterhouse Cases in 1873, the Supreme Court ruled that the 14th Amendment did not give the federal government control over the entire domain of civil rights. The cases are historically important because they first posed the problem of defining how state citizenship related to U.S. citizenship. The Supreme Court of the 1870s and 1880s discarded other Reconstruction policies. In 1876 and 1883, the Court upset two out of three of the enforcement acts. The Court also ruled in 1883 that Congress could not impose a national ban on discrimination in public accommodations, thus overturning the Civil Rights Act of 1875. The Courtï¿½s decisions reinforced Republican willingness to shed the obligations of Reconstruction, which many now considered a political liability. E. ï¿½Redemptionï¿½ In the 1870s Republican rule in the South faltered. After 1872, membership in the Republican Party fell, as terrorist groups used violence and intimidation to diminish black votes and curb Republican support. Mobilizing white votes, Democrats sought to regain control of state governments. Redemption, the Democratsï¿½ term for their return to power, followed swiftly, as the Republican coalition collapsed. Once in office, Democrats dismantled the changes that Republicans had imposed. They rewrote state constitutions, cut state budgets and social programs, and lowered taxes. They also imposed laws to curb the rights of sharecroppers and tenants and to ensure a powerless black labor force. One such law forced debtors to work the land until their debts were paid. By the fall of 1876, Democrats had returned to power in all Southern states except South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. The presidential election that year ended in a dispute over the electoral votes of these three states. Each party claimed victory. A special electoral commission gave the contest to Republican Rutherford B. Hayes. But the commissionï¿½s decision had to be ratified by Congress. To secure the election of their candidate, Republican Party leaders struck a bargain with Southern Democrats. Republicans vowed, among other promises, to remove federal troops from Southern states. Democrats promised to accept Hayes and treat blacks fairly. Under the Compromise of 1877, Hayes became president, the last federal troops left the South, and the era of Reconstruction ended. The 1877 bargain ended federal occupation of the South and Northernersï¿½ efforts to ensure the rights of Southern blacks. ï¿½Today ï¿½ the Government of the United States abandoned you,ï¿½ the Republican governor of South Carolina told his African American supporters, as the last federal soldiers departed. The Southern Republican Party virtually vanished. Black voting was not completely extinguished, but violence and intimidation caused it to decline. Southern Democrats had triumphed. They remained in firm control of Southern states without Northern interference. Ex-Confederates, although humiliated by defeat in the Civil War, regained power. But the South was now tied to racial oppression and economic backwardness. The Republicansï¿½ ambitious plan for Reconstruction failed, although it did leave two positive legacies: The 14th and 15th Amendments ensured black rights and gave the vote to black men. To maintain the rights of Southern blacks, however, would have meant a far longer period of military ruleï¿½which both Republicans and Democrats of the 1870s wished to avoidï¿½and postponed any hope of national reunion. Only in the 1960s would the nation begin to confront the consequences of failing to protect the rights of black citizens. In the last third of the 19th century, Americans turned to their economic futureï¿½to developing the nationï¿½s vast resources, to wrestling profit from industry, and to the settlement of the trans-Mississippi West. XIV. The Trans-Mississippi West After the Civil War, hope of economic opportunity lured migrants and immigrants west to the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain region (see American Westward Movement). Settlers battled Native Americans for desirable lands, carved out farms, and built mines and ranches. By the end of the century, the Western territories had turned into states, and their residents had become part of a rapidly industrializing economy. A. Native Americans Living on the Plains The Native Americans of the Great Plains included diverse tribesï¿½among them the Blackfoot, Sioux, Dakota, Cheyenne, Comanche, Arapaho, Navajo, and Apache. After the Civil War, the Native Americans confronted a growing stream of settlersï¿½prospectors, ranchers, and farm families. The newcomers brought with them new diseases that ravaged the tribes. The settlers also killed off the buffalo and thus damaged the Native American economy. The Plains peoples defended their land and their way of life from the oncoming settlers. Fierce battles took place in the 1860s and 1870s between the Plains peoples and federal troops. Ultimately, disease and conflict reduced the population and power of the tribes. Displacement by settlers and concentration on Indian reservations, mainly in Oklahoma, Wyoming, and the Dakotas, challenged the traditional Native American way of life. In the late 19th century, Congress developed a new policy toward Native Americans. Instead of isolating them on reservations, as had been done in the mid-1800s, the new policy sought to assimilate Native Americans into the cultural mainstream. Congressional policymakers responded to pressure from two different groups. First, some people sought to suppress Native American culture by converting Native Americans to Christianity and turning them into farmers. Second, land-hungry settlers and speculators wanted the Native Americans removed from desirable land in the reservations. The Dawes Severalty Act, passed by Congress in 1887, addressed both concerns. The law broke up reservations and encouraged private farms. Native Americans families received individual plots of land, carved from reservations, as well as farm equipment. These families were to give up their communal way of life on the reservations and become independent farmers. But few Native Americans profited from the Dawes Act; the greatest beneficiaries were land speculators, who under the law were able to buy the best pieces of reservation land. In 1890 at the Battle of Wounded Knee federal troops fired on a group of Sioux and massacred from 150 to 370 men, women, and children. The Battle of Wounded Knee marked the end of Native American resistance to settlement. For more information, see Native American Policy. B. Railroads The building of the railroads spurred western settlement. In 1862 Congress authorized construction of two railroads to link the Midwest and the West Coast. The Union Pacific Railroad extended westward from Nebraska; the Central Pacific Railroad went eastward from the Pacific Ocean. The meeting of the two railroads at Promontory Summit, Utah, in 1869 signified a new era in Western history. Federal and state governments had long encouraged the growth of railroads. When Congress authorized building the transcontinental railroad in 1862, it agreed to loan hundreds of millions of dollars to the two corporations to construct it. Congress also gave the railroad companies millions of acres of Western land, which the railroads sold to repay their loans. In effect, major railroad companies, with federal support, became colonizers of the West. To attract settlers who would establish farms and become paying customers, the railroads advertised in the East and in Europe. They provided free trips west and offered long-term loans to settlers. Once the settlers had set up farms, they depended on the railroads to ship their produce. Farmers often became deeply in debt to the railroads, and to repay these debts they frequently relied on a single cash cropï¿½typically wheat. Reliance on a single crop made their incomes dependent on fluctuating world markets and thus precarious. The railroads became very powerful. They established monopolies in specific locales, cut off service, fixed prices, and discriminated among customers. A railroad might offer rebates to favored customers or charge more for a short haul than a long one. Aggrieved by such practices, farmers soon tried to curb the power of railroad corporations. C. Farmers Federal land policy attracted settlers and land speculators. The Homestead Act of 1862 provided land, originally 160 acres, at no cost if the settler agreed to cultivate the land for at least five years. As settlers moved into arid areas farther west, however, the 160-acre plots proved insufficient, so the size of land grants increased. As farmers settled more western land from 1870 to 1900, the nationï¿½s agricultural production doubled. Several factors increased productivity. New farm machinery included the steel plow, which could slice through the heavy soil of the plains, and the twine-binder, which gathered bundles of wheat and tied them with string. New varieties of grain, such as drought-resistant sorghum, enlarged harvests. Barbed wire, patented in 1874, enabled farmers to protect their property from roaming livestock. Finally, the railroads made it possible for Western farm produce to be sold in Eastern cities. However, pioneers who established farms in the plainsï¿½in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotasï¿½faced difficult and isolated lives. They also lost much of their independence. By the late 19th century, farmers had grown increasingly dependent on large businesses. Railroads transported their crops, banks loaned them money, manufacturers sold them farm machinery, and unstable international markets for wheat and corn determined their income. Overproduction, meanwhile, drove prices down. Farmers were frustrated by sagging prices, rising debt, high interest rates, and railroad practices such as fixed prices or discrimination among customers. Farmers no longer felt in charge of their own fates. To try to address some of their problems, farmers joined together in 1867 and founded the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry, or the Grange, which established cooperative stores and urged laws to curb railroad abuses. In a number of states, including Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and California, the Grangers supported the passage of laws that regulated railroad rates and practices (see Granger Movement). In 1887 Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act, which sought to deal with some of these problems. The law required railroad companies that transported passengers or goods to establish reasonable rates, to publish those rates, and to adhere to them. It also banned unfair practices, such as rebates to favored customers. Finally, it created a new agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), to supervise railroad operations. The new law, however, did little to curb railroad power. Railroads gained control of the ICC, evaded the law, and won repeal of the Granger laws that regulated rates; farmersï¿½ protests grew. D. Miners and Ranchers Starting with the California Gold Rush of 1849, a series of mining booms spurred settlement in the West. When gold prospects in California dimmed, thousands of prospectors moved eastward into the Rocky Mountains, seeking gold, silver, copper, and other minerals. Spectacular gold rushes of the late 19th century drew prospectors to mining camps in Boise, Idaho; Helena, Montana; and the Black Hills of South Dakota. Some mining towns became cities, such as Denver. Others, such as Virginia City in the Sierra Nevada mountains, boomed while prospectors worked the mines, only to become ghost towns when the prospectors left. The era of individual prospectors was limited; by the end of the century, they had been replaced by large mining companies in the Western states. In the 1860s and 1870s the railroads transformed the cattle industry, just as they had transformed farmingï¿½by transporting cattle to urban markets in the East. When a rail line reached Abilene, Kansas, in 1867, Texas ranchers began to drive their cattle north to Abilene. The cattle then traveled east, destined for packing houses. The cattle industry began to grow rapidly as railroads made the business more profitable. Large-scale ranchers profited, although the cowboys who drove the herds contended with dull lives and difficult jobs. By the 1880s, the open-range cattle industry extended from Texas to the Dakotas. Then the cattle boom peaked. The disastrous winter of 1886-1887, which followed an unusually dry summer, wiped out herds and forced ranchers into bankruptcy. Those ranchers who remained in business raised smaller herds of high-grade cattle, grew crops to feed them, and, to conserve this food supply, fenced in their livestock with barbed wire. The open range, in which cattle grazed freely, ended. Some ranchers moved farther west, to Wyoming and Montana. E. Multicultural West Races and ethnicities mingled in the late-19th-century West. Immigrants from Scandinavia and ethnic Germans from Russia settled farms in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Irish, Cornish, and Slovak miners moved to the mountain states. Other Europeans went west as speculators, adventurers, and prospectors, and some remained as residents. Chinese immigrants, over 90 percent men, arrived in California in the 1850s. They formed communities in Western cities, labored on the transcontinental railroad, and moved eastward with the railroad and mining booms. Japanese immigrants reached California in the 1890s and settled mainly in rural areas in the Pacific Northwest. Among African Americans who migrated to the West, a small number worked as cowboys; some founded all-black communities such as Langston, Oklahoma, and Nicodemus, Kansas. When the United States acquired Texas, New Mexico, and California at the end of the Mexican War in 1848, it incorporated many Mexicans who lived in what had been the northern border area of Mexico. Clusters of Native Americans lived everywhere. The mixture of peoples in the West spurred competition and antagonism more than harmony. Virulent anti-Chinese sentiment in California pitted native-born workers against immigrants. The growth of the cattle industry affected land ownership in the southwest, to the detriment of Mexican Americans. The United States had promised Mexico to protect the freedom and property of Mexicans who remained in the area ceded to the United States, but American ranchers and other settlers took control of territorial governments and forced Hispanic settlers off their land. Antipathy and violence, moreover, pervaded much of Western life. Hostilities flared not only between settlers and Native Americans, but also between ranchers and farmers, sheepherders and cattle ranchers, Mormons and non-Mormons (in Utah), and labor and management. Yet despite all these tensions, Americans and new immigrants poured into the West. By the 1890s, the western half of the continent was linked firmly to the nationï¿½s industrial economy. Huge meat-packing plants in Chicago and big corporations determined the profits of ranchers. Indebted farmers on the plains, who felt oppressed by railroads and dependent on distant markets, voiced their grievances through farmersï¿½ alliances. Mining became a big business. Finally, cities arose from mining towns, from cattle depots, and as ï¿½gatewaysï¿½ on the borders of the plains. West or east, the nation was becoming more urban and industrial. XV. Industrialization and Urbanization From 1870 to 1900 the United States became the worldï¿½s foremost industrial nation. It emerged as the leader in meatpacking, in production of timber and steel, and in the mining of coal, iron, gold, and silver. Overall, the nation experienced a stunning explosion in the scale of industry and in the pace of production. By the turn of the century, industrialization had transformed commerce, business organization, the environment, the workplace, the home, and everyday life. Many factors fueled industrial growth in the late 19th century: abundant resources, new technology, cheap energy, fast transport, and the availability of capital and labor. Mines, forests, and livestock in the west provided raw materials for major industries, as did iron in Ohio and oil in Pennsylvania. Railroad expansion enabled businesses to move raw materials to factories and to send products to urban markets. A steady stream of immigrants arrived to work in Americaï¿½s mines and factories. Technological advances transformed production. The new machine-tool industry, which turned out drilling, cutting, and milling machines, sped up manufacturing. A trail of inventions, including the telephone, typewriter, linotype, phonograph, electric light, cash register, air brake, refrigerator car, and automobile, led to new industries. Finally, business leaders learned how to operate and coordinate many different economic activities across broad geographic areas. Businesses were thus able to become larger, and the modern corporation became an important form of business organization. For more information, see Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution in the United States. A. Corporations and Consolidation In the 19th century, states reduced the requirements for businesses to incorporate. A corporation is a form of business partnership; it is a legal entity that is distinct from the individuals who control it. The corporation (not the individual partners) is responsible for repaying the corporationï¿½s debts; this is known as limited liability. The corporate form of business organization made it possible for entrepreneurs to finance large-scale enterprises because corporations issue stock, certificates representing shares of ownership in a corporation. By issuing stock, a corporation can enable thousands of individuals to pool financial resources and invest in a new venture. Businesses also grew by combining into trusts. In a trust, a small group of business people, called trustees, acquire enough shares in several competing firms to control those companies. The trustees are then able to manage and direct a group of companies in a unified wayï¿½in effect, creating a single firm out of competing firms. The trustees could prevent competition among the firms that were part of the trust. A leading example was the Standard Oil Trust, formed in Ohio in 1882 by John D. Rockefeller and his associates. Within a decade, trusts dominated many industries. States tried to regulate trusts, but big businesses eluded state control. Afraid that trusts would destroy competition, Congress in 1890 passed the Sherman Antitrust Act. The act banned businesses from joining together in ways that controlled markets, as trusts had been doing. It also outlawed monopoly, in which only a single seller or producer supplies a commodity or a service. But the law defined neither trust nor monopoly and was poorly enforced. The courts threw out cases against the trusts and used the law mainly to declare unions illegal combinations in restraint of trade. For instance, the courts declared that unions that organized boycotts or strikes impeded the flow of commerce and thus violated federal law. Standard Oil, however, continued without interference. In 1892, to avoid Ohio laws, Standard Oil incorporated in New Jersey as a holding company, a corporation with only one purpose: to buy out the stock of other companies. Corporations introduced new styles of management, or business organization. The railroads, which needed to manage crews, fuel, repairs, and train schedules over large areas, were the first to develop new management techniques. The railroads also developed standard time, which the United States adopted in 1883. Steel industry tycoon Andrew Carnegie, who continually sought less costly ways to make steel, also introduced new management techniques. The Carnegie Steel Company used precise accounting systems to track the costs of all processes and materials involved in making steel. To do this work, Carnegie hired middle managers and encouraged them to compete with one another. New business practices led to larger corporations. Andrew Carnegie practiced vertical integration; he bought companies that sold supplies to the steel industry, including coal and iron mines and a railroad line. Carnegie thereby controlled every stage of the productive process from raw materials to marketing. Finally, he engaged in horizontal consolidation by acquiring his competitors. He priced his products so low that competitors could not compete and make a profit. Then he bought them out. By 1899 Carnegieï¿½s company was the worldï¿½s biggest industrial corporation and produced one-fourth of the nationï¿½s steel. However, vertical integration and horizontal consolidation helped concentrate power in a few giant corporations and limited competition. According to business magnates such as Rockefeller and Carnegie, their huge enterprises provided new products at lower costs and enriched the nation, as well as themselves. Stressing the value of competition, captains of industry argued that it ensured the survival of the most competent. Business leaders also endorsed a policy of laissez-faire. Government, they believed, should leave business alone. In fact, the federal government adopted policies to benefit big business. Congress passed high tariffs (taxes on imported products) that impeded foreign competition; federal subsidies to railroads enriched investors; and courts penalized labor more often than business. B. Labor The trend toward large-scale production changed the structure of the labor force and the nature of work. From 1870 to 1900, as the industrial work force expanded, the unskilled worker replaced the artisan or autonomous craftsperson. The typical workplace was more likely to be a large factory than a small workshop. Striving for efficiency, employers replaced skilled labor with machines and low-paid workers. Factory tasks became specialized, repetitive, and monotonous. The need for unskilled labor drew women and children into the industrial work force. Some performed piecework, work paid for according to the amount produced rather than the hours worked, in crowded tenements; others operated machinery in textile mills and garment plants. Industrial labor in the late 19th century was often hazardous. Workers lacked protection against industrial accidents, long hours, wage cuts, layoffs, and sudden bouts of unemployment. As the industrial work force grew, tensions increased between labor and management. They disagreed over issues such as wages, length of the working day, and working conditions. Labor unions emerged to protect the rights of workers and to represent them in negotiations with management. Most employers vigorously opposed trade union activity, and struggles between workers and employers often became violent. The first national labor organization, the Knights of Labor, organized in 1869, tried to include all workers. The Knights reached their greatest strength between 1884 and 1885, when railroad strikes raged, and then declined. As the Knights of Labor faded, a new federation of local and craft unions, the American Federation of Labor (AFL), was organized in 1886. Led from 1886 to 1924 by Samuel Gompers, an immigrant cigar maker from England, the AFL welcomed skilled workers, almost all of them men. The AFL focused on hours, wages, working conditions, and union recognition by management. It also favored use of economic weapons such as strikes and boycotts. Late-19th-century unions attracted only a small portion, perhaps 5 percent, of the work force, but strikes involved far more workers. In the last quarter of the century, thousands of strikes aroused public concern, and several large, violent events evoked fear. The great railroad strike of 1877 was a wildcat strike (a strike by a union local without consent of the national union to which it belongs) set off by wage cuts on a single railroad line. It became a nationwide protest that almost ended rail traffic and led to scores of deaths. Only the arrival of federal troops ended the strike. In the 1880s, a decade of 10,000 strikes and lockouts, workers often succeeded in averting wage reductions and winning shorter hours. Most strikes concerned local grievances but some closed down entire industries and incurred reprisals. The Haymarket Square Riot in Chicago in 1886 grew out of a strike against a company that built agricultural machinery. Union leaders called a protest meeting at which police intervened and a bomb exploded, causing many deaths. Eight people were convicted of murder, and four were hanged. Repelled by the violence, the public blamed the labor movement for the casualties at Haymarket Square, and the Knights of Labor lost influence. At the end of the 19th century, business often defeated workersï¿½ demands. In the 1890s, at employersï¿½ requests, federal troops crushed strikes at Idaho silver mines, Carnegieï¿½s steel plants, and Pullman railway works. The Pullman strike began when workers for the Pullman Palace Car Company protested wage cuts. The protest led thousands of workers to join the American Railway Union, led by Eugene V. Debs. But employers, who united to break the union, called for an injunction, a court order for workers to return to work, and attained it under the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. Federal troops arrived to enforce the injunction against the union, riots ensued, the strike was crushed, and Debs was arrested, convicted, and imprisoned. The injunction was a powerful tool for business to use against labor. Besides the injunction, union organizers faced other obstacles, such as blacklists (lists of union activists circulated among employers) and attacks by Pinkerton detectives (agents of a private detective firm that guarded factories, protected railroads, and battled labor). In some instances, employers forced workers to sign ï¿½yellow dog contracts,ï¿½ in which they promised not to join unions. Management retained the upper hand. C. Immigration Industrial workers of the late 19th century were often foreign-born. From 1865 to 1885, immigrants arrived mainly from northern and western Europe, as they had before the Civil War; the largest groups came from England, Ireland, Germany, and Scandinavia. From the mid-1880s until World War I began in 1914, the number of newcomers from southern, eastern, and central Europe increased. Many new immigrants were Slavsï¿½Poles, Czechs, Russians, Ukrainians, Croatiansï¿½and others, including Jews, from the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires. Among the new immigrants were also Greeks, Romanians, and Italians, mainly from southern Italy or Sicily. Record numbers of immigrants arrived in the United States, some 9 million from 1880 to 1900, and 13 million from 1900 to 1914. Late-19th-century immigrants left their European homes to escape economic problemsï¿½scarce land, growing populations, and the decline of subsistence farming. They came to the United States in hope of economic gain. Most settled in the United States permanently, but others came only to amass some capital and then return home. Immigration dropped off during depressions, as in the 1870s and 1890s, and again during World War I, with smaller downturns in between. Immigration was encouraged by new technology such as steamships, which reduced the time needed to cross the Atlantic from three months to two weeks or less. Where immigrants settled depended on their ethnicity and on when they arrived. In the post-Civil War decade, for instance, Scandinavian immigrants used the Homestead Act to start Midwestern farms. Two decades later, immigrants usually moved to industrial towns and cities, where they became unskilled laborers in steel mills, meatpacking plants, and the garment trade. In Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where the population increased tenfold from 1850 to 1890, large numbers of Poles and Eastern Europeans found work in rolling mills and blast furnaces. By 1910 immigrants and their families constituted over half the total population of 18 major cities; in Chicago, eight out of ten residents were immigrants or children of immigrants. Immigrantsï¿½ lives changed dramatically after they arrived. Uprooted, usually from rural areas in Europe, immigrants had to adjust to industrial labor, unfamiliar languages, and city life. Clinging to their national identities and religions, immigrants prepared ethnic foods, read foreign-language newspapers, and celebrated ethnic holidays. At the same time, they patronized urban amusements, found community support in local political machines, and adapted to the new environment. Men outnumbered women in new immigrant communities because men often preceded their wives and families. Immigrantsï¿½ huge numbers, high concentrations in cities, and non-Protestant faiths evoked nativist or anti-immigrant sentiments. To native-born Americans, the newcomers often seemed more alien and more transient, less skilled and less literate than earlier groups of immigrants. Some strains of nativism rested on belief in the superiority of Anglo-Americans or Nordic peoples over all others. Other types of nativism reflected economic self-interest: Native-born workers feared competition for jobs from new immigrants; they feared also that immigrants would work for lower wages, which might mean less pay or even unemployment for them. Both types of nativism arose on the West Coast, where immigration from China had been heavy since the 1850s. Responding to anti-Chinese sentiment, especially among California workers, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. The law curbed Chinese immigration for ten years, a period that was subsequently extended indefinitely. A small number of immigrants from China continued to arrive, but the number of Chinese entrants slowed to a trickle. In the 1890s, meanwhile, Congress tightened immigration laws to exclude polygamists, contract laborers, and people with diseases. Nativist groups such as the American Protective Association (1887) urged immigration restriction. D. Growth of Cities As immigration exploded, the urban population surged from 6 million in 1860 to 42 million in 1910. Big cities got bigger: Chicago tripled in size in the 1880s and 1890s. By 1900 three cities contained more than a million people: New York (3.5 million), Chicago (1.7 million), and Philadelphia (1.3 million). In the late 19th century, industry invaded the cities. Previously, cities had served as commercial centers for rural hinterlands and were frequently located on rivers, lakes, or oceans. Manufacturing occurred outside their limitsï¿½usually near power sources, such as streams, or natural resources, such as coal. As industry grew, cities changed. Chicago, for instance, had been a railroad center that served the upper Midwest as a shipping hub for lumber, meat, and grain; by 1870 it had taken the lead in steel production as well as meatpacking. Post-Civil War Atlanta, another railroad hub and commercial center, also developed a diverse manufacturing sector. Cities quickly became identified with what they producedï¿½Troy, New York, made shirt collars; Birmingham, Alabama, manufactured steel; Minneapolis, Minnesota, produced lumber; Paterson, New Jersey, wove silk; Toledo, Ohio, made glass; Tulsa, Oklahoma, harbored the oil industry; and Houston, Texas, produced railroad cars. Population changes also transformed the city. Urban growth reflected the geographic mobility of the industrial age; people moved from city to city as well as within them. The new transience led to diverse populations. Migrants from rural areas and newcomers from abroad mingled with wealthy long-time residents and the middle class. Immigrants constituted the fastest growing populations in big cities, where industry offered work. Urban political machines helped immigrant communities by providing services in exchange for votes. For immigrants, boss politics eased the way to jobs and citizenship. Most, but not all, city machines were Democratic. Just as industrialization and immigration transformed the city, new technology reshaped it. Taller buildings became possible with the introduction of elevators and construction using cast-iron supports and, later, steel girders. The first steel-frame skyscraper, ten stories high, arose in Chicago in 1885. In 1913 New Yorkï¿½s Woolworth Building soared to a height of 60 stories. Taller buildings caused land values in city centers to increase. New forms of transportation stretched cities out. First, trolleys veered over bumpy rails, and steam-powered cable cars lugged passengers around. Then cities had electric streetcars, powered by overhead wires. Electric streetcars and elevated railroads enabled cities to expand, absorbing nearby towns and linking central cities with once-distant suburbs. For intercity transport, huge railroad terminalsï¿½built like palaces, with columns, arches, and towersï¿½arose near crowded business hubs. Late-19th-century cities were cauldrons of change. In commerce, they became centers of merchandising with large department stores, which developed in the 1860s and 1870s. As city populations grew, the need for safe water, sanitation, fire control, and crime control also grew. These needs led to new urban servicesï¿½water reservoirs, sewer systems, fire and police departments. Reformers attempted to enhance urban environments with parks and to improve poor neighborhoods with urban missions. Urban religious leaders of the 1880s promoted the Social Gospel, under which churches concerned themselves with social problems such as poverty, vice, and injustice. For more information, see United States (People): Urbanization of America. E. The New South Industrialization and urbanization also affected the South. Southern merchants, manufacturers, and newspaper editors of the 1880s led the campaign for a ï¿½New South,ï¿½ where Southern industrialism would break the cycle of rural poverty. States provided special breaks for new businesses and promised cheap labor. Birmingham, Alabama, became a railroad and steel center where mills hired black workers. Southern textile mills opened in the 1880s in the Piedmont region from central Virginia to Alabama. Mill owners depended on low-skilled, low-paid white labor, and their mills attracted workers from rural areas. Workers settled in company towns where entire families worked for the mill. The South replaced New England as the nationï¿½s leading locale for textile mills. Overall, however, the campaign to industrialize the South faltered. As late as 1900, only 5 percent of the Southern labor force, most of it white, worked in industry. Furthermore, Southern industry did not enrich the South. Except for the American Tobacco Company, located in North Carolina, Southern industry was owned mainly by Northern financiers. For African Americans, the New South of the late 19th century meant increased oppression; race relations deteriorated. Black voting was not quickly extinguished; in the 1880s, some African Americans continued to vote in the upper South and in pockets elsewhere, but black office holders and voting majorities vanished, fraud and intimidation were common, and black votes often fell under conservative control. Between 1890 and 1908, starting in Mississippi, Southern states held constitutional conventions to impose new voting regulations, such as literacy testingï¿½regulations that registrars could impose at will on blacks and not on whites. Southern states also introduced a ï¿½grandfather clause,ï¿½ which exempted from literacy testing all those entitled to vote on January 1, 1867, (before Congress gave black men the right to vote) and their male descendents. This enabled most illiterate whites to go to the polls but stopped illiterate blacks from voting. Some states imposed stringent property qualifications for voting or poll taxes, which meant that each voter had to pay a tax in order to vote. Increasingly, Southern blacks (the vast majority of the nationï¿½s African Americans) were relegated to subordinate roles and segregated lives. Segregation laws, or Jim Crow laws as they were known, kept blacks and whites apart in public places such as trains, stations, streetcars, schools, parks, and cemeteries. The Supreme Court confirmed the legitimacy of Jim Crow practices in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which upheld segregation in railroad cars. In the 1890s, finally, the number of lynchings of African Americans rose markedly. Between 1890 and 1900, more than 1,200 lynchings occurred, mainly in the Deep South. At the end of the century, the New South remained an impoverished and racist region, with the nationï¿½s lowest income and educational levels. F. Farmersï¿½ Protests and Populism Beset by crop failures in the 1880s, Midwestern farmers dealt with falling prices, scarce money, and debt. To cope with these problems, farmers began forming farmersï¿½ alliances, which multiplied in the Great Plains and spread to the South, where white and black farmers formed separate alliances. Working together in these cooperative organizations, farmers hoped to lower costs by buying supplies at reduced prices, obtaining loans at rates below those charged by banks, and building warehouses to store crops until prices became favorable. In 1889 the Southern and Northwestern alliances merged and in 1890 became politically active. In the early 1890s, alliance delegates formed a national party, the Peopleï¿½s Party, whose members were called Populists, and decided to wage a third-party campaign. The delegates nominated James B. Weaver as the partyï¿½s candidate for president in 1892. Although he lost, the party won several governorships and legislative seats. Populism inspired colorful leaders, such as lawyer Mary E. Lease of Kansas, a powerful orator, and Tom Watson of Georgia, who urged cooperation among black and white farmers. Populists supported a slate of reforms. These included calls for the government to issue more silver coins and paper currency; such inflationary measures, Populists hoped, would raise farm prices and enable farmers to pay off their debts. They wanted the government to regulate closely or even to take over the railroads in the hope of lowering farmersï¿½ transportation costs. The Populists also supported a graduated income tax to more equitably distribute the costs of government, as well as tariff reduction, abolition of national banks, direct popular elections of U.S. senators, and an eight-hour workday for wage earners. Economic collapse in the 1890s increased agrarian woes. The panic of 1893 was followed by a depression that lasted until 1897. Businesses went bankrupt, railroads failed, industrial unemployment rose, and farm prices fell. The depression increased doubts about laissez-faire economic policies. The money question, an issue since the 1870s, dominated the election of 1896. Populists supported the Democratic candidate, William Jennings Bryan, who called for free silver, or free and unlimited coinage of silver. Bryan electrified the Democratic convention with a powerful denunciation of the gold standard. But Republican William McKinley, with a huge campaign chest and business support, won the election. With McKinley, Republicans gained a majority of the electorate that lasted, with only one interruption, until the New Deal in the 1930s. The corporate elite was now empowered in national politics. The influence of the Populist Party declined after the election, but the massive protest stirred by Populists did not completely fail. Many of the reforms that agrarian protesters endorsed were eventually enacted in the Progressive Era. But Populists had been unable to turn back the clock to a time when farmers had more autonomy, or to remedy the economic problems of the new industrial society. G. The Impact of Industrialization Three decades of industrial progress transformed American life. By 1900 the United States had an advanced industrial economy, dominated by big corporations. The corporation harnessed ingenuity, created unprecedented wealth, and spurred the growth of new cities such as Chicago, Atlanta, Minneapolis, and Dallas. It increased foreign trade. The value of exports doubled from 1877 to 1900; imports rose, too, but less rapidly. Industrial progress revolutionized the marketing of goods and transformed the office world, now filled with clerical workers, bureaucrats, and middle managers. It also transformed homes by introducing indoor plumbing, electric lights, and household appliances. Overall, industrialization made available labor-saving products, lower prices for manufactured goods, advances in transportation, and higher living standards. Industrialization had liabilities as well. It brought about vast disparities of wealth and unreliable business cycles, in which overproduction and depression alternated. The economy lurched between boom and panic, as in the 1870s and 1890s; bankruptcy became a common event, especially among indebted railroads that had overbuilt. For laborers, industrialization meant competition for jobs, subsistence wages, insecurity, and danger. Children worked in coal mines and cotton mills; women labored in tenement sweatshops; workers faced the prospect of industrial accidents and illnesses such as respiratory diseases. Industrialization also exploited natural resources and damaged the environment. Refiners and steel mills spewed oil into rivers and smoke into the atmosphere. Finally, industrialization brought a relentless drive for efficiency and profit that led to ever larger, more powerful businesses and gave the corporate elite undue power in national politics. In the 1890s business leadersï¿½ need for yet larger markets led to pressure on the United States to expand overseas. XVI. Imperialism The United States had a long tradition of territorial expansion. Gains of adjacent territory in the 19th centuryï¿½the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, the areas won from Mexico in 1848, and U.S. expansion across the continentï¿½all enhanced American stature. More recently, the defeat and removal of Native American tribes by federal troops had opened the West to farms and ranches, speculators and corporations. In the 1890s, several motives combined to build pressure for expansion overseas. First, business leaders wanted overseas markets. Products basic to the American economyï¿½including cotton, wheat, iron, steel, and agricultural equipmentï¿½already depended heavily on foreign sales. Business leaders feared that if the United States failed to gain new markets abroad, other nations would claim them, and these markets would be lost to U.S. enterprise. Second, national prestige required the United States to join the great European nations and Japan as imperial powers (nations with overseas colonies). Alfred Thayer Mahan presented this position in The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (1890). In order to enter the race for influence, Mahan contended, the United States had to expand its depleted merchant marine, acquire overseas naval bases, build up a large navy, and find markets abroad. Third, religious leaders supported efforts to spread Christianity to foreign peoples. Finally, the United States seemed to be falling behind in the race for empire; it had not acquired noncontiguous territory since the secretary of state bought Alaska from Russia in 1867. Imperial designs evoked criticism, too. Some Americans opposed U.S. expansion and challenged the drive for an overseas empire. The Anti-Imperialist Leagueï¿½a coalition of editors, academics, reformers, and labor leadersï¿½contended that the United States had no right to impose its will on other people and that imperialism would lead to further conflict. Foes of imperialism also protested that overseas territories would bring nonwhite citizens into the United States. Still the economic crisis of the 1890s made overseas expansion seem imperative, especially to the business community. At the centuryï¿½s end, the United States began to send American forces to Hawaii, Cuba, the Philippines, and East Asia. A. Annexation of Hawaii In the 1880s a monarchy governed the Hawaiian Islands, but western powers, including the United States, Britain, and Germany, had significant influence in Hawaiiï¿½s economy and government. American business interests dominated the lucrative sugar business. Angered by U.S. domination, Hawaiian islanders in 1891 welcomed a native Hawaiian, Liliuokalani, as queen. Liliuokalani attempted to impose a new constitution that strengthened her power. American planters responded by deposing the queen in 1893. Proclaiming Hawaii independent, the Americans requested U.S. annexation. President Grover Cleveland stalled on the annexation treaty; his representative on the islands reported that native Hawaiians objected to it. Under President William McKinley, however, in 1898, Congress voted to annex the Hawaiian Islands. In 1900 Hawaii became American territory. B. The Spanish-American War: Cuba and the Philippines United States involvement in Cuba began in 1895 when the Cubans rebelled against Spanish rule. The Cuban revolution of 1895 was savage on both sides. Americans learned of Spanish atrocities through sensational press reports as well as from Cuban exiles who supported the rebels. Humanitarians urged the United States to intervene in the revolution, and U.S. businesses voiced concern about their large investments on the island. However, President Cleveland sought to avoid entanglement in Cuba, as did President McKinley, at first. A well-publicized incident drew the United States into the conflict. On February 15, 1898, an American battleship, the Maine, exploded in Havana harbor, killing 266 people. Most Americans blamed the Spanish, and ï¿½Remember the Maineï¿½ became a call to arms. McKinley began negotiations with Spain for a settlement with Cuba. McKinley then sent a message to Congress, which adopted a resolution recognizing Cuban independence and renouncing any intent to annex the island, but Spain refused to withdraw. In April 1898 Congress declared war on Spain, and the Spanish-American War began. The four-month war ended in August with a victory for the United States. The first action occurred thousands of miles away from Cuba in the Philippines, another Spanish colony. There Commodore George Dewey surprised the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay and sank every vessel in it. Next, the United States sent an expeditionary force to Cuba. The U.S. Navy blockaded the Spanish fleet, and the Americans landed unopposed. After a bloody battle, in which a regiment of soldiers called Rough Riders were led by Theodore Roosevelt, the Americans captured San Juan Hill outside the strategic city of Santiago de Cuba, and Spanish land forces surrendered. American troops also occupied Puerto Rico and Manila Harbor. In August 1898 the United States signed an armistice, and later that year, a peace settlement. The Senate narrowly ratified the peace treaty with Spain in February 1899. The treaty provided that Spain would cede the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United States; the United States would pay Spain $20 million. In addition, Spain would surrender all claims to Cuba and assume Cubaï¿½s debt. No wonder the Spanish-American War struck Secretary of State John Hay as a ï¿½splendid little war.ï¿½ In a few months, the United States had become a major world power with an overseas empire. But the story of the ï¿½splendid little warï¿½ was not yet complete. In February 1899 the Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, declared themselves independent and began a three-year struggle against 120,000 U.S. troops. About 20,000 Filipinos were killed in combat. However, more than 200,000 Filipinos died during the insurrection primarily due to a cholera outbreak from 1897 to 1903. Barbarities and atrocities occurred on both sides before the United States captured Aguinaldo and suppressed the insurrection. The U.S. Army remained in Cuba until 1901, when the Cubans adopted a constitution that included the Platt Amendment. The amendment pledged Cubans to allow the United States to intervene in Cuban affairs when events threatened property, liberty, or Cuban independence. Cuba accepted the amendment and became in effect a protectorate of the United States. In the election of 1900, William Jennings Bryan again challenged McKinley, this time on an unsuccessful anti-imperialist platform. C. Open Door Policy in China American trade with China increased in the 1890s. The United States had long demanded an Open Door Policy for trading in China, which was weak, in order to prevent other powers from carving up China among them. But France, Russia, Britain, and Japan bit off pieces for themselves by annexation or by establishing spheres of influence, where they exercised economic privileges. As its rivals made gains, the United States feared it would be excluded from all trade in China. In 1899 Secretary of State John Hay sent the European powers and Japan a series of ï¿½Open Door Notes,ï¿½ requesting agreement on three points. First, each power would respect the trading rights of the others within each nationï¿½s sphere of influence; second, Chinese officials would collect import duties; and third, no nation would discriminate against the others in matters of harbor duties or railroad rates within each sphere of influence. Hay declared the principles accepted, inaccurately, since Russia and later Japan disagreed. Not all the Chinese welcomed Western penetration of their culture. In 1900 the Boxer Uprising broke out in China. The Boxersï¿½a sect of Chinese nationalists who opposed foreign influence in Chinaï¿½rose up against foreign traders, officials, and missionaries, and massacred many of them. The United States and the European powers intervened with troops and put down the insurrection. The European powers seemed eager to carve up China, but Hay persuaded them to accept compensation to cover their losses. The United States returned part of its compensation to China. The McKinley administration had stopped Europe from carving up China. The quest for an overseas empire in the late 1890s thus led to substantial American gains. The United States annexed Hawaii in 1898, conquered the Philippines and Guam from Spain in 1899, turned Cuba in effect into an American protectorate in 1901, and kept China opened to American traders and missionaries. Meanwhile, in September 1901, an anarchist shot President McKinley, and Vice President Theodore Roosevelt assumed the presidency. The United States now entered the 20th century and an era of reform. XVII. Progressivism and Reform The growth of industry and cities created problems. A small number of people held a large proportion of the nationï¿½s wealth while others fell into poverty. Workers faced long hours, dangerous conditions, poor pay, and an uncertain future. Big business became closely allied with government, and political machines, which offered services in return for votes, controlled some city governments. As the United States entered the 20th century, demand arose to combat these ills. Progressive reformers sought to remedy the problems created by industrialization and urbanization. To progressives, economic privilege and corrupt politics threatened democracy. Never a cohesive movement, progressivism embraced many types of reform. Progressives strove, variously, to curb corporate power, to end business monopolies, and to wipe out political corruption. They also wanted to democratize electoral procedures, protect working people, and bridge the gap between social classes. Progressives turned to government to achieve their goals. National in scope, progressivism included both Democrats and Republicans. From the 1890s to the 1910s, progressive efforts affected local, state, and national politics. They also left a mark on journalism, academic life, cultural life, and social justice movements. Crusading journalists helped shape a climate favorable to reform. Known as muckrakers, these journalists revealed to middle class readers the evils of economic privilege, political corruption, and social injustice. Their articles appeared in McClureï¿½s Magazine and other reform periodicals. Some muckrakers focused on corporate abuses. Ida Tarbell, for instance, exposed the activities of the Standard Oil Company. In The Shame of the Cities (1904), Lincoln Steffens dissected corruption in city government. In Following the Color Line (1908), Ray Stannard Baker criticized race relations. Other muckrakers assailed the Senate, railroad practices, insurance companies, and fraud in patent medicine. Novelists, too, revealed corporate injustices. Theodore Dreiser drew harsh portraits of a type of ruthless businessman in The Financier (1912) and The Titan (1914). In The Jungle (1906) Socialist Upton Sinclair repelled readers with descriptions of Chicagoï¿½s meatpacking plants, and his work led to support for remedial legislation. Leading intellectuals also shaped the progressive mentality. In The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899), Thorstein Veblen attacked the ï¿½conspicuous consumptionï¿½ of the wealthy. Educator John Dewey emphasized a child-centered philosophy of pedagogy, known as progressive education, which affected schoolrooms for three generations. A. Progressivism in the Cities and States As a political movement, progressivism arose at the local and state levels in the 1890s. Urban reformers attacked political machines run by corrupt bosses and monopolies in municipal services such as electricity or gas. To address these problems, they promoted professional city managers and advocated public ownership of utilities. The social settlement movement, which originated in cities in the 1890s, also became a force for progressive reform at the local level. Settlement houses offered social services to the urban poor, especially immigrants. Pioneering settlement houses, such as Hull House, founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr in 1889, provided nurseries, adult education classes, and recreational opportunities for children and adults. Settlements spread rapidly. There were 100 settlement houses in 1900, 200 in 1905, and 400 in 1910. Settlement leaders joined the battle against political machines and endorsed many other progressive reforms. At the state level, progressives campaigned for electoral reforms to allow the people to play a more direct role in the political process. Some Western states adopted practices that expanded voter rights, including the initiative, the referendum, and the recall. Under the initiative, citizens could sign petitions to force legislatures to vote on particular bills. With the referendum, a proposal could be placed on the ballot to be decided by a vote at election time. Using the recall, voters could petition to oust officials from their jobs. Progressives also supported the 17th Amendment, ratified in 1913, which provides for election of U.S. senators directly by vote of the people, rather than indirectly by state legislatures. Progressive reformers used the states as laboratories of reform. For instance, Wisconsin governor Robert La Follette, who held office from 1901 to 1906, introduced progressive changes such as establishing a commission to supervise railroad practices and raising state taxes on corporations. Following Wisconsinï¿½s example, one state after another passed laws to regulate railroads and businesses. Progressives also focused on labor reform at the state level. They sought to eliminate (or at least regulate) child labor, to cut workersï¿½ hours, and to establish a minimum wage. By 1907 progressive efforts had led 30 states to abolish child labor. In Muller v. Oregon (1908), the Supreme Court upheld a state law that limited women factory workers to a ten-hour day, and many states began to regulate womenï¿½s working hours. Progressives also endorsed workmenï¿½s compensation (an insurance plan to aid workers injured on the job) and an end to homework (piecework done in tenements). In New Yorkï¿½s Triangle Fire of 1911, many women leapt to their deaths from a burning shirtwaist factory. The tragedy reminded people of the need for higher safety standards in factories and the need to protect workers from unscrupulous employers. Some progressive reformers supported causes that had a coercive or repressive dimension, such as Prohibition, a movement to prevent the manufacture, sale, or use of alcohol. The Womanï¿½s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), founded in 1874, had long campaigned against alcohol. In 1895 the Anti-Saloon League of America joined the crusade. Together they worked to gain support for the 18th Amendment, which provided for Prohibition. The amendment was ratified in 1919 and remained law until 1933, when the 21st Amendment repealed it. Progressive moral fervor also emerged in campaigns to combat prostitution and to censor films. Finally, some progressives endorsed other restrictive causes, now seen as ungenerous or inhumane, such as a campaign against immigration or support for eugenics, a movement to control reproduction in order to improve the human race. Progressive causes won support from a broad section of the middle classï¿½editors, teachers, professionals, and business leadersï¿½who shared common values. Progressive supporters appreciated order, efficiency, and expertise; they championed investigation, experimentation, and cooperation. Many, including some progressive employers, sought regulations to make business practices more fair and break up monopolies. To regulate business, however, progressives had to wield influence on the national level. B. Progressivism at the National Level When progressives began to work for reform at the national level, their major goal was government regulation of business. Seeking antitrust laws to eliminate monopolies, they also supported lower tariffs, a graduated income tax, and a system to control currency. They found a spokesperson in President Theodore Roosevelt. Regulation, Roosevelt believed, was the only way to solve the problems caused by big business. A leading publicist for progressive ideals, Roosevelt became known as a trustbuster. He revived the Sherman Antitrust Act, vigorously enforcing it to break up large trusts that reduced competition and controlled prices. He also pursued a railroad monopoly, took on the meatpacking trust, and attacked oil, tobacco, and other monopolies. In 1906 Roosevelt helped push through a meat inspection act, the Pure Food and Drug Act, and the Hepburn Act. This law expanded the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission, the agency that regulated commercial activity crossing state lines. Roosevelt was also a leading nature conservationist who wanted to preserve the nationï¿½s natural resources. He withdrew thousands of acres of forests, mineral lands, and waterpower sites from the public domain to protect them from exploitation by private interests. Roosevelt doubled the number of national parks and established many national monuments and wildlife refuges. He also supported a 1902 law to provide irrigation and hydroelectric development by building dams on some of the nationï¿½s rivers. Rooseveltï¿½s successor, William Howard Taft, was more conservative, and domestic reforms slowed during his administration. He reluctantly signed a bill in 1909 that slightly raised tariffs, but he aggressively pursued twice as many antitrust proceedings. Taft won major victories against Standard Oil Company and American Tobacco Company, which were ordered by the Supreme Court to break into smaller, competing firms. Taft also signed laws for progressive measures such as raising corporation taxes. Taft lost support in 1912, however, when Roosevelt, who disagreed with him on tariff policy and railroad regulation, entered the presidential race as head of the new Progressive Party. Rooseveltï¿½s program of New Nationalism sought state regulation of big business. New Jerseyï¿½s progressive governor, Democrat Woodrow Wilson, envisioned more limited federal power. Wilson supported an effort to destroy monopoly and aid small business through tariff reduction, banking reform, and tightening of antitrust laws. His program was known as the New Freedom. Progressivism reached its peak during Wilsonï¿½s first term as president. In 1913 Wilson signed the Underwood Tariff, which reduced taxes on imported goods. The bill also included an income tax, permitted by the new 16th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. Wilson supported the Federal Reserve Act of 1913, which created a centralized banking system to act as a lender of last resort to forestall bank crises and to permit a more elastic currency, one that could be readily expanded or contracted to suit the national need. To curb trusts, Wilson pushed through Congress the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 (see Federal Trade Commission). The law established a commission with authority to prevent business practices that could lead to a monopoly. He also supported the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, a statute intended to bolster the poorly enforced Sherman Act. The new law banned interlocking directorates, in which a few people controlled an industry by serving simultaneously as directors of related corporations. It also exempted labor unions from the category of illegal combinations and gave workers the right to strike. Finally, Wilson appointed Louis Brandeis, a leading critic of big business, to the Supreme Court. Full of moral fervor, Wilson carried progressive goals into World War I, which the United States entered in 1917. C. African Americans in the Progressive Era Despite their zeal for reform, few progressives made race relations a priority, and in the South, leading progressives often endorsed racist policies. In 1900 more than two-thirds of 10 million African Americans lived in the South; most were sharecroppers and tenant farmers. Rural or urban, Southern blacks faced poverty, discrimination, and limited employment opportunities. At the end of the 19th century, Southern legislatures passed Jim Crow laws that separated blacks and whites in public places (see Segregation in the United States). Because blacks were deprived of the right to vote by the grandfather clause, poll taxes, or other means, their political participation was limited. Lynching increased, and a steady stream of black migrants moved north. From 1890 to 1910, some 200,000 African Americans left the South, and even more moved out during World War I. For more information, see United States (People): Major Migrations of the U.S. Population: Black Migration. As African Americans tried to combat racism and avoid racial conflict, they clashed over strategies of accommodation and resistance. Booker T. Washington, head of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, urged blacks to be industrious and frugal, to learn manual skills, to become farmers and artisans, to work their way up economically, and to win the respect of whites. When blacks proved their economic value, Washington argued, racism would decline. An agile politician, with appeal to both whites and blacks, Washington urged African Americans to adjust to the status quo. In 1895, in a speech that critics labeled the Atlanta Compromise, Washington contended that blacks and whites could coexist in harmony with separate social lives but united in efforts toward economic progress. Northern intellectual W.E.B. Du Bois challenged Washingtonï¿½s policy. In The Souls of Black Folk (1903), Du Bois deplored Washingtonï¿½s call for patience and for cultivation of manual skills. Instead he urged equal educational opportunities and the end of discrimination. In 1909 Du Bois joined a group of progressives, black and white, to form the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The NAACP strove to end the disfranchisement of black people, to abolish segregation, and to promote black civil and political rights. D. The Womenï¿½s Movement Middle-class women and progressive reformers shared common goals. In the progressive era, women made great advances in higher education, the professions, and womenï¿½s organizations. By 1910, for instance, when about 5 percent of college-age Americans attended college, about 40 percent were women. Activist women joined organizations such as the General Federation of Womenï¿½s Clubs, a womenï¿½s volunteer service organization founded in 1890. The National Consumersï¿½ League (1899) and the Womenï¿½s Trade Union League (1903) spearheaded efforts to limit womenï¿½s work hours and to organize women in unions. College students read Women and Economics (1898) by feminist intellectual Charlotte Perkins Gilman; college graduates worked in settlement houses; and homemakers joined womenï¿½s clubs to promote civic improvement. Reformer Florence Kelley led the charge for child labor laws and other measures to protect workers. On the left, anarchist Emma Goldman, birth control advocate Margaret Sanger, and feminist Crystal Eastman promoted aspects of womenï¿½s rights. Settlement leaders, womenï¿½s clubs, and temperance groups supported progressive measures. The woman suffrage movement, in turn, won progressive support. Women had been fighting for the right to vote since the passage of the 15th Amendment gave voting rights to black men. In 1869 two rival organizations formed to support voting rights for women on state and federal levels. In 1890 the competing suffrage groups united to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association, which pursued the battle in the states. As late as 1909, women could vote in only four states (Wyoming, Utah, Idaho, and Colorado), but momentum picked up. Suffragists used more aggressive tactics, such as parades, rallies, and marches, and gained ground. They won a key victory by gaining the right to vote in New York State in 1917, which helped empower them for their final push during World War I. E. Foreign Affairs Progressive presidents sought to impose order on the world, and especially to find markets for American products. For example, Roosevelt believed that a world power such as the United States was obliged to maintain global peace. He brought Russia and Japan together to sign a treaty in 1905 that ended the Russo-Japanese War and gave Japan rights in Korea. Roosevelt also supported expansion of U.S. influence abroad. Roosevelt intervened in Latin America to build a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; the canal would link U.S. East Coast ports with East Asia. The United States negotiated a treaty with Colombia for rights to build a canal in Panama, at that time controlled by Colombia. When the Colombian Congress rejected the treaty, Roosevelt encouraged Panamanian desire for independence from Colombia. This tactic succeeded, and a revolution occurred. The United States promptly recognized the new government of Panama and negotiated a treaty that enabled Americans to build the Panama Canal. Latin Americans questioned Rooseveltï¿½s high-handed maneuver. They also objected to the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The Monroe Doctrine, announced in 1823, declared that the United States had the right to exclude foreign powers from expanding in the western hemisphere. It had protected weak 19th-century Latin American nations from powerful European nations. The Roosevelt Corollary, in contrast, stated that ï¿½chronicï¿½ wrongdoing on the part of Latin American nations entitled the United States to intervene in the affairs of those nations. Most Latin Americans saw Rooseveltï¿½s policy as a form of imperialism. Roosevelt applied his corollary first to the Dominican Republic, which had trouble paying its debts to other nations. Roosevelt feared that a European power might occupy the country to force repayment of debts. The United States therefore ran the Dominican Republicï¿½s custom service for two years and used money collected there to pay the nationï¿½s debts. Relations with Japan also became an issue during Rooseveltï¿½s administration. A conflict erupted in 1906 over Japanese immigration to the United States. Prejudice against Japanese immigrants caused a crisis when San Francisco forced Asian children into a separate school. The Japanese government protested. In a ï¿½gentlemenï¿½s agreementï¿½ in 1907, both nations agreed to discourage immigration from Japan. In the Root-Takahira agreement of 1908, Japan and the United States agreed to respect the territorial integrity of China and the Open Door Policy. Rooseveltï¿½s successor, William Howard Taft, adopted a policy that critics called dollar diplomacy; he encouraged U.S. bankers and industrialists to invest abroad, especially in Latin America. He hoped they would replace European lenders and build American influence in the area. The policy, however, led the United States into unpopular military ventures. For instance, the nation became involved in a civil war in Nicaragua, where the United States in 1909 supported the overthrow of the countryï¿½s leader and sustained a reactionary regime. Woodrow Wilson, an idealist and humanitarian, disliked imperialism and rejected dollar diplomacy. He hoped to establish benevolent relations with other nations and wanted the United States to serve as a force for good in the world. However, in 1913, the United States landed marines in Nicaragua to ensure that its choice for Nicaraguan president would remain in power. The Wilson administration then drew up a treaty with Nicaragua that reduced the country to virtual dependency. In addition, U.S. troops occupied Haiti in 1915 and the Dominican Republic in 1916. American business interests continued to prevail in Latin America. Finally, Wilson came close to involving the United States in a war with Mexico. In 1913, two years after the Mexican Revolution, Mexicoï¿½s new president was assassinated, and a reactionary general, Victoriano Huerta, took control. Wilson refused to recognize Huertaï¿½s unjust regime. Many Mexicans who disliked Huerta, however, also resented Wilsonï¿½s intervention in Mexican affairs. Both sides were poised to fight in 1914, when a confrontation between American sailors and Huertaï¿½s forces broke out at Veracruz. Wilson accepted the mediation of Argentina, Chile, and Brazil, but then supported Francisco ï¿½Panchoï¿½ Villa, a bandit, until Villa crossed the border and massacred Americans. Wilson sent U.S. troops to pursue Villa in 1916. The United States withdrew in 1917, which ended American involvement but left a legacy of distrust in Mexico and Latin America. Historians debate the impact of progressivism at home and abroad. Some criticize the progressivesï¿½ desire for order and control, their reluctance to criticize capitalism, and progressivismï¿½s coercive or restrictive side. Big business, critics contend, eluded progressive regulations. Other historians applaud progressive initiatives and find in them precedents for New Deal measures of the 1930s. According to more favorable interpretations, progressivism expanded democracy, challenged the close alliance of government and business, considered the public interest, and protected some of the more vulnerable Americans. Above all, progressivism changed American attitudes toward the power of government. In 1917 Americans turned their attention from domestic concerns to foreign affairs as the United States became involved in World War I. XVIII. America and World War I World War I broke out in Europe in the summer of 1914. The war set Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers) against the United Kingdom, France, and Russia (the Allied Powers), and eventually involved many more nations. The United States declared itself a neutral nation, but neutrality proved elusive. For three years, as Europeans faced war on an unprecedented scale, the neutrality so popular in the United States gradually slipped away. At the outset, Germany and Britain each sought to terminate U.S. trade with the other. Exploiting its naval advantage, Britain gained the upper hand and almost ended U.S. trade with Germany. Americans protested this interference, but when German submarines, known as U-boats, began to use unrestricted submarine warfare in 1915, American public opinion turned against Germany. Then on May 7, 1915, a German submarine attacked a British passenger liner, the Lusitania, killing more than a thousand people, including 128 Americans. Washington condemned the attacks, which led to a brief respite in German attacks. In the presidential race of 1916, President Wilson won reelection on the campaign slogan ï¿½He Kept Us Out of War.ï¿½ In February 1917, however, Germany reinstated the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare. Ending diplomatic ties with Germany, Wilson still tried to keep the United States out of the war. But Germany continued its attacks, and the United States found out about a secret message, the Zimmermann telegram, in which the German government proposed an alliance with Mexico and discussed the possibility of Mexico regaining territory lost to the United States. Resentful that Germany was sinking American ships and making overtures to Mexico, the United States declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917. The United States entered World War I with divided sentiments. Americans debated both whether to fight the war and which side to support. Since the outbreak of war in Europe, pacifists and reformers had deplored the drift toward conflict; financiers and industrialists, however, promoted patriotism, ï¿½preparedness,ï¿½ and arms buildup. Some Americans felt affinities for France and Britain, but millions of citizens were of German origin. To many Americans, finally, the war in Europe seemed a distant conflict that reflected tangled European rivalries, not U.S. concerns. But German aggression steered public opinion from neutrality to engagement, and the United States prepared for combat. The Selective Service Act, passed in May 1917, helped gradually increase the size of Americaï¿½s armed forces from 200,000 people to almost 4 million at the warï¿½s end. A. Over There By the spring of 1917, World War I had become a deadly war of attrition. Russia left the war that year, and after the Bolsheviks assumed power in the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russia signed a separate peace treaty with Germany in March 1918. Allied prospects looked grim. With Russia out of the picture, Germany shifted its troops to the western front, a north-south line across France, where a gruesome stalemate had developed. Dug into trenches and shelled by artillery, great armies bogged down in a form of siege warfare. In June 1917 the American Expeditionary Force, led by General John J. Pershing, began to arrive in France. By March 1918, when Germany began a massive offensive, much of the American force was in place. Reluctantly, the United States allowed American troops to be integrated into Allied units under British and French commanders. These reinforcements bolstered a much-weakened defense, and the Allies stopped the German assault. In September 1918 American troops participated in a counteroffensive in the area around Verdun. The Saint-Mihiel campaign succeeded, as did the Allied Meuse-Argonne offensive, where both the Allies and the Germans suffered heavy casualties. Facing what seemed to be a limitless influx of American troops, Germany was forced to consider ending the war. The Central Powers surrendered, signing an armistice on November 11, 1918. Only the challenge of a peace treaty remained. American manpower tipped the scales in the Alliesï¿½ favor. At war for only 19 months, the United States suffered relatively light casualties. The United States lost about 112,000 people, many to disease, including a treacherous influenza epidemic in 1918 that claimed 20 million lives worldwide. European losses were far higher. According to some estimates, World War I killed close to 10 million military personnel. B. Over Here World War I wrought significant changes on the American home front. First, the war created labor shortages. Thousands of African Americans left the South for jobs in Northern steel mills, munitions plants, and stockyards. The great migration of the World War I era established large black communities in Northern cities such as New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. The influx, however, provoked racial tensions and race riots in some cities, including East Saint Louis, Illinois, in July 1917 and Chicago in July 1919. Labor shortages provided a variety of jobs for women, who became streetcar conductors, railroad workers, and shipbuilders. Women also volunteered for the war effort and sold war bonds. Women mustered support for woman suffrage, a cause that finally achieved its long-sought goal. The 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote, triumphed in Congress in 1919 and was ratified by the states in 1920. The war greatly increased the responsibilities of the federal government. New government agencies relied mainly on persuasion and voluntary compliance. The War Industries Board urged manufacturers to use mass production techniques and increase efficiency. The Railroad Administration regulated rail traffic; the Fuel Administration monitored coal supplies and regulated gasoline. The National War Labor Board sought to resolve thousands of disputes between management and labor that resulted from stagnant wages coupled with inflation. The Food Administration urged families to observe ï¿½meatless Mondays,ï¿½ ï¿½wheatless Wednesdays,ï¿½ and other measures to help the war effort. The Committee on Public Information organized thousands of public speakers (ï¿½four-minute menï¿½) to deliver patriotic addresses; the organization also produced 75 million pamphlets promoting the war effort. Finally, to finance the war, the United States developed new ways to generate revenue. The federal government increased income and excise taxes, instituted a war-profit tax, and sold war bonds. War pressures evoked hostility and suspicion in the United States. Antagonism toward immigrants, especially those of German descent, grew. Schools stopped teaching German. Hamburgers and sauerkraut became ï¿½Salisbury steakï¿½ and ï¿½liberty cabbage.ï¿½ Fear of sabotage spurred Congress to pass the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918. The laws imposed fines, jail sentences, or both for interfering with the draft, obstructing the sale of war bonds, or saying anything disloyal, profane, or abusive about the government or the war effort. These repressive laws, upheld by the Supreme Court, resulted in 6,000 arrests and 1,500 convictions for antiwar activities. The laws targeted people on the left, such as Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs, who was imprisoned, and Emma Goldman, who was jailed and deported. The arrests of 1917 reflected wartime concerns about dissent as well as hostility toward the Russian Revolution of 1917. C. Treaty of Versailles Even before the war ended, President Wilson offered a plan for world peace, the Fourteen Points. The plan, announced to Congress on January 8, 1918, would abolish secret diplomacy, guarantee freedom of the seas, remove international trade barriers wherever possible, reduce arms, and consider the interests of colonized peoples. Eight more points addressed changes to specific boundaries based on the principle of self-determination, or the right of nations to shape their own destinies. Finally, Wilsonï¿½s points called for a League of Nations to arbitrate disputes between nations and usher in an epoch of peace. High hopes for the Fourteen Points prevailed at the time of the armistice but faded by June 1919, when emissaries of the Big Four (the United States, France, Britain, and Italy) gathered at Versailles to determine the conditions of peace. At Versailles, the Allies ignored most of Wilsonï¿½s goals. During postwar negotiations, including the Treaty of Versailles, they redrew the map of Europe and established nine new nations, including Poland, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia. Boundaries of other nations were shifted, and out of the Ottoman Empire, which fought on the side of the Central Powers during the war, four areas were carved: Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine. These areas were given to France and Britain as mandates, or temporary colonies. The Treaty of Versailles demilitarized Germany, which lost its air force and much of its army and navy. Germany also lost its colonies and had to return to France the Alsace-Lorraine area, which Germany had annexed in 1871. Finally, forced to admit blame for the war, Germany was burdened with high reparations for war damages. A spirit of vindictiveness among the Allies invalidated Wilsonï¿½s goals and led to a number of defects in the Treaty of Versailles. First, Germanyï¿½s humiliation led to resentment, which festered over the next decades. Second, the Big Four paid no attention to the interests of the new Bolshevik government in Russia, which the treaty antagonized. Third, in some instances, the treaty ignored the demands of colonized peoples to govern themselves. The Treaty of Versailles did include a charter or covenant for the League of Nations, a point that embodied Woodrow Wilsonï¿½s highest goal for world peace. However, the U.S. Senate rejected the League of Nations and the entire treaty. Republicans who favored isolation (the ï¿½irreconcilablesï¿½) spurned the treaty. Conservative Republicans, led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, disliked the treatyï¿½s provisions for joint military actions against aggressors, even though such action was voluntary. They demanded modifications, but Wilson refused to compromise. Overestimating his prestige and refusing to consider Republican reservations, Wilson remained adamant. Uncompromising and exhausted, the president campaigned for the treaty until he collapsed with a stroke. The United States never joined the League of Nations, started in 1919, and signed a separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921. Ironically, after leading America to victory in the war, President Wilson endured two significant disappointments. First he compromised at Versailles; for instance, he agreed to the Allied diplomatsï¿½ desire for high reparations against Germany. Second, Wilson refused to compromise with the Senate, and thus he was unable to accomplish his idealistic goals. His vision of spreading democracy around the world and of ensuring world peace became a casualty of the peace process. World War I left many legacies. The American experience of the Great War, albeit brief and distant from the nationï¿½s shores, showed the United States how effectively it could mobilize its industrial might and hold its own in world affairs. However, the war left Germany shackled by the armistice and angered by the peace treaty. Postwar Germany faced depression, unemployment, and desperate economic conditions, which gave rise to fascist leadership in the 1930s. In addition, each of the areas carved out by the Treaty of Versailles proved, in one way or another, to be trouble spots in the decades ahead. In the United States, fears of radicalism, horror at Soviet bolshevism, and the impact of wartime hysteria led to a second blast of attacks on radicals. In the Palmer Raids in January 1920, agents of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer arrested thousands of people in 33 cities. The postwar Red Scare abated, but suspicion of foreigners, dissenters, and nonconformists continued in the 1920s. XIX. America in a New Age World War I made the United States a world power. While European nations tried to recover from the war, the United States had overseas territories, access to markets, and plentiful raw materials. Formerly in debt to European investors, the United States began to lend money abroad. At home, the economy expanded. Assembly-line production, mass consumption, easy credit, and advertising characterized the 1920s. As profits soared, American zeal for reform waned, and business and government resumed their long-term affinity. But not all Americans enjoyed the rewards of prosperity. A mix of economic change, political conservatism, and cultural conflict made the 1920s a decade of contradictions. A. Productivity and Prosperity As war production ended, the economy dipped, but only briefly; by 1922 the nation began a spectacular spurt of growth. Auto production symbolized the new potential of industry (see Automobile Industry). Annual car sales tripled from 1916 to 1929; 9 million motorized vehicles on the road became 27 million by the end of the 1920s. At his Michigan plant, Henry Ford oversaw the making of the popular black Model T. New modes of production changed car manufacture. A moving assembly line brought interchangeable parts to workers who performed specific tasks again and again. Assembly-line techniques cut production costs, which made cars less expensive and more available to average citizens. The effect of auto production spread beyond car factories. Auto building spurred industries that made steel, glass, rubber, and petroleum. Exploration for oil led to new corporations, such as Gulf Oil and Texaco. During the 1920s domestic oil production grew by 250 percent, and oil imports rose as well. State-funded programs to build roads and highways changed the nationï¿½s landscape. Previously isolated rural areas filled with tourist cabins and gas stations. New suburbs with single-family homes on small plots of land arose at the outskirts of cities; the construction industry soared. For more information, see United States (Culture): Way of Life; Living Patterns. Finally, the car industry pioneered new ways to distribute and sell products. Auto companies sold cars through networks of dealers to customers who often used a new type of credit, the installment plan. With this plan, the purchaser made an initial payment, or down payment, and then agreed to pay the balance of the purchase price in a series of payments. Cars were just one growth sector of the 1920s. Energy use tripled, and electricity reached 60 percent of American homes. Industry produced new home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, and vacuum cleaners. As incomes rose, families spent larger portions of their incomes to buy these durable goods; items previously considered luxuries now became necessities. Chain stores, such as A&P, put local retailers out of business; canned goods and commercial breads replaced homemade products. The young advertising industry, which had appeared in the late 19th century, fed a desire for consumer goods. Extensive credit abetted this desire, known as consumerism. During the decade, American corporations became larger. Some grew by securing markets abroad, as did the United Fruit Company in Latin America. Others grew through consolidation. Large companies came to dominate many industries. By the end of the 1920s, 100 corporations controlled nearly half the nationï¿½s business. The vast growth of business in the 1920s transformed many areas of life, but failed to distribute benefits equally. Industrial workers did not reap the profit of increased productivity. Wages rose but not as fast as prices. Unions competed with company unions (employer-established organizations) and battled the National Association of Manufacturers, which sought to break union power. Union membership dropped from about 5 million in 1920 to 3.4 million in 1930. Agriculture suffered as well. Markets for farm products declined after army purchases ended and European farming revived. Farmers produced more, and prices continued to fall. The annual income of farmers declined, and they fell further into debt. Like many other Americans, rural families became mired in a web of credit and consumption. B. Mass Culture Leisure industries, too, turned to mass production. Amusements of bygone daysï¿½amateur theatricals, sleigh ridesï¿½gave way to new industries in entertainment and culture. Rural or urban, Americans nationwide read mass-circulation magazines, full of advertising, such as The Saturday Evening Post, Readerï¿½s Digest, or The Ladiesï¿½ Home Journal. They listened on the radio to the same popular music, comedy shows, and commercials, broadcast by new radio networks such as National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). Motion pictures gained vast urban audiences, and in 1927 Al Jolsonï¿½s film The Jazz Singer introduced sound to movie audiences. Fans followed the careers of movie stars in film magazines. The press also tracked other celebrities, such as Charles Lindbergh, who flew the first transatlantic flight in 1927, or novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald and his wife, Zelda, who epitomized an icon of the 1920s, the flapper. Young and uninhibited, the flapper represented much of what typified the Jazz Age of the 1920sï¿½youthful rebellion, female independence, exhibitionism, competitiveness, and consumerism. Although a symbol of liberation, the flapper was in fact the ultimate consumer, dependent on a variety of products. With her bobbed hairdos, short skirts, makeup, and cigarettes, she supported growth industries of the 1920sï¿½the beauty parlor, the ready-made clothing industry, cosmetic manufacture, and tobacco production. Consumerism linked the carefree, adventurous mood of the Jazz Age with the dominance of large corporations and their conservative values. Among African Americans, the great migration of Southern blacks to Northern jobs during the war created strong African American communities. During the 1920s these communities were home to cultural revivals, such as the Harlem Renaissance, where art, music, and literature flourished. The ï¿½New Negro,ï¿½ a term used by critic and historian Alain Locke, celebrated African American heritage and racial identity. As black creativity flourished, African Americans began to raise their voices for equality. Interest also arose in black nationalism. Some African Americans became followers of Jamaican black nationalist Marcus Garvey, who urged racial pride, formed the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), and led a ï¿½Back to Africaï¿½ movement. At its height the UNIA claimed more than 2 million members. It declined after Garvey was convicted of fraud and deported to Jamaica in 1927. C. Political Conservatism Many Americans of the 1920s endorsed conservative values in politics and economics. Republican presidents stood for these values, or what President Warren G. Harding called ï¿½normalcy ï¿½ a regular steady order of things.ï¿½ Under presidents Harding and Calvin Coolidge, tariffs reached new highs, income taxes fell for people who were most well off, and the Supreme Court upset progressive measures, such as the minimum wage and federal child labor laws. Both Harding and Coolidge tended to favor business. ï¿½The chief business of the American people is business,ï¿½ Coolidge declared. Republican presidents shared isolationist inclinations in foreign policy; the United States never joined the League of Nations. Harding and Coolidge also endorsed pacifist policies. In 1921 Harding organized the International Conference on Naval Limitation, known as the Washington Conference, a pioneering effort to reduce arms and avoid an expensive naval arms race. Attended by the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy, and other countries, the conference proposed destruction of ships and a moratorium on new construction. In 1928, under Coolidge, the United States and France cosponsored the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which renounced aggression and called for the end of war. As a practical instrument for preventing war, the treaty was useless. However, it helped to establish the 20th-century concept of war as an outlaw act by an aggressor state on a victim state. While remaining aloof from international concerns, the United States began to close its doors to immigrants. Antiforeign sentiment fueled demands for immigration limits. Protests against unrestricted immigration came from organized labor, which feared the loss of jobs to newcomers, and from patriotic organizations, which feared foreign radicalism. Efforts to limit immigration led to the National Origins Act, passed by Congress in 1924. The law set an annual quota on immigration and limited the number of newcomers from each country to the proportion of people of that national origin in the 1890 population. (In 1929 the basis for the quotas was revised to the 1920 population.) The law discriminated against the most recent newcomers, southern and eastern Europeans, and excluded Asian immigrants almost entirely. Latin American immigration, however, was unlimited. Immigration from Mexico surged in the 1920s, abetted by the Mexican Revolution and by the need of southwestern businesses for agricultural labor. More than 1 million Mexicans (10 percent of the Mexican population) arrived in the United States from 1910 to 1930. What happened to more critical voices in the conservative era? Radical political activism waned, dimmed by the Red Scare of 1919. Social criticism appeared in literary magazines such as The Masses; in newspapers such as the Baltimore Sun, where journalist H. L. Mencken published biting commentary; and in popular fiction such as Sinclair Lewisï¿½s novel Babbitt (1922), an assault on provincial values. Some intellectuals fled the United States and settled in Paris. Progressivism faded. Its most enduring vestige, the post-suffrage womenï¿½s movement, faced its own problems. Enthused by winning the right to vote, women of the 1920s pursued political roles as voters, candidates, national committeewomen, and activists in voluntary groups. But the womenï¿½s movement still encountered obstacles. Womenï¿½s organizations did not agree on supporting the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), first proposed in 1923. The amendment would have made illegal all forms of discrimination based on sex. The National Womanï¿½s Party, led by Alice Paul, pressed for passage of the amendment, but most womenï¿½s organizations, including the newly formed League of Women Voters, did not support it, and the ERA made no progress. Women reformers also suffered setbacks in national politics. The Sheppard-Towner Act of 1921, a pioneering health-care measure aimed at women voters, provided matching funds for prenatal and baby-care centers in rural areas, but Congress repealed the law in 1929. Other important goals of women reformers, such as a federal child labor law and the minimum wage, failed as well. D. Political Conflicts Political and cultural debates divided Americans of the 1920s. Major issues of the decade reflected a split between urban and rural, modern and traditional, radical and reactionary. Nativist, anti-radical sentiments emerged in a 1921 trial, the Sacco-Vanzetti Case. Two anarchists, Italian immigrants, were tried and convicted of murder. Many believed that the menï¿½s immigrant origins and political beliefs played a part in their convictions. The case evoked protests from socialists, radicals, and prominent intellectuals, and remained a source of conflict for decades. Nativism also inspired the revival of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s. The new Klan targeted Catholics, Jews, and immigrants, as well as African Americans. It thrived in the Midwest and Far West, as well as in the South. With its womenï¿½s auxiliary, the Women of the Klan, it raised millions of dollars and wielded political power in several states, including Oklahoma, Oregon, and Indiana. Conflict also arose over religious fundamentalism. In 1925 John T. Scopes, a Tennessee schoolteacher, was tried for breaking a state law that prohibited the teaching of the theory of evolution in schools. This theory, its foes said, contradicted the account of creation in the Bible. Scopes and the American Civil Liberties Union believed that the law violated freedom of speech, an argument made by Scopesï¿½s lawyer, Clarence Darrow. Reporters converged on Dayton, Tennessee, to witness the courtroom battle between traditionalism and modernism. Scopes was convicted, although the verdict was later reversed on technical grounds (see Scopes Trial). The battle over Prohibition, finally, symbolized the divisive spirit of the 1920s. ï¿½Drysï¿½ favored Prohibition and ï¿½wetsï¿½ opposed it. The Volstead Act of 1919, which enforced the 18th Amendment, prohibited the manufacture, sale, or distribution of alcoholic beverages, but was riddled with loopholes. Organized crime entered the liquor business; rival gangs and networks of speakeasies induced a crime wave. By the end of the 1920s, Prohibition was discredited, and it was repealed in 1933. Meanwhile, the conflict between ï¿½wetsï¿½ and ï¿½drysï¿½ played a role in the presidential election of 1928. The Democratic candidate, Al Smith, governor of New York, was a machine politician and a ï¿½wet,ï¿½ who represented urban, immigrant constituencies. Republican Herbert Hoover, an engineer from Iowa, was a ï¿½dryï¿½ who represented rural, traditional constituencies. A foe of government intervention in the economy, Hoover envisioned a rational economic order in which corporate leaders acted for the public good. Promising voters ï¿½a chicken for every pot and a car in every garage,ï¿½ Hoover won a substantial majority of votes, except in the nationï¿½s largest cities. But he had the misfortune to assume office just before the nation encountered economic collapse. XX. The Great Depression In 1929, Hooverï¿½s first year as president, the prosperity of the 1920s capsized. Stock prices climbed to unprecedented heights, as investors speculated in the stock market. The speculative binge, in which people bought and sold stocks for higher and higher prices, was fueled by easy credit, which allowed purchasers to buy stock ï¿½on margin.ï¿½ If the price of the stock increased, the purchaser made money; if the price fell, the purchaser had to find the money elsewhere to pay off the loan. More and more investors poured money into stocks. Unrestrained buying and selling fed an upward spiral that ended on October 29, 1929, when the stock market collapsed. The great crash shattered the economy. Fortunes vanished in days. Consumers stopped buying, businesses retrenched, banks cut off credit, and a downward spiral began. The Great Depression that began in 1929 would last through the 1930s. A. Causes of the Depression The stock market crash of 1929 did not cause the Great Depression, but rather signaled its onset. The crash and the depression sprang from the same cause: the weaknesses of the 1920s economy. An unequal distribution of income meant that working people and farmers lacked money to buy durable goods. Crisis prevailed in the agricultural sector, where farmers produced more than they could sell, and prices fell. Easy credit, meanwhile, left a debt burden that remained unpayable. The crisis also crossed the Atlantic. The economies of European nations collapsed because they were weakened by war debts and by trade imbalances; most spent more on importing goods from the United States than they earned by exporting. European nations amassed debts to the United States that they were unable to repay. The prosperity of the 1920s rested on a weak foundation. B. Effects of the Depression After the crash, the economy raced downhill. Unemployment, which affected 3 percent of the labor force in 1929, reached 25 percent in 1933. With one out of four Americans out of work, people stopped spending money. Demand for durable goodsï¿½housing, cars, appliancesï¿½and luxuries declined, and production faltered. By 1932 the gross national product had been cut by almost one-third. By 1933 over 5,000 banks had failed, and more than 85,000 businesses had gone under. The effects of the Great Depression were devastating. People with jobs had to accept pay cuts, and they were lucky to have work. In cities, the destitute slept in shanties that sprang up in parks or on the outskirts of town, wrapped up in ï¿½Hoover blanketsï¿½ (newspapers) and displaying ï¿½Hoover flagsï¿½ (empty pockets). On the Great Plains, exhausted land combined with drought to ravage farms, destroy crops, and turn agricultural families into migrant workers. An area encompassing parts of Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado became known as the Dust Bowl. Family life changed drastically. Marriage and birth rates fell, and divorce rates rose. Unemployed breadwinners grew depressed; housewives struggled to make ends meet; young adults relinquished career plans and took whatever work they could get. C. Relief Efforts Modest local welfare resources and charities barely made a dent in the misery. In African American communities, unemployment was disproportionately severe. In Chicago in 1931, 43.5 percent of black men and 58.5 percent of black women were out of work, compared with 29.7 percent of white men and 19.1 percent of white women. As jobs vanished in the Southwest, the federal government urged Mexican Americans to return to Mexico; some 300,000 left or were deported. On some occasions, the depression called up a spirit of unity and cooperation. Families shared their resources with relatives, and voluntary agencies offered what aid they could. Invariably, the experience of living through the depression changed attitudes for life. ï¿½There was one major goal in my life,ï¿½ one woman recalled, ï¿½and that was never to be poor again.ï¿½ President Hoover, known as a progressive and humanitarian, responded to the calamity with modest remedies. At first, he proposed voluntary agreements by businesses to maintain production and employment; he also started small public works programs. Hoover feared that if the government handed out welfare to people in need, it would weaken the moral fiber of America. Hoover finally sponsored a measure to help businesses in the hope that benefits would ï¿½trickle downï¿½ to others. With his support, Congress created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932 that gave generous loans to banks, insurance companies, and railroads. But the downward spiral of price decline and job loss continued. Hooverï¿½s measures were too few, too limited, and too late. Hooverï¿½s reputation suffered further when war veterans marched on Washington to demand that Congress pay the bonuses it owed them (see Bonus March). When legislators refused, much of the Bonus Army dispersed, but a segment camped out near the Capitol and refused to leave. Hoover ordered the army under General Douglas MacArthur to evict the marchers and burn their settlement. This harsh response to veterans injured Hoover in the landmark election of 1932, where he faced Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt was New Yorkï¿½s governor and a consummate politician. He defeated Hoover, winning 57 percent of the popular vote; the Democrats also took control of both houses of Congress. Voters gave Roosevelt a mandate for action. D. The New Deal Roosevelt was a progressive who had been a supporter of Woodrow Wilson. He believed in active government and experimentation. His approach to the Great Depression changed the role of the U.S. government by increasing its power in unprecedented ways. Roosevelt gathered a ï¿½brain trustï¿½ï¿½professors, lawyers, business leaders, and social welfare proponentsï¿½to advise him, especially on economic issues. He was also influenced by his cabinet, which included Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, Secretary of State Cordell Hull, Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace, and Labor Secretary Frances Perkins, the first woman cabinet member. A final influence on Roosevelt was his wife, Eleanor, whose activist philosophy had been shaped by the womenï¿½s movement. With Eleanor Roosevelt in the White House, the disadvantaged gained an advocate. Federal officials sought her attention, pressure groups pursued her, journalists followed her, and constituents admired her. D.1. The First New Deal Unlike Hoover, Roosevelt took strong steps immediately to battle the depression and stimulate the U.S. economy. When he assumed office in 1933, a banking crisis was in progress. More than 5,000 banks had failed, and many governors had curtailed banking operations. Roosevelt closed the banks, and Congress passed an Emergency Banking Act, which saved banks in sounder financial shape. After the ï¿½bank holiday,ï¿½ people gradually regained confidence in banks. The United States also abandoned the gold standard and put more money into circulation. Next, in what was known as the First Hundred Days, Roosevelt and the Democratic Congress enacted a slew of measures to combat the depression and prevent its recurrence. The measures of 1933 included: the Agricultural Adjustment Act, which paid farmers to curtail their production (later upset by the Supreme Court); the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), which established codes of fair competition to regulate industry and guaranteed laborï¿½s right to collective bargaining (again, the law was overturned in 1935); and the Public Works Administration, which constructed roads, dams, and public buildings. Other acts of the First Hundred Days created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which insured deposits in banks in case banks failed, and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which provided electric power to areas of the southeast. The government also set up work camps for the unemployed, refinanced mortgages, provided emergency relief, and regulated the stock market through the Securities and Exchange Commission. The emergency measures raised employment, but the New Deal evoked angry criticism. On the right, conservative business leaders and politicians assailed New Deal programs. In popular radio sermons, Father Charles Coughlin, once a supporter of Roosevelt, denounced the administrationï¿½s policies and revealed nativist, anti-Semitic views. The Supreme Court, appointed mainly by Republicans, was another staunch foe; it struck down many pieces of New Deal legislation, such as the NIRA, farm mortgage relief, and the minimum wage. On the left, critics believed that Roosevelt had not done enough and endorsed stronger measures. In California, senior citizens rallied behind the Townsend Plan, which urged that everyone over the age of 65 receive $200 a month from the government, provided that each recipient spend the entire amount to boost the economy. The planï¿½s popularity mobilized support for old-age pensions. In Louisiana, Democratic governor Huey Long campaigned for ï¿½soak the richï¿½ tax schemes that would outlaw large incomes and inheritances, and for social programs that would ï¿½Share Our Wealthï¿½ among all people. The growing Communist Party, finally, urged people to repudiate capitalism and to allow the government to take over the means of production. D.2. The Second New Deal In 1935 the New Deal veered left with further efforts to promote social welfare and exert federal control over business enterprise. The Securities and Exchange Commission Act of 1934 enforced honesty in issuing corporate securities. The Wagner Act of 1935 recognized employeesï¿½ bargaining rights and established a National Labor Relations Board to oversee relations between employers and employees. Finally, the Work Projects Administration put unemployed people to work on short-term public projects. New Dealers also enacted a series of measures to regulate utilities, to increase taxes on corporations and citizens with high incomes, and to empower the Federal Reserve Board to regulate the economy. Finally, the administration proposed the Social Security Act of 1935, which established a system of unemployment insurance, old-age pensions, and federal grants to the states to aid the aged, the handicapped, and families with dependent children. Largely an insurance program, Social Security was the keystone of welfare policy for decades to come. In the election of 1936, Roosevelt defeated his Republican opponent, Alf Landon, in a landslide and carried every state but Maine and Vermont. The election confirmed that many Americans accepted and supported the New Deal. It also showed that the constituency of the Democratic Party had changed. The vast Democratic majority reflected an amalgam of groups called the New Deal coalition, which included organized labor, farmers, new immigrants, city dwellers, African Americans (who switched their allegiance from the party of Lincoln), and, finally, white Southern Democrats. At the start of Rooseveltï¿½s second term in 1937, some progress had been made against the depression; the gross output of goods and services reached their 1929 level. But there were difficulties in store for the New Deal. Republicans resented the administrationï¿½s efforts to control the economy. Unemployment was still high, and per capita income was less than in 1929. The economy plunged again in the so-called Roosevelt recession of 1937, caused by reduced government spending and the new social security taxes. To battle the recession and to stimulate the economy, Roosevelt initiated a spending program. In 1938 New Dealers passed a Second Agricultural Adjustment Act to replace the first one that the Supreme Court had overturned and the Wagner Housing Act, which funded construction of low-cost housing. Meanwhile, the president battled the Supreme Court, which had upset several New Deal measures and was ready to dismantle more. Roosevelt attacked indirectly; he asked Congress for power to appoint an additional justice for each sitting justice over the age of 70. The proposal threatened the Courtï¿½s conservative majority. In a blow to Roosevelt, Congress rejected the so-called court-packing bill. But the Supreme Court changed its stance and began to approve some New Deal measures, such as the minimum wage in 1937. During Rooseveltï¿½s second term, the labor movement made gains. Industrial unionism (unions that welcomed all the workers in an industry) now challenged the older brand of craft unionism (skilled workers in a particular trade), represented by the American Federation of Labor (AFL). In 1936 John L. Lewis, head of the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA), left the AFL to organize a labor federation based on industrial unionism. He founded the Committee for Industrial Organizations, later known as the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Industrial unionism spurred a major sit-down strike in the auto industry in 1937. Next, violence erupted at a steelworkersï¿½ strike in Chicago, where police killed ten strikers. The auto and steel industries, however, agreed to bargain collectively with workers, and these labor victories led to a surge in union membership. Finally, in 1938 Congress passed another landmark law, the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). It established federal standards for maximum hours and minimum wages for workers in industries involved in interstate commerce. At first the law affected only a minority of workers, but gradually Congress extended it so that by 1970 it covered most employees. In the 1930s, however, many New Deal measures, such as labor laws, had a limited impact. African Americans, for instance, failed to benefit from FLSA because they were engaged mainly in nonindustrial jobs, such as agricultural or domestic work, which were not covered by the law. New Deal relief programs also sometimes discriminated by race. The New Deal never ended the Great Depression, which continued until the United Statesï¿½ entry into World War II revived the economy. As late as 1940, 15 percent of the labor force was unemployed. Nor did the New Deal redistribute wealth or challenge capitalism. But in the short run, the New Deal averted disaster and alleviated misery, and its long-term effects were profound. One long-term effect was an activist state that extended the powers of government in unprecedented ways, particularly in the economy. The state now moderated wild swings of the business cycle, stood between the citizen and sudden destitution, and recognized a level of subsistence beneath which citizens should not fall. The New Deal also realigned political loyalties. A major legacy was the Democratic coalition, the diverse groups of voters, including African Americans, union members, farmers, and immigrants, who backed Roosevelt and continued to vote Democratic. The New Dealï¿½s most important legacy was a new political philosophy, liberalism, to which many Americans remained attached for decades to come. By the end of the 1930s, World War II had broken out in Europe, and the country began to shift its focus from domestic reform to foreign policy and defense. XXI. America and World War II The roots of World War II can be found in the debris of World War I, which left legacies of anger and hardship. After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles imposed large reparations on Germany. The reparations and wartime destruction caused severe economic problems in postwar Germany. Other European nations grappled with war debts, hunger, homelessness, and fear of economic collapse. Under these circumstances, totalitarianism spread. From 1922 to 1953 dictator Joseph Stalin controlled the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which was formed after the Russians Revolution of 1917. The USSR became a police state that suppressed opponents and deprived citizens of rights. Elsewhere, militarism and expansionism gained ground. In the 1930s the Japanese military won influence, and Japan began to expand its territory. In 1931 Japan attacked the Chinese province of Manchuria. Condemned by the League of Nations for its attack, Japan quit the league. Italy turned to fascism, a strong centralized government headed by a powerful dictator and rooted in nationalism. Fascist leader Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy in 1922. In Germany, the Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, came to power (see National Socialism). Hitler believed that Aryans were a master race destined for world rule. He sought to form a great German empireï¿½one that gave the German people, in his words, ï¿½the land and the soil to which they are entitled on this earth.ï¿½ Global depression in the 1930s helped bring the Nazis to power. In 1932, with 6 million Germans out of work, the Nazis won more votes than any other party, and in 1933, just as Roosevelt took office, Hitler became the German prime minister. Like Japan, Germany quit the League of Nations. Germany soon revealed its expansionist goals. In 1933 Hitler began to build up the German military, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1936 he sent troops into the Rhineland, a demilitarized region in western Germany. The same year, Hitler and Mussolini signed an alliance, the Rome-Berlin Axis Pact. In 1940 the alliance was extended to include Japan. The three nationsï¿½Germany, Italy, and Japanï¿½became the Axis Powers. The start of World War II was near. A. Isolationism vs. Internationalism Most Americans of the 1930s recoiled from involvement in the European conflict; they favored U.S. isolationism, and many supported pacifism. Some believed that ï¿½merchants of deathï¿½ (bankers and arms dealers) had lured the United States into World War I. The Roosevelt administration, too, tried to maintain friendly foreign relations. Roosevelt recognized the USSR in 1933 and set up a Good Neighbor Policy with Latin America. No state, the United States said, had the right to intervene in the affairs of another. Roosevelt also made progress toward lower tariffs and free trade. In 1935 and 1936, Congress passed a group of neutrality acts to keep the United States out of Europeï¿½s troubles. The first two acts banned arms sales or loans to nations at war. The third act, a response to the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), extended the ban to nations split by civil war. But as conflict spread abroad, Americans discarded their neutral stance. Many opposed fascist forces in the civil war in Spain. There, democratic armies fell to dictator Francisco Franco, who was supported by Hitler and Mussolini. Japan launched a new attack on China in July 1937 to obtain more Chinese territory. It quickly overran northern China. Hitler marched through Europe. Germany in 1938 annexed Austria and then seized Czechoslovakia without resistance. In August 1939 Hitler and Stalin signed a nonaggression pact. On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland, which led Britain and France to declare war on Germany. Americans increasingly doubted that the United States could avoid becoming involved. In September 1939 Roosevelt called Congress into special session to revise the neutrality acts. The president offered a plan known as cash-and-carry, which permitted Americans to sell munitions to nations able to pay for them in cash and able to carry them away in their own ships. Isolationists objected, but Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939, which legitimized cash-and-carry and allowed Britain and France to buy American arms. The war in Europe, meanwhile, grew more dire for the Allies. In June 1940 Germany conquered France, and British troops that had been in France retreated across the English Channel. Then German bombers began to pound Britain. In June 1940 the United States started supplying Britain with ï¿½all aid short of warï¿½ to help the British defend themselves against Germany. Roosevelt asked Congress for more funds for national defense. Congress complied and began the first American peacetime military draft, the Selective Training and Service Act, under which more than 16 million men were registered. After the 1940 election, Roosevelt urged that the United States become ï¿½the great arsenal of democracy.ï¿½ In 1941 he and British prime minister Winston Churchill announced the Atlantic Charter, which set forth Allied goals for World War II and the postwar period. The two nations pledged to respect ï¿½the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will liveï¿½ and promised a free world without war ï¿½after the final destruction of Nazi tyranny.ï¿½ Isolationists criticized each move towards war; however, the United States was still not actually at war. In 1941 the conflict worsened. Despite the nonaggression pact, German armies invaded the USSR. Meanwhile, as Japan continued to invade areas in Asia, U.S. relations with Japan crumbled. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked a U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The next day it attacked the main American base in the Philippines. In response, the United States declared war on Japan, although not on Germany; Hitler acted first and declared war on the United States. The United States committed itself to fighting the Axis powers as an ally of Britain and France. B. The Nation at War Even before Pearl Harbor, the American government had begun to mobilize for war. After the attack, the United States focused its attention on the war effort. World War II greatly increased the power of the federal government, which mushroomed in size and power. The federal budget skyrocketed, and the number of federal civilian employees tripled. The war also made the United States a military and economic world power. The armed forces expanded as volunteers and draftees enrolled, growing to almost 12 million men and 260,000 women by 1945. Roosevelt formed the Joint Chiefs of Staff, a military advisory group, to manage the huge military effort. New federal agencies multiplied. The Office of Strategic Services gathered intelligence and conducted espionage, the War Production Board distributed manufacturing contracts and curtailed manufacture of civilian goods, and the War Manpower Commission supervised war industry, agriculture, and the military. Other wartime agencies resolved disputes between workers and management; battled inflation, set price controls, and imposed rations on scarce items; turned out propaganda; and oversaw broadcasting and publishing. As the United States moved to a wartime economy, the depression ended, and the U.S. economy came to life. Industry swiftly shifted to war production, automakers began turning out tanks and planes, and the United States became the worldï¿½s largest weapons manufacturer. New industries emerged, such as synthetic rubber, which compensated for the loss of rubber supplies when Japan seized the Dutch East Indies and Malaya. The war economy brought new opportunities. Americans experienced virtually full employment, longer work weeks, and (despite wage controls) higher earnings. Unions gained members and negotiated unprecedented benefits. Farmers prospered, too. Crop prices rose, production increased, and farm income tripled. Labor scarcity drew women into the war economy. During the depression, the federal government had urged women to cede jobs to male breadwinners. However, when the war began, it sought women to work in war production. More than 6 million women entered the work force in wartime; womenï¿½s share of the labor force leaped from 25 percent in 1940 to 35 percent in 1945. Three-quarters of the new women workers were married, a majority were over 35, and over a third had children under 14. Many women held untraditional jobs in the well-paid blue collar sectorï¿½in shipyards and in airplane plants, as welders and crane operators. Women found new options in civilian vocations and professions, too. Despite womenï¿½s gains in the workplace, many people retained traditional convictions that women should not work outside the home. Government propaganda promoted womenï¿½s war work as only a temporary response to an emergency. Members of minorities who had been out of jobs in the 1930s also found work in the war economy. Hundreds of thousands of African Americans migrated from the South to Northern industrial cities to work in war industries. More than 1 million black people served in the armed forces in segregated units; the government ended its policy of excluding blacks from combat. As Northern black urban populations grew, racial violence sometimes erupted, as in the Detroit race riots of June 1943. African Americans linked the battle against Nazis abroad with the fight for racial justice at home. Membership in the NAACP increased tenfold, and another civil rights organization, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), began in 1942. Early in 1941, labor leader A. Philip Randolph met with Roosevelt administration officials to demand equal employment for blacks in industries working under federal government defense contracts. Randolph threatened to lead 100,000 African Americans in a march on Washington, D.C., to protest job discrimination. In response, Roosevelt issued a directive banning racial discrimination in federal hiring practices and established the Fair Employment Practices Commission. Like African Americans, Mexican Americans and Native Americans had more job opportunities. For all Americans, war changed the quality of life. World War II inspired hard work, cooperation, and patriotism. Citizens bought war bonds, saved scrap metal, and planted victory gardens. They coped with rationing and housing shortages. The war also caused population movement. Americans flocked to states with military bases and defense plants; 6 million migrants left for cities, many on the West Coast, where the defense industry was concentrated. School enrollment sank as teenagers took jobs or joined the armed services. People became more concerned about family life, especially about working mothers, juvenile delinquency, and unruly teenagers. The United States began to receive reports of the Holocaustï¿½the Nazi effort to exterminate all of Europeï¿½s Jewsï¿½in 1942, and the State Department recognized Hitlerï¿½s genocide by the end of that year. However, the U.S. government gave precedence to other war matters and did not found a War Refugee Board until 1944. The board aided in the rescue and relocation of surviving Nazi victims, but its effort was too weak and too late to help Europeï¿½s Jews; approximately two-thirds of the Jewish population in Europe was murdered during the war. In the United States, civil liberties were casualties of the war. In February 1942 the president authorized the evacuation of all Japanese from the West Coast. The U.S. government interned around 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of them native-born U.S. citizens, in relocation centers run by the War Relocation Authority. The internment policy reflected anti-Japanese sentiment on the West Coast that was rooted in economic rivalry, racial prejudice, and fear of Japanese sabotage after Pearl Harbor. (The policy affected only the mainland United States, not Hawaii, where more than 150,000 residents of Japanese descent lived and where the United States imposed martial law for almost three years.) Forced to sell their land and homes, the West Coast internees ended up behind barbed wire in remote western areas. In 1944 the Supreme Court ruled that the evacuation and internment were constitutional in Korematsu v. United States. By then, however, the government had started to release the internees. In 1988 Congress apologized and voted to pay $20,000 compensation to each of 60,000 surviving internees. C. Global War Ever since 1941, when Roosevelt and Churchill issued the Atlantic Charter outlining war goals, the president had considered the warï¿½s conclusion. At wartime conferences, Allied leaders looked ahead to the warï¿½s end. In January 1943, for instance, Britain and the United States met at Casablanca, Morocco, and agreed not to lay down arms until certain conditions were met: Germany, Italy, and Japan had to surrender unconditionally, give up all conquered territory, and renounce the ideologies that spurred aggression. At subsequent meetings, the Allied leaders reiterated this pledge and also considered postwar occupation plans and divisions of territory. However, the Western powers and the USSR did not trust one another and disagreed on the postwar future of nations on the Soviet border. In 1944 the war in the European theater reached a climax. On the eastern front, Soviet armies had pushed Germany out of the USSR. A turning point had come in early 1943 at Stalingrad, where the German Sixth Army surrendered to Soviet troops. The USSR then moved into Poland and the Balkans, and pushed the Allies to open a second front in Western Europe. The Allied armies, under General Dwight D. Eisenhower, prepared a huge invasion of western France. On June 6, 1944, known as D-Day, thousands of vessels and aircraft carrying British, Canadian, American troops crossed the English Channel and landed on the Normandy coast of France. Allied armies, led by General George S. Patton, smashed through German lines and started for Paris. Another Allied army invaded southern France and pressed northward. On August 25, 1944, the Allied forces liberated Paris after four years of Nazi rule. The Germans continued to fight in eastern France. Hitler launched a last, desperate offensive, the Battle of the Bulge, in December 1944. The offensive failed, and German armies were forced to retreat. Allied armies entered Germany in March 1945, while the Soviets moved toward Berlin from the east. Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945. The war in Europe was over. The treacherous Pacific warï¿½a great land, air, and sea battleï¿½continued. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan conquered the Philippines, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, and Burma. Troops from the United States, Britain, Australia, and New Zealand tried to stop the Japanese advance, which reached its peak in the spring of 1942. The turning point of the Pacific war came in June 1942, at the Battle of Midway. The American victory at Midway ended the Japanese navyï¿½s hope of controlling the Pacific. The United States then began a long counteroffensive and recaptured Pacific islands that the Japanese had occupied. In October 1944 the United States finally smashed the Japanese fleet in the Battle of Leyte Gulf in the Philippines. But Japan refused to surrender. The United States wanted to end the war with unconditional surrender from Japan. It also wanted to avoid more battles like those in Iwo Jima and Okinawa, where U.S. casualties had been heavy. These factors spurred U.S. plans to use the atomic bomb. The United States in late 1941 established a secret program, which came to be known as the Manhattan Project, to develop an atomic bomb, a powerful explosive nuclear weapon. The aim of the project, directed by physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, was to build an atom bomb before Germany did. After Rooseveltï¿½s death in April 1945, Harry S. Truman became president and inherited the bomb-development program. At this point, the new weapon had two purposes. First, it could be used to force Japan to surrender. Second, possession of the bomb would enable the United States, and not the USSR, to control postwar policy. Should the United States use the bomb to finally end the war with Japan? What were American options in 1945? One option was to invade Japan, which Truman believed would cost half a million American lives. Some historians have since estimated the likely loss of life at 25,000 to 46,000, although these figures probably cover just the first stage of a projected November invasion. A second option was not to demand unconditional surrender but to negotiate with Japan. A third alternative was to let a Soviet invasion end the war against Japan, which would have diminished U.S. influence in postwar policy. Scientists who developed the bomb debated what to do with it. Some found it wrong to drop the bomb without warning and supported a demonstration explosion to convince Japan to surrender. In Oppenheimerï¿½s view, this course of action was too uncertain and risky; only the shock of using the bomb on a Japanese city would force Japan to surrender. President Truman agreed. On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. In minutes, half of the city vanished. According to U.S. estimates, 60,000 to 70,000 people were killed or missing as a result of the bomb. Deadly radiation reached over 100,000. On August 8, the USSR declared war on Japan. On August 9, the United States dropped an even more powerful bomb on Nagasaki. According to U.S. estimates, 40,000 people were killed or never found as a result of the second bomb. On September 2, the Japanese government, which had seemed ready to fight to the death, surrendered unconditionally. Should the United States have used the bomb? Critics of the decision decry the loss of life. They contend that any of the alternatives was preferable. Others assert that only the bomb, used in the way that it was, could have ended the war. Above all, they argue, it saved countless American lives. American GIs, who had been shipped halfway around the world to invade Japan after Germany surrendered, were elated. The bomb also precluded a Soviet invasion of Japan and gave the United States the upper hand in the postwar world. ï¿½Let there be no mistake about it,ï¿½ Truman later wrote, ï¿½I regarded the bomb as a military weapon and never had any doubt that it should be used.ï¿½ D. Effects of the War After World War II ended, the use of the atomic bomb changed the world in many ways. Nuclear power led to a four-decade-long arms race between the United States and the USSR, and nuclear annihilation continues to threaten the world today. At the same time, nuclear power enabled scientists to develop new sources of energy. During the war, other technological and medical advances were developed that saved lives and improved living standards in the decades ahead. Penicillin, a ï¿½miracle drugï¿½ first used to treat Allied casualties, was used at home to defeat disease, reduce infant deaths, and extend life expectancy. DDT, a colorless chemical pesticide, destroyed harmful insects and prevented typhus and malaria. New fuel mixtures extended the range of warplanes and later of civilian planes; jet propulsion planes transformed transoceanic flights and were in commercial use by the late 1950s. Other facets of technology developed during World War II included radar, semiconductors, freeze-dried food, infrared technologies, and synthetic materials. World War II ended Nazi barbarism and vanquished totalitarian power that threatened to conquer the globe. The cost of the war was immense. Allied military and civilian losses were 44 million; those of the Axis, 11 million. The United States lost almost 300,000 people in battle deaths, which was far less than the toll in Europe and Asia. At home, the war quenched isolationism, ended the depression, provided unprecedented social and economic mobility, fostered national unity, and vastly expanded the federal government. The U.S. government spent more than $300 billion on the war effort, which generated jobs and prosperity and renewed confidence. Finally, World War II made the United States the worldï¿½s leading military and economic force. With the Axis threat obliterated, the United States and the USSR became rivals for global dominance. XXII. The Cold War At the end of World War II, the United States and the USSR emerged as the worldï¿½s major powers. They also became involved in the Cold War, a state of hostility (short of direct military conflict) between the two nations. The clash had deep roots, going back to the Russian Revolutions of 1917, when after the Bolshevik victory, the United States, along with Britain, France, and Japan, sent troops to Russia to support the anti-Communists. During World War II, the United States and the USSR were tenuously allied, but they disagreed on tactics and on postwar plans. After the war, relations deteriorated. The United States and the USSR had different ideologies, and they mistrusted each other. The Soviet Union feared that the United States, the leader of the capitalist world, sought the downfall of Communism. The United States felt threatened by Soviet expansionism in Europe, Asia, and the western hemisphere. The United States and the Soviet Union disagreed over postwar policy in central and eastern Europe. The USSR wanted to demilitarize Germany to prevent another war; to control Poland to preclude any future invasion from its west; and to dominate Eastern Europe. Stalin saw Soviet domination of Eastern Europe as vital to Soviet security. Within months of the warï¿½s end, Stalin installed pro-Soviet governments in Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania. Independent Communist takeovers in Albania and Yugoslavia provided two more ï¿½satellite nations.ï¿½ Finally, the Soviets barred free elections in Poland and suppressed political opposition. In March 1946 former British prime minister Winston Churchill told a college audience in Fulton, Missouri, that a Soviet-made ï¿½Iron Curtainï¿½ had descended across Europe. President Harry S. Truman, enraged at the USSRï¿½s moves, at once assumed a combative stance. He believed that Soviet expansion into Poland and Eastern Europe violated national self-determination, or the right of people to choose their own form of government; betrayed democratic principles; and threatened the rest of Europe. In contrast to the USSR, the United States envisioned a united, peaceful Europe that included a prosperous Germany. Truman became an architect of American Cold War policy. So did State Department official George Kennan, then stationed in Moscow, who in 1946 warned of Soviet inflexibility. The United States, wrote Kennan, would have to use ï¿½vigilant containmentï¿½ to deter the USSRï¿½s inherent expansionist tendencies. The doctrine of containment became a principle of U.S. policy for the next several decades. Throughout 1946 a sequence of events drew the United States and the USSR deeper into conflict. One area of conflict was defeated Germany, which had been split after the war into four zones: American, British, French, and Soviet. Stalin sealed off East Germany as a Communist state. The two countries also encountered problems beyond Europe. In 1945 and 1946, the Soviet Union attempted to include Turkey within its sphere of influence and to gain control of the Dardanelles, the strait in Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara. Control of the Dardanelles would give the USSR a route from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. In response, Truman offered Turkey large-scale aid, and the two countries entered a close military and economic alliance. Meanwhile, an arms race began; each superpower rejected the otherï¿½s plans to control nuclear arms, and the United States established the Atomic Energy Commission to oversee nuclear development. Within the year, the Cold War was under way. A. The Truman Doctrine In 1947 the Cold War conflict centered on Greece, where a Communist-led resistance movement, supported by the USSR and Communist Yugoslavia, threatened to overthrow the Greek monarchical government, supported by Britain. When the British declared that they were unable to aid the imperiled Greek monarchists, the United States acted. In March 1947 the president announced the Truman Doctrine: The United States would help stabilize legal foreign governments threatened by revolutionary minorities and outside pressures. Congress appropriated $400 million to support anti-Communist forces in Turkey and Greece. By giving aid, the United States signaled that it would bolster regimes that claimed to face Communist threats. As George Kennan explained in an article in Foreign Affairs magazine in 1947, ï¿½containmentï¿½ meant using ï¿½unalterable counterforce at every pointï¿½ until Soviet power ended or faded. In 1947 the United States further pursued its Cold War goals in Europe, where shaky postwar economies seemed to present opportunities for Communist gains. The American Marshall Plan, an ambitious economic recovery program, sought to restore productivity and prosperity to Europe and thereby prevent Communist inroads (see European Recovery Program). The plan ultimately pumped more than $13 billion into western European economies, including occupied Germany. Stalin responded to the new U.S. policy in Europe by trying to force Britain, France, and the United States out of Berlin. The city was split between the Western powers and the USSR, although it was deep within the Soviet zone of Germany. The Soviets cut off all access to Berlin from the parts of Germany controlled by the West. Truman, however, aided West Berlin by airlifting supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949 (see Berlin Airlift). B. NATO In 1949 the United States joined 11 other nations (Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal) to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact. Members of NATO pledged that an attack on one would be an attack on all. Stalin responded by uniting the economies of Eastern Europe under the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). Then late in 1949, Americans learned that the Soviets had successfully exploded an atomic bomb in August. Finally, in February 1950, Stalin signed an alliance with the Peopleï¿½s Republic of China, a Communist state formed in 1949. The doctrine of ï¿½containmentï¿½ now faced big challenges. To bolster the containment policy, U.S. officials proposed in a secret 1950 document, NSC-68, to strengthen the nationï¿½s alliances, to quadruple defense spending, and to convince Americans to support the Cold War. Truman ordered the Atomic Energy Commission to develop a hydrogen bomb many times more destructive than an atomic bomb. In Europe, the United States supported the independence of West Germany. Finally, the United States took important steps to contain Communism in Europe and Asia. In Europe, the United States supported the rearmament of West Germany. In Asia in early 1950, the United States offered assistance to France to save Vietnam (still French Indochina) from Communist rule, and signed a peace treaty with Japan to ensure the future of American military bases there. Responding to the threats in Asia, Stalin endorsed a Communist reprisal in Korea, where fighting broke out between Communist and non-Communist forces. C. The Korean War Japan had occupied Korea during World War II. After Japanï¿½s defeat, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel into the Communist Democratic Peopleï¿½s Republic of Korea in the north and the U.S.-backed Republic of Korea in the south. After June 1949, when the United States withdrew its army, South Korea was left vulnerable. A year later, North Korean troops invaded South Korea. Truman reacted quickly. He committed U.S. forces to Korea, sent General Douglas MacArthur there to command them, and asked the United Nations to help protect South Korea from conquest. MacArthur drove the North Koreans back to the dividing line. Truman then ordered American troops to cross the 38th parallel and press on to the Chinese border. China responded in November 1950 with a huge counterattack that decimated U.S. armies. MacArthur demanded permission to invade mainland China, which Truman rejected, and then repeatedly assailed the presidentï¿½s decision. In 1951 Truman fired him for insubordination. By then, the combatants had separated near the 38th parallel. The Korean War did not officially end until 1953, when President Dwight Eisenhower imposed a precarious armistice. Meanwhile, the Korean War had brought about rearmament, hiked the U.S. military budget, and increased fears of Communist aggression abroad and at home. D. Cold War at Home As the Cold War intensified, it affected domestic affairs. Many Americans feared not only Communism around the world but also disloyalty at home. Suspicion about Communist infiltration of the government forced Truman to act. In 1947 he sought to root out subversion through the Federal Employee Loyalty Program. The program included a loyalty review board to investigate government workers and fire those found to be disloyal. The government dismissed hundreds of employees, and thousands more felt compelled to resign. By the end of Trumanï¿½s term, 39 states had enacted antisubversion laws and loyalty programs. In 1949 the Justice Department prosecuted 11 leaders of the Communist Party, who were convicted and jailed under the Smith Act of 1940. The law prohibited groups from conspiring to advocate the violent overthrow of the government. The Communist Party had reached the peak of its strength in the United States during World War II, when it claimed 80,000 members. Some of these had indeed worked for the government, handled classified material, or been part of spy networks. Although Communist party membership had fallen to under 30,000 by the 1950s, suspicion about disloyalty had grown. Concerned about the Sino-Soviet alliance and the USSRï¿½s possession of atomic weapons, many Americans feared Communist spies and Soviet penetration of federal agencies. Attention focused on two divisive trials. In August 1948 Time magazine editor Whittaker Chambers, a former Communist, accused former State Department official Alger Hiss of being a member of the Communist Party and, subsequently, of espionage. Hiss sued Chambers for slander, but Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 and jailed (see Hiss Case). In 1951 Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted of espionage for stealing atomic secrets. They were executed two years later. Both of these trials and convictions provoked decades of controversy. Half a century later, the most recent evidence seems to support the convictions of Alger Hiss and Julius Rosenberg. Meanwhile, Congress began to investigate suspicions of disloyalty. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) sought to expose Communist influence in American life. Beginning in the late 1940s, the committee called witnesses and investigated the entertainment industry. Prominent film directors and screenwriters who refused to cooperate were imprisoned on contempt charges. As a result of the HUAC investigations, the entertainment industry blacklisted, or refused to hire, artists and writers suspected of being Communists. One of the most important figures of this period was Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin, who gained power by accusing others of subversion. In February 1950, a few months after the USSR detonated its first atomic device, McCarthy claimed to have a list of Communists who worked in the State Department. Although his accusations remained unsupported and a Senate committee labeled them ï¿½a fraud and a hoax,ï¿½ McCarthy won a national following. Branding the Democrats as a party of treason, he denounced his political foes as ï¿½soft on Communismï¿½ and called Trumanï¿½s loyal secretary of state, Dean Acheson, the ï¿½Red Dean.ï¿½ McCarthyism came to mean false charges of disloyalty. In September 1950, goaded by McCarthy, Congress passed, over Trumanï¿½s veto, the McCarran Internal Security Act, which established a Subversive Activities Control Board to monitor Communist influence in the United States. A second McCarran act, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, also became law over Trumanï¿½s veto. It kept the quota system based on national origin, although it ended a ban on Asian immigration, and required elaborate security checks for foreigners visiting the United States. The Cold War played a role in the presidential contest of 1952 between Republican Dwight Eisenhower and Democrat Adlai Stevenson. Many voters feared Soviet expansionism, Soviet atomic explosions, and more conflicts like Korea. Eisenhowerï¿½s running mate, former HUAC member Richard M. Nixon, charged that a Democratic victory would bring ï¿½more Alger Hisses, more atomic spies.ï¿½ Eisenhowerï¿½s soaring popularity led to two terms as president. McCarthyï¿½s influence continued until the Army-McCarthy hearings of 1954, when the Senate investigated McCarthyï¿½s enquiry into the army. The Senate censured him on December 2, 1954, for abusing his colleagues, and his career collapsed. But fears of subversion continued. Communities banned books; teachers, academics, civil servants, and entertainers lost jobs; and unwarranted attacks ruined lives. Communists again dwindled in number after 1956, when Stalin was revealed to have committed extensive crimes. Meanwhile, by the end of the decade, new right-wing organizations such as the John Birch Society condemned ï¿½creeping socialismï¿½ under Truman and Eisenhower. McCarthyism left permanent scars. E. The Cold War Under Eisenhower When Eisenhower took office in 1953, he moved to end the war in Korea, where peace talks had been going on since 1951. Eisenhowerï¿½s veiled threat to use nuclear weapons broke the stalemate. An armistice, signed in July 1953, set a boundary between the two Koreas near the 38th parallel. Eisenhower then reduced the federal budget and cut defense spending. Still, he pursued the Cold War. When Stalin died in 1953, the United States and the USSR had an opportunity to ease tensions. However, the USSR tested a nuclear bomb in 1954, and Eisenhower needed to appease Republicans who urged more forceful efforts to defeat Communism. He relied on his secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, who called for ï¿½liberationï¿½ of the captive peoples of Eastern Europe and the end of Communism in China. Dulles was willing to bring the world to ï¿½the brink of warï¿½ to intimidate the USSR. With reduced conventional forces, Dullesï¿½s diplomacy rested on threats of ï¿½massive retaliationï¿½ and brinksmanship, a policy of never backing down in a crisis even at the risk of war. In 1955 the United States and USSR met in Geneva, Switzerland, to address mounting fears about radioactive fallout from nuclear tests. Discussions of ï¿½peaceful coexistenceï¿½ led the two nations to suspend atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons. Still, the United States spent more on nuclear weapons and less on conventional forces. Dulles, meanwhile, negotiated pacts around the world committing the United States to the defense of 43 nations. The focus of the Cold War now shifted to the so-called Third World, where the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) represented U.S. interests. Established in 1947 to conduct espionage and assess information about foreign nations, the CIA carried out covert operations against regimes believed to be Communist or supported by Communist nations. In 1954, for example, the CIA helped bring down a Guatemalan government that the United States believed was moving towards Communism. Finally, to stop the USSR from spreading Communism, the United States became involved in Indochina and the Middle East. In Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh, a nationalist and a Communist, led a movement for independence from France. The Truman administration had aided France, but in 1954 the French were defeated. An international peace conference in Geneva divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel. The United States refused to sign the Geneva Accords, which it believed conceded too much to the Communists. Instead the United States sent economic aid and military advisers to South Vietnam from 1954 to 1961. Although Eisenhower feared further involvement in Vietnam, he supported what was called the domino theory: If Vietnam fell to Communism, all of Southeast Asia might follow. In the Middle East, the United States promised a loan to Egyptï¿½s new ruler, Gamal Abdel Nasser, to build the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River. But when Nasser bought arms from Communist Czechoslovakia, the United States canceled the loan. Nasser retaliated in July 1956 by nationalizing the Anglo-French Suez Canal, an artificial waterway across the Isthmus of Suez in northeastern Egypt. Britain, France, and Israel (formed in 1948) responded with force, which the United States condemned. The invaders of Egypt withdrew, and the Suez crisis was defused. In reaction to the Suez crisis, the United States announced a new policy, the Eisenhower Doctrine: The United States would intervene in the Middle East if necessary to protect the area against Communism. In July 1958 the United States sent 14,000 marines to Lebanon during a civil war that the United States feared would destabilize the region. In the USSR, Stalinï¿½s successor, Nikita Khrushchev, did his part to keep the Cold War alive. He extended Soviet influence by establishing relations with India and with other nations that were not aligned with either side in the Cold War. In 1955 Khrushchev created the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance of seven European Communist nations, to secure the Soviet position in Europe. In 1956 he used force in Hungary and political pressure in Poland to ensure continued Soviet control of those countries. He increased Soviet power by developing a hydrogen bomb, and by launching the first earth satellite in 1957. Finally, he formed an alliance with Cuba after Fidel Castro led a successful revolution there in 1959. At the end of Eisenhowerï¿½s second term, the Cold War still dominated American foreign policy. United States efforts around the world to quell Communist-inspired or nationalist insurgencies sometimes caused anger. In 1958 angry crowds in Peru and Venezuela stoned Vice President Nixonï¿½s car. On May 1, 1960, the Soviets shot down a U-2 spy plane, and plans for a second summit collapsed. When Eisenhower left office, he warned against ï¿½unwarranted influence ï¿½ by the military-industrial complex.ï¿½ But the nuclear arms race had intensified, and the Cold War seemed to be widening. The Cold War brought divisiveness and discord in the United States. Americans of the 1950s clashed on the extent of the threat posed by Communism at home and abroad. Historians debate this question, too, as well as the origins of the Cold War. Some contend that Soviet aggression in the postwar era reflected valid concerns for security, and that a series of hostile acts by the United States provoked the USSR to take countermeasures. Others argue, variously, that Communism was inherently expansionist; that Soviet aggression was a natural outgrowth of Communism; that with Stalin in power, the Cold War was inevitable; that the USSR was bent on establishing Communist regimes in every region where a power vacuum existed; and that containment was a necessary and successful policy. Starting in the early 1990s, scholars have gained access to Soviet evidence that was previously unavailable. New revelations from Russian archivesï¿½as well as declassification in 1995 and 1996 of U.S. intelligence files on interception of Soviet spy cables, known as the Venona decryptionsï¿½has recently made possible new scholarship on the Cold War era. For the moment, debates about U.S. Cold War policy are likely to remain. XXIII. A World of Plenty In the post-World War II decade, the United States was the richest nation in the world. After a brief period of postwar adjustment, the economy boomed. Consumers demanded goods and services. Businesses produced more to meet this demand, and increased production led to new jobs. Federal foreign aid programs, such as the Marshall Plan, provided overseas markets for U.S. businesses. Finally, the government spent large amounts of money by providing loans, fighting the Cold War, and funding social programs. Government spending plus consumer demand led to an era of widespread prosperity, rising living standards, and social mobility. A. The Postwar Administrations As the nation demobilized, President Harry S. Truman faced a political battle. A one-time courthouse politician who owed his political success to the Democratic political machine of Kansas City, Truman had been a liberal senator and loyal New Dealer. Assertive and self-confident, he capably assumed the presidency after Rooseveltï¿½s death at the end of World War II. But in 1946, Truman encountered the Republican-dominated 80th Congress, the first time Republicans won control of both houses since 1928. In 1947 Congress passed the Labor-Management Relations Act, known as the Taft-Hartley Act, over Trumanï¿½s veto. The act was a restrictive labor law that handicapped labor and boosted employer power. For instance, it banned closed shops, thereby enabling employers to hire nonunion workers; it revived the labor injunction as a way to end strikes and boycotts; and it allowed states to pass right-to-work laws that forbade making union membership a condition of hiring. Congress also rejected Trumanï¿½s efforts to improve civil rights for African Americans. It refused to pass federal antilynching laws or to abolish the poll tax. In 1948, however, Truman integrated the armed forces by an executive order. He also ordered an end to discrimination in the hiring of federal employees. Southern Democrats never liked Truman. At the Democratic convention of 1948, they withdrew from the party to form a statesï¿½ rights party, the Dixiecrats. Truman also faced a challenge from the left, when Henry Wallace ran as the presidential candidate of the Progressive Party. Both of these challenges took Democratic votes from Truman, and most observers expected that his Republican opponent, New York governor Thomas E. Dewey, would defeat him. But the scrappy president won reelection. The 81st Congress continued to reject his social and economic proposals, known as the Fair Deal. Legislators defeated, for instance, a measure for national compulsory health insurance. Still, Truman succeeded in raising the minimum wage, extending social security coverage, and building low-income housing. Elected president by big margins in 1952 and 1956, Dwight D. Eisenhower enjoyed immense popularity. A pragmatic, centrist Republican, Eisenhower believed in smaller government, fiscal conservatism, and a businesslike administration. Eisenhower continued some New Deal policies. He expanded social security, raised the minimum wage, and backed a huge public works program, the Federal Highway Act of 1956, which provided funds for the Interstate Highway System. He also cut defense spending and presided over an era of peace and prosperity. In 1953 Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as chief justice of the Supreme Court, an appointment that began a new era in judicial history. The Warren Court transformed the American legal system by expanding civil rights and civil liberties. In the 1950s the Court broadened the rights of the accused and overturned the 1949 convictions of Communist leaders who had been tried under the Smith Act. Most important, in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), the Warren court declared that school segregation violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. Concluding that ï¿½separate educational facilities are inherently unequal,ï¿½ it declared segregated schools unconstitutional. In 1955 the Court ordered the states to desegregate schools ï¿½with all deliberate speed.ï¿½ However, many people resisted school integration. In 1957 the governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, tried to block the enrollment of nine black students into Little Rock High School. In response, Eisenhower, never a strong civil rights supporter, reluctantly sent federal troops to desegregate the school. The Brown decision began a new era in civil rights. The Eisenhower administration also ushered in the age of modern space exploration. In 1958 Congress formed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to oversee a civilian space program. NASAï¿½s birth reflected the Cold War competition between the United States and the USSR for supremacy in space. The Soviets launched Sputnik 1 (an artificial satellite) in October 1957. The United States followed with Explorer 1 in January 1958. In 1961 the Soviets hurled the first astronaut, Yuri Gagarin, into orbit. The same year, Alan Shepard, one of seven American astronauts trained in Project Mercury, went into space on a suborbital flight. In 1962 John Glenn became the first American to orbit the earth. B. The Prosperous Fifties Eisenhower oversaw a productive and prosperous era. Government spending plus consumer demand boosted the gross national product (GNP). With 6 percent of the worldï¿½s population, the United States produced half the worldï¿½s goods. Technological advances, many achieved with federal aid, ushered in new industries and sped up the pace of production in old ones. The nationï¿½s five largest industriesï¿½autos, oil, aircraft, chemicals, and electronicsï¿½illustrated a leap in productivity. The auto industry, the nationï¿½s largest, lowered labor costs by using more automated machines. Oil replaced coal as the nationï¿½s major energy source. The aircraft industry profited from defense spending, space research, and commercial airlinesï¿½ shift to jet propulsion. The chemical industry offered new consumer goods, such as synthetic fibers, chemical fertilizers, and plastics. Computers, too, began to have an effect in the business world. By the mid-1960s, more than 30,000 mainframe computers were in use. As productivity rose, the labor market changed. Fewer people held blue-collar jobs, and more did white-collar work. Employment grew rapidly in the service sector, which includes sales work, office work, and government jobs. More American wage earners worked for large corporations or for state or federal agencies than in small enterprise. Businesses expanded by swallowing weaker competitors, as happened in the steel, oil, chemical, and electrical machinery industries. Corporations formed huge new conglomerates (mergers of companies in unrelated industries). In addition, companies offering similar products or services in many locations, known as franchises, increased; the first McDonaldï¿½s franchise opened in 1955. Some big corporations established overseas operations and became multinational. Producers in the United States depended on world markets to buy oil, iron, steel, and food that they exported. They also increased their overseas investments. Standard Oil (later Exxon), for instance, developed oil resources in Venezuela and the Middle East. Coca-Cola swept through Europe, where it set up bottling factories. New types of bureaucrats ran the big businesses of postwar America. In The Organization Man (1956), sociologist William H. Whyte wrote that employers sought managers who would adapt to corporate culture, which rewarded teamwork and conformity. C. The Middle Class Expands Many factors converged to provide unparalleled social mobility in postwar America. Most important, income rose. Between 1945 and 1960, the median family income, adjusted for inflation, almost doubled. Rising income doubled the size of the middle class. Before the Great Depression of the 1930s only one-third of Americans qualified as middle class, but in postwar America two-thirds did. The growth of the middle class reflected full employment, new opportunities, and federal spending, which contributed mightily to widespread prosperity. During the war, for example, the U.S. government built many new factories, which provided jobs. The federal government also directly aided ambitious Americans. In 1944 Congress passed the Servicemenï¿½s Readjustment Act, known as the GI Bill of Rights. Under the law, the government paid part of tuition for veterans and gave them unemployment benefits while they sought jobs. It also provided low-interest loans to veterans buying homes or farms, or starting businesses. The GI Bill and other federal programs offered mortgages for home buyers. New middle-class families of postwar America became suburban families. Of 13 million new homes built in the 1950s, 85 percent were in the suburbs. By the early 1960s, suburbs surrounded every city. New families of the postwar era created a baby boom. The birth rate soared from 1946 to 1964, and peaked in 1957, when a baby was born every 7 seconds. Overall, more than 76 million Americans were part of the baby boom generation. The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1946), by Dr. Benjamin Spock, sold a million copies a year in the 1950s, and popular culture glorified suburban homemakers. However, more and more women entered the job market. New women workers were increasingly likely to be middle-aged and middle class. By 1960 almost two out of five women with school-age children held jobs. Some women workers supported households alone; many were wives whose second incomes helped their families attain middle-class lifestyles. As suburbs, generally without public transportation, grew, cars became necessary and auto sales increased. Easy credit facilitated the purchase of cars. The number of cars on the road leaped from 40 million in 1950 to 60 million in 1960. The Federal Highway Act of 1956 created the Interstate Highway System, a 68,400-km (42,500-mi) network of limited-access highways. This system spurred further suburban growth. Middle-class families bought not only homes and cars, but educational opportunities. Between 1940 and 1960, the percentage of college-age Americans who attended college almost doubled. Again, the federal government played a role. In 1958 Congress passed the National Defense Education Act, which provided loans to college students and funds for teacher training and instructional materials. Cold War enthusiasm for technological advances also affected research. By 1960 one-third of scientists and engineers in universities worked on government research, mainly defense projects. D. Consumers World War II limited the products that consumers could buy, but at its end, consumer demand fueled the postwar economy. By the end of the 1950s, three out of five families owned homes, and three out of four owned cars. Consumers chose among a wealth of new products, many developed from wartime innovations, including polyester fabricsï¿½rayon, dacron, orlonï¿½and new household appliances such as freezers, blenders, and dishwashers. Manufacturers urged new models on consumers. Americans acquired more private debt with the introduction of credit cards and installment plans. Home mortgages increased the debt burden. Businesses tried to increase consumer spending by investing more money in advertising, especially in television ads. Television played a pivotal role in consumptionï¿½both as a product to be bought and a mode of selling more products. The first practical television system began operating in the 1940s. Television reached 9 percent of homes in 1950 and almost 90 percent in 1960. Audiences stayed home to watch live productions of beloved comedies, such as ï¿½I Love Lucyï¿½ (1951-1957), and the on-the-scene reporting of Edward R. Murrow. TV Guide became one of the most popular magazines. Television programming of the 1950s, which catered to potential consumers, portrayed a middle-class, homogeneous society. But the less visible, less prosperous parts of society were also an important facet of the postwar era. E. Other Americans The widespread prosperity of postwar America failed to reach everyone. In The Other America: Poverty in the United States (1962), political activist Michael Harrington revealed an economic underworld of 40 million to 50 million Americans, who were excluded from affluence and were socially invisible. At the end of the 1950s, nearly one-fifth of the population lived below the poverty line. The poor included many groups: the uninsured elderly, migrant farm workers, families in the Appalachian hills, and residents of inner-city slums. When many middle-class Americans left the city for the suburbs, they left behind urban areas with antiquated schools and deteriorating public facilities. They also left behind high concentrations of poor people, which meant a dwindling tax base. Federal aid, which provided the middle class with mortgages and highways, had less influence on the poor. Federal housing programs, urban renewal efforts, and slum clearance projects often did little more than move poor city dwellers from one ghetto to another. What Harrington called the culture of povertyï¿½that is, living without adequate housing, food, education, medical care, job opportunities, or hopeï¿½remained. Poverty affected minority groups in the 1950s. In the 1940s, when labor was scarce, the United States established the Emergency Labor Program, popularly known as the Bracero Program. Braceros, whose name derived from the Spanish word brazo (arm), were Mexican manual laborers allowed to enter the United States to replace American workers who joined the armed forces. Many Mexicans who entered the United States under the Bracero Program remained in the country illegally. To curb illegal immigration from Mexico, the United States in 1954 began Operation Wetback, a program to find illegal immigrants and return them to Mexico. During the 1950s, several million Mexicans were deported. But illegal entrants continued to arrive, often to become low-paid laborers. Most of the postwar Mexican American population settled in cities, such as Los Angeles, Denver, El Paso, Phoenix, and San Antonio. One-third of Mexican Americans in the 1950s lived below the poverty line. Federal policy toward Native Americans underwent several reversals in the 20th century. In 1934 Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act, which granted Native Americans the right to elect tribal councils to govern reservations. In 1953 the federal government changed its position and adopted a ï¿½terminationï¿½ policy. Congress passed a resolution to end its responsibility for Native American tribes. The resolution terminated Native American status as wards of the United States, granted Native Americans citizenship, eliminated financial subsidies, discontinued the reservation system, and distributed tribal lands among individual Native Americans. This redistribution made thousands of acres of reservation land available to non-Indians, such as real estate dealers. From 1954 to 1960, the federal government initiated a voluntary relocation program to settle Native Americans in urban areas. The new policies failed, and in 1963 the government abandoned termination. African Americans of the postwar era continued their exodus from the South. Waves of black migrants, mainly young, left the rural South for Northern cities. The introduction of new machinery, such as the mechanical cotton-picker, reduced the need for field labor and eliminated sharecropping as a way of life. From the end of World War II to 1960, nearly 5 million blacks moved from the rural South to cities in the North. By 1950 one-third of blacks lived outside the South. Simultaneously, the black population moved within the South. By 1960 almost three out of five Southern blacks lived in towns and cities, concentrated in large metropolitan areas such as Atlanta and Washington, D.C. Large-scale migration to cities spurred rising aspirations, soon evident in the postwar civil rights movement. F. The Civil Rights Movement Begins In the 1940s and 1950s the NAACP attacked race discrimination in the courts. It chipped away at Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), a Supreme Court decision upholding segregationist laws. The NAACP lawyersï¿½ greatest success was the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision in 1954, in which the Supreme Court ordered desegregation of schools. The decision struck a Chicago newspaper as a ï¿½second emancipation proclamation.ï¿½ The Supreme Courtï¿½s implementation order of 1955, designed to hasten compliance, ordered desegregation of schools ï¿½with all deliberate speed,ï¿½ but compliance was slow. When the governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, tried to block the enrollment of nine black students into Little Rock High School in 1957, television showed the entire nation the confrontation between National Guard troops and segregationists. Television news helped make Little Rockï¿½s problem a national one, and television crews continued to cover civil rights protests. In December 1955 the black community in Montgomery, Alabama, organized a bus boycott after Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white man. A local minister, Martin Luther King, Jr., helped organize the boycott. In 1957 ministers and civil rights leaders formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The SCLC, which adopted a policy of nonviolent civil disobedience, formed the backbone of the civil rights movement in the United States. The civil rights movement expanded on February 1, 1960, when four black college students at North Carolina A&T University began protesting racial segregation in restaurants by sitting at whites-only lunch counters and waiting to be served. Within days the sit-ins spread throughout North Carolina, and within weeks they reached cities across the South. To continue studentsï¿½ efforts and to give them an independent voice in the movement, college students in 1960 formed another civil rights group, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Students and activists soon adopted other methods of protesting segregation, such as freedom ridesï¿½bus trips throughout the South in order to desegregate buses and bus stations. A powerful civil rights movement was underway. Postwar prosperity brought comfort and social mobility to many Americans. Those who had grown up during the Great Depression especially appreciated the good life of the postwar years. Prosperity, however, eluded many citizens. The era, moreover, was hardly placid and complacent, but eventful and divisive. Signs of change around 1960 included the growing role of youth, the civil rights protests, and the simmering of dissent. XXIV. The Liberal Agenda and Domestic Policy: The 1960s In the 1960s, presidential initiatives, judicial rulings, and social protest movements generated reform. The civil rights movement, the womenï¿½s movement, the youth movement, and the environmental movement changed peopleï¿½s lives. They also created a climate of rebellion, confrontation, and upheaval. For more information, see Protests in the 1960s. Handsome, dynamic, and articulate, John Kennedy defeated Richard Nixon in the presidential election of 1960ï¿½the first election in which televised debates between presidential candidates played a major role. When he accepted the Democratic nomination, Kennedy urged Americans to meet the challenges of a ï¿½New Frontier.ï¿½ The term New Frontier evoked the spirit of exploration that Kennedy wanted to bring to his presidency. His youth and vigor raised expectations. In practice, however, his actions were cautious and pragmatic. In his brief tenure, Kennedy continued Cold War policies by broadening U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia, overseeing an arms buildup, and hiking the defense budget. He also inaugurated a long era of economic expansion, based largely on additional spending for missiles, defense, and the space race. In 1961 he began the Peace Corps, an innovative federal program that sent American volunteers to assist needy nations by providing educational programs and helping communities build basic infrastructures. After first evading civil rights issues, Kennedy responded to the calls of civil rights advocates and proposed a comprehensive civil rights bill. Congress, however, had not passed the bill when Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963. At Kennedyï¿½s death, his vice president, Lyndon Johnson, became president. A Texas politician since the New Deal and a majority leader of the Senate, Johnson seemed less likely than Kennedy to be an innovative leader. But, as president, Johnson plunged ahead with domestic reform. In July 1964 he proposed the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, enacted in memory of Kennedy. The law prohibited segregation in public accommodations and discrimination in education and employment. Johnson then declared a ï¿½War on Povertyï¿½ in the United States. He promoted a billion-dollar campaign to end poverty and racial injustice. In August 1964 Congress established an Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to direct the Johnson administrationï¿½s War on Poverty program and a Job Corps to train young people for the employment market. Johnson also supported a volunteer program, Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), a domestic version of the Peace Corps; Project Head Start, to educate preschoolers from disadvantaged families; and several other public works and job-training programs. In the 1964 presidential election, Johnson won a landslide victory over conservative Arizona senator Barry Goldwater. He then pressed legislators to add to his reform program, which he labeled the ï¿½Great Society.ï¿½ In 1965 Congress enlarged the War on Poverty by enacting Medicare (a program of medical insurance for the elderly) and Medicaid (a program of medical care for the needy), and funding urban development, housing, and transit. Congress also passed the Voting Rights Act, which protected the rights of minorities to register and vote. In addition it established the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities to provide funding for the arts, provided funds to school districts with children from low-income families, passed the Clean Air Act, and enacted legislation to protect endangered species and wilderness areas. Finally, Johnson supported two policy changes with unexpected future impact. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 removed quotas based on race or nationality that had been in force since the 1920s, and it paved the way for massive immigration from Asia, Latin America, and elsewhere. Also in 1965, Johnson issued Executive Order 11246, which required groups that did business with the federal government to take ï¿½affirmative actionï¿½ to remedy past discrimination against African Americans. As Johnson told black leaders, his goals for racial progress meant ï¿½not just equality as a right and a theory but equality as a fact and equality as a result.ï¿½ Over the next three decades, the federal government implemented affirmative action policies to promote the hiring of women and minorities. Stunning in its scope, Johnsonï¿½s ambitious domestic agenda soon ran into problems. Within three years, the United States was deeply involved in the Vietnam War; its expense and controversy undercut many Great Society goals. But the civil rights revolution that Johnson endorsed made unprecedented gains. A. The Civil Rights Movement African Americans had been struggling to gain equal rights for many decades. As the 1960s began, the civil rights movement gained momentum. Individuals and civil rights organizations assailed segregation in the South and discrimination everywhere. They protested with marches, boycotts, and refusals to tolerate segregation. Many organizations conducted their protests with nonviolent resistance. Civil rights protesters often faced harsh confrontations with their opponents. These confrontations, which appeared on network television, exposed the struggle for civil rights to a large national audience. In the spring of 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) started Freedom Rides to the South to desegregate bus terminals and protest segregation in interstate transportation. The Freedom Riders, black and white, challenged white supremacy and drew angry attacks. In the fall of 1962, a federal court ordered the University of Mississippi to enroll a black air force veteran, James Meredith. To prevent his enrollment, white protesters rioted, and President Kennedy sent federal troops to restore order. In Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the SCLC led a campaign of marches, sit-ins, and prayer meetings to challenge segregation and racism. Clashes arose between black protesters and city police, armed with dogs and cattle prods. News coverage exposed the violence in Birmingham to people all over the world. Television news next covered the University of Alabama, where Governor George Wallace in June 1963 barred two black students from entrance. Responding to African American calls for action, Kennedy in June 1963 declared civil rights ï¿½a moral issueï¿½ and proposed a comprehensive civil rights measure. Congress did not act on the bill, but the civil rights movement intensified. In August 1963 more than 200,000 Americans marched on Washington, D.C., to demand equal rights. The audience heard Martin Luther King, Jr., explain his dream of brotherhood, freedom, justice, and nonviolence. In July 1964, at Johnsonï¿½s prompting, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, which outlawed segregation in public accommodations; gave the federal government new power to integrate schools and enfranchise blacks; and created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to stop job discrimination based on race, religion, national origin, or gender. The law heralded a new phase of activism. Since 1961 civil rights activists had worked on voter registration in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. In the summer of 1964, CORE and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) organized the Mississippi Freedom Summer Project. The project recruited over 1,000 Northern college students, teachers, artists, and clergyï¿½both black and whiteï¿½to work in Mississippi. These volunteers, who helped blacks register to vote and ran freedom schools, met harassment, firebombs, arrests, beatings, and even murder. In August 1964 civil rights workers sent a delegation to the Democratic National Convention to demand (in vain) the seating of delegates from the newly formed Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party. Mass protests in Selma, Alabama, in March 1965 again brought segments of violent confrontations to television news. The voting rights campaign of the mid-1960s had results. In 1965 Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act, which authorized federal examiners to register voters and expanded black suffrage by suspending literacy tests for voting. The 24th Amendment, ratified in 1964, outlawed the poll tax in federal elections. A 1966 Supreme Court decision struck down the poll tax in all elections. These measures more than tripled the number of registered black voters in the South. Just as the federal government respondedï¿½after almost a century of inactionï¿½to civil rights demands, waves of violence and disorder signaled a change in the civil rights movement. In August 1965 frustrations with high unemployment and poverty led to riots in the Watts section of Los Angeles, a primarily black neighborhood. For six days, rioters looted, firebombed, and sniped at police and National Guard troops. When the riots ended, 34 people were dead and hundreds were injured. In the summers of 1966 and 1967, urban riots occurred in the poorer neighborhoods of several Northern cities. The summer of 1967 saw 150 racial confrontations and 40 riots. In April 1968 Martin Luther King, Jr., was assassinated; in the summer race riots broke out in over 100 cities. In the wake of the riots, the president appointed a National Commission on Civil Disorders, headed by Otto Kerner, a former governor of Illinois. The Kerner Commission blamed white racism for the outbreaks of violence. ï¿½Our nation is moving toward two societies,ï¿½ the Commission report warned, ï¿½one black, one whiteï¿½separate and unequal.ï¿½ The report urged job creation, more public housing, school integration, and ï¿½a national system of income supplementation.ï¿½ As the urban riots of the mid-1960s voiced black rage, demands for Black Power changed the tone of the civil rights movement. Stokely Carmichael, a civil rights activist and SNCC member, led SNCC away from its commitment to nonviolence and integration. Carmichael popularized the call for Black Power, a controversial term. To some, Black Power called for racial dignity and self-reliance. For others, it meant that blacks should defend themselves against white violence, instead of relying on nonviolence. Still others believed that the Black Power movement called for black economic and political independence. Black Power advocates were influenced by Malcolm X, a Nation of Islam minister who had been assassinated in early 1965. They admired Malcolmï¿½s black nationalist philosophy, which emphasized black separatism and self-sufficiency. They also appreciated Malcolmï¿½s emphasis on black pride and self-assertion. Conflict soon arose between the older civil rights organizations, such as the NAACP, and black power advocates, with their aura of militancy and violence. Some blacks called for racial pride and separatism instead of colorblindness and integration. Civil rights demands shifted from colorblinded to color-consciousness. By the end of the 1960s, the civil rights movement had strongly influenced other groups, which adopted its protest tactics. Native Americans had mobilized early in the decade and convened in Washington in 1964 to press for inclusion in the War on Poverty. In 1968 Native American leaders demanded Red Power in the form of preferential hiring and reimbursement for lands that the government had taken from them in violation of treaties. Mexican Americans supported Cï¿½sar Chï¿½vez, president of the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee. Chavez sought improved working conditions for migrant workers and organized national consumer boycotts of grapes and other products. The Hispanic movement also campaigned for bilingual and bicultural education, and Chicano studies in colleges. Finally, the womenï¿½s movement of the late 1960s and 1970s, especially, derived inspiration from the civil rights precedent. B. The Womenï¿½s Movement Like the civil rights movement, the womenï¿½s movement used various means to end discrimination. Activists created pressure groups, adopted confrontation tactics like sit-ins and marches, and tried to capture media attention. By the end of the 1960s, feminists had created an energetic campaign that called both for legal equity and for the restructuring of gender roles and social institutions. In 1961, Kennedy established the first presidential Commission on the Status of Women. In 1963 the commission issued a report citing employment discrimination, unequal pay, legal inequality, and insufficient support services for working women. The same year, a new book by journalist Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique, challenged the notion that women could find fulfillment only as wives and mothers. A final catalyst of the early 1960s was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned race discrimination in employment and set up the EEOC to enforce the law. Unexpectedly, perhaps accidentally, and after heated debate, legislators amended the bill to bar sex discrimination in employment as well. When the EEOC ignored gender-based charges, women formed the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966. Betty Friedan led the new civil rights group, which urged equal opportunity and an end to sex discrimination. Meanwhile, another wing of feminism developed. Young women who had been active in the civil rights and other protest movements began to form small ï¿½consciousness-raisingï¿½ groups, which rapidly expanded in number. In these groups, women met to discuss the inequity of ï¿½sexism,ï¿½ a counterpart to racism; to strive for ï¿½womenï¿½s liberationï¿½; and to start feminist projects, such as health collectives or rape crisis centers. The two wings of feminism often clashed. NOW focused on legal change, and womenï¿½s liberation urged revolutionary transformation. But the two factions served complementary functions and sometimes joined forces, as in The Womenï¿½s Strike for Equality in August 1970. With parades and marches, women celebrated the 50th anniversary of woman suffrage and pressed for new causesï¿½equal employment opportunity, an equal rights amendment, and more liberal state abortion laws. In the early 1970s, the womenï¿½s movement achieved extensive results. In 1972 Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to provide for equality of the sexes under the law. However, the states failed to ratify the amendment. Still, the fact that Congress passed the ERA signified feminismï¿½s new legitimacy. In Roe v. Wade (1973), the Supreme Court legalized abortion. Finally, women made astounding gains in education and employment. Editors scoured elementary and high school textbooks to remove sexist elements. In 1972 Congress passed Title IX of the Higher Education Act, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any educational program receiving federal funds, including athletic programs. At the college and university level, once all-male colleges and military academies began to accept women students. In employment, state and federal courts overturned labor laws that curtailed opportunities for women, such as laws that barred women from night work or overtime. The courts supported legal actions against employers that discriminated against women in their hiring or promotion policies. Women also entered new vocations. Some went into blue-collar fields, such as construction; others found jobs in banking, finance, business, and government. The proportions of women in the professionsï¿½as lawyers, doctors, and engineersï¿½increased as well. One of the most enduring movements to emerge in the 1960s, the womenï¿½s movement left strong institutional legaciesï¿½pressure groups, professional organizations, and womenï¿½s studies programs in colleges. C. The Youth Movement As the baby boom generation veered toward adulthood, its members began to challenge the status quo. By the mid-1960s nearly three out of four students finished high school, and about half of those students went on to college. College campuses filled with young people who had the freedom to question the moral and spiritual health of the nation. One facet of the youth movement was a disaffected, apolitical counterculture, made up of people who were known as hippies. These young people decried materialism, mocked convention, spurned authority, joined communes, enjoyed rock music, and experimented with drugs and sex. Often hippies asserted their rebellious attitude through elements of personal style, such as long hair and tie-dyed clothes. In August 1969 hippies gathered at the Woodstock Festival, a music festival where young people convened to celebrate love and peace. Woodstock represented a high point in the counterculture, but hippie lifestyles continued into the 1970s. Another wing of the youth movement included activists from political protest movements, such as the civil rights movement. This wing was more visible on college campuses and more politically conscious. In 1960 a small group of young people formed Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and adopted The Port Huron Statement, written by student leader Tom Hayden. The manifesto urged participatory democracy, or the idea that all Americans, not just a small elite, should decide major economic, political, and social issues that shaped the nation. It also criticized American society for its focus on career advancement, material possessions, military strength, and racism. By 1968 some 100,000 young people around the nation had joined SDS. Student protesters denounced corporate bureaucracy and campus administrators. Universities and colleges, they believed, were dictatorial and exercised too much control over students. Students held rallies and sit-ins to protest restrictions of their rights. In 1964 a coalition of student groups at the University of California, Berkeley, claimed the right to conduct political activities on campus; the coalition became known as the Free Speech Movement. Political activism and protests spread to other campuses in the 1960s. The youth movementï¿½s demonstrations soon merged with the protests of students who opposed the Vietnam War. By the spring of 1968, student protests had reached hundreds of campuses. At the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, antiwar demonstrators clashed with the police, and the images of police beating students shocked television audiences (see Chicago Convention of 1968). Violence peaked at an antiwar protest at Ohioï¿½s Kent State University in May 1970, when National Guard troops gunned down four student protesters. The political activities of the youth movement had enduring effects. Colleges became less authoritarian, ending dress codes and curfews and recruiting more minority students. Students also contributed mightily to the movement against the war in Vietnam. Both the counterculture and student activism, finally, fueled a backlash that blossomed in the 1970s and 1980s. D. The Environmental Movement A movement to preserve the environment took root with the best-selling book Silent Spring (1962) by Rachel Carson. The book attacked toxic pesticides like DDT. Carson described how DDT threatened both animals and human beings. Her book raised Americansï¿½ awareness of threats to the environment and moved many to take action. Students and teachers at over 1,500 colleges and universities and at over 10,000 schools held teach-ins on the environment. Hundreds of thousands of other Americans staged protests and rallies around the nation. These activists formed a number of environmental groups, including the Environmental Defense Fund in 1967, Friends of the Earth in 1968, Greenpeace in 1970, and the Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund in 1971. In 1970 some 20 million Americans gathered for what organizers called Earth Day to protest abuse of the environment. In response to growing citizen protests, Congress in 1970 passed the National Environmental Policy Act, which created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), an independent agency responsible for protecting the environment and maintaining it for future generations. Congress also enacted laws to curb pollution, preserve wilderness areas, and protect endangered species. The Supreme Court allowed conservationists to sue businesses for polluting the environment and government agencies for failure to enforce the law. Several events in the 1970s suggested the danger of environmental threats. In 1978 residents of Love Canal in New York, who had been experiencing high disease rates, were found to be living on a former chemical waste dump; the area was evacuated. In 1979 an accident at the nuclear power plant on Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania showed the potential dangers of radioactive material in nuclear reactors. As concern for the environment spread, more Americans became involved in efforts to maintain forests, parks, and wildlife refuges; prevent air and water pollution; conserve energy; and dispose of hazardous waste safely. Environmentalists persisted in their efforts into the 1980s, although often challenged by conservatives who believed that environmental regulations restricted property rights protected by the Constitution. E. The Warren Court Judicial activism (taking an active role in shaping public policy) completed the liberal agenda of the 1960s. Ever since Earl Warrenï¿½s appointment as chief justice in 1953, the Supreme Court had enraged critics on the right, who pressed for Warrenï¿½s impeachment. In the 1950s the Warren Court had integrated public schools in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954). In the 1960s Kennedy and Johnson appointed four Supreme Court justices, including Thurgood Marshall, the NAACP lawyer who had argued the Brown case and the high courtï¿½s first African American justice. With a liberal majority in place, the Warren court handed down a series of landmark cases that enhanced civil liberties and spurred or legitimized social change. The Warren Court of the 1960s declared prayer in public schools unconstitutional, enabled Communists to obtain passports, and limited communitiesï¿½ power to censor books and movies (thus making sexually explicit material available to adults). In Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) the Court ruled that state bans on contraceptives were unconstitutional. The Court also consistently upheld civil rights. It found local ordinances upholding segregation in private businesses (such as lunch counters) unconstitutional; reversed the convictions of black demonstrators who had refused to disperse; upheld the civil rights laws of 1964 and 1965; declared delays in school desegregation intolerable; and upset a state law that forbade marriage between persons of different races. Warren Court decisions of the 1960s affected electoral procedures, too. In Baker v. Carr (1962), the Court upheld the principle of ï¿½one man, one vote,ï¿½ which meant that state legislatures had to be reapportioned on the basis of population. Finally, the Court issued controversial decisions that transformed criminal justice. In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court held that a poor person charged with a felony had the right to be represented by a state-appointed lawyer. In Miranda v. Arizona (1966) the Court declared that a confession could not be introduced as evidence unless the defendant had been informed of his or her rights, including the right to remain silent. F. The 1960s in Retrospect The climate of reform that erupted in the 1960s continued into the 1970s, where movements for change met different fates. Feminism and environmentalism continued and prospered. The counterculture peaked and faded, although drug use exploded. In civil rights, the early goals of colorblindness ceded place to race consciousness and ï¿½identity politics,ï¿½ or jousting for place among contending ethnicities. Overall, few great dreams that pervaded the fervent 1960s were achieved. Hopes for participatory democracy and an end to racism and patriarchy eluded realization. Still, in domestic policy, the 1960s were an era of enduring change. Although the Vietnam War undercut the Great Society, Johnsonï¿½s programs increased justice and fought poverty. The Warren Court upheld individual rights. The civil rights movement ended legal segregation, registered black voters, battled race discrimination, engendered black pride, and vastly liberalized white attitudes. The spread of feminism forced reexamination of gender roles. Overall, reform movements of the 1960s expanded free expression, challenged tradition, blasted the placidity of the 1950s, and, for better or worse, dispelled the widespread respect for government that had prevailed since World War II. Antiwar protest was a vital part of this process. The Vietnam War of the 1960s and 1970s shattered Americansï¿½ long-held faith in both the wisdom of the state and in Cold War policies of the 1950s. XXV. Foreign Policy, Vietnam War, and Watergate In the 1960s the United States remained committed to Cold War goals and sought to stem the spread of Communism around the globe. Continuing the policy of containment, the United States sent more and more troops to Vietnam. There, bogged down in jungle fighting and bombing campaigns, the United States became enmeshed in a long and costly war. When the United States finally left the Vietnamese to determine their own fate in the early 1970s, a near-impeachment crisis increased Americansï¿½ mood of skepticism and distrust of government. A. Kennedy Administration and the Cold War In the early 1960s, President Kennedy vigorously pursued the Cold War policy of containment. He expanded U.S. aid to other nations, boosted the size of the armed forces, stockpiled missiles, and strove to end Soviet influence in Cuba, just 90 miles off the tip of Florida. In 1959 a revolution in Cuba brought Fidel Castro, a leftist, to power. When Castro took control, he implemented policies designed to eliminate differences between social classes in Cuba. These policies included confiscating large land holdings and seizing businesses that belonged to wealthy Cubans and U.S. firms. Concerned about Communist influence, U.S. officials were wary of Castro. In 1961 a force of Cuban exiles, trained and supplied by the United States, invaded Cuba in an attempt to topple Castro. They failed, and the Bay of Pigs invasion was a fiasco. Tensions increased between the United States and Cuba. To deter further U.S. interference in Cuba, Castro sought economic and military assistance from the USSR. In 1962 the United States discovered that Khrushchev had set up nuclear missile bases in Cuba from which rocket-powered missiles could be launched. Kennedy faced a crisis: To destroy the bases might lead to world war; to ignore them risked an attack on the United States. In October 1962 Kennedy demanded that the USSR remove the missiles, and after a few days of suspense, the Soviets agreed to do so. The Cuban missile crisis was a close call. Teetering on the brink of nuclear war, both superpowers leaped back in alarm. Afterward, Kennedy and Khrushchev established a telephone hot line, and in 1963 they signed the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty that banned nuclear tests in the air and in the water. But the Cold War rivalry continued. The United States and the USSR now vied for control in Asia. Cold War warriors in the United States believed that Communist aggression posed a threat in Asia. They especially feared a Communist takeover of Vietnam. If Vietnam fell, they believed, Communism would engulf all of Southeast Asia. Even in the 1940s, President Truman provided economic and military aid to prevent the growth of Communist power in what was then French Indochina. When France withdrew from the area in 1954, the Geneva Accords divided Vietnam into two segments: North Vietnam, ruled by the Communist Viet Minh; and South Vietnam, controlled by non-Communist allies of the French. The United States supported non-Communist South Vietnam and in subsequent decades increased its commitment to the region. Under Eisenhower, from 1955 to 1961, America sent economic aid to South Vietnam. In 1960 Communists and nationalists in South Vietnam formed the National Liberation Front (NLF), often referred to as the Viet Cong (a label attached by its foes). The NLF was organized to challenge South Vietnamï¿½s president, Ngo Dinh Diem, who ruled from 1955 to 1963, and to foster unification. Kennedy continued Eisenhowerï¿½s efforts in Vietnam by tripling American aid to South Vietnam and by expanding the number of military advisers from about 700 to more than 16,000. In 1963 the United States approved a coup led by South Vietnamese military officers to overthrow Diem, who was killed. A few weeks later, Kennedy was assassinated and Lyndon B. Johnson became president. Johnson inherited the problem of U.S. commitment to South Vietnam, where Communist insurgents were gaining strength. B. Johnson and Vietnam Johnson was in a dilemma. If he increased American military aid to Vietnam, he would have to divert funds from his Great Society programs, and he might prod China into war. If he withdrew American aid, however, he risked the politically damaging charge that he was ï¿½softï¿½ on Communism. Most important, Johnson did not want to be the first American president to lose a war. He enlarged the war in Vietnam. After an allegedly unprovoked attack on U.S. warships in the Gulf of Tonkin off North Vietnam in August 1964, Johnson authorized limited bombing raids on North Vietnam. At the administrationï¿½s request, Congress then offered an almost unanimous resolution, known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, that enabled the president to use military force in Vietnam. In 1965, after a landslide victory in the 1964 electionï¿½when voters endorsed his platform of domestic reform and peace abroadï¿½Johnson again escalated American involvement. By 1968 more than 500,000 troops were in Vietnam, and the United States had begun heavy bombing of North Vietnam. The United States never declared war on North Vietnam or made a total commitment to winning the war. Vietnam remained a limited war, one in which the United States purposely refrained from employing all its military strength. The American commander, General William Westmoreland, sought to inflict heavy losses on the North Vietnamese and to destroy their morale. But the North Vietnamese were tenacious. In January 1968 they launched a massive attack known as the Tet Offensive, which severely damaged U.S. forces and reached the American embassy compound in the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon. South Vietnam and the United States finally turned back the Tet Offensive, but with heavy losses. Americans could not see an end to the war, and its costs, both economic and human, rose alarmingly. C. The Anti-Vietnam War Movement By the start of 1968, Johnson encountered mounting opposition to the war. An antiwar movement had arisen in 1964 and 1965 as Johnson began to escalate American involvement in Vietnam. In 1965 students and teachers at the University of Michigan held one of the first campus teach-ins to spread information about the war. Teach-ins soon were held at many colleges and universities. Antiwar protests evoked massive support among draft-age youth, half of them college students. Chanting activists disrupted draft boards, burned draft cards, occupied campus buildings, and marched on the Pentagon (see Anti-Vietnam War Movement). The Johnson administration faced political critics as well. Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright began to hold hearings that questioned why the United States was fighting in Vietnam. Fulbright stopped supporting Johnson when he learned that the president had exaggerated enemy aggression at the Gulf of Tonkin. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara called the bombing campaign a failure and left his post in 1968. European allies also criticized the American role in Vietnam. At home, the war generated intense debate. ï¿½Hawksï¿½ assailed the policy of limited war and favored an all-out effort to defeat Communism in Vietnam. Some contended that politicians prevented the military from winning the war, or that military leaders had no strategy for victory. Others held that the antiwar movement stifled support for the war, ruined morale, and undercut the military effort. ï¿½Doves,ï¿½ in contrast, believed that the United States should never have become involved in Vietnam. The conflict, they argued, was essentially a civil war, and contrary to containment doctrine, its outcome was irrelevant to American security. To some critics, the war was unwinnable, and stalemate was the best foreseeable outcome. In any case, doves argued, the United States should negotiate with North Vietnam to end the war quickly. By 1968 antiwar sentiment affected electoral politics. Challenging Johnson for the Democratic presidential nomination, Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota campaigned against the war. McCarthy roused fervent support among the young, and Vietnam swiftly became the major issue of the 1968 presidential race. Reconsidering his earlier policies, Johnson limited bombing in Southeast Asia and initiated peace talks with Hanoi and the NLF. After he was challenged by McCarthy in the New Hampshire primary, Johnson decided not to seek reelection and withdrew from the race. The president became a political casualty of the Vietnam War. In 1968 an aura of crisis grew with the assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr., in April and of Senator Robert F. Kennedy in June. In Chicago during the summer of 1968, violence erupted when police attacked antiwar protesters at the Democratic National Convention. In the election that fall, Richard Nixon defeated Johnsonï¿½s vice president, Hubert Humphrey, and third party candidate George Wallace. D. Nixon and Vietnam Under Nixon, American troop strength in Vietnam contracted but the war effort expanded. Nixon began a program of Vietnamization, which meant decreasing the number of U.S. troops, offering only advice and assistance, and turning the war effort over to the South Vietnamese. U.S. ground troops gradually returned from Vietnam, but the United States increased its bombing of North Vietnam. Nixon also extended the war into Cambodia and Laos, where he secretly authorized bombing to block enemy supply routes on Vietnamï¿½s border. Finally, Nixon sought a diplomatic escape from war. He visited China and the USSR and sent Henry Kissinger, his national security adviser, to secret talks in Paris with the North Vietnamese. Antiwar protests, meanwhile, continued. In May 1970 Ohio National Guard troops killed four Kent State University students during an antiwar protest, spurring widespread outrage. In 1973, as Nixon began a second term, the United States and North Vietnam signed a peace treaty in Paris, which provided for a cease-fire. The terms of the cease-fire included: American withdrawal of all remaining forces from Vietnam, Vietnamese return of American prisoners captured during war, and the end of all foreign military operations in Laos and Cambodia. American troops left Vietnam, but the war between North Vietnam and South Vietnam continued. South Vietnam finally fell in April 1975, as North Vietnamese forces entered Saigon. More than 58,000 Americans were killed in Vietnam, and over 300,000 were wounded. Even after the warï¿½s end, Americans continued to debate its purpose and the meaning of its failure. E. The Impact of Vietnam The Vietnam War affected the United States in many ways. Most immediately, it spurred policy changes. The United States ended the military draft and switched to an all-volunteer army. Congress passed the War Powers Resolution over Nixonï¿½s veto in November 1973. The resolution limited the presidentï¿½s ability to send troops into combat without congressional consent. Its passage reflected legislatorsï¿½ desire to restrain presidential power and to prevent U.S. involvement in a war like that in Vietnam. Beyond policy changes, the war in Vietnam changed the attitudes of a generation. First, the war increased caution about involvement in foreign affairs. After Vietnam, Americans more carefully weighed the risks of intruding in another nationï¿½s problems. Second, defeat in the war diminished American confidence in U.S. superiority, both moral and military. Defeat in Vietnam was a humiliating national experience. Finally, the war increased mistrust of government and its officials. A chain of events beginning in the 1960sï¿½such as the way Johnson obtained the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, revelations of secret bombings of Cambodia under Nixon, and the Kent State tragedyï¿½shattered a faith in the state that had prevailed since World War II. These events left citizens with a sense of cynicism: Government leaders were no longer credible. The abrupt end of Nixonï¿½s presidency only confirmed this sentiment. F. The Nixon Administration Since the 1930s presidential powers had grown as presidents struggled to overcome the depression, win a world war, and avoid defeat in the Cold War. These powers continued to grow under Kennedy and Johnson. Kennedy, for instance, launched covert operations at the Bay of Pigs, and Johnson engaged the nation in war without congressional approval. President Richard Nixon wielded more power than any peacetime president, and in the early 1970s the term Imperial Presidency became linked to his administration. The term referred to a tendency to disregard the Constitution, to view politics as warfare, to act in secret, to claim executive privilege, to subvert Congress, and to rely excessively on White House aides. F.1. The Imperial Presidency Long a controversial figure, Nixon served as vice president for eight years under Eisenhower, lost a bid for president in 1960 and a run for governor of California in 1962, and then worked as a corporate lawyer. Elected in 1968 and again, resoundingly, in 1972, Nixon claimed to represent a new majority that included former Democratsï¿½ethnic minorities, working-class people, and Southern whitesï¿½who were disgusted with liberal policies. Nixon promised voters that he would restore law and order and end the unpopular war in Vietnam. During Nixonï¿½s presidency, the economy ran into trouble with inflation. In 1971 inflation leaped to 5 percent, the stock market fell, and for the first time since the 19th century, the United States had an overall trade deficit, which meant that it imported more goods than it exported. To fight inflation, Nixon briefly imposed wage and price controls. His cautious efforts succeeded and prevented inflation from getting worse. Nixon also urged welfare reform. In 1969 he proposed the Family Assistance Plan, which would have provided a minimum income for poor families and supplements for the working poor. The bill died in a Senate committee, but one of its provisions, a food stamp program, became federal policy. Nixonï¿½s strength was foreign policy. His Vietnamization program reduced American casualties and diminished American involvement in the Vietnam War, although he widened the war by extending it to Cambodia. Meanwhile, Henry Kissinger, whom Nixon appointed as secretary of state in 1973, followed a new brand of diplomacy. Kissinger saw world power as divided among the United States, the USSR, Japan, China, and Europe, and he attempted to achieve first place for the United States among these major powers. In 1969 Nixon advanced the Nixon doctrine, which held that the United States would continue to help Asian nations combat Communism but would no longer commit troops to land wars in Asia. Most important, Nixon opened relations with China. In 1972 he made an official visit to China. Nixonï¿½s trip was the first time that the United States and China had renewed relations since 1949, when Communists took control in China. Nixon also traveled to Moscow to sign the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) in 1972. The treaty reduced stockpiles of nuclear weapons and froze deployment of intercontinental missiles. Nixon, however, undercut his own achievements by abuses of power that came to light in his second term. F.2. Watergate On June 17, 1972, with a presidential campaign in progress, police officers in Washington, D.C., arrested five men caught breaking into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee, located in a residence complex called the Watergate. The incident initially attracted little attention, but two Washington Post reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, began investigating the break-in. From their articles and from Senate hearings, Americans learned that the president, his aides, and campaign officials had conspired to sabotage Nixonï¿½s political foes. Nixon initially denied involvement in the scheme. But a series of special prosecutors, whom the president was forced to appoint, investigated the scandal. They soon determined that Nixon and his aides tried to cover up the presidentï¿½s link with the Watergate break-in and to obstruct the Watergate investigation. In July 1974 the Supreme Court ordered Nixon to produce tape recordings that he made of conversations in the White House. The transcripts contained evidence that Nixon had broken the law and knew about the cover-up. At the end of the month, the House Judiciary Committee adopted three articles of impeachment that charged Nixon with abusing power, obstructing justice, and defying Judiciary Committee subpoenas. Before the House could vote on Nixonï¿½s impeachment, the president resigned, on August 9, 1974. Vice President Gerald Ford assumed the presidency and pardoned Nixon in September. Watergate undermined presidential authority and made citizens fear excessive state power, such as Nixonï¿½s secret bombings of Cambodia and his wiretapping of public officials and journalists. Nixonï¿½s resignation ended an era of turmoil and animosity. Two presidents in succession, elected by vast majorities, had left office either diminished, in Johnsonï¿½s case, or disgraced, in Nixonï¿½s case. The Vietnam War eroded the nation's self-confidence and left a legacy of skepticism. Watergate further enlarged citizensï¿½ suspicions of government. In the next few elections, voters sought heads of state untainted by overexposure to power in Washington, D.C. XXVI. End of the 20th Century Since the mid-1970s, American domestic politics have been affected by several major trendsï¿½the end of the Cold War, a declining industrial sector, and the rise of a global economy. Meanwhile, increased immigration changed the population, and life in a multicultural society generated new conflicts. At the end of the 20th century, Americans faced a major challenge: How to preserve national unity while respecting social diversity. A. Politics Since Watergate In the last quarter of the 20th century, Americans voiced concern about many domestic issues such as the health of the economy, the illegal use of drugs, a growing crime rate, the quality of education, dependency on welfare, spiraling health costs, and contentious race relations. They discussed controversial subjects such as how to fund public schools, whether abortion should be available, whether homosexualsï¿½ rights should be protected, and what should be done about the welfare system. As they had throughout the 20th century, Americans debated the merits of an activist state and the degree to which the government should regulate free enterprise and provide social services. Meanwhile, voting patterns changed. Many people moved to the Sunbelt, the southern and southwestern United States, which gave that region of the nation new political clout. African Americans achieved voting power in the South and within the Democratic Party. Polls and elections measured a gender gap in political preferences, suggesting that women were more likely than men to support Democratic policies. Finally, starting in the 1970s, several significant changes realigned national politics. First, the Democratic coalition of the New Deal era, which had been losing bits and pieces since the 1960s, continued to falter. Southern Democrats deserted the party and joined the Republican Party, which gained seats in state legislatures and in Congress. With the loss of Southern constituents, a Democratic majority was no longer a certainty in the South. Second, a revival of conservative political beliefs that had been in progress since midcentury gained force in the 1980s. Third, many Americans began to consider themselves political independents. Consequently, the outcomes of national elections often depended on swing voters. Candidates started to cater to these voters. Overall, the electorate became more suburban, more middle class, and more likely to vote Republican; the political center expanded and became more conservative. Domestic politics during the administrations of Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George Bush, and Bill Clinton centered on economic issues. Under President Ford, who held office from Nixonï¿½s resignation in 1974 through 1976, the nation confronted a mix of inflation and recession called stagflationï¿½a condition in which both prices and unemployment rose. One major cause was an Arab oil embargo in the early 1970s, which generated a steep rise in oil prices. At odds with Congress, Ford made little progress salvaging the economy and faced criticism from political foes for his pardon of former president Nixon. Formerly governor of Georgia, Jimmy Carter campaigned as an outsider who had not been contaminated by the corruption of Washington, D.C., politics. As president, Carterï¿½like Fordï¿½grappled with rising inflation, an energy crisis, unemployment, and battles with Congress. Admired for his advocacy of human rights abroad, Carter failed to turn the economy around, and he lost the election of 1980 to former California governor Ronald Reagan. In 1980 the growth of conservatism led to Ronald Reaganï¿½s victory. Reagan vowed to stimulate the economy by implementing what was called supply-side economics, a theory that tax cuts would spur economic growth and therefore increase government revenues. Reagan also promised to cut government. ï¿½Government is not the solution to the problem,ï¿½ he declared. ï¿½Government is the problem.ï¿½ In 1981 Congress reduced taxes, cut social programs, and increased military spending. However, the increased government revenues predicted by supply-side economics did not appear. Over Reaganï¿½s two terms in office, military costs rose, revenues failed to increase, and a huge budget deficit developed. The United States had been a creditor nation when Reagan was elected, but by the time he left office, the United States had become the worldï¿½s largest debtor nation. However, Reaganï¿½s popularity remained high. Inflation that had built up in the 1970s subsided, and unemployment went down. But economic good times obscured uneven distribution of income and growing poverty. Reaganï¿½s admirers were surprised during his second term when in 1986 and 1987 the public learned about the Iran-Contra Affair. Members of Reaganï¿½s administration had secretly sold arms to Iran in exchange for the liberation of Americans who had been held hostage in Lebanon. Reagan officials then used the profits to subsidize the Contras, a rebel force that sought to overthrow the left-wing Sandinista regime in Nicaragua. Congress had forbidden such aid. The scandal, however, did little to diminish the Reagan legacy. The presidentï¿½s supporters hoped for less government and lower taxes, and many of them held conservative social positions, such as opposition to abortion. George Herbert Walker Bush, Reaganï¿½s vice president and successor, inherited Reaganï¿½s agenda and continued Reaganï¿½s policies. Bush won public approval for his management of the Persian Gulf War in 1991. But like his predecessors, Bush met with public disapproval about the economy. First the brief war caused oil prices to rise, and war costs put new pressures on federal finances. Second, Bush had promised ï¿½no new taxes,ï¿½ but in fact agreed to raise taxes. Finally, the president clashed with Congress over how to improve the economy and reduce the huge national deficit. With dwindling support since the 1960s, the Democratic Party had trouble electing its presidential candidates. As a moderate ï¿½New Democrat,ï¿½ Bill Clinton in 1992 bucked the trend. He supported centrist, middle-class goals such as efficient government, economic growth, a balanced budget, and health-care reform. But Clintonï¿½s most important goalï¿½a sweeping reform of the national health-care systemï¿½failed. In 1994 Democrats lost control of Congress, a dazzling defeatï¿½the first Democratic loss of the House in 40 years. With this loss, Clintonï¿½s hope for significant health-care reform vanished. Clinton succeeded, however, in achieving centrist measures such as welfare reform. In 1996 Congress abandoned the welfare system in place since the New Deal; the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act limited welfare recipients to five years of benefits in a lifetime, and required that adult recipients work after two years. It also denied some welfare programs and food stamps to legal immigrants. Although the bill disappointed his more liberal Democratic base, Clinton managed to hold the center. Riding a booming economy, he also succeeded in obliterating the huge deficit Reagan left behind. Clintonï¿½s reputation suffered in 1998 with the revelation of an extramarital affair with a White House intern. The affair was brought to the publicï¿½s attention by a special prosecutor originally appointed to investigate aspects of the presidentï¿½s past financial and administrative dealings. The affair and a lack of presidential candor about it led Congress to hold impeachment hearings. Angered by the zeal of the prosecutor, Clintonï¿½s supporters continued to endorse the president, as did many respondents to opinion polls. The presidentï¿½s detractors denounced him for lying to the public, to his family, and to his advisers for many months. Impeached by the House of Representatives in December 1998 on charges of lying under oath and obstructing justice, Clinton was acquitted by the Senate in February 1999. B. End of the Cold War In the decade after Watergate, the United States continued its policy of dï¿½tente, an easing of Cold War tensions that began under Nixon and Kissinger. Under President Gerald Ford, in 1975, the United States joined the USSR and 33 other countries to sign the Helsinki Accords, in which member nations vowed to respect boundaries and human rights. When Jimmy Carter became president in 1977, he took a firm stand on human rights and tried to combat rights abuses in Chile, Argentina, Ethiopia, South Africa, and elsewhere. Carter also opened full diplomatic relations with China in 1979. In 1978 he hosted a meeting between the president of Egypt and the prime minister of Israel to work toward a peace agreement. In March 1979 Israel and Egypt signed the Camp David Accords. Negotiating the settlement was one of Carterï¿½s finest moments. But trouble lay ahead. In January 1979 a revolution in Iran, led by Muslim clergyman Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, toppled the ruler of Iran, Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. Fueled by anti-American feelings, the revolutionaries seized more than 50 American hostages in November 1979. They were not freed until Reagan assumed office in 1981. Dï¿½tente faltered under Reagan, who revived Cold War antagonisms. The president restarted the arms race, denounced the Soviet Union as an ï¿½evil empire,ï¿½ and supplied funds and weapons to anti-Communist forces in Latin America, notably in El Salvador and Nicaragua, two poor nations beset by revolution. In 1982 the CIA organized and financed a guerrilla army in Nicaragua; the trail of secret funds for this venture led to the revelations of the Iran-Contra Affair. Reagan also advocated a huge military buildup and supported plans for the Strategic Defense Initiative, known as Star Wars, a multibillion dollar missile defense system. A heated-up Cold War prevailed through most of Reaganï¿½s tenure. But suddenly, after George H. W. Bush took office in 1989, a series of revolutionary changes occurred. Within a short time, from 1989 to 1990, the Communist Party in the USSR lost control of the government, and Communists lost power in the Eastern European countries as well. The Soviet revolution that dominated the 20th century ground to a halt. The Cold War was over. The first signs of the end of the Cold War appeared during the Reagan administration, in 1985, when Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union. To reverse the process of economic decline in the USSR that had been under way since the 1970s, Gorbachev declared a policy of perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (political openness). Under Gorbachev, freedom increased but the economy deteriorated. Blaming Communist Party bureaucrats for the economic problems, Gorbachev replaced them with a freely elected legislature. Then in 1989, Gorbachev refused to send Soviet troops to bolster Communist regimes in Eastern Europe. Those regimes began to crumbleï¿½first in Poland and Czechoslovakia, then in East Germany, Bulgaria, and Romania. On November 9, 1989, exuberant Germans dismantled the wall between East and West Berlin. The two Germanies, which had been separated since the end of World War II, were reunited in 1990. The Baltic nationsï¿½Latvia, Lithuania, and Estoniaï¿½declared their independence from the USSR, and other republics in the USSR followed. The collapse of the Soviet Union transformed world politics. Reagan held four major summit conferences with Gorbachev in three years. The two leaders signed agreements to establish scientific and cultural exchanges, to reduce strategic arms and conventional forces, to improve the environment, and to destroy nuclear missiles that had been placed in Europe. Seeking new opportunities, American businesses swiftly made inroads in the former Soviet Union. With the Cold War over and the Soviet Union dismantled, the United States faced problems elsewhere. In August 1990 Saddam Hussein of Iraq invaded the neighboring nation of Kuwait. In February 1991, after extensive bombing of Iraqi forces, President Bush sent U.S. troops into Kuwait and Iraq. They were part of a United Nations coalition led by the United States. The Persian Gulf War was brief; the UN coalition swiftly retook Kuwait and defeated Iraq. The American victory failed to satisfy critics who believed that Hussein should have been ousted from power. After Husseinï¿½s defeat in 1991 a UN special commission (UNSCOM) was appointed to force Iraq to disarm. However, Iraq continued to produce chemical and biological weapons. Beginning in 1998, after Iraq repeatedly refused to allow UNSCOM to inspect its weapons sites, the United States again bombed Iraq on several different occasions. After the Persian Gulf War, the United States assumed an active role in trying to preserve global peace. Many new challenges emerged in the 1990s. The part of the world once dominated by the USSR was in turmoil. Trouble arose in formerly Communist Yugoslavia, where fierce battles erupted among Serbs, Croats, and Bosnian Muslims (see Wars of Yugoslav Succession). In March 1999 NATO forces began bombing Serbia and Serbian targets in Kosovo. Both Serbia and Kosovo were part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY, now the republic of Serbia and Montenegro). The attack sought to stop Serbian troops from ï¿½ethnic cleansing,ï¿½ which drove Albanian Kosovars out of the province to neighboring nations. In June 1999 NATO and FRY military leaders approved an international peace plan for Kosovo, and NATO suspended its bombing. Disputes festered outside Europe as well. In 1989 Chinese-U.S. relations faltered when China crushed a prodemocracy movement in Tiananmen Square (see Tiananmen Square Protest). In Latin America, the civil wars of the 1970s and 1980s waned, but other problems endured: poverty, guerrilla warfare, and drug trafficking. The Middle East remained another insecure region. In late 1987 the intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation, began in the Gaza Strip and spread to the West Bank. Although Israel and the Palestinians signed agreements in 1993, 1995, and 1998, peace remained elusive. Also, throughout the 1980s and 1990s the United States contended with a worldwide threat of terrorism, at home and abroad. Terrorists bombed the World Trade Center in New York City in 1993. In 1995 a massive bomb exploded in a truck in front of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, killing 168 people and destroying much of the building. At the end of the 20th century, Americans confronted a world divided between highly industrial societies and underdeveloped ones. Industrial societies had high literacy rates, high living standards, and stable birth rates. Underdeveloped societies had extensive poverty, high rates of disease, high population growth, and low literacy. Threats of annihilation no longer came primarily from the Soviet Union, parts of which retained thousands of nuclear weapons, but from disgruntled rogue nations with nuclear weapons and from terrorists. C. Toward a Global Economy In the last quarter of the 20th century, the United States moved toward a postindustrial economy, one based more on services and information processing than on manufacturing. In the 1970s industrial production declined, most significantly in iron, steel, autos, rubber, and textiles. Competition from abroad, such as auto and steel imports from Japan and Germany, forced many Americans out of well-paying jobs, and the manufacturing sector continued to shrink. See also Globalization. The service sector, however, expanded. Some service workers were highly paid, such as computer technicians, engineers, and managers. Most service workers, however, worked in low-paying jobs, such as retail sales, fast food, or custodial work. The decline of manufacturing and the loss of jobs were closely tied to the development of a global economy. In a global economy, capital and business relationships cross national and regional boundaries. Roots of the global economy reach back to the late 19th century, when large businesses set up overseas operations. In the 1950s major American companies sought facilities and markets in Europe. The most recent wave of globalization began in the 1970s, led by the United States and Japan. In both countries, large multinational corporations produced goods and ran subsidiary units in other nations. By the 1990s computers and the Internet (a worldwide network that links computers and provides instant communication) enabled investors to move capital anywhere in the world instantaneously, uncontrolled by government. At the centuryï¿½s end, Americans were enmeshed in the global economy; tens of millions of American jobs depended on world markets. Many U.S. companies set up operations abroad to reduce labor costs and to ensure access to foreign markets. Consequently, Americans lost jobs that moved overseas. Meanwhile, foreigners invested capital in U.S. banks, businesses, and real estate. Japanese companies built auto plants in Tennessee and Indiana that employed tens of thousands of American workers. The global economy generated corporate profits, especially for the worldï¿½s largest multinationals. Less fortunate consequences included a rising trade deficit (Americans bought more in foreign goods than they sold to foreign nations). The global economy also meant that events in markets around the world had a greater effect on financial markets in the United States. Many American investors discovered this effect in the fall of 1998, when stock prices, influenced by markets in Japan, Europe, and around the globe, wavered wildly. To attract investment, increase trade, and regulate the global economy, the United States joined regional trade organizations. In East Asia, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) linked the United States and Asian nations. In 1988 the United States and Canada signed a treaty to begin a transition to complete free trade, and in 1994 the arrangement, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), was extended to include Mexico. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) treaty, signed by the United States in 1994, lowered trade barriers and established the World Trade Organization (WTO) to resolve disputes. Postindustrialization and the global economy took a toll on American workers. Between 1979 and 1995, the United States lost more than 43 million jobs. In the 1980s, as the Cold War wound down, defense industries folded and left thousands unemployed. In the early 1990s, major corporations laid off hundreds of thousands of employees. Such drastic cuts, known as downsizing, were necessary, companies claimed, in order to compete in the global economy. Workers who moved to new jobs in the service sector usually earned less, and the ranks of temporary and part-time workers, lacking benefits or prospects for advancement, grew. Unemployment declined at the end of the 1990s as the economy soared and the federal deficit shrank. Organized labor also saw hard times. As blue-collar jobs vanished, union membership fell, and unions began to lose leverage as a political pressure group. A turning point came in 1981 when President Reagan broke an air traffic controllers strike. The strikersï¿½ loss was especially significant because in this instance, the employer was the U.S. government. Thereafter, unions struggled to cope with the dual impact of a postindustrial and global economy. At the same time, income inequality increased. By the 1990s, chief executive officers (CEOs) earned several hundred dollars for every dollar earned by the average factory worker. As labor lost power, management gained it. Surging insurance costs, for instance, boosted employer demands for managed care, or health maintenance organizations (HMOs). Such organizations multiplied after Congress failed to enact the Clinton administrationï¿½s health-care plan. By the end of the 1990s HMOs enrolled more than 60 percent of the population. A goal of employersï¿½to lower insurance costsï¿½thus transformed a sector of the economy. But managed care evoked controversy. Proponents claimed that managed care plans focused on preventing illnesses rather than just treating them. Critics argued that managed care deprived doctors of authority, forced patients to cede the right to choose their own doctors, and put cost control before quality care. Finally, womenï¿½s entry into the work force in massive numbers changed the economy. In 1980, 51.5 percent of women age 16 and older had joined the labor force, where they made up 42.5 percent of employed workers. By 1997, 59.8 percent of women were in the labor force, representing 46.2 percent of all workers. Women brought to the workplace new concernsï¿½about wage inequality, quality childcare, and the integration of paid work with family life. A growing industry developed to provide day care for children, but the government rarely funded such facilities although some people thought it should. Despite their increased numbers in the workplace, women generally received less pay than men. Womenï¿½s organizations demanded pay equity, or comparable worth, an effort to raise pay levels in occupations in which women predominate. Under a pay equity policy, for instance, a woman office worker and a male truck driver who worked for the same company would receive the same pay. Women managers complained about a ï¿½glass ceilingï¿½ that limited their prospects for advancement. For women working in office jobs, new technology transformed office work but devalued the skills of clerical employees. Many women joined the growing pool of less costly temporary or contingent workers. Womenï¿½s growing role in the work force led to changes in public policy. One change was a family leave policy. In 1990 President Bush vetoed a bill that would have offered unpaid leave to workers with family obligations. But President Clinton in 1993 signed a family leave law that required companies of more than 50 workers to allow workers up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave a year to cope with family concerns. The law enabled workers with obligations related to childbirth, adoption, illness of a family member, or an aged relative to take short periods of time off without fear of losing their jobs. Womenï¿½s concerns about economic equality also led the federal government in the 1980s to develop policies against sexual harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment, according to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, refers to behavior that makes sex a condition of advancement, unreasonably interferes with an individualï¿½s job performance, or creates an ï¿½intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment.ï¿½ Such behavior is a form of sex discrimination prohibited by the civil rights law of 1964. Beginning in 1986, federal court decisions defined the concept of sexual harassment and upheld rules against it. Sexual harassment policy received extensive publicity in 1991 when lawyer Anita Hill testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee to block the Supreme Court appointment of future justice Clarence Thomas. D. A Changing Population In the last quarter of the 20th century, the United States underwent social changes as well as economic ones. By the century's end, Americans were vastly more diverse. The new diversity reflected rising immigration rates, a legacy of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. The act had abolished quotas based on national origins that favored northern and western Europeans and imposed the first limits on immigrants from the western hemisphere. According to the law, 170,000 migrants could enter annually from the eastern hemisphere and 120,000 from the western hemisphere. The act exempted spouses, children, and parents of U.S. citizens from these numerical limits. The new policy had unexpected results. Legal immigration exceeded congressional limits, due mainly to the family exemptions. Immigrants from Asia and Latin America quickly surpassed in number those who came from Europe. In addition, illegal immigration soared. By 1998, according to census data, immigrants accounted for 9.8 percent of the United States population, compared with 4.8 percent in 1970. In 1986 Congress passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act, which outlawed the hiring of illegal aliens, imposed penalties on employers who did so, toughened control of immigration on the Mexican border, and offered amnesty to aliens who could prove that they were in the country continuously since January 1, 1982. About 3 million undocumented newcomers gained amnesty under the law. In 1990 Congress passed the most liberal immigration statute of the post-World War II era. This law allowed 700,000 immigrants to enter the United States each year and provided asylum for political refugees. The new immigration of the late 20th century differed from that of a century earlier. By the 1980s only 10 percent of immigrants were Europeans. Over 40 percent were Asianï¿½from China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Cambodia, Japan, the Philippines, and South Korea. Most of the rest came from Mexico, other parts of Central America, the Caribbean, and South America. Hispanic immigrants were the fastest-growing group. From 1970 to 1990 the number of Hispanics in the United States grew from 9 million to 22.4 million. Economic problems in Mexico spurred still more immigration, legal and illegal. According to the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 5 million illegal immigrants lived in the United States in 1996. The largest number of illegal aliens in the 1990s came from Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Haiti. Many others came from Canada, Poland, China, and Ireland. In 1996 Congress passed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act, which made it easier for the government to deport aliens attempting to enter the United States without proper documents. Over 70 percent of immigrants who came to the country in the 1990s settled in six states: California, Texas, Florida, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. By 1996 half the nationï¿½s foreign-born inhabitants lived in California, where protests arose against heavy immigration, legal and illegal. In 1994 California voters passed Proposition 187, which revoked the rights of illegal immigrants to state education, welfare, and health services. Challenged in court, the main provisions of the law never took effect. Conflict over increased immigration also led to incidents of racial bias, such as black boycotts of Korean-owned grocery stores in New York in the 1980s and confrontations between Asian Americans and African Americans in a Los Angeles riot in 1992. Critics of immigration policy contended that lawmakers who passed immigration laws since the 1960s had underestimated their effect. These critics believed that the new immigration created more problems than benefits. They saw high immigration rates as threatening Americaï¿½s common culture, increasing competition for jobs, lowering wages, profiting only employers, injuring labor, and especially harming those at the bottom of the job market. Defenders of liberal immigration policies argued that the United States had a long tradition as a nation of immigrants. They stated that immigration boosted the economy, that the taxes paid by immigrants exceeded the costs they incurred, and that newcomers took jobs no one else wanted and contributed their skills and education to the U.S. economy. Proposals to restrict immigration made no progress, but the increasing diversity of American society led to new issues. E. Unity and Diversity As the 20th century came to a close, issues arose about whether group identity challenged national identity. Many Americans wanted to preserve a sense of national unity while respecting social diversity. They debated the pros and cons of bilingual education, the impact of multiculturalism, and the merits of affirmative action policies in education and employment. Organizations representing Spanish-speaking Americans began to demand bilingual education in the 1960s. Mexican Americans in particular urged the use of Spanish in schools and the teaching of Mexican American culture. In 1968 Congress passed the Bilingual Education Act, which enabled non-English speakers to be educated in their own language. The Voting Rights Act of 1975 enabled them to vote in their own language. In the 1980s opposition to bilingualism grew; opponents sought to make English the official language of the United States and to restrict bilingual school programs. Supporters of bilingual education replied that forcing students to give up their native languages weakened their distinctive cultures. Opponents contended that bilingual education slowed the pace at which non-English-speaking students entered the mainstream of society. In 1998 California voters passed Proposition 227, which sought to replace bilingual education that had been in place for three decades with a program of nearly all-English instruction. Arizona passed a similar law in 2000. Multiculturalism is a concept with many meanings, but it often refers to acceptance of immigrant and minority groups as distinct communities, distinguishable from the majority population. Like bilingualism, multiculturalism provokes debate. Advocates of multiculturalism believe that members of minority groups should enjoy equal rights in American society without giving up their diverse ethnic cultures. Multicultural education programs, for instance, strive to teach the content of different cultures, to build tolerance of these cultures, and to eliminate discrimination. The hope is to enable students to understand how other cultures view the world. Multiculturalists reject the idea of a melting pot and assimilation; they dismiss the idea that national identity must be based on a common heritage and values. Critics argue that multicultural education creates conflict among groups more than it fosters tolerance of one group for another. Cultural pluralism, critics contend, promotes rivalry and divisions. Moreover, they assert, European traditions remain central to American culture and institutions. Some critics find multiculturalism a token gesture designed to hide continuing domination of American culture by the majority group. Others argue that recognition of cultural differences and group identities does not help address social and economic disadvantages. The policy of affirmative action has probably evoked the most widespread controversy. President Kennedy first used the term in 1961 in an executive order requiring groups that did business with the government to take affirmative action to remedy past discrimination against African Americans. President Johnson reissued the policy in another executive order in 1965. During Nixonï¿½s administration, the government increased affirmative action regulations to include women and other minorities. To supporters, affirmative action provides opportunities for members of groups that suffered past discrimination. To opponents, it is reverse discrimination. Opponents especially object to the use of quotasï¿½the setting aside of a specific number of college admission places or job slotsï¿½for members of minority groups. The Supreme Court dealt with this controversial issue in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978). The Court upheld the claim of a white applicant that he had been unconstitutionally denied admission to a state medical school solely on the basis of race. However, Justice Lewis Powell, Jr., wrote in the majority opinion that racial preferences in determining admission are permissible if their purpose is to improve racial diversity among students, and if they do not stipulate fixed quotas but take race into account as one factor among many. Soon affirmative action was extended to employment, and the policy came before the courts in many subsequent cases. The courts consistently sustained affirmative action policies. Businesses and schools began to use such policies widely. But controversy persisted, and affirmative action continued to be challenged at the polls and in the courts. In 1996 California voters approved Proposition 209, an initiative that ended affirmative action throughout the state in public hiring, purchasing, and other government business. The same year the Fifth U.S. Circuit Court barred the University of Texas Law School from any consideration of race or ethnicity in its admissions decisions. The Supreme Court chose not to review the case. However, in 2003, the Supreme Court reaffirmed its decision in Bakke in the case of Grutter v. Bollinger. In a 5 to 4 decision, the Court reiterated its position on the racial diversity principle, though it noted that racial preferences should not be permanently justified. Civil rights organizations and education officials hailed the decision. ï¿½In a society like our own,ï¿½ wrote Justice Sandra Day Oï¿½Connor in the majority opinion, ï¿½race unfortunately still matters. In order to cultivate a set of leaders with legitimacy in the eyes of the citizenry, it is necessary that the path to leadership be visibly open to talented and qualified individuals of every race and ethnicity.ï¿½ XXVII. The Early 21st Century By the end of the 20th century the Cold War had ended, and the United States was riding a wave of unparalleled economic prosperity. But Americans learned at the dawn of the 21st century that they were not immune to the dangers posed by a volatile and turbulent world. On September 11, 2001, terrorists carried out a devastating attack on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. It was the first enemy action on American soil since the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941. The country also faced an economic recession beginning in 2001 in which more than a million jobs were lost. The recession reminded the country that economic good times were not guaranteed to last forever. While new realities spawned new fears, they also revealed reserves of resilience and strength in the national character. Faced with unexpected challenges, a resourceful and increasingly diverse country showed the world that it could not be easily demoralized. A. An Increasingly Diverse Population The United States had a larger, more diverse population than ever as the 21st century began. According to the 2000 census, the population grew to more than 281 million people during the 1990s, an increase of 32.7 million since the 1990 census. Hispanic Americans fueled much of the population increase. The fastest growing minority group in the United States, the Hispanic population grew from 22.4 million to 35.3 million, a 58 percent increase, between 1990 and 2000. The Asian American population grew by 48 percent in the 1990s. The census also showed that, for the first time since the early 1930s, one out of every ten Americans was foreign-born. The country was getting older as well. The median age in the United States rose to 35.3 years, higher than ever. The fastest growing age group was a segment of the so-called ï¿½baby-boomï¿½ generationï¿½people between 45 and 54. Most of the population growth took place in the West and South in cities such as Denver, Colorado, and Atlanta, Georgia. Big cities in the North and East such as Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Detroit, Michigan, lost population in the 1990s. The nationï¿½s midsection also emptied out. Sixty percent of the counties in the Great Plains states (Texas, Oklahoma, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Minnesota, and North and South Dakota) lost people. Nearly 2,300,000 sq km (900,000 sq mi) in this region met the definition of frontier: land populated by six or less people per square mile (2.3 people per square kilometer). The American family also underwent dramatic changes. Census data revealed that for the first time, married couples with children represented less than a quarter of all U.S. households (23.5 percent, down from 38.8 percent in 1970). The number of single mothers, single fathers, and unmarried couples grew sharply. However, the decline in the number of so-called nuclear familiesï¿½two adults and their childrenï¿½did not necessarily signal a breakdown in traditional families. Many married couples were simply waiting longer to have children. And more couples were living longer after their children left home. Two troubling trends, divorce and out-of-wedlock births, slowed their growth in the 1990s. B. The Bush Administration As President Clintonï¿½s second term came to an end, the country geared up for the 2000 presidential election. The main candidates were Clintonï¿½s vice president, Al Gore, and Texas governor George W. Bush, the son of former president George Herbert Walker Bush. A Democrat, Gore stressed protecting the environment and improving education. Bush, the Republican candidate, campaigned as a ï¿½compassionate conservative,ï¿½ advocating a tax cut and conservative social policies. The resulting vote was like no other in U.S. history. For five weeks after the election, the outcome of the race between Bush and Gore remained undecided. The critical state was Florida, where Bush led by just a few hundred votes. A bitter legal dispute arose over the recounting of some ballots in that state. After a tangled series of court hearings and recounts in some areas of the state, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5 to 4 that the counting should end. The decision effectively awarded Floridaï¿½s electoral votes and the election to Bush. Although Gore won the nationï¿½s overall popular vote by more than 500,000 votes out of 105 million cast, Bush captured 271 electoral votes to Goreï¿½s 266, and thus the presidency. The extraordinary closeness of the election reflected, at least to some extent, the publicï¿½s doubts about whether either man was prepared to be president. It also showed that the country remained deeply divided over which political party was best able to address its problems. See Disputed Presidential Election of 2000. Once in office Bush focused on tax cuts, education reform, and an expanded role for church-based charities in running social programs. In 2001 Congress approved Bushï¿½s $1.35-trillion tax cut, which took effect over a ten-year period, lowered income tax rates for all taxpayers, and included a small refund to many taxpayers. In 2002 Bush signed into law an education bill that established, among other things, performance standards for public schools. A second round of tax cuts in 2003 provided benefits for stock market investors by lowering the tax rate paid on dividends. The cuts also reduced the estate tax and eliminated it entirely by 2010. C. Terrorist Attacks on the United States American life changed dramatically on the morning of September 11, 2001. Terrorists hijacked four commercial jetliners, crashing two into the World Trade Center towers in New York City, which collapsed into smoldering rubble. Another hit the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, while the fourth plane crashed in rural Pennsylvania after what was believed to be a passenger uprising against the hijackers. About 3,000 people died in the attacks. The government shut down all air traffic for two days as fighter jets patrolled the skies. National Guard troops were deployed on the streets in New York City and Washington, D.C. The major stock exchanges were closed. The event traumatized the nation. Most Americans saw their country as virtually unassailable as the 21st century began. With the Cold War over, Americaï¿½s status as the worldï¿½s lone superpower seemed secure. But as millions watched the catastrophe unfold on television, it was clear that the country was vulnerable in ways that most people had not imagined. After the initial shock, the country mobilized. Volunteers flooded blood banks and military recruiting stations. Millions of dollars were raised for the families of victims. A new patriotic sentiment surfaced as sales of American flags surged. Many people spoke of simplifying their lives and of spending more time with family and friends. The U.S. government quickly identified the hijackers as members of al-Qaeda, an organization that, according to U.S. officials, connected and coordinated fundamentalist Islamic terrorist groups around the world. The government also believed that al-Qaeda was responsible for other attacks, including the bombings of U.S. embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998 and the attack on the Navy ship U.S.S. Cole in Yemen in 2000. Its leader, a wealthy Saudi businessman named Osama bin Laden, had pledged jihad, or holy war, against the United States for its activities in the Middle East. The group made its headquarters in Afghanistan, where it was supported by the countryï¿½s rulers, an Islamic fundamentalist movement known as the Taliban. Instead of launching an immediate attack, Bush spent the first days following the terrorist attacks consulting with military leaders and assembling a coalition of nations to fight terrorism. The coalition included countries in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance, such as Britain. Fears rose again in early October when a powdered form of the bacterium known as anthrax began to appear in letters in some places around the country. Anthrax lives in the soil and is most often found in grass-eating animals such as cattle. It forms hard-to-kill spores that, when ingested, can cause serious and sometimes fatal infections. Over the next few weeks, anthrax killed five people in Florida, New York, Connecticut, and Washington, D.C. It also forced the temporary closure of two congressional office buildings. At first some investigators thought that the outbreak was another form of attack by al-Qaeda. As the investigation progressed, however, some came to believe that someone inside the United States was responsible. In early October the United States went to war, bombing al-Qaeda training camps and missile installations in Afghanistan. Within a few weeks, U.S. marines joined with Afghan opposition groups to topple the Taliban. The U.S. forces killed or captured many al-Qaeda fighters, but bin Laden remained at large. On the home front, President Bush signed the Patriot Act in 2001 to give the government expanded powers to monitor terrorist suspects. Some critics, however, said the new law represented an infringement on civil liberties. Bush also signed a law in 2002 that created a new executive department, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The departmentï¿½s mission was to protect the United States against terrorist attacks, reduce the countryï¿½s vulnerability to terrorism, and aid recovery in case of an attack. The DHS combined dozens of federal agencies into one department, the largest government reorganization since the Department of Defense was created in 1947. See also Civil Rights and Civil Liberties. In 2003 a congressional inquiry concluded in an 858-page report that the U.S. intelligence community ï¿½failed to fully capitalize on available, and potentially important, informationï¿½ that could have helped prevent the September 11 attacks. The inquiry found that U.S. intelligence agencies failed to share information with each other and failed to take action based on the information they did have. Specifically, the report cited the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for missing numerous opportunities to notify the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) that two men linked to al-Qaeda could be in the United States. The two men were among the future hijackers, and prior to September 11 had contact with an FBI informant in San Diego, California. But because the FBI was unaware of their al-Qaeda link, the bureau did not investigate them, missing what the congressional probe called the ï¿½best chance to unravel the Sept. 11 plot.ï¿½ Furthermore, the report found, the CIA failed to put the two men on a watchlist used by the State Department, the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and the Customs Service to deny individuals entry into the United States. The inquiry also found that FBI headquarters failed to heed warnings from its Phoenix office about terrorist suspects seeking to enroll in flight training schools or to act properly on a request from its Minneapolis office to conduct a search of an alleged conspirator in the terrorist attacks. Prepared by a joint committee of the House and Senate Intelligence committees, the report disputed an FBI claim that none of the hijackers had contacted any ï¿½known terrorist sympathizers,ï¿½ finding instead that five hijackers had contact with 14 persons who had been investigated by the FBI for possible links to terrorism. The intelligence community was aware as early as 1994 that terrorists might use aircraft in an attack and knew as early as 1998 that bin Laden was planning an attack within the United States, the report concluded. In July 2004 an independent, bipartisan commission formally known as the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States issued its final report after a nearly two-year investigation into the September 11 attacks. The commission, chaired by former New Jersey governor Thomas H. Kean, found that neither the administration of President Bill Clinton, nor the Bush administration, prior to September 11, had grasped the gravity of the threat posed by al-Qaeda. The report said that ï¿½none of the measures adopted by the U.S. government from 1998 to 2001 disturbed or even delayed the progress of the al-Qaeda plot. Across the government, there were failures of imagination, policy, capabilities, and management.ï¿½ The commission said its purpose was not to cast blame, but to make recommendations for improving U.S. counterterrorist efforts, and it put forward several proposals to unify U.S. intelligence agencies and place them under a national intelligence director. Congress approved the creation of the office of a national intelligence director in January 2005. D. War with Iraq After the United States toppled the Taliban in Afghanistan, the Bush administration turned its attention to Iraq. Although a U.S.-led coalition had defeated Iraq in the Persian Gulf War in 1991, Iraqï¿½s leader, Saddam Hussein, remained in power. After that war ended, the United Nations (UN) ordered Iraq to destroy its biological and chemical weapons. Weapons inspectors were sent to Iraq to monitor its disarmament. However, in 1998 Iraq announced that it would no longer cooperate with the UN, and UN weapons inspectors left the country. In 2002 the Bush administration put a renewed focus on Iraq as part of its war on terrorism. It claimed that Iraq supported terrorist organizations and still had an arsenal of banned weapons. The United States pressed the UN to force Iraq to allow weapons inspectors back into the country. In October the U.S. Congress passed a resolution authorizing the president to use military force against Iraq if Iraq did not cooperate with the UN. The next month the UN passed a resolution cosponsored by the United States and Britain ordering the immediate return of weapons inspectors to Iraq and threatening ï¿½serious consequencesï¿½ if Iraq did not disarm. Iraq agreed to comply with the resolution, and inspectors began working in Iraq that same month. In early 2003 the United States and Britain claimed that Iraq was not cooperating with UN weapons inspectors, and they sought UN authorization of force against Iraq. However, some countries, including France, Germany, Russia, and China, wanted to give the inspections more time to proceed and opposed military action. After weeks of diplomatic wrangling, the United States decided to forgo UN approval and pursue military action against Iraq with a coalition of willing countries. In March 2003 U.S.-led forces invaded Iraq. By mid-April they had captured the capital city of Baghdad and other major population centers and overthrown the regime of Saddam Hussein. In May President Bush declared that major combat operations in Iraq had ended and that an ally of al-Qaeda had been defeated. However, in the months that followed more U.S. troops were killed by guerrilla insurgents than during the invasion itself. In September Bush conceded that there was no evidence proving an al-Qaeda link to the regime of Saddam Hussein. Unrest continued in Iraq and even the capture and arrest of Saddam Hussein in December 2003 failed to end it. The insurgency was concentrated mainly among Sunni Muslims and a segment of Shia Muslims opposed to the U.S. occupation. The United States appointed a 25-member Iraqi Governing Council, consisting of the major ethnic and religious groups in Iraq, but the councilï¿½s authority was subordinate to that of the U.S. administrator in Iraq, L. Paul Bremer III. In March 2004 the council approved an interim constitution, although the 12 Shia Muslim members of the council objected to some of the constitutionï¿½s provisions. The constitution guaranteed a broad array of democratic rights, including rights for women and the Kurdish minority, and called for elections for a national assembly by January 1, 2005. The Bush administration transferred sovereignty to an interim Iraqi government at the end of June 2004, but it maintained about 130,000 troops in Iraq and imposed a number of orders that introduced privatization to Iraqï¿½s previously state-run economy. In the meantime the hunt for Iraqï¿½s alleged weapons of mass destruction proved fruitless. In October 2003 a team of U.S. weapons inspectors reported that it had found no weapons of mass destruction. In January 2004 the head of the group, David Kay, resigned and told Congress that ï¿½we were all wrong, probablyï¿½ about the existence of such weapons. Kay urged an independent inquiry into the failure of U.S. intelligence. Kay said the group not only could not find weapons of mass destruction but more importantly could not discover any of the facilities needed to produce such weapons on a large scale. A final report concluded that Hussein had ordered the destruction of biological and chemical weapons and had discontinued a nuclear weapons program but tried to keep these facts secret, fearing an attack by Iran. The two countries had fought a nearly eight-year-long war (see Iran-Iraq War). In July 2004 the bipartisan commission that investigated the September 11 attacks also concluded that there had been no collaborative relationship between the Hussein regime and al-Qaeda. Despite the undermining of the two principal reasons for invading Iraq, the Bush administration maintained that the toppling of the Hussein regime had nevertheless made the region more stable and more open to democracy. E. The Faltering Economy After nearly a decade of unprecedented expansion during the 1990s, the American economy began to show signs of a slump at the beginning of the 21st century. In 2000 the so-called dot-com bubbleï¿½the explosion of companies that sprouted up to take advantage of the Internetï¿½burst. Analysts cited many reasons for the failure of these companies. Among them was that investors overestimated the extent to which consumers were willing to buy goods and services online. When venture capitalistsï¿½the people and companies that provide money to start-up businessesï¿½became reluctant to invest new funds, the collapse began. As many Internet companies went out of business, the stock prices of once high-flying companies such as Cisco Systems, Inc., and Lucent Technologies began to plummet. Other large companies, such as Microsoft Corporation and AOL Time Warner, Inc. (present-day Time Warner Inc.), announced that they would not meet projected profits. And just as high-technology stocks fueled the marketï¿½s rise, they dragged the market down. Both the Dow Jones Industrial Average and The Nasdaq Stock Market ended 2000 with a loss. Soon the rest of the economy started to weaken. The National Bureau of Economic Research, a respected group of economists, estimated that the U.S. economy actually stopped growing in March 2001. Manufacturing and employment began to decline. The big automobile companies shut down plants and laid off thousands of workers. As businesspeople traveled less, airlines began cutting back. By the end of 2001, corporate profits had suffered one of their steepest drops in decades. Many economists believe that the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, made the countryï¿½s slumping economy even worse. After remaining closed for several days after the terrorist attacks, the stock market suffered a record plunge when it reopened, with anxious investors selling off their holdings. Companies continued to trim workers, accelerating a downsizing that would total more than 1 million jobs by the end of 2001. Unemployment reached 8.3 million in December 2001, the highest in seven years. The federal government tried to cushion the economic blows. Within two weeks of the terrorist attacks, Congress approved $15 billion in aid for the devastated airline industry. But with billions of additional dollars earmarked for defense spending and domestic security in the wake of September 11, the government only had a limited ability to cope with the faltering economy. As 2002 began, however, the stock market rebounded strongly, and the pace of corporate layoffs slowed. Interest rate cuts by the Federal Reserve brought interest rates to record lows and helped some sectors of the economy. Studies showed that even after the terrorist attacks, American consumers continued to buy homes and cars in record numbers. In 2003 the major stock indexes recorded healthy gains, and other economic indicators were positive. The recovery failed to replace the estimated 2.4 million jobs lost during the downturn, however, and some economists characterized it as a ï¿½jobless recovery.ï¿½ Some corporations announced that they were hiring workers overseas to replace workers in the United States, a practice known as outsourcing. As 2005 began, concerns over inflation, motivated in part by a rise in petroleum prices, led the Federal Reserve to begin raising interest rates at a faster pace than previously anticipated. F. Presidential Election Year The year 2004 began with the Democratic Partyï¿½s Iowa caucus in January, the kickoff for the partyï¿½s presidential nomination campaign in a presidential election year. By March Senator John F. Kerry of Massachusetts had won enough delegates in the caucuses and primaries to secure the nomination at the partyï¿½s convention in June. President Bush ran unopposed in the Republican primaries and was nominated at his partyï¿½s convention in New York City in August. In the November elections, Bush defeated Kerry, sweeping the South and the key swing state of Ohio to win both the electoral college tally and the popular vote. Kerry won the Northeast, the West Coast, and a number of Midwestern states. Claiming a popular mandate from the election, Bush began his second term by calling for a sweeping overhaul of Social Security. His plan to replace guaranteed Social Security benefits with private accounts invested in the stock market for younger workers met with resistance, however. G. Bushï¿½s Second Term The failure of Bushï¿½s Social Security proposal seemed to set the stage for a series of mishaps for the Bush administration that resulted in some of the lowest approval ratings for the president since his election in 2000. Chief among these was the federal governmentï¿½s delayed response to Hurricane Katrina, an August 2005 disaster that left tens of thousands of New Orleans residents, mostly poor and African American, stranded in the flooded city. It was the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history. A lobbying scandal involving Republican members of Congress, a decision to lease some U.S. port operations to a company based in the United Arab Emirates, and continued disorder in Iraq also contributed to popular disapproval. Nevertheless, Bushï¿½s second term gave him an historic opportunity to realign the Supreme Court in a more conservative direction. With the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist and the retirement of Justice Sandra Day Oï¿½Connor, Bush succeeded in winning the Senate confirmation of two conservative jurists, John Glover Roberts, Jr., who succeeded Rehnquist as chief justice, and Samuel A. Alito, Jr., who succeeded Oï¿½Connor. With Justice Anthony Kennedy often filling the role of a swing voter and with some uncertainty about the judicial philosophies of the new appointees, however, it was unclear if Bushï¿½s new appointments would lead to the overturning of significant precedents, such as Roe v. Wade. The extent of presidential power in relation to the U.S. system of checks and balances spurred controversy during Bushï¿½s second term. Throughout his prosecution of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, Bush claimed that he had wide latitude as commander in chief to protect national security. Those claims were the basis for denying Geneva Convention protections to prisoners held at Guantï¿½namo Bay, Cuba. In 2006 Bush claimed that he had the authority as commander in chief and under the congressional resolution that authorized military force in Afghanistan to order the National Security Agency to eavesdrop on the overseas communications of U.S. citizens and nationals. The secret program began in 2002 but was disclosed by a 2006 report in the New York Times. Some congressional critics said the 1978 Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act required judicial review of electronic eavesdropping in such cases, making the program illegal. As the midterm elections approached, Republicans were fearful that the presidentï¿½s low popularity ratings could lead to a Democratic takeover of one or both houses of Congress. But the Democratic Party appeared to be disunited, particularly over the Iraq war, and uncertain as to how to take advantage of the presidentï¿½s unexpected setbacks. In the meantime the U.S. economy showed considerable resilience, having recovered all the jobs lost during the recession of 2000. Despite economic growth, however, the United States continued to lose jobs in the manufacturing sector, and the two major automakers, General Motors Corporation and Ford Motor Company, announced plans for massive layoffs as their market shares dwindled. The first part of this article was contributed by Paul E. Johnson. The second part, from Reconstruction to the Early 21st Century, was contributed by Nancy Woloch. Source: "United States History," Microsoftï¿½ Encartaï¿½ Online Encyclopedia 2006 http://encarta.msn.com ï¿½ 1997-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.	Pontiac
Which city in northeast France lies at the confluence of the Moselle and Seille rivers?	Michigan Notable Indians - Native American Studies Research Guide - LibGuides at Michigan State University Libraries Native American Studies Research Guide A collection of noteworthy Michigan Indians, both historical and current. Suggestions welcome. Under construction. Jean Baptiste Assiginack (Odawa, 1768-1866) Born in Waganakising (Middle Village) in 1768, Odawa warrior and orator Assiginack led his war party from the shores of Little Traverse Bay to fight in the Niagara Theater in the War of 1812. Assiginack’s war party included Mookmanish (Little Bad Knife), Kishigopenasi (Day Bird), Makadepenasi (Blackbird), Eshquagonabe (Looking Back) and Clap of Thunder at Night. The war party traveled by canoe to fight American soldiers throughout the Great Lakes. Assiginack and his warriors followed a long lineage of Odawa warriors who fought against the Muschodesh, Fox, Iroquois, Winnebago, Chickasaw, British and American forces. Assiginack was a renowned orator for the Odawa, once giving a speech from sunrise to sunset for the purpose of securing warriors to fight the Americans. In addition to his speaking skills, Assiginack also led by example. He successfully led warriors from Little Traverse into combat, including the Niagara Theater. The Odawa war party was successful in every battle they fought in. After the war ended, Assiginack recognized new enemies that must be confronted, one of which was the disastrous effects alcohol had on his people. On one occasion, Assiginack got word that a boat planned on bringing a large quantity of rum to his village. Assiginack quickly gathered his warriors, boarded the vessel and dumped all the rum overboard. At the conclusion of the war, Assiginack became an interpreter for the British on Drummond Island, Michigan. Assiginack returned to his home at Waganakising in 1827 to help create a Catholic mission at Little Traverse along with his brother Apawkausegun. Apawkausegun was instrumental in helping the Little Traverse Bay Odawa negotiate the treaty of 1836. American policies were not favorable to Assiginack so, by 1832, he had already removed his village to original Odawa homelands on Manitoulin Island, Ontario. Assiginack and his brother constantly worked to improve their tribe’s position and rights, whether it was through battle, treaty negotiations or finding a more suitable village location Source : Turning Point : The War of 1812 from the Native American Perspective . Painting of Assignack for exhibit attributed to Jane Cardinal. Madeline Bertrand (Potawatomi, 1778-1846) The Catholic church records from St. Anne's in Detroit show that Madeline Bertrand was the biological daughter of Daniel Bourassa thru what was noted as "marital relations with a savage of the Potawatomi Nation". She was named Madeline. Her birth year was given as 1781. However, her tombstone at Bertrand shows she was 67 at the time of her death in 1846 making her born in 1778 or 1779. A mission priest from St. Anne's in Detroit ratified the marriage of Joseph and Madeline Bertrand on August 13, 1818. The following children were noted and recognized at that time: Joseph (11 1/2), Luc (8 1/2), Benjamin (6), Laurent (4 1/2), and Therese (1). Because of his knowledge and relationship with the Potawatomis, Joseph Bertrand Sr. was able to attain significant amounts of land during his assistance in the negotiations between the Americans and Potawatomi. Madeline Bertrand (1/2 Potawatomi) herself obtained land in the treaties of 1821, 1826, and 1828 because of her husband's prominence. Madeline Bertrand died October 14, 1846. A number of parks near Niles, Michigan are names in her honor Source : Joseph and Madeline Bertrand website, based on research by Susan Sleeper-Smith, associate professor of history at Michigan State University, and coeditor of New Faces of the Fur Trade: Selected Papers of the Seventh North American Fur Trade Conference. Information gathered for her book, Indian Women and French Men: Rethinking Cultural Encounter in the Western Great Lakes, was from thorough research of the Michigan historical societies and old documented church records for accurate historical preservation. Andrew Jackson Blackbird (Odawa) When the "Treaty With The Ottawa and Chippewa" was signed on July 31, 1855, Andrew Jackson Blackbird served as an interpreter, translator and official witness for the Native Americans. Andrew J. Blackbird (c.1815 - 1908), an important figure in the history of the Odawa (Ottawa) tribe, was the son of a chief. Educated in the traditions of the Odawam he also attended Euro-American schools including present-day Eastern Michigan University. Blackbird participated in the negotiations for the Treaty of 1855, which established a large home reservation for the Odawa in the Harbor Springs areas. Blackbird bought a home in Harbor Springs around 1858, when the town was inhabited mostly by Odawa people. From here he ran the post office and wrote a history of the Odawa. As a councilor for the Odawa. Blackbird also helped Odawa veterans get pensions, and assisted with land claims. This site is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Sources and additional information: Reposted from Re d Tape Blog . Kanapima The subject of this sketch, Kanapima, or One who is talked of, is the chief of another branch of the Ottawa, who are settled at L’Arbre Croche, in Michigan, about forty miles south of Michilimackinac. He is otherwise called Augustin Hamelin, Jr. He was born at the place of his present residence, on the 12th of July, 1813. In 1829, he was sent to Cincinnati, in company with a younger brother, named Maccoda Binnasee, The Blackbird, to be educated at the Catholic seminary at that place. They remained here three years, not making any remarkable progress, that we can learn, but still receiving instruction with a degree of profit which encouraged the benevolent persons who had undertaken their education, to persevere in their generous design. Kanapima was said to be the more sprightly of the two, but the brother was probably the better scholar. They both exhibited much restlessness under the confinement of the school, and a decided fondness for athletic exercises. They loved the open air; when the sun shone they could scarcely be restrained from wandering off to the romantic hills which surround this beautiful city; and when it rained, however hard, they delighted to throw off their upper garments, and expose themselves to the falling showers. It has been a favorite project with the Roman Catholic Missionaries, to rear up a native priesthood among the American Indians, and they have taken great pains to induce some of their converts to be educated for the holy office. It seems strange that so rational a project, and one which would appear to promise the most beneficent results, should have entirely failed, especially when under taken by a church of such ample means, and persevering spirit yet it is a fact, that not a single individual of this race in North America, among the many who have been educated, and the still larger number who have been converted to Christianity, has ever become a minister of the gospel. Kanapima and his brother were of the number upon whom this experiment was tried, and they were accordingly sent to Rome in 1832, to prosecute their studies in the Propaganda Fide. After remaining there about two years, Maccoda Binnasee died, and Kanapima immediately afterwards returned to this country, became the chief of his tribe, and resumed the costume and habits of his people. His manners have much of the ease and polish of civil life; but his feelings, his affections, and his opinions have resumed their native channels. In the latter part of 1835, he conducted a party of his tribe to Washington city, and was one of those who were specially appointed by the Ottawa to make a treaty. Source : McKenny, Thomas & Hall, James & Todd, Hatherly & Todd, Joseph. : with biographical sketches and anecdotes of the principal chiefs . Embellished with one hundred portraits from the Indian Gallery in the War Department at Washington. Philadelphia: D. Rice & Co. 1872. AccessGenealogy.com . Web. 23 March 2014. Kinnequay and Payson Wolfe (Odawa) Kin-ne-quay was an Odawa medicine woman who bore a son Payson Wolfe later in life. Kin-ne-quay opposed his marriage to a white woman but relented after they had the first of 13 children. Payson enlisted with Company K of the First Michigan Sharpshooters, an all-Indian company in the Union Army, in 1863.... Captured at Petersburg in 1864 and incarcerated at Andersonville, Payson returned home permanently crippled in his left arm. Sources and additional information: Remembering Kin-ne-quay by Etta S. Wilson, her granddaughter. Shared by Grand Rapids Historical Commission. The story of an Ottawa princess and medicine woman. Waukazoo / Waukazo Family Homepage from Rootsweb Madeleine LaFramboise (Ottawa) Daughter of a French-Canadian Fur trader and an Ottawa mother, Madeleine was only 3 months old when her father died in 1780. She was raised in an Ottawa village on the Grand River among her mother's people. Here, she must have been a person of some status as her grand father was Chief Kewinoquot. She married Joseph LaFramboise and had her daughter Josette by the time she was 15 years old. Josette was baptised in 1799 at St. Anne's of Mackinac and was the first entry in the church's register. Madeleine was a great asset to her husband in the fur trade. In addition to all the languages she spoke, she knew the fur trade and assisted him in negotiations. In 1804, her husband was killed by an Indian while they were at their trading post near where Lowell is today. At this point Magdeleine gathered up her winter furs and took her husband's body to Mackinac Island. For the next 14 years, Madame LaFramboise, as she was known by, continued a difficult yet romantic existence. She wintered in the Grand River Valley collecting her furs from trappers and then in the late spring she supervised the transportation of the furs to Mackinac Island. She amassed a great fortune and built a very fine home on Mackinac Island. She was able to provide a Montreal education for her children, Josette born 1795 and Joseph born 1804. She was so successful, that John Jacob Astor decided to quit competing with her, and, in 1818 he bought her out. She was able to live in great comfort for the rest of her life. In 1816, her accomplished and educated daughter, Josette married Benjamin K. Pierce, commandant of the fort and brother to the future president of the United States. Their marriage was the event of the summer and took place at the home of Madame LaFramboise's dear friends, the Mitchells. The wedding guests wore their finest silks and satins while Madame LaFramboise, Therese Schindler, Josette's aunt, and Elizabeth Mitchell wore their best traditional regalia. Josette and Benjamin, however, were met with tragedy and their marrage was brief. Josette bore Benjamin 2 children, Josette Harriet and Benjamin. Only four years after their marriage, Josette and her infant son died. Benjamin left Harriet on the Island in the care of her grandmother. After the death of her beloved daughter and grandson, Madeleine determined to teach herself to read and write. Her home was at times a school, used for religious purposes and at times a welcome haven for passing notables. In her parlor, Madeleine entertained historical figures such as Alexis de Tocqueville, John and Juliette Kinzie, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft as well as her own native family members. She was fond of traveling, perhaps because of her years in the fur trade, and she frequently visited her son, who became successful in business, in Montreal. In 1827 she donated a large portion of her property for the building of a catholic church with the condition that she be buried under the altar. Madeleine LaFramboise died on April 4, 1846 and was buried under the church alter along side her daughter Josette. Her will gave her granddaughter, Harriet, her stately home and provided amply for her son and her dear friend Agatha Biddle. During the last half of the 20th century, the tombs were moved from beneath the church to a garden on the grounds to make way for renovations. It is still there today. Her lovely home has been expanded and is now a gracious hotel for Island visitors, much as it was in her day. Sourcse and additional information : Theresa L. Weller, Madeleine LaFramboise RootsWeb entry. The entry was originally written for an exhibit created by the Michiliackimackinac Historical Society in St. Ignace, Michigan and was exhibited during the summer of 2014 at The Stuart House on the Island. The portrait of Madeleine LaFramboise is taken from a book, The People of Three Fires, published by the Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council. Originally posted in the Red Tape Blog Chief Okemos (Saginaw Chippewa) On December 5, 1858 , the namesake for Okemos, Michigan, died near Portland and is honored to this day with a grave marker. Although details on his life are spotty, Chief John Okemos was the nephew and a scout for Chief Pontiac, who attempted to drive the British out of Michigan by laying siege to Detroit early in Michigan's history. During the Battle of Sandusky, he was severely wounded fighting on the side of the British against the Americans and bore saber scars for the rest of his life. Later on Chief Okemos made his peace with the Americans at Fort Wayne in Detroit in 1814 and later signed the Treaty of Saginaw with Lewis Cass, the first territorial Governor of Michigan in 1819, ceding over 6 million acres, a third of the lower peninsula of Michigan, to the whites for settlement. Sources and additional information: Also see Red Tape Blog September 24, 1819 and Red Tape Blog December 5, 1858 Chief Matchekewis Chief Matchekewis was a tribal leader of the Ojibwe people. His people were native to Michigan country, migrating to avoid pioneer expansion. In 1763, he took part in Pontiac's Rebellion, participating in the capture of Fort Michilimackinac from the Kingdom of Great Britain. But in 1780 he commanded his tribes in the American Revolutionary War as an ally of Great Britain against the Kingdom of Spain. At the Battle of St. Louis, in charge of all of the native American troops, he was defeated by the Spanish gunpowder weapons. After the war, he signed the Treaty of Greenville (August 3, 1795) with the young United States, ceding Bois Blanc Island in Lake Huron in addition to all of his original lands, to the United States. Mash-i-pi-nash-i-wish / Bad Bird / Machiquawish / Matchekewis / Muchicowiss / Michiguiss / Mitchikiweese / Mudjekewiss / Wachicouess / Mitchwass / Mitchewas / Kaigwiaidosa [born c.1735 in Northern Michigan; died 1805 or 1806 near Toledo, Ohio], principal Ojibwa chief of the Thunder Bay, Michigan community, descendant of an influential Ojibwa family from Lake Superior, father of Madjeckewiss; captured Fort Michilimakinac with Chief Minweweh, June 2, 1763; he was at the Siege of Detroit with Wasson in 1763; met with Sir William Johnston at Fort Niagara in 1764; Michicawiss passed through Detroit on the way to Niagara in July 1768, he conferred there from July 10 to July 16; Wachicouess / Michacawiss was at Johnson Hall from July 22 to July 27, 1768; Madjeckewiss was charged with the murder of a trader and imprisoned at Michilimakinac in April 1771; Madjeckewiss attended a council with De Peyster at Michilimakinac in July 1774; he was an ally of the British in 1776; he was at the invasion of New York in 1777; he attended the Great Council at L'Arbre Croche, July 4, 1779; lived at Cheboygan in the winter of 1779; he attacked St. Louis on March 10, 1780; Muikoteywass, Ojibwa chief, attended a council at Detroit, April 26, 1781; according to Captain Lamothe, Matchiquiwissis died sometime before August 1793. Sources and additional information : Marcia Schonberg. Michigan Native Peoples Chicago, Ill. : Heinemann Library, ©2004. Wisc. Hist. Colls, VII, 189-90. Minavavana Minavavana, a Chippewa chief, addressing trader Alexander Henry, as recorded by Henry, 1761 In this address to an English trader named Alexander Henry, Minavavana, a Chippewa or Ojibwa chief, warns the English that France's defeats during the French and Indian War do not mean that England can assert sovereignty over Indian lands. This document refers to what is called alternately the “Seven Years War” and the “French and Indian War” (1754–63), in which the English fought with the French over colonial territory in the Ohio Valley. Native Americans sided with the French, with whom they had better trading relations, and who were not as aggressive as the British in taking Native lands. However, by early 1760 the tide turned in favor of the British, and Native Americans became more eager to make peace with the apparent victor. Mineweweh / Minavavana / Le Grand Saulteur / Ninkaton [born c.1710; died autumn 1770 at Michilimakinac], principal Ojibwa war chief of the area around Michilimakinac and Mackinac Island, father of northern Ojibwa Chief Kinonchamek, he was 6 feet tall; ally of the French; captured Michilimakinac with Chief Madjeckewiss on June 2, 1763; when Michilimakinac was reoccupied by the British he moved west through Illinois and Wisconsin; met Pontiac in the Illinois Country with the French in the fall of 1765; Grand Chief Mivanon was visited by 15 chiefs sent from the French in 1766; he arrived in Cahokia [East St. Louis] in April 1770 to avenge the murder of Pontiac; Minavavana killed two servants of a trading company; his camp was attacked by a British war party at Michilimakinac in the fall of 1770 and he was knifed in his tent (Peckham: 164, 265, 317; Petrone: 30; Quaife 1958: 141; DCB vol. III: 529-530, vol. III: 452; PSWJ vol. XII: 228). Source : Rootsweb. Negwagon A chief of the Ottawa of the Michilimackinac region of Michigan, commonly known as Little Wing, or Wing, and also called Ningweegon. Although the United State had declined the proffer of Indian services in the war with Great Britain in 1812, Negwagon espoused the American cause and lost a son in battle, whereupon he adopted Austin E. Wing. When the British took possession of Michilimackinac, Negwagon retired with his people to their hunting grounds, hoisting the American flag over his camp. Happening to be alone, he was visited by British soldiers, who ordered him to strike his flag. Obeying the command, he wound the emblem around his arm, and drawing his tomahawk, said to the officer, “Englishman, Negwagon is the friend of the Americans. He has but one flag and one heart; if you take one you shall take the other!” Then sounding a war cry he assembled his warriors and was allowed to remain in peace and to hoist the flag, again. After the close of the war he annually visited Detroit with his family in two large birchbark canoes with an American flag flying front the stern of each. Lewis Cass, then stationed at Detroit, never failed to reward him on the occasion of these visits with two new flags. By treaty of Mar. 28, 1836, he was granted an annuity of $100, payable in money or goods. Negwagon is described as having been very large in stature. A county of Michigan was named in his honor, but the name was subsequently changed. Sources and additional information: Hodge, Frederick Webb, Compiler. The Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico . Bureau of American Ethnology, Government Printing Office. 1906. AccessGenealogy.com. Web. 16 March 2014. via Access Genealogy . Chief Noonday Chief Noonday , known as Noahquageshik or Nawquageezhig, the leader of the Grand River Band of Ottawa Indians in the late 19th century, has been honored in Grand Rapids by the erection of a bronze by sculptor Antonio Tobias Mendez. The statue stands on the west side of the Grand River, outside Grand Valley State University's Eberhard Center, near the Blue Bridge in downtown Grand Rapids. The best known Indian chief of this period (early/mid 1800's) was Chief Noonday of the Potowatamis, who lived in the Upper Village on the rapids of the Washtanong or Grand River. He was a strong, well-built man with broad shoulders, standing more than six feet in height. His influence was felt among all tribes in this section of the country. He was a leader for the British in the war of 1812, witnessed the burning of Buffalo, and was at the side of Chief Tecumseh when the latter was killed. Legend claims that it was Chief Noonday who carried the body of Tecumseh, Pawnee leader of the Indian warriors, from his final battlefield. Chief Noonday was also instrumental in the negotiations that opened much of Michigan to settlement. Living out his last years in the Yankee Springs area at Slater's Mission, his grave lies near Prairieville. Other references mention Chief Noonday's connection with Baptist missionaries in the Grand Rapids area. The history of the Baptist church begins in 1822. By the Chicago treaty of 1821 the United States government engaged to furnish the Ottawas with a teacher, a blacksmith, some cattle and farming implements, to locate a mission on a square mile of land, and to expend $1,500 annually for ten years for these purposes. The Reverend Isaac McCoy was appointed superintendent of the persons employed to carry into effect the provisions of the treaty. Upon his representation the mission was located on the north side of Grand river, opposite the foot of the rapids. Mr. McCoy reached the rapids May 30, 1823, but remained only three days. He returned in the spring of 1825 with a boat laden with iron, steel, yokes, chains and other articles, and permanent log buildings were erected at the Thomas mission, south of West Bridge street and west of Front avenue. Mr. McCoy's wife and three children joined him there in September, 1826. He preached to the Indians and taught them in the school attached to Thomas mission which was opened Christmas day, 1826. Mr. McCoy remained until May, 1827. His successor was the Reverend Leonard Slater. In a short time the latter mastered the Indian language and before he had concluded his stay of nine years he had the New Testament printed in the Ottawa dialect. Among the first converts of Mr. Slater was Chief Noonday, and at one time about 150 Indian families were attached to the Thomas mission. Four children were born to Mr. and Mrs. Slater during their residence here. The eldest of these, Emily, was named Soman-a-que, "Child of a Chief," by Chief Noonday. When the eastern settlers began to come in numbers the authorities considered it advisable to remove the Thomas mission. Accordingly, land was purchased at Praireville, Barry county, in 1836, and Mr. Slater, with his family and about fifty Indian families, removed to that place the same year, Chief Noonday, then almost 100 years of age, going with them. Lake Chief Noonday in Yankee Springs is named after him. The main road running between Bradley and Hastings, and the Mud Lake Camp are also named after him. And now Grand Rapids has erected a bronze statue in his memory. Sources : Early Churches in Grand Rapids Chief Petosegay Petosegay or Pet-O-Sega (Ottawa: Rising Sun, Rays of the Morning Dawn and Sunbeams of Promise) (1787 – June 15, 1885) was a 19th-century French - Ottawa Métis merchant and fur trader. Both present-day Petoskey, Michigan , Petoskey State Park , and nearby Emmet County park Camp Petosega are named in his honor. The official state stone of Michigan , the Petoskey stone , were found in abundance on his former lands and named after him. The son of Antoine Carre (Neaatooshing), he was born along the northern banks of the Kalamazoo River near the mouth of Manistee. According to popular lore his father held him up to the rising sun and said "his name shall be Petosegay and he shall become an important person". He grew up in the lodge of his father roughly seven miles northwest of Harbor Springs, nearby the site of the town of Middle Village. At the age of 21, Petosegay married the daughter of Pokozeegun , an Ottawa chieftain from the northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan. He and his new bride, Kewaykabawikwa, planted apple trees to celebrate their marriage and, at the time of his death, they could still be seen by local residents. Later on, after moving his family to the southern shore of Little Traverse Bay, he and his elder sons soon acquired much of the land of what is now Petoskey, Michigan and became a prominent merchant and landowner. In 1873, the local residents living along the bay of Bear Creek named their settlement Petoskey in his honor. Although the name was a corruption of Petosegay, he changed the spelling of his name as a gesture to them. Source : Petosegay wikipedia entry Leopold Pokagon Leopold Pokagon (c. 1775 - 1841) was a Potawatomi Wkema (leader). Taking over from Topinbee, who died in 1826, Pokagon became the head of the Potawatomi of the Saint Joseph Rive Valley in Michigan, a band that later took his name. Pokagon's early life is surrounded by legend, and many details are known only in the oral histories of the tribe. Stories suggest that he was born an Odawa or Ojibwe, but was raised from a young age by the Potawatomi. His name, Pokagon, poké-igan, means "the rib," but literally means "something used to shield". As the ribs shield the heart, so too did Pokagon shield his people. Pokagon emerged as a very successful tribal leader after 1825. In the last decade of his life, Pokagon sought to protect and promote the unique position of the Potawatomi communities living in the St. Joseph River Valley. He traveled to Detroit in July 1830, where he visited Father Gabriel Richard to request the services of a "black robe" (makatékonéya, literally "dressed in black," referring to the black robe (cassock) traditionally worn by priests). He believed that affiliation with the Catholic Church represented an important political alliance in the struggle to avoid removal. That same year, Pokagon and his wife Elizabeth were baptized by Father Frederick Rese, the vicar general of the Detroit Diocese, along with numerous fellow band members. In August 1830, Father Stephen Badin arrived to establish a mission to serve the Pokagon Potawatomi. By converting to Catholicism, the Potawatomi of the St. Joseph River Valley affirmed a new identity as the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi. In 1833, Pokagon negotiated an amendment to the Treaty of Chicago (1833) that allowed Pokagon's Band to remain on the land of their ancestors in Michigan. Nearly all the rest of the Potawatomi were to be moved west of the Mississippi Rive r by the federal government following the Indian Removal Act of 1830 . By abstaining from alcohol at the treaty negotiations held in Chicago in 1833, and emphasizing his and his followers' conversion to Catholicism, Pokagon secured a special provision in the 1833 Treaty. Later the Pokagon Band removed to L'arbre Croche (Waaganaakising, land of the crooked tree, literally where the crooked tree is). Pokagon ultimately used the monies paid pursuant to the Treaty to purchase lands for his people in Silver Creek Township, near Dowagiac, Michigan. He patented the land in his name and becoming a private land owner same as the surrounding settlers. The Catholic Potawatomi throughout southwest Michigan and northwest Indiana acknowledged Pokagon as their leader. Ever since, the Indian villages from Hartford, Rush Lake, Dowagiac, Niles, Buchanan in Michigan and South Bend in Indiana have been united under a common identity, Pokégan Bodéwadmik débéndagozwad (Pokagon Potawatomies they belong to). In 1841, Pokagon obtained the assistance of Associate Michigan Supreme Court Justice Epaphroditus Ransom to halt US military attempts to remove the Catholic Potawatomi in violation of the 1833 Treaty. After Pokagon’s death on July 8, 1841, disputes between his heirs, the Potowatomi, and the Catholic Church over ownership of the Silver Creek lands resulted in legal battles that painfully disrupted the community. A majority of the residents living at Silver Creek moved to Brush Creek, Rush Lake and elsewhere in southwest Michigan and northwest Indiana. The Potowatomi worked to secure the annuities and other promises owed them under the terms of the many treaties they had signed with the United States. Today, the tribe continues as the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians , a federally recognized Indian Nation, with an excess of 4300 citizens and a ten-county service area in northwest Indiana and southwest Michigan. Tribal headquarters are located in Dowagiac, Michigan, with a satellite office in South Bend, Indiana. The Tribal Police force operates a substation in New Buffalo, Michigan to cover the tribal-owned casino, Four Winds Casino Resort. Sources and additional information : Leopold Pokagon, Potawatomi Leader via NativeAmericanRoots.net Simon Pokagon Chief Simon Pokagon was born in the spring of 1830 in Pokagon Village near Niles, Michigan. His father was Chief Leopold Pokagon, a man of sterling character who had been converted to Christianity by Jesuit missionaries. Until twelve years of age Simon knew only Indian ways and spoke only native Algonquin. However he displayed such mental curiosity that Catholic priests sent him to the newly founded Notre Dame school for four or five years. Later he entered Oberlin College and then Twinsburg Institute in Ohio. He became fluent in English, Latin and Greek He returned to his tribe which at that time lived at Rush Lake near Hartford, Michigan and acted as tribal chief. When the Potawatomies began electing secretaries to preside over the tribe, Simon Pokagon became Secretary. He was as active as his father in church activities and served as interpreter of sermons into Algonquin for his tribe. He played the church organ, composed poetry, music and hymns and raised a family of four children. Those who remember him recall that he had a very kind and cheerful nature, was not talkative but had opinions which were both direct and persuasive. He read constantly and loved to sit, to reflect quietly, and to write. He did not permit rambling at tribal council meetings. When the United States government paid 150,000 dollars in 1896 for land cessions, Pokagon kept only four hundred dollars for himself and saw that the remainder was distributed among his people. Pokagon died penniless in his little cabin in Michigan on January 28, 1899 at the age of 69. Pokagon wrote several books and multiple shorter works. He is identified as one of the recognized Native American authors of the nineteenth century. Some have argued that his writings may have been substantially edited by the wife of his personal attorney, although that remains speculation and a matter of controversy among scholars. Pokagon was a featured speaker at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. While his popularity with some fellow tribal members waned, he was always welcomed among the Gold Coast “High Society” of Chicago and the Chautauqua literary groups of the East Coast. He was an early activist trying to force the United States to pay monies owed pursuant to treaties and to provide fair treatment of Indian peoples. In the 1890s, Pokagon began pressing land claims to the Chicago lakefront. A complicated individual with what often seemed to be contradictory motivations, he sold “interests” in that Chicago land claim to real estate speculators, angering some in the Pokagon community. Chief Simon Pokagon entry originally written by Elizabeth M. Filstrup from the Herald-Palladium, December 31, 1977 and later transcribed into Pearls in Our Past, History of Hartford Internet Site by Emma Thornburg Sefcik, 2001. Simon Pokagon, 1830-1899 from IPL2. Includes online links to some of his publications. The Red Man's Lament (retitled the The Red Man's Greeting with the second edition) is available via the American Indian Histories and Cultures Online Portal (a subscription service provided by the MSU Libraries). Pontiac (Odawa Chief) An Ottawa chief, born about 1720, probably on Maumee river, Ohio, about the mouth of the Auglaize. Though his paternity is not positively established, it is most likely that his father was an Ottawa chief and his mother a Chippewa woman. J. Wimer, (Events in Ind. Hist., 155, 1842) says that as early as 1746 he commanded the Indians, mostly Ottawa, who defended Detroit against the attack of the northern tribes. It is supposed he led the Ottawa and Chippewa warriors at Braddock’s defeat. He first appears prominently in history at his meeting with Maj. Robert Rogers, in 1760, at the place where Cleveland, Ohio, now stands. This officer bad been dispatched to take possession of Detroit on behalf of the British. Pontiac objected to the further invasion of the territory, but, learning that the French had been defeated in Canada, consented to the surrender of Detroit to the British, and was the means of preventing an attack on the latter by a body of Indians at the mouth of the strait. That which gives him most prominence in history and forms the chief episode of his life is the plan he devised for a general uprising of the Indians and the destruction of the forts and settlements of the British. He was for a time disposed to be on terms of friendship with the British and consented to acknowledge King George, but only as an “uncle,” not as a superior. Failing to receive the recognition he considered his due as a great sovereign, and being deceived by the rumor that the French were preparing for the reconquest of their American possessions, he resolved to put his scheme into operation. Having brought to his aid most of the tribes north west of the Ohio, his plan was to make a sudden attack on all the British posts on the lakes at once, at St Joseph, Ouiatenon, Michilimackinac, and Detroit, as well as on the Miami and Sandusky, and also attack the forts at Niagara, Presque Isle, Le Boeuf, Venango, and Pitt (Du Quesne). The taking of Detroit was to be his special task. The end of May 1763 was the appointed time when each tribe was to attack the nearest fort and, after killing the garrison, to fall on the adjacent settlements. It was not long before the posts at Sandusky, St Joseph, Miami (Ft Wayne), Ouiatenon, Michilimackinac, Presque Isle, Le Boeuf, and Venango were taken and the garrison in most cases massacred; but the main points, Detroit and Ft Pitt, were successfully defended and the Indians forced to raise the siege. This was a severe blow to Pontiac, but his hopes were finally crushed by the receipt of a letter from M. Neyon, commander of Ft. Chartrea advising him to desist from further warfare, as peace had been concluded between France and Great Britain. However, unwilling to abandon entirely his hope of driving back the British, he made an attempt to incite the tribes along the Mississippi to join in another effort. Being unsuccessful in this attempt, he finally made peace at Detroit, Aug. 17, 1765. In 1769 he attended a drinking carousal at Cahokia, Illinois, where he was murdered by a Kaskaskia Indian. Pontiac, if not fully the equal of Tecumseh, stands closely second to him in strength of mind and breadth of comprehension. In the eighteenth century, Michigan was the battleground for several conflicts between Native Americans and Europeans. Pontiac's Rebellion, fought between 1763 and 1766, was one of the most significant of these wars. Throughout much of the 1700s, the British and the French fought over control of North America. But in 1763 Britain finally defeated France and the French surrendered control of Canada to Britain. The United Kingdom had defeated the French, but not France's Indian allies. The British soon angered many Native Americans. Where the French had been content to trade and maintain friendly relations with the Indians, the British treated them contemptuously. They built forts in Native American territory, suspended the traditional custom of gift giving, and allowed white settlers to take Native American lands. By April of 1763, many Indians felt that it was time to retaliate. A secret council was held near Detroit. The Odawa chief Pontiac and other Indian leaders agreed to go to war with the British. Pontiac coordinated the plan to attack Detroit with the Ojibwe, Pottawatomie, Wyandot, and other Indian groups. Armies stormed the Fort on May 7, 1763. When they were unable to defeat the garrison, the fort was effectively besieged for much of the year. However, Pontiac was forced to give up his siege of Detroit in November when the French refused to come to his aid. The following year, the British sent an army into Ohio and another into the Great Lakes region. The war continued, but in 1766 Pontiac accepted a peace treaty and was pardoned by the British. Pontiac's revolt failed to defeat the British Empire, but it did achieve many goals important to Native Americans. The British outlawed new white settlement west of the Appalachian ridge and reinstated the practice of gift giving. Pontiac and the other Native Americans who had fought for their homes and cultures had brought a period of stability and peace to the region. Sources and additional information: War under heaven : Pontiac, the Indian Nations & the British Empire / Gregory Evans Dowd. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. Jane Johnson Schoolcraft Jane Johnston Schoolcraft (b. 1800–d. 1842) was the first known American Indian literary writer. She wrote poetry and short fiction and translated Ojibwe songs into English. Her Ojibwe name was Bamewawagezhikaquay, which she translated into English as Woman of the Sound the Stars Make Rushing through the Sky, a lyrical rather than a literal translation. She was born in Sault Ste. Marie in what is now northern Michigan. Schoolcraft’s mother, Ozhaguscodaywayquay, grew up in what is now northern Wisconsin, the daughter of Waubojeeg, a famous war chief and leader in civil life who was known for his eloquence in story and song. Schoolcraft’s father, John Johnston, was an Irish fur trader. Despite living in an area that white people saw as the farthest reach of the frontier, John Johnston collected a huge library. He raised his children with superb educations in English and European literature, history, and theology, as Ozhaguscodaywayquay, who did not speak English, immersed them in the traditions of Ojibwe song and storytelling. In 1822 the American government came to Sault Ste. Marie with army troops and a federal Indian agent, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft. Henry immersed himself in the study of Ojibwe language and culture, and in 1823 Jane and Henry married. To pass the long northern winters in 1826 and 1827, Henry assembled a handwritten magazine, the Literary Voyager, or Muzzeniegun, consisting mostly of his own writings but with work by others as well, including works by Jane, mostly poems and stories. Depending heavily on Jane and her family, Henry became an influential founder of American cultural anthropology. In 1839 he published the first large-scale collection of written-down and translated Indian stories, Algic Researches. The surviving manuscripts show that Jane and her brother William wrote some of the stories. Jane probably varied in how much she gave traditional stories the stamp of her own personality and style, much as oral storytellers and writers blend their own styles with styles they have heard or read before. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow based his most famous poem, The Song of Hiawatha (1855), on Henry’s work, including stories written by Jane and William. In 1833 Schoolcraft and her family moved to Mackinac Island, and in 1841 they moved to New York City. Schoolcraft was unrecognized in her lifetime except by friends and family, and her writings offer a window onto a highly literate Indian world that invites us to reenvision the cultural memory of early America. Sources: Jane Johnston Schoolcraft / Robert Dale Parker. An annotated bibliography, part of the American Literature module of Oxford Bibliographies Online. For additional information see: Reposted from Red Tape Blog Whap-ka-eek, Potawatomi chief and warrior The battle of Tippecanoe occurred Nov. 11, 1811, and helped precipitate the War of 1812 a few months later. During the battle, a 35-year-old Potawatomi chief, Whap-ka-zeek, was shot in the left leg. Wounded, he awaited his fate. But after the Indians were routed, Gen. William Henry Harrison’s soldiers took the chief to a field hospital where his leg was amputated. He was nursed back to health, given a crutch and a pony and allowed to return home. That home was a Potawatomi village near present-day Spring Arbor. When the first white settlers began arriving about 20 years later, Whap-ka-zeek was still living there. The village site is memorialized by the Falling Waters Historic Park at Hammond and S. Cross roads, about a mile southwest of Spring Arbor. The War of 1812 was primarily an American-British conflict. However, Indian allies played a key role, especially in the Great Lakes region. The Potawatomi were part of Shawnee chief Tecumseh’s multi-tribal alliance, which sided with the British and fought in several battles. At one point, Harrison’s army was marching from Indiana to Detroit when two American soldiers — McDonagh and Limp — were captured by the Potawatomi along the St. Joseph Trail. By various accounts, both were burned at the stake in villages at or near Jackson. Among Jacksonburg’s early settlers was William R. DeLand, whose young son, Charles V. DeLand, grew up to become one of Jackson County’s pioneer newspaper editors. Just before his death in 1903, Charles DeLand published his “History of Jackson County, Michigan.” He personally knew many of the Potawatomi in the area, including Whap-ka-zeek, and he described the chief as a “tall and athletic Indian.” The chief “was always very grateful for the care he received and was always a friend of the ‘he-mo-ko-mans’,” Charles DeLand wrote. That friendship was critical in Jackson’s early days. The War of 1812 might have been history by then, but Indians still had a major grievance — the settlers’ encroachment on their lands. All they needed was a leader to rally them for a stand against the whites. Tecumseh had tried, but he met his own death in the War of 1812. In 1832, the Sauk chief Black Hawk appealed to the Potawatomi and other tribes to join in an effort to drive the white man from Indian lands. Of that tense period, William DeLand wrote in an 1852 issue of the Jackson Citizen, “Rumors of incursions and massacres spread over the country, gathering terrors as they went, and quite a few people actually moved back to the east through fear occasioned by these stories.” The rumors were fed by reports that the local Potawatomi would be going to a great council with Black Hawk. People feared the tribe would take the warpath. Men of the village prepared for trouble. But the women took a more practical, domestic approach. They planned a village feast for the Indians, conveniently timed before the men were to leave for the council with Black Hawk. “The chiefs and braves nearly all came in, but they were very solemn and reserved and not inclined to talk,” Charles DeLand later wrote. “The provisions were served in pails, kettles and baskets, and the Indians feasted all day.” Before departing for the council, the Indians were given meat, bread and pies. Also, each warrior was given a pint of whiskey. “As they started off, old Whap-ka-zeek turned to them and simply said, ‘You good chimokeman squaws,’ ” according to Charles DeLand. The Potawatomi met with Black Hawk but declined to join his fight. They returned to their villages, and peace and quiet prevailed. That was Jackson County’s last serious Indian threat. Several years later, the tribes were removed under terms of previous treaties. Charles DeLand wrote, “In 1839 and 1840 the general government effected the removal of most of the Potawatomi to the reservation set apart for them near Green Bay, in Wisconsin.” Units of the 4th U.S. Infantry and 2nd U.S. Cavalry, under Brig. Gen. Hugh Brady, “came to Jackson and camped on the Moody Hill, along where Ganson Street now runs, and began to gather up the Indians.” About 1,500 were collected and escorted to Detroit, where they were taken by boats to Green Bay. Charles DeLand offered this blunt assessment of the exodus: “The removal of the red men abated a great nuisance to the settlers, though they were not considered dangerous. … They were great beggars, and visited the settlers’ cabins without warning and insisted on being fed and lodged, on cold winter nights. If accommodated, they were peaceful and orderly when not under the influence of liquor, and very seldom made trouble but they were nonetheless a great nuisance and the people were rejoiced to be rid of them.” Source : Ken Wyatt, " Peek Through Time: A look back at Jackson County settlers' relationships with Indians ", Jackson Citizen Patriot, June 25, 2011. Phil Alexis, Pokagon Tribe of Potawatomi Indians Leader In September 1994, Congress recognized the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi of Michigan as a tribe. President Bill Clinton met with Phil Alexis and other tribal leaders for the signing ceremony in the White House on September 21st. With federal recognition, the Pokagon Potawatomi were able to build a vibrant community with headquarters in Dowagiac. In 1997 the Pokagons began buying land in Southwest Michigan for a reservation. Source : Elizabeth Glenn and Stewart Rafert, The Native Americans (via Google). Finding Our Way Home : the Great Lakes Woodland People , Indiana Historian, September 2001. Cora Anderson Cora Reynolds Anderson (1882-1950) was the first woman elected to the Michigan House of Representatives, serving one term from 1925 to 1926. She is also believed to be the only Native American woman elected to the Michigan House or Senate. While in the House of Representatives, Anderson concentrated on public welfare issues and chaired the Industrial Home for Girls Committee. She was particularly interested in public health issues, especially the fight against alcoholism and tuberculosis. Prior to her term, she had organized the first public health service in Baraga County and was instrumental in securing the county’s first public health nurse. She also became actively involved in the Michigan Grange and served as the Upper Peninsula officer. Anderson was educated as a teacher at the Haskell Institute in Lawrence, Kansas, which is known today as the Haskell Indian Nations University. She taught school in the Upper Peninsula for several years. At a time when minorities, including Native Americans, were subjected to considerable economic and social discrimination, Anderson’s determination to attend college and return the benefits of her education to her community was notable. Her role as educator, legislator, and public health reform leader aided the Native American community as well as the whole of society. Both the Anderson House Office Building in downtown Lansing and the recently opened Cora’s Cafe inside are named after her. Sources and additional information : " Women's History Month: Cora Anderson, first in state house ", Lansing State Journal, March 23, 2014. Bill Castanier "When I was a child, I always looked forward to our family’s annual summer vacation in Sault Ste. Marie, pestering my grandmother in the front seat when we were going to see “real” Indians — not knowing at the time she was 100 percent Chippewa. The high point of the trip was the stop at Fort Michilimackinac. (I liked to sound out the melodic “mish-ill-a-mack-a-nac,” with the definitive emphasis on the “nac,” as in “nac attack.”) There I learned about the massacre that happened there on June 2, 1763. No matter how many times I saw the reenactment (or “pageant”), I stood in awe as actors portraying an Odawan tribe, playing a game of baggatiway (a form of lacrosse), allowed an “errant” ball to roll into the fort gate that had been left open. When they approached to retrieve their ball, the men were furtively weaponized by their women positioned near the gate who had hidden knives and hatchets under their clothes. The attack was swift and brutal; in short order, 16 British soldiers and an English fur trader who thought they watching a pleasant sporting event were slaughtered, allowing the fort to fall into the hands of the Odawans. Knowing this event actually happened magnified my terror.".... Today, Bill is a literary columnist for Lansing City Pulse, writing many book reviews and other articles of interest. Here are links to some of his stories relating to Michigan Indians. ‘ Laughing Whitefish’ resurfaces; Republished 1965 novel still has much to say about Indian law . Article by Bill Castanier appearing in Lansing City Pulse, November 16, 2011. Margaret Chandler Through treaties dating back to 1821, the United States government forced the Grand River Ottawas to live on a smaller and smaller piece of land in northwest Michigan and eventually chose to disregard the Indians’ reservation altogether. In 1929, a child was born who would dedicate her entire adult life to restoring these historic hunting and fishing grounds and gaining federal reaffirmation of Ottawa sovereignty. Margaret Chandler (1929-1997) assumed her first leadership role at 21 when she was elected secretary of Unit 7 of the Northern Michigan Ottawa Assocation. For the next 20 years, she recorded and retained the unit’s meeting minutes, notes, and event information: documentation that would prove valuable to the sovereignty cause. She also traveled the state at her own expense to meet with other native leaders, keeping herself and her people well informed. When Unit 7 evolved into the Little River Band of Ottawa Indians, Chandler was seated on its tribal council. She also chaired the local Indian education program and played a vital role on the Enrollment Committee. Her genealogical work ensured that tribal members received payments owed them by the Indian Claims Commission as well as federal education monies and hunting and fishing rights. Then, in 1994, her greatest victory was won; that was the year President Clinton signed a public law reaffirming the status of the Little River Band of Ottawa Indians as a sovereign nation. In her last year of life, Chandler was also heartened to see that reservation land she had grown up on came back to the tribe. A history of the Little River Band, written by James McClurken, is dedicated to this esteemed Indian leader. Source : Michigan Women's Hall of Fame Waunetta McClellan Dominic Waunetta McClellan Dominic (1921-1981) wholeheartedly endeavored to bring equality and justice to Native Americans in Michigan and throughout the United States. As co-founder of the Northern Michigan Ottawa Association (NMOA), Dominic fought to secure a fair settlement for lands taken from Michigan's Native Americans in the early 19th century. Much of this land, which constitutes a large portion of Northern Michigan, was taken for less than one percent of its true value. In 1948 Dominic, her husband Robert, her father, and two other men founded the NMOA. For years, Ms. Dominic traveled across Michigan to determine the land values during the treaty years of 1821 and 1836. She searched for the descendants of the treaty signatories and urged them to sign affidavits verifying their eligibility for land claims. In 1968, Dominic and her husband initiated successful land claim suits which awarded $12 million to Ottawa and Chippewa descendants. In addition, $900,000 was awarded in 1971 to the descendants of the 1821 treaty signatories. As a member of the Grand River Band of Ottawas, she fought to ensure payment of $1.8 million for land claims on behalf of 2800 non-reservation Ottawa and Pottawatomie tribal members. Dominic served as president of the NMOA from 1976 until her death in 1981. Through her efforts, Dominic renewed hope for her people. She emphasized the importance of higher education and technical training for Native Americans. As a member of the Crooked Tree Arts Council and the Christian Life Center of Petoskey, Dominic sought to preserve tribal traditions and cultural pride. Her vision, commitment, and ensuing victories serve as an eternal inspiration for those who seek peace between ethnic groups. "You can call us unrecognized, but don't call us unorganized, and furthermore, I don't care if you recognize me or not," said Dominic, "Recognize my Rights." Arthur Duhamel A native son returns When John Bailey came back to the northern Michigan in 1976 he says there wasn't much left of his people. Bailey says most of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians from his generation had moved away. He did economic development work with tribes in a few southern states and he says Indian culture in the U.S. had advanced during the civil rights movement but not much in Michigan. He says Peshawbestown didn't even have running water. "I'd work with other tribes where they'd work with General Motors," he recalls. "They had industrial parks, manufacturing plants, paved streets, lights and I come home to Michigan and we're still living back in the 18th Century." Around the time John Bailey came back another native son returned to Leelanau County. Arthur Duhamel was born Buddy Chippewa, and had been taken from his family at age 5. He was raised by white people and later became a welder, which took him all over the world. "He worked on the Alaskan pipeline. He worked in Saudi Arabia, California, Mexico, all over the place," says Bailey. "World traveler. And everywhere he went he made friends." Bailey lived with Arthur Duhamel at one point. He says Duhamel was what he calls an "old time Indian", someone who remembered his obligation to his community and shared what he had. Disputed waters Arthur Duhamel played a pivotal role in the history of his people. In 1974 he launched a new career as a commercial fishermen. His son, Skip Duhamel remembers it was an old member of the tribe, Geboo Sands, who told his dad to get out there and fish. "He told him he had to do it. It wasn't even optional." The question of Indian treaty rights in Michigan was hot at that moment. Sport fishing was taking off in the Great Lakes and the state felt that commercial gill nets were a big threat to a growing industry. Two tribal fishermen in the Upper Peninsula had already been arrested and Skip Duhamel says his father knew he too was going to jail. "It looked absolutely like you could never prevail in this. And he was really steadfast in this. He's like, 'we're going to prevail in this. We have to!'" The urgency was about more than fish. The federal government had ignored the poverty in Peshawbestown for generations. As Matthew Fletcher puts it, the federal government just stopped returning the tribe's phone calls in the 1870s. Fletcher teaches indigenous law at Michigan State University and is a member of the Grand Traverse Band. Fletcher says the tribe needed some way to make the federal government recognize its existence and asserting fishing rights under a treaty signed in 1836 was the way to do that. "The United States does not sign a treaty with counties or corporations," says Fletcher. "They sign treaties with nations." Fishing rights became "the push" for recognition of the nation. Pushback During the legal fight the tribes endured a lot of backlash. Arthur Duhamel was put in jail multiple times and his fishing gear was confiscated. He was never compensated. Sport fishing groups accused the Indian fishermen of plundering the resource and the rhetoric sometimes got vicious. Bumper sticker slogans like "Save Our Trout, Spear An Indian" popped up. Michigan's attorney general at the time, Frank Kelly, said the tribes enforced no limits on Indian fishermen. He scoffed at the idea Indians had fishing rights. He said they were like prisoners who'd lost a war. "They had no rights," Kelly said in the documentary A Difference of Rights. "It's a treaty to settle a war. And you just give them what you want to give them." But Frank Kelley lost. In 1979 federal judge Noel Fox recognized three Indian Tribes in Michigan and their rights to fish on the Great Lakes. One of these was the Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians. Later similar recognition would be granted to the Little River Band of Ottawa Indians and the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians. It's this recognition that allows these tribes to operate casinos from Manistee to Petoskey that today generate hundreds of millions of dollars for tribal government services. Unfinished work Skip Duhamel is proud what his father Arthur did. He says life in Peshawbeston has changed dramatically. Everyone has jobs and the houses have plumbing. There's a resurgence of native language and religion and the eagles have returned. But he thinks his father's work isn't finished. Skip Duhamel doesn't fish on Grand Traverse Bay now, what he refers to as The Pond. A number of Grand Traverse Band members do, but he thinks there are too many restrictions so he mostly fishes off Beaver Island. The restrictions come out of negotiations with the state that have gone on since the court recognized the tribes. In these agreements the tribes have accepted some limits on their treaty fishing rights. The waters of Grand Traverse Bay have been the most contentious in these negotiations and the resulting rules the most limiting. So Skip Duhamel says the bay is still the "King's Pond", like Sherwood Forest where Robin Hood and his men stole the King's the deer. The rules for the bay were also a disappointment to Arthur Duhamel. These are the historic fishing grounds of his people and Skip says what his father wanted was for tribal members to be able to fish. "Every crew person he ever had he encouraged them to get their own vessel and fish for themselves. He didn't want employees. He wanted people to be independent." Arthur Duhamel died in Alaska in 1992. Today the marina in Peshabestown is named after him. Looking Back : the Fight for American Fishing Rights . Linda Stephan, Interlochen Public Radio, June 26, 2013. Tells how Arthur Duhamel stood up for Indian fishing rights in northern Michigan in 1976 and in the process won federal recognition and salvation for many of the tribes. Duhamel died in 1992. Bill Dunlop As he told various stories from his childhood among fellow Native Americans, Petoskey native Bill Dunlop was encouraged to put these accounts into written form. Since Dunlop did so, the results have been embraced by many around Michigan. Now 80 and living in Grand Rapids, Dunlop is the author of " The Indians of Hungry Hollow ," which was released last year by the University of Michigan Press. Dunlop, a member of the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians who lists himself as Ottawa on the book cover, was assisted by Marcia Fountain-Blacklidge, a Chippewa, in the writing project. The book relates a variety of experiences from Dunlop's youth in a predominantly Native American neighborhood then known as "Hungry Hollow," which stretched along Sheridan Street between the Bear River and U.S. 131. As he grew up in the Great Depression era, Dunlop said widespread problems like joblessness were magnified among local Indians because of issues like racial discrimination. The Historical Society of Michigan recognized "The Indians of Hungry Hollow" with an Award of Merit in its children's and youth publications category. Dunlop's book also landed on the Library of Michigan's Michigan Notable Books List, which recommends books reflecting the state's cultural heritage, this year. The book reportedly has been explored as a possible source for a Hollywood screenplay as well. Dunlop served in the U.S. Navy in the South Pacific during World War II. He moved away from Petoskey in 1950, but returned briefly in the 1980s to care for an ill family member. His wife, Mary, is deceased, but a daughter and grandson live in the Grand Rapids area. For the full article, see Ryan Bentley, " Petoskey Man Returns to Childhood Haunt ", Petoskey News, September 13, 2005. Frank Ettawageshik The work of tribal leaders such as Frank Ettawageshik, chairman of the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians, on behalf of the Great Lakes is indispensable to the effort. He led the campaign to get the American Indian tribes and the Canadian First Nations together in 2004, testified before the Senate Committee on the Environment and Public Works in 2006, and participated in a groundbreaking cooperative agreement between the tribes of Michigan and the State of Michigan. According to Chairman Ettawageshik, "inter-governmental and other partnerships allow the parties to achieve public benefits that no one partner could achieve alone." Researcher Tells Story of Michigan Indian Sharpshooters Who Served in Civil War . Ted Booker, St. Ignace News, January 20, 2011. American Indians and the Civil War / Robert K. Sutton and John A. Latschar, editors. [Fort Washington, PA] : Eastern National, [2013] 215pp. E540.I3 A67 2013 : Official National Park Service Handbook. Includes chapter “Soldiers in the Shadows : Company K 1st Michigan Sharpshooters” about Company K written be Eric Hemenway. War of 1812 in the Northwest , sponsored by WGTE Public Television, 57 minutes. Douglas Brinkley, David Skaggs and Randall Buchman are among the noted historians and authors featured in the program, along with Eric Hemenway, who works in the Cultural Preservation Department for the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians in Northern Michigan. Support for War of 1812 in the Old Northwest is provided by a grant from the Ohio Humanities Council, a state affiliate of the National Endowment for the Humanities, and by Buckeye CableSystem. He has also mounted an exhibit at the Harbor Springs Historical Museum called Turning Point: the War of 1812 from the Native American Perspective which will be available through May 2014. Kay Givens McGowen Few can claim to have made a difference on a national level. Kay Givens McGowan (1942- ) attained international recognition not once but three times, even helping to draft a United Nations’ document relating to indigenous peoples. McGowan, an American Indian of Choctaw/Cherokee heritage, was a social activist all her life. She helped found First Step, a domestic violence shelter in southeast Michigan, as well as DARE, the Downriver Anti-Rape Effort. The Michigan Citizens Lobby, with McGowan as director, led the successful effort to pass generic drug and auto repair legislation—both regarded as models of progressive public policy. She also coordinated the statewide petition drive to repeal the sales tax on groceries and medications. While earning a doctorate in anthropology, she began teaching Native Studies and women’s studies courses at the University of Toledo, Wayne State University, Eastern Michigan University, and Marygrove College. At the latter, she founded the Ethnic Studies program. In 1995, she was named a delegate to the United Nations’ Fourth World Conference on Women. For a year afterward, she dedicated her time to speaking out about issues that women faced around the globe. In 2005, as a board member of the National Indian Youth Council, she traveled to Switzerland to represent American Indians at deliberations resulting in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. In 2008, she addressed the United Nations’ Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. McGowan, an accomplished writer, contributed an essay to the book “Make a Beautiful Way: The Wisdom of Native American Women.&rdquo Sources : Cathy Nelson, Called to Serve : Dr. Bettie Kay Givens McGowan , Wayne State University Alumni Association. Debra Muller Given up at birth, Debra Muller would find her way back years later to the Native American culture that was her heritage. She assumed a key role in preservation of the Norton Mounds, a landmark historic site in Grand Rapids that contains burial artifacts more than 2,000 years old. Ms. Muller also was known for her broader belief in the importance of preserving traditional Native American ways for future generations. She was director of the Norton Mounds project for the Grand Rapids Public Museum, aimed at finding the best way to preserve the ancient site along the Grand River near the Gerald R. Ford Freeway along Indian Mounds Drive SW. She served as chairwoman and commissioner with the City of Grand Rapids Community Relations Commission. She was founder of the Theater of the Three Fires and served as board member and chairwoman. She also established the Pink Shawls Project to make Native American women more aware of the threat of breast cancer. Ms. Muller was asked to develop a plan for the mounds by former Museum Director Tim Chester. The museum has owned the property for decades but had done little to preserve them, secure in the knowledge they were protected by their relative inaccessibility. More than 500 years before Columbus arrived, a group of historic people known as the Hopewells came to West Michigan. They built large, earthen mounds along the river to bury their dead with pottery, tools, jewelry and other items. At one time, as many as 35 mounds were on this site. Today, 13 survive, making them perhaps the best preserved Hopewell mounds in North America and earning them the designation of a National Historic Landmark. For the full article, see Ted Roelofs, " Debra Muller, who helped preserve Norton Mounds in Grand Rapids, dies at 60 ", MLive, July 9, 2011. Jessica Rickert Jessica Rickert, DDS (1950- )was inducted into the Michigan Women’s Hall of Fame for her work relating to American Indian health issues. A member of the Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation, she was a direct descendant of the Indian chief Wahbememe (Whitepigeon) for whom a village in Michigan is named. Dr. Rickert made history of her own when she became the first female American Indian dentist in the country upon graduating from the University of Michigan School of Dentistry in 1975. While working in private practice in southeast Michigan, she developed a prevention program and added orthodontics to the dental clinic at Detroit’s Children’s Aid Society. As a board member of the Michigan Urban Indian Health Council, Dr. Rickert also established an intertribal dental clinic in Detroit. She assisted two state tribes—the Grand Traverse Band of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians and the Saginaw Chippewas—with such services as dental screenings, preliminary planning for dental clinics, and educational presentations. In 2001, she began a dental advice column syndicated by American Indian newspapers across the nation and distributed in health clinics. That effort earned her the American Dental Association Access Award. She also authored a book entitled “Exploring Careers in Dentistry.” Dr. Rickert held leadership positions in the Michigan Dental Association and served on the board of the Society of American Indian Dentists. Her efforts to recruit more Natives into her profession included establishing a dental scholarship at the University of Minnesota. Sources : Jessica A. Rickert : First American Indian Woman Dentist Emilia Schaub Emilia Schaub was born in 1891 to German immigrants in a log cabin in Leelanau County. Schaub holds many firsts in Michigan's history. While practicing law in Detroit, she was the first woman in the nation to successfully defend an accused murderer. After she decided to return home to Leelanau County, she became Michigan's first woman to be legally elected and serve as county prosecutorin 1936. Schaub was also the first woman from Leelanau County to practice law in Michigan. During her tenure as prosecutor, Emelia championed the rights of the local Ottawa and Chippewa bands. She wrote to federal officials, then took her case to President and Eleanor Roosevelt to help secure the bands’ right to continued possession of tribal lands. Frustrated at the federal level, she turned to Leelanau County, where she succeeded in having lands held in trust ‘‘for Indian community purposes.’’ Her efforts led the tribe to make her an honorary member in 1942. The land base she secured made it possible for the Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians to secure federal acknowledgement in 1980. Emilia Schaub retired as prosecutor in 1954 and turned to general practice in her home community. She continued as a general practitioner for nearly 40 years, making occasional court appearances even after her 100th birthday. As she reduced her legal work, her civic efforts expanded. She helped organize the Leelanau Historical Foundation, serving as that organization’s president, museum director, and on their board of directors until 1986, when she was 97 years old. She was also a charter member of the Traverse City Zonta Club and the first secretary of the Leelanau Chamber of Commerce. One of her greatest roles throughout her professional life was that of mentor. At the dedication of the State Bar’s Legal Milestone in 1994, now Chief Justice Elizabeth Weaver recalled that Emilia Schaub’s friendship dated to Weaver’s first appearance in the Leelanau County courts. Emilia Schaub vouched for the young attorney’s integrity and ability then, and their friendship continued. ‘‘I have shared Emilia’s friendship and help to me because it is just one example of the thousands of us she has quietly befriended over the past 100 years.’’ Originally posted in Red Tape Blog . D, K. Sprague D.K. Sprague Retires after Twenty-Four Years as Chairman of the Gun Lake Tribe; Sprague Led Tribe from Pre-Recognition to Successful Modern Tribal Government The Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish Band of Pottawatomi Indians (Gun Lake Tribe) (Tribe) has announced the retirement of David K. (D.K.) Sprague as chairman. Sprague served as chairman since his initial election by the Bradley Settlement Elder’s Council in 1992. He is distinguished as one the longest serving tribal chairman, in consecutive terms, throughout Indian Country in the Unites States. “It has been an honor and privilege to serve my community as chairman for the last twenty-four years,” said D.K. Sprague, former chairman. “I thank my family and the Tribe for supporting me, and God for allowing me to serve at a time when our dreams came to reality. I give recognition to our tribal leaders who came before me, as I merely finished what they started when the Bradley Indian Mission was established in the 1830s.” The Tribe achieved federal re-acknowledgment in 1999 after many years of working through the federal acknowledgment process. The Tribe’s goal of reaching self-sufficiency through its pursuit of economic development under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act would take over a decade. During the last twenty-four years the Tribe went from having nothing to becoming a modern tribal government that can now provide for the needs of its people. “I am proud to have served the Tribe under the leadership of D.K. Sprague,” said Vice Chairman Ed Pigeon. “I witnessed steady and consistent leadership in extremely difficult situations over a long period of time. It was amazing to see him put to the test so many times, but never waver. The Tribe is truly blessed that a person with such rare leadership qualities was in place at a time when it was most needed.” Many friends, family and staff members have expressed their gratitude to the former chairman for his dedication to the needs of tribal government staff and the team members who work in the gaming enterprise. He was always approachable and jovial with everyone around him. “No one ever wanted this day to come,” said Leah Sprague-Fodor, Tribal Council member. “However, asking him to continue serving would be selfish of us. We know he served with everything he had for so many years. He has earned his retirement and now he should enjoy golf, traveling, baseball games and spending time with his family and friends.” Sprague grew up in the Bradley area where he remained most of his life. He joined the U.S. Army and served in the Vietnam War. He served in 14 natural disasters worldwide as a Red Cross volunteer, which included an extended time of service in Louisiana for the victims of Hurricane Katrina. He is a lifelong member of the Methodist Church at the Bradley Indian Mission. In the next 90-120 days the Tribe will hold a special election to fill the seat on the Tribal Council vacated by Sprague’s retirement. Afterwards, the Tribal Council will select the next chairman. In the interim, Vice Chairman Ed Pigeon will serve as acting Chairman. Source : Gun Lake Tribe News Release, February 4, 2016. Matt Wesaw Matt Wesaw, former Michigan State Police officer and currently tribal chairman for the Pokagon band of the Potawatomi Indians and executive director of the Michigan Department of Civil Rights. The Pokagon band numbers about 5,000 members mainly in four counties of southwest Michigan, Wesaw said. Quite recently Wesaw served as a peacemaker, reading a letter of apology from L. Brooks Patterson, Oakland County’s top official, to the United Tribes of Michigan, about comments he made three decades ago and recently recycled by the New Yorker -- comparing the predicament of Detroiters’ spiraling poverty to a scenario of “herding Indians behind a wall and throwing them blankets and corn.” “Talking about throwing blankets to Indians — the history there is that they were a lot of times infected with smallpox by the early settlers” to spread the disease, which often was fatal to Indians because they had little immunity to diseases of European origin", Wesaw said. After hearing that from Wesaw, Patterson wrote in his letter: “I was unaware of the entire sordid episode of Native Americans facing extinction through the imposition of disease-filled blankets.” Meet the Director of the Michigan Department of Civil Rights . Note : Matt Wesaw stepped down from this office in October 2015. John R. Dick Winchester (Pokagon Band of Potawatomi) Jonn R. Winchester (Thunderbolt), 1920-1973. Coordinated the MSU Center for Urban Affairs, Native American Indian Affairs Office for many years and worked hard at recruiting Native Americans to higher education. After his death a scholarship for Native Americans to attend Michigan State University was created in his honor. For more information contact the Native American Institute at Michigan State University. John R. Winchester Memorial Scholarship: This scholarship is awarded annually to full time Native American undergraduate student. Winchester Fund: This is a 90-120 (with extension) day loan. The John R. Winchester Memorial Scholarship Fund was established in 1973 after the death of a very generous man dedicated to the needs of American Indian students in higher education. John R. Winchester was employed by Michigan State University as Coordinator in the North American Indian Affairs Office, Center for Urban Affair. He devoted to great deal of his career encouraging Indian students to take advantage of higher education opportunities. Mr. Winchester recruited Indian students from Michigan as well as other states. Once at MSU he acted as their advisor, tutor, and friend. He was also concerned with the financial needs of the Indian students. It was said that whenever he lectured on behalf of North American Indian Association Scholarship Fund. The proceeds from the Native American Indian Student Organization (NAISO) Pow Wow goes to the John R. Winchester Memorial Scholarship/Loan Fund. With the help of previous Pow Wows and several departments at MSU , the fund is presently large enough to serve for short-term loans. NAISO hopes to increase the size of the fund so that it may also serve as a source for scholarship moneys for needy Native American students at MSU . Deadline: None. Eligibility: A short-term loan for Native American students to fill emergency needs. Company K, 1st Michigan Sharpshooters During the Civil War, a regiment of Sharpshooters was being recruited to fight for the Union, but there was a problem – Few men could pass the marksmanship test. Since Michigan's Native Americans were famous as skilled hunters, it was decided to recruit one company - Company K - from among the tribes in Michigan. Nearly140 men volunteered for Company K in the 1st Michigan Sharpshooters regiment. Each man passed the test, hitting a 5 inch circle from a distance of 220 yards. For Basic Training, they were sent to Dearborn, Michigan. The soldiers of Company K wore the same uniform and received the same pay as the rest of the Regiment. Company K was sent to Virginia in 1864, and there fought in some of the fiercest battles of the Civil War: The Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and the terrible Siege of Petersburg. During an attack against the enemy lines on June 17, 1864, a group of 15 men were captured and sent to the infamous Andersonville Prison. The rest of the company fought on until the end of the war. They proudly marched in the famous Grand Review, the official victory parade in Washington, D.C. After being mustered out, many returned home to Michigan, where they were promptly forgotten. ...Chris Czopek The Road to Andersonville : Michigan Native American Sharpshooters in the Civil War / Producer, David B. Schock. [Holland, Mich.] : penUltimate, Ltd., 2013. 1 DVD videodisc (111 min.) : sd., col. ; 4 3/4 in. E540.I3 R62 2013 VideoDVD (Also available online ) : A documentary on Native American soldiers who served in Michigan's Company K during the Civil War. Includes a segment about a trip by present day Native Americans to honor the Anishinabe of Michigan who died at Andersonville Prison....During the American Civil War, Union forces ran low on sharpshooters. In Michigan, the answer was to change a law prohibiting Native American military service, and then—in 1863—to ask members of the Three Fires Tribes (Odawa [Ottawa]), Bodewadmik [Potawatomi], and Ojibway [Chippewa]) to enlist. These were men who lived in peaceful coexistence with their neighbors, Native American and white alike, and who also possessed legendary woodland and hunting skills. There existed among these men the important tradition of a warrior society, the Ogitchedaw, whose members were required to partake in battle....The Native Americans knew they were not likely to be well treated; they knew all too well the intentions of the whites who routinely effected displacements of other tribes resulting in horrific events such as The Trail of Tears in 1838. The Native Americans knew their way of life was at risk, and their accumulating losses of lands and culture were everywhere apparent. However, they also knew that if the South was successful in its campaign during the Civil War, they would likely be relegated to the status of slaves. Therefore, the members of the Three Fires Tribes responded with alacrity and in number: The first was Thomas “Big Tom” Kechittigo from Saginaw on May 3, 1863. Twenty five men from the Elbridge Reservation near Pentwater in Oceana County joined on July 4, 1863. Twenty-eight Ojibway from the Isabella reservation enlisted. A dozen Potawatomi also joined the ranks. Some others traveled from southwest Michigan to enlist in Company K. A few trekked from Canada. The Native Americans arrived at the Dearborn Arsenal to be trained into a cohesive fighting unit as members of Company K, First Michigan Sharp Shooters, the only all Native American unit in the North. Not one member of the 139 was Ogitchedaw; that meant not one member had experienced battle....And these men saw hard service in most of the major battles remaining in the war. In all, one fourth of the men of Company K were either killed or wounded in battle....While many gave the ultimate sacrifice on the battlefield, some of the Sharpshooters were captured. After the Battle of Petersburg, 15 of their number were sent to a living hell: the prison camp at Andersonville. According to the National Parks Service, of 45,000 prisoners, almost 13,000 died of starvation and/or disease. Of the 15 from Company K, seven died and were buried there. At the time of the beginning of this film, they had lain at Andersonville for nearly 150 years without receiving their burial ceremony....About a dozen descendants of Company K and others of the present day Anishinabe Ogitchedaw Veteran and Warrior Society traveled to Andersonville, Georgia, in May of 2010 to honor the graves of the men. These travelers motored from Michigan to Andersonville to offer their prayers and pay homage and respect to the spirits of the men of Company K there buried....This film is the story of that journey and the telling of the tale of the 139 men who joined as members of Company K, their recruitment, the training, their battles, and their deaths and survival....In addition to members of the Ogitchedaw and other descendants of the men of Company K we hear from Company K historians Ray Herek (These Men Have Seen Hard Service) and Chris Czopek (Who Was Who in Company K). The Road to Andersonville trailer and description. Another Trailer . WGVU Road to Andersonville "Inured to hardships, fleet as deer". Gordon Berg. Civil War Times Illustrated (June 2007), p.56. American Indian sharpshooters fought gallantly beside their black and white comrades in blue in the chaos of the Crater. Lieutenant Freeman S. Bowley was fighting for his life in the man-made hellhole that was the Petersburg Crater when he noticed that the former slaves in his company of the 30th United States Colored Troops were not the only men of color wearing Union blue and dodging Confederate Minié balls on the stifling hot morning of July 30, 1864. "Among our troops was a company of Indians, belonging to the 1st Michigan S.S. [Sharpshooters]," recalled Bowley many years later. "They did splendid work, crawling to the very top of the bank, and rising up, they would take a quick and fatal aim, then drop quickly down again." Michigan residents can access this article via MeL . Choose full text magazines and newspapers, choose eLibrary, click on the magazines icon, type in Civil War Times Illustrated. Subject Guide	i don't know
Released in 1981, 'Fire' was the first UK top 40 hit for which rock group?	Record-Breakers and Trivia - everyHit.com >>> But what's the longest word in a lyric? Word featuring in most titles The word "The" features in more hit titles than any other word (2506). Runner-up, a long way behind is "You" (1489) (as of w/e 11th Oct 2003) Word starting most titles The word "I" starts more hit titles than any other word (644). Then it's "Love" (234), "Don't" (219) and "You" (214) (as of w/e 11th Oct 2003) Least Different Letters Making Up An Artist - Title Combination U2 - "One" (5 characters). This uses a number so it could be argued that the real record-holders are ABC - "SOS" and Moby - "Go" (both 6 letters). However, "Doop" by Doop has just 3 different letters! Least different letters for a non eponymous single is 4 for Abba - "SOS." Palindromic Title by a Palindromic Artist "SOS" by Abba is the only palindromic hit song by a palindromic artist. The Vowel-Free Titles: The following are the only titles of four letters or more to be vowel free (excluding numeric titles like "1999"): Crash Test Dummies - "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" Julian Cope - "Try Try Try" Blackout - "Mr DJ" Pop Will Eat Itself - "RSVP" Fall Out Boy - "Thnks Fr Th Mmrs" Alphabetically First and Last Words In Titles Alphabetically, the first word to appear in any song title is, somewhat obviously, "A"; it has appeared in several hundred titles. More obscure though, alphabetically speaking, the last word to appear in any title is "Zululand" (in King Kurt's 1983 hit, "Destination Zululand"). Least Different Words Used For Multi-Worded Titles: Excluding single-worded titles, Destiny's Child are the only act to have three Top 40 hits and use no more than three different words in them; "No No No" (no. 5, 1998), "Bills, Bills, Bills" (no. 6, 1999), and "Jumpin' Jumpin'" (no. 5, 2000) Biggest Name-Droppers: Two groups have managed to take six girls' names into the Top 40: The Everly Brothers: "Wake Up Little Susie" (1957), "Claudette" (1958), "Take A Message To Mary" (1959), "Poor Jenny" (1959), "Cathy's Clown" (1960), and "Lucille" (1960). The Bachelors: ""Charmaine" (1963), "Diane" (1964), "Ramona" (1964), "Marie" (1965), "Hello Dolly" (1966) and "Marta" (1967). Thanks to chart guru Jon Kutner who points out that the Bachelors have a seventh if we include "Walk With Faith In Your Heart"! Lyrical Connections Between Successive Number 1s A favourite question in pop quizzes goes something like this: "Which is the only record to have been knocked off the no.1 spot by a record whose title can be found in the lyric of the first song?" The 'classic' answer is "Bohemian Rhapsody" by Queen. It contains the famous "mamma mia, mamma mia, mamma mia let me go" line. In January 1976, it was replaced at the top of the chart by none other than Abba's "Mamma Mia". But a more striking (and more bizarre) answer arises from 1959 when Emile Ford & The Checkmates' "What Do You Want To Make Those Eyes At Me For" unseated Adam Faith's "What Do You Want" from number one. It's particularly odd as, during the transition, the tracks tied for the top spot and shared the position for one week! But there are other examples, albeit less dramatic (ie. one-word titles), of this phenomenon: In 1958, The Kalin Twins made no. 1 with "When". It replaced The Everly Brothers at the top; both tracks on their double A-Side "All I Have To Do Is Dream" and "Claudette" contained the word "When." Two years later Anthony Newley made no. 1 with "Why". It replaced Michael Holliday's "Starry Eyed" at no. 1; the opening line of that song is "Why am I so starry eyed?" In 1988, The Pet Shop Boys made no. 1 with "Heart". It replaced Aswad's "Don't Turn Around" at no. 1 (which contains the lines "Don't worry about this heart of mine" and "Coz you're gonna see my heart breaking"). The most recent example was seen in 2000. Madonna made no. 1 with "Music". It replaced Spiller's "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)" at no. 1 (which contains the line "While we are moving, the music is soothing"). There are two instances of the reverse of this phenomenon - a track being toppled from no.1 by another which contains its full title in the lyric: In 1960, Anthony Newley's "Why" was topped from no.1 by Adam Faith's "Poor Me" which contained "Why oh why do voices say to me, sit and cry, that this was meant to be." In 1975, Telly Savalas "If" was topped from no.1 by The Bay City Rollers "Bye Bye Baby" which opened with the line "If you hate me after what I say." Here's a interesting sub-category; Lyrical Prophecy Of Topping The Chart On 15th Nov 1980, Blondie's "The Tide Is High" reached number 1. It included the line, "I'm gonna be your number one." It was knocked off the top spot on 29th Nov by Abba's "Super Trouper" which includes the line "feeling like a number one." Most Popular Title For A Top 40 Single Songs entitled "Angel" and "Crazy" have each made the Top 40 in 12 completely different tracks (ie. different tune / lyrics; not different versions of the same song). Runners-up are: "I Believe" (10) and "Stay" (9). The full list is here . First Self-Penned Number 1 Mantovani's "Cara Mia" (July 1954; the 20th no. 1); it was composed by Mantovani and Bunny Lewis (under pen names Tulio Trapani and Lee Lange respectively). Not until the 43rd Number 1 was an act entirely responsible for writing its own chart-topper; The Dreamweavers' "It's Almost Tomorrow" (March 1956). Over twenty-eight years later Steveie Wonder became the first artist ever to write, produce and entirely perform a Number 1 ("I Just Called To Say I Love You", Sep 1984). Eponymous Number Ones When Mr. Blobby went to number one with "Mr Blobby" in 1993 it was the first time in 41 years of chart history that an eponymously title song achieved this feat. However, less than four months "Doop" hit number one by a band called Doop! Hits In Most Languages German pop/dance trio Sash! are the only act to have hits in four different languages. In 1997/8 they made the Top 40 with "Encore Une Fois" (in French), "Ecuador" (in Spanish), "Stay" and others (in English) and "La Primavera" (in Italian). Furthermore, though Sash's 1999 hit "Colour The World" was ostensively sung in English, it contained African lyrics by Nigerian vocalist Dr Alban and Finish singer Inka! Petula Clark is the only British act to have hits in three languages; "Casanova" in German, "Ya Ya Twist" and "Chariot" in French and a host of others in English. One group has graced the charts with hits in three languages. Kraftwerk had success with "Autobahn" (in their native German), "Tour De France" (French), five other Top 40 titles in English and one bilingual ("Expo 2000" mixed German and English). Most Expletives The Super Furry Animals 1996 hit "The Man Don't Give A..." contained 49 expletives; a record for a Top 40 single. The most for a solo hit is 33 in Eamon's 2004 track "F**k It (I Don't Want You Back)." This single also holds the record for most expletives in a chart-topper. The 'award' for most profanities in a hit by a female artist goes to Frankee whose 2004 number 1 "F.U.R.B. (F U Right Back)" (an answer song to Eamon's) contained 22 swear words. Biggest Hit By A Non-Human Artist In terms of chart success, this coverted title goes to The Archies for "Sugar Sugar" which spent 8 weeks at number 1 in 1969 (and stayed in the Top 40 for 22 weeks). Created for mass consumption by bubblegum-pop genius Don Kirshner (the man who gave us the Monkees), the Archies existed on television as an animated series based on the comic book characters of the same name. The voices behind the singing cartoon characters were vocalists Ron Dante, Toni Wine and Andy Kim. The biggest-selling single by a non-human group is "Teletubbies Say Eh-Oh" by The Teletubbies (1997, 1.1 million copies). The biggest-selling single by a non-human soloist(!) is "Can We Fix It?" by Bob The Builder (year 2000, 1.0 million). The Weirdness Of Blur's "Song 2" The track "Song 2" was track 2 on the album "Blur". It was single 2 to be released from the album. It reached number 2 in the chart - and was just 2 minutes long! Position-dodging The Eurythmics have had 9 top ten hits. No two songs have peaked at the same position. The only position they have failed to achieve is No. 7 (they also have one number 11 hit and one number 12 hit, too!) Most Graceful Retreat From Number 1 In chart history, four singles haven fallen from the Number 1 spot by one position for four consecutive weeks (ie. No. 1 to No. 2 to 3, 4, 5). They are: Dickie Valentine - "Finger Of Suspicion" (1954) [1-2-3-4-5-5-4-9-17] Tommy Edwards - "It's All In The Game" (1958) [1-2-3-4-5-4-8-11-15-27] Michael Jackson - "You Are Not Alone" (1995) [1-2-3-4-5-7-9-13-25-30-31] Eminem - "The Real Slim Shady" (2000) [1-2-3-4-5-7-8-10-11-15-23-33-38] The following singles managed to 'double' their fall from the top for four consecutive weeks: Chicago - "If You Leave Me Now" (1976) [1-2-4-8-16-16-28-30-39] Ian & The Blockheads - "Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick" (1978) [1-2-4-8-16-21] Abba - "The Winner Takes It All" (1980) [1-2-4-8-16-30] Wet Wet Wet - "Love Is All Around" (1994) [1-2-4-8-16-21-35- 39] The record for languishing at No. 2 on the way out (for 8 weeks!) goes to: Johnnie Ray - "Such A Night" (1954) [1-2-2-2-2-2-2-2-2-3-7-7-9-10-12] Most 'Impressive' Symmetrical Chart Careers For A Title Ten records in history have experienced symmetrical chart careers of four weeks (none has a longer symmetrical career). Of these, only four climbed as far as the top 30. They are: Gloria Estefan - "Get On Your Feet" (1989) [34-23-23-34] The Beloved - "The Sun Rising" (1989) [37-26-26-37] Re-Flex - "The Politics Of Dancing" (1984) [34-28-28-34] Eric Clapton - "Wonderful Tonight (live)" (1991) [35-30-30-35] Artist 'Lapping' Himself During the time Bryan Adams hit "(Everything I Do) I Do It For You" was at number one, his follow up single, "Can't Stop This Thing We Started", not only entered the chart, but climbed to number 12, fell down the chart and disappeared from the chart altogether. First Chart Has-Been Jane Wyman was the first chart act to completely disappear from the chart, never to return. 12th Dec 1952 was her second and final week on the chart singing 'Zing A Little Zong' with Bing Crosby. When Was The Last Time...? ... there were no entries in the Top 10: In March 2006, a new chart rule enabled download sales to count towards a single's chart position the week prior to the title being available in a 'hard' form (eg. CD). As download sales represented a relatively low proportion of overall sales at the time, this led to the return of a phenomenon which had been in decline for many years; titles entering the charts below their peak position and climbing! In w/e 29th April 2006 there were no new entries inside the Top 10, the first time that this had happened for more than four years. This looks set to become a more regular occurrence as it was repeated on the weeks ending 13th May, 8th July, 19th Aug, 2nd Sep, 30th Sep, 2nd Dec 2006 as well as 27th Jan, 10th Feb, 24th Feb, 3rd Mar, 17th Mar, 7th Apr, 5th May, 2nd June, 30th June, 28th July, 22nd Sep, 13 Oct, 17 Nov, 8th Dec 2007, 12th Jan, 2nd Feb, 1st Mar, 8th Mar, 15th, 29th Mar, 26th April, 10th May, 1st Jun, 29 Nov 2008, 31st Jan, 28th Mar, 11th Apr, 16th May 2009. We're going to discontinue this listing soon if this trend continues as it's getting out of hand! More impressively, on week ending 29th Nov, the highest new entry was at no. 29 (Christian Falk featuring Robyn - "Dream On", though Snow Patrol's "Run" re-entered one place higher). It is rare for the entire upper half of the Top 40 to be devoid of new entries. The previous instances were 26th Apr 2008 when the highest new entry was at no. 25 (Goldfrapp, "Happiness") and 10th Feb 2007, when Kasabian entered at no. 22 with "Me Plus One". Before that, we have to go back to 1994 to find a Top 20 free of debuting singles (outside of the Festive period of course). The 19th Aug 2006 chart not only featured no new entries into the Top 10, but also no "download-to-physical" climbers, making it doubly unusual. Moreover, on the week ending 21st Apr 2007, the entire top 10 was a rearrangement of the previous week's top 10 (i.e. no songs climbing into, entering, or falling out of the top 10). This also happened on w/e 16th May 2009. Throughout the 80s and 90s the number of "high new entries" grew rapidly as record companies became more focussed in targeting chart sales periods for dramatic debut positions. It was then rare (away from Christmas / New Year) to find a Top 10 with no new entries. The last occurrence of this prior to the aforementioned download rule was w/e 9th Feb 2002 (highest new entry that week; "Dance For Me" by Mary J Blige at number 13). More than seven years before that, in June 1994, there was a very rare new-entry-free Top 20, "Move Your Body" by Anticapella being the highest debutant at number 21. (NB: this excludes charts inside the festive season when it is usual for the chart to be somewhat stagnant.) ... a single climbed back up to number one: Occasionally tracks drop from the number one spot and then do a 'U'- turn. Latest to do this was Shakira featuring Wyclef Jean with "Hips Don't Lie." It had topped the chart for w/e 8th July 2006, then being displaced for a total of three weeks by Lily Allen's "Smile" (2 weeks) and McFly's "Don't Stop Me Now / Please Please" (1 week). On w/e 5th Aug 2006 Shakira and Wyclef Jean reclaimed the no. 1 position. Prior to this, Eric Prydz had returned to the top with "Call On Me" in Oct 2004. ... a single spent more than X weeks at number one:: The last single to spend 5 or more weeks at number one was: Duffy - "Mercy" (Feb - Mar 2008) [5 weeks at no. 1] The last single to spend 6 or more weeks at number one was: Leona Lewis - "Bleeding Love" (Nov - Dec 2007) [7 weeks at no. 1] The last single to spend 8 or more weeks at number one was: Rihanna featuring Jay-Z - "Umbrella" (May - July 2007) [10 weeks at no. 1] The last single to spend 11 or more weeks at number one was: Wet Wet Wet - "Love Is All Around" (June-Sep 1994) [15 weeks at no. 1] The last single to spend 16 or more weeks at number one was: Bryan Adams - "(Everything I Do) I Do It For You" (July-Nov 1991) [16 weeks at no. 1 - most ever consecutively.] The last single to spend 17 or more weeks at number one was: Frankie Laine - "I Believe" (Apr-Sep 1953) [18 weeks at no. 1 - though in three separate spells at the top.] More information . ... the Top 5 were all New Entries: The most recent occurrence of the entire top 5 consisting of New Entries was w/e 29th Jan 2005. The previous occasion was w/e 13th Nov 2004; the fact attracted considerable attention as all five of the incumbents were American artists (in descending order: Eminem, Destiny's Child, Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera featuring Missy Elliott, Usher) - a first. The first instance of all Top 5 singles being New Entries was w/e 31st Oct 1998 (Cher, George Michael, U2, Culture Club, Alanis Morissette). On just two occasions (w/e 15th Apr 2000 and w/e 29th Jan 2005) the entire top 6 were debutantes. ... the Top 5 were all non-movers: The week with most successive non-movers (excluding Christmas weeks) was in July 1955 when the whole Top 7 remained unchanged. Since then, only the whole of the Top 6 has ever remained static - on four occasions (9th July 1955, 8th April 1961, 30th May 1981 and 8th March 2008). Top 7 : 9th July 1955 Top 6 : 8th March 2008 1 H Two O featuring Platnum What's It Gonna Be Cherry Pink And Apple Blossom White 4 Basshunter ft DJ Mental Theo Now You're Gone Where Will The Baby's Dimple Be? Most New Entries In The Top 40 On w/e 17th May 1997, the Top 40 chart contained a record-breaking twenty new entries (of which only one was a climber from further down the chart). The week ending 5th March 2005 also introduced us to nineteen 'pure' new entries, this time with no climbers. Most New Entries In The Top 10 There have been seventeen occasions in chart history when seven titles of the Top 10 have been New Entries to the Top 40. The first such occurrence was w/e 19th April 1997. The top 10 looked like this: Top 10 : 19th April 1997 1	Unitary group
The Bob Dylan songs 'Rainy Day Women', 'I Want You' and 'Just Like A Woman' featured on which album?	Record-Breakers and Trivia - everyHit.com >>> But what's the longest word in a lyric? Word featuring in most titles The word "The" features in more hit titles than any other word (2506). Runner-up, a long way behind is "You" (1489) (as of w/e 11th Oct 2003) Word starting most titles The word "I" starts more hit titles than any other word (644). Then it's "Love" (234), "Don't" (219) and "You" (214) (as of w/e 11th Oct 2003) Least Different Letters Making Up An Artist - Title Combination U2 - "One" (5 characters). This uses a number so it could be argued that the real record-holders are ABC - "SOS" and Moby - "Go" (both 6 letters). However, "Doop" by Doop has just 3 different letters! Least different letters for a non eponymous single is 4 for Abba - "SOS." Palindromic Title by a Palindromic Artist "SOS" by Abba is the only palindromic hit song by a palindromic artist. The Vowel-Free Titles: The following are the only titles of four letters or more to be vowel free (excluding numeric titles like "1999"): Crash Test Dummies - "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" Julian Cope - "Try Try Try" Blackout - "Mr DJ" Pop Will Eat Itself - "RSVP" Fall Out Boy - "Thnks Fr Th Mmrs" Alphabetically First and Last Words In Titles Alphabetically, the first word to appear in any song title is, somewhat obviously, "A"; it has appeared in several hundred titles. More obscure though, alphabetically speaking, the last word to appear in any title is "Zululand" (in King Kurt's 1983 hit, "Destination Zululand"). Least Different Words Used For Multi-Worded Titles: Excluding single-worded titles, Destiny's Child are the only act to have three Top 40 hits and use no more than three different words in them; "No No No" (no. 5, 1998), "Bills, Bills, Bills" (no. 6, 1999), and "Jumpin' Jumpin'" (no. 5, 2000) Biggest Name-Droppers: Two groups have managed to take six girls' names into the Top 40: The Everly Brothers: "Wake Up Little Susie" (1957), "Claudette" (1958), "Take A Message To Mary" (1959), "Poor Jenny" (1959), "Cathy's Clown" (1960), and "Lucille" (1960). The Bachelors: ""Charmaine" (1963), "Diane" (1964), "Ramona" (1964), "Marie" (1965), "Hello Dolly" (1966) and "Marta" (1967). Thanks to chart guru Jon Kutner who points out that the Bachelors have a seventh if we include "Walk With Faith In Your Heart"! Lyrical Connections Between Successive Number 1s A favourite question in pop quizzes goes something like this: "Which is the only record to have been knocked off the no.1 spot by a record whose title can be found in the lyric of the first song?" The 'classic' answer is "Bohemian Rhapsody" by Queen. It contains the famous "mamma mia, mamma mia, mamma mia let me go" line. In January 1976, it was replaced at the top of the chart by none other than Abba's "Mamma Mia". But a more striking (and more bizarre) answer arises from 1959 when Emile Ford & The Checkmates' "What Do You Want To Make Those Eyes At Me For" unseated Adam Faith's "What Do You Want" from number one. It's particularly odd as, during the transition, the tracks tied for the top spot and shared the position for one week! But there are other examples, albeit less dramatic (ie. one-word titles), of this phenomenon: In 1958, The Kalin Twins made no. 1 with "When". It replaced The Everly Brothers at the top; both tracks on their double A-Side "All I Have To Do Is Dream" and "Claudette" contained the word "When." Two years later Anthony Newley made no. 1 with "Why". It replaced Michael Holliday's "Starry Eyed" at no. 1; the opening line of that song is "Why am I so starry eyed?" In 1988, The Pet Shop Boys made no. 1 with "Heart". It replaced Aswad's "Don't Turn Around" at no. 1 (which contains the lines "Don't worry about this heart of mine" and "Coz you're gonna see my heart breaking"). The most recent example was seen in 2000. Madonna made no. 1 with "Music". It replaced Spiller's "Groovejet (If This Ain't Love)" at no. 1 (which contains the line "While we are moving, the music is soothing"). There are two instances of the reverse of this phenomenon - a track being toppled from no.1 by another which contains its full title in the lyric: In 1960, Anthony Newley's "Why" was topped from no.1 by Adam Faith's "Poor Me" which contained "Why oh why do voices say to me, sit and cry, that this was meant to be." In 1975, Telly Savalas "If" was topped from no.1 by The Bay City Rollers "Bye Bye Baby" which opened with the line "If you hate me after what I say." Here's a interesting sub-category; Lyrical Prophecy Of Topping The Chart On 15th Nov 1980, Blondie's "The Tide Is High" reached number 1. It included the line, "I'm gonna be your number one." It was knocked off the top spot on 29th Nov by Abba's "Super Trouper" which includes the line "feeling like a number one." Most Popular Title For A Top 40 Single Songs entitled "Angel" and "Crazy" have each made the Top 40 in 12 completely different tracks (ie. different tune / lyrics; not different versions of the same song). Runners-up are: "I Believe" (10) and "Stay" (9). The full list is here . First Self-Penned Number 1 Mantovani's "Cara Mia" (July 1954; the 20th no. 1); it was composed by Mantovani and Bunny Lewis (under pen names Tulio Trapani and Lee Lange respectively). Not until the 43rd Number 1 was an act entirely responsible for writing its own chart-topper; The Dreamweavers' "It's Almost Tomorrow" (March 1956). Over twenty-eight years later Steveie Wonder became the first artist ever to write, produce and entirely perform a Number 1 ("I Just Called To Say I Love You", Sep 1984). Eponymous Number Ones When Mr. Blobby went to number one with "Mr Blobby" in 1993 it was the first time in 41 years of chart history that an eponymously title song achieved this feat. However, less than four months "Doop" hit number one by a band called Doop! Hits In Most Languages German pop/dance trio Sash! are the only act to have hits in four different languages. In 1997/8 they made the Top 40 with "Encore Une Fois" (in French), "Ecuador" (in Spanish), "Stay" and others (in English) and "La Primavera" (in Italian). Furthermore, though Sash's 1999 hit "Colour The World" was ostensively sung in English, it contained African lyrics by Nigerian vocalist Dr Alban and Finish singer Inka! Petula Clark is the only British act to have hits in three languages; "Casanova" in German, "Ya Ya Twist" and "Chariot" in French and a host of others in English. One group has graced the charts with hits in three languages. Kraftwerk had success with "Autobahn" (in their native German), "Tour De France" (French), five other Top 40 titles in English and one bilingual ("Expo 2000" mixed German and English). Most Expletives The Super Furry Animals 1996 hit "The Man Don't Give A..." contained 49 expletives; a record for a Top 40 single. The most for a solo hit is 33 in Eamon's 2004 track "F**k It (I Don't Want You Back)." This single also holds the record for most expletives in a chart-topper. The 'award' for most profanities in a hit by a female artist goes to Frankee whose 2004 number 1 "F.U.R.B. (F U Right Back)" (an answer song to Eamon's) contained 22 swear words. Biggest Hit By A Non-Human Artist In terms of chart success, this coverted title goes to The Archies for "Sugar Sugar" which spent 8 weeks at number 1 in 1969 (and stayed in the Top 40 for 22 weeks). Created for mass consumption by bubblegum-pop genius Don Kirshner (the man who gave us the Monkees), the Archies existed on television as an animated series based on the comic book characters of the same name. The voices behind the singing cartoon characters were vocalists Ron Dante, Toni Wine and Andy Kim. The biggest-selling single by a non-human group is "Teletubbies Say Eh-Oh" by The Teletubbies (1997, 1.1 million copies). The biggest-selling single by a non-human soloist(!) is "Can We Fix It?" by Bob The Builder (year 2000, 1.0 million). The Weirdness Of Blur's "Song 2" The track "Song 2" was track 2 on the album "Blur". It was single 2 to be released from the album. It reached number 2 in the chart - and was just 2 minutes long! Position-dodging The Eurythmics have had 9 top ten hits. No two songs have peaked at the same position. The only position they have failed to achieve is No. 7 (they also have one number 11 hit and one number 12 hit, too!) Most Graceful Retreat From Number 1 In chart history, four singles haven fallen from the Number 1 spot by one position for four consecutive weeks (ie. No. 1 to No. 2 to 3, 4, 5). They are: Dickie Valentine - "Finger Of Suspicion" (1954) [1-2-3-4-5-5-4-9-17] Tommy Edwards - "It's All In The Game" (1958) [1-2-3-4-5-4-8-11-15-27] Michael Jackson - "You Are Not Alone" (1995) [1-2-3-4-5-7-9-13-25-30-31] Eminem - "The Real Slim Shady" (2000) [1-2-3-4-5-7-8-10-11-15-23-33-38] The following singles managed to 'double' their fall from the top for four consecutive weeks: Chicago - "If You Leave Me Now" (1976) [1-2-4-8-16-16-28-30-39] Ian & The Blockheads - "Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick" (1978) [1-2-4-8-16-21] Abba - "The Winner Takes It All" (1980) [1-2-4-8-16-30] Wet Wet Wet - "Love Is All Around" (1994) [1-2-4-8-16-21-35- 39] The record for languishing at No. 2 on the way out (for 8 weeks!) goes to: Johnnie Ray - "Such A Night" (1954) [1-2-2-2-2-2-2-2-2-3-7-7-9-10-12] Most 'Impressive' Symmetrical Chart Careers For A Title Ten records in history have experienced symmetrical chart careers of four weeks (none has a longer symmetrical career). Of these, only four climbed as far as the top 30. They are: Gloria Estefan - "Get On Your Feet" (1989) [34-23-23-34] The Beloved - "The Sun Rising" (1989) [37-26-26-37] Re-Flex - "The Politics Of Dancing" (1984) [34-28-28-34] Eric Clapton - "Wonderful Tonight (live)" (1991) [35-30-30-35] Artist 'Lapping' Himself During the time Bryan Adams hit "(Everything I Do) I Do It For You" was at number one, his follow up single, "Can't Stop This Thing We Started", not only entered the chart, but climbed to number 12, fell down the chart and disappeared from the chart altogether. First Chart Has-Been Jane Wyman was the first chart act to completely disappear from the chart, never to return. 12th Dec 1952 was her second and final week on the chart singing 'Zing A Little Zong' with Bing Crosby. When Was The Last Time...? ... there were no entries in the Top 10: In March 2006, a new chart rule enabled download sales to count towards a single's chart position the week prior to the title being available in a 'hard' form (eg. CD). As download sales represented a relatively low proportion of overall sales at the time, this led to the return of a phenomenon which had been in decline for many years; titles entering the charts below their peak position and climbing! In w/e 29th April 2006 there were no new entries inside the Top 10, the first time that this had happened for more than four years. This looks set to become a more regular occurrence as it was repeated on the weeks ending 13th May, 8th July, 19th Aug, 2nd Sep, 30th Sep, 2nd Dec 2006 as well as 27th Jan, 10th Feb, 24th Feb, 3rd Mar, 17th Mar, 7th Apr, 5th May, 2nd June, 30th June, 28th July, 22nd Sep, 13 Oct, 17 Nov, 8th Dec 2007, 12th Jan, 2nd Feb, 1st Mar, 8th Mar, 15th, 29th Mar, 26th April, 10th May, 1st Jun, 29 Nov 2008, 31st Jan, 28th Mar, 11th Apr, 16th May 2009. We're going to discontinue this listing soon if this trend continues as it's getting out of hand! More impressively, on week ending 29th Nov, the highest new entry was at no. 29 (Christian Falk featuring Robyn - "Dream On", though Snow Patrol's "Run" re-entered one place higher). It is rare for the entire upper half of the Top 40 to be devoid of new entries. The previous instances were 26th Apr 2008 when the highest new entry was at no. 25 (Goldfrapp, "Happiness") and 10th Feb 2007, when Kasabian entered at no. 22 with "Me Plus One". Before that, we have to go back to 1994 to find a Top 20 free of debuting singles (outside of the Festive period of course). The 19th Aug 2006 chart not only featured no new entries into the Top 10, but also no "download-to-physical" climbers, making it doubly unusual. Moreover, on the week ending 21st Apr 2007, the entire top 10 was a rearrangement of the previous week's top 10 (i.e. no songs climbing into, entering, or falling out of the top 10). This also happened on w/e 16th May 2009. Throughout the 80s and 90s the number of "high new entries" grew rapidly as record companies became more focussed in targeting chart sales periods for dramatic debut positions. It was then rare (away from Christmas / New Year) to find a Top 10 with no new entries. The last occurrence of this prior to the aforementioned download rule was w/e 9th Feb 2002 (highest new entry that week; "Dance For Me" by Mary J Blige at number 13). More than seven years before that, in June 1994, there was a very rare new-entry-free Top 20, "Move Your Body" by Anticapella being the highest debutant at number 21. (NB: this excludes charts inside the festive season when it is usual for the chart to be somewhat stagnant.) ... a single climbed back up to number one: Occasionally tracks drop from the number one spot and then do a 'U'- turn. Latest to do this was Shakira featuring Wyclef Jean with "Hips Don't Lie." It had topped the chart for w/e 8th July 2006, then being displaced for a total of three weeks by Lily Allen's "Smile" (2 weeks) and McFly's "Don't Stop Me Now / Please Please" (1 week). On w/e 5th Aug 2006 Shakira and Wyclef Jean reclaimed the no. 1 position. Prior to this, Eric Prydz had returned to the top with "Call On Me" in Oct 2004. ... a single spent more than X weeks at number one:: The last single to spend 5 or more weeks at number one was: Duffy - "Mercy" (Feb - Mar 2008) [5 weeks at no. 1] The last single to spend 6 or more weeks at number one was: Leona Lewis - "Bleeding Love" (Nov - Dec 2007) [7 weeks at no. 1] The last single to spend 8 or more weeks at number one was: Rihanna featuring Jay-Z - "Umbrella" (May - July 2007) [10 weeks at no. 1] The last single to spend 11 or more weeks at number one was: Wet Wet Wet - "Love Is All Around" (June-Sep 1994) [15 weeks at no. 1] The last single to spend 16 or more weeks at number one was: Bryan Adams - "(Everything I Do) I Do It For You" (July-Nov 1991) [16 weeks at no. 1 - most ever consecutively.] The last single to spend 17 or more weeks at number one was: Frankie Laine - "I Believe" (Apr-Sep 1953) [18 weeks at no. 1 - though in three separate spells at the top.] More information . ... the Top 5 were all New Entries: The most recent occurrence of the entire top 5 consisting of New Entries was w/e 29th Jan 2005. The previous occasion was w/e 13th Nov 2004; the fact attracted considerable attention as all five of the incumbents were American artists (in descending order: Eminem, Destiny's Child, Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera featuring Missy Elliott, Usher) - a first. The first instance of all Top 5 singles being New Entries was w/e 31st Oct 1998 (Cher, George Michael, U2, Culture Club, Alanis Morissette). On just two occasions (w/e 15th Apr 2000 and w/e 29th Jan 2005) the entire top 6 were debutantes. ... the Top 5 were all non-movers: The week with most successive non-movers (excluding Christmas weeks) was in July 1955 when the whole Top 7 remained unchanged. Since then, only the whole of the Top 6 has ever remained static - on four occasions (9th July 1955, 8th April 1961, 30th May 1981 and 8th March 2008). Top 7 : 9th July 1955 Top 6 : 8th March 2008 1 H Two O featuring Platnum What's It Gonna Be Cherry Pink And Apple Blossom White 4 Basshunter ft DJ Mental Theo Now You're Gone Where Will The Baby's Dimple Be? Most New Entries In The Top 40 On w/e 17th May 1997, the Top 40 chart contained a record-breaking twenty new entries (of which only one was a climber from further down the chart). The week ending 5th March 2005 also introduced us to nineteen 'pure' new entries, this time with no climbers. Most New Entries In The Top 10 There have been seventeen occasions in chart history when seven titles of the Top 10 have been New Entries to the Top 40. The first such occurrence was w/e 19th April 1997. The top 10 looked like this: Top 10 : 19th April 1997 1	i don't know
Which city on the River Alun in Pembrokeshire is, with a population of under 2,000, the smallest city in the UK?	Pembrokeshire Tours, Tours of Pembrokeshire, England, Great British Trips St Davids Cathedral and Bishop's Palace St Davids Cathedral, Pembrokeshire The 12th century Cathedral, built from beautiful local stone that gives it an unusual pink and grey colouring, is a must see. There have been cathedrals built earlier on the site, but Viking attacks destroyed several earlier structures. The Bishop’s Palace built in the 14th century lies across the river from the cathedral and the grand architecture shows the power and wealth of the medieval church. Bosherston Lakes Bosherston Lakes, Pembrokeshire The Bosherston Lakes are 3 flooded limestone valleys which are best known for their carpet of lilies (best in June) which covers the lakes. A footpath winds its way around the banks and takes visitors to the spectacular beach at Broad Haven South. These beautiful freshwater lakes are home to otters, wildfowl and dragonflies and part of a National Nature Reserve. Caldey Island Caldey Island, Pembrokeshire Caldey Island is off the coast of Tenby in the south and can be reached by boat from there. Caldey Abbey which sits on the Island is home to Cisterian Monks who farm the island and make the famous Caldey Perfume and chocolate. Carew Castle and Tidal Mill Carew Castle and Mill, Pembrokeshire One of Pembrokeshire's finest castles, this beautiful Norman Stronghold later became and Elizabethan Manor House before being partly destoryed during the Civil War. The site also houses a fascinating Tidal Mill which can be seen working today. Castell Henllys Iron Age Fort Castell Henlly's, Pembrokeshire Castell Henllys is an absolute hidden gem and massive favourite of our GBT team! This iron age fort sits on top of a hill and has been lovingly reconstructed using iron age methods and materials in the surrounding area. It's an incredible glimpse into Iron Age life and feels just like stepping back thousands of years. Pembroke Castle Pembroke Castle, Pembrokeshire Pembroke Castle, was the birth place of Henry VII and is one of the most magnificent medieval monuments in Britain. Made even more popular by the recent 'White Queen' series, exploring the castle will provide hours of fun for the whole family. Exhibitions and tableaux recount the castle's fascinating history, from the arrival of the Normans in 1093 to the present day. Ramsey Island Dolphin and Whale boat trips Dolphin and Whale Watching off Ramsey, Pembrokeshire St Davids Peninsula has some of the most magnificent coastal scenery in Pembrokeshire. A RIB sightseeing boat trip is a wonderful way to explore the coast and a guide will take you to the local Ramsey Island and coastal inlets where Atlantic Seals and some of Britain's rarest seabirds live in abundance such as Puffins and Guillemots. Nearby dolphin and whale watching trips are also available. Freshwater West Freshwater West, Pembrokeshire One of the best surf beaches in Britain, this stunning piece of coastline is a beautiful, wind swept exposed beach and one of the most consitant surf spots in Wales. This stretch of beach also boasts another claim to fame, it was used in both the recent Robin Hood movie and the forthcoming Harry Potter finale movies. For surfers and movie buffs alike, this great location is a must on your specialised tour of Britain. Skomer Island Skomer Island, Pembrokeshire Skomer Island is an incredible marine life reserve which is home to a variety of sea-birds including the Puffin as well as a large grey seal colony. Multi-attraction Passes Recommended for this destination: Cadw Welsh Heritage Pass	St Davids
Give any year during which the Crimean War was fought?	Manerdivy Guide \| Wales United Kingdom Manerdivy Guide \| Wales United Kingdom Llangrannog Llangrannog (otherwise Llangranog) is a small, coastal village and seaside resort in Ceredigion, Wales, seven miles south of New Quay. According to the United Kingdom Census 2001, the population of Llangrannog was then 772 people. Also, the census reveals that 51.8% of the population speak Welsh fluently, with the highest percentage of speakers being in the 15-19 age group, where 100% are able to speak Welsh. Abersoch Abersoch is situated on the Llyn Peninsula in North Wales Caernarfonshire district and has become a very popular village seaside resort. Great beaches, internationally recognised sailing waters, pleasant climate and beautiful scenery, all set in the heartland of the Welsh language - provide a special combination. Combe Martin Combe Martin is a small seaside resort with a sheltered cove on the edge of the Exmoor national park. Due to the narrowness of the valley, it is composed principally of one single long street which runs two miles from the valley head to the sea. Criccieth Criccieth is a beautiful small town situated on the shores of Cardigan Bay and sheltered by the Snowdonia Mountains. Criccieth is the ideal place to base yourself for the perfect holiday. The Llyn Peninsula and surrounding areas of Snowdonia, Harlech, Cader Idris and Anglesey are steeped in unsurpassed scenery, history, folklore, myths and legends. Perfect for golfing, walking, sailing, birdwatching, cycling and relaxation. Dolgellau Dolgellau is a small market town situated at the foot of the Cader Idris mountain range in south Snowdonia. Owain Glyndwr held the last Welsh parliament in Dolgellau in 1404 and Dolgellau was the county town of Meirionnydd in the late 19th century. Felindre Farchog Felindre Farchog is a small village sited along the A487 road which winds through a steepsidedwooded river valley with a narrow floor. The church and bridge over the Afon Nyfer are theprimary landmark features and the main street is characterised by residential property fronting theroad. Gwynedd With over 180km of shoreline, the coast offers many opportunities for safe bathing, sailing, surfing, diving, and fishing. Gwynedd is a county of north-west Wales that was formed in 1974 from Anglesey, Caernarvonshire, part of Denbighshire, and most of Merionethshire. It covers almost 4,000 square kilometres and its administrative centre is Caernarvon. Haverfordwest Haverfordwest owes its existence to its location on the River Cleddau which today flows through the centre of this bustling market town. It was the first place on the river which afforded a safe opportunity to ford the Western Cleddau, hence its name which is derived from the Old English word haefer, meaning buck or he-goat. It was the place where goats crossed the river. Ilfracombe Ilfracombe is a captivating and friendly resort, set in the north of Devon, in a region renowned for its outstanding natural beauty. Ilfracombe has its own harbour, from which you can explore one of the best coastlines in England. To the East, you will find some of the highest sea cliffs in England, split up by small uncommercialised Rocky Bays; ideal for bathing and rock-pool exploration. Mumbles Mumbles, undoubtedly one of the best sea side villages with some of the most scenic walking in the UK with its undulating landscape and endless beaches, Mumbles and the surrounding area really must be in your list of holiday destinations this year. Pembroke The historic town of Pembroke is located in Wales in Pembrokeshire, on the River Cleddau. Its main street is ideal for strolling with several interesting Tudor and Georgian houses, two historic churches, and a pleasant mixture of shops, pubs, cafes and restaurants. Saundersfoot Saundersfoot used to be a small fishing village. There was also some shipbuilding here. In the 1800's Saundersfoot became very popular with the black gold rush when high quality anthracite was found locally. This coal was in demand and in 1829 a whole new harbour was built and railways shipped the coal to the harbour from six mines. With the decline of coal sales and other more profitable coal mining operations both in the UK and abroad, the mining ceased and Saundersfoot became a popular tourist destination. Swansea Swansea, Wales' City by the Sea and birthplace of Dylan Thomas and Catherine Zeta Jones, is a lively and vibrant maritime city and regional shopping centre. Only a stone throw away, the Victorian resort of Mumbles offers a fantastic array of attractions, including a pier, traditional boutiques, craft shops and ice-cream parlours. Mumbles is known as the 'Gateway to Gower', Britain's first Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Gower Peninsula extends West of Mumbles in a succession of stunning coastal and rural sceneries. To the East, the 'Waterfall Country' at Afan and the Vale of Neath is a haven for walkers and bikers alike. Tenby Beautiful Tenby town nestles majestically amidst the grandeur of the famous Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, with its award winning beaches, rugged coastline and the monastic island of Caldey. With its picturesque harbour and wonderful beaches, we are sure that you will love Tenby so much you'll want to keep coming back year after year Aberystwyth Aberystwyth is the principal holiday resort and administrative centre of the west coast of Wales. It is also home to the University of Wales Aberystwyth and the National Library. The town is nestled between three hills and two beaches, and hosts some castle ruins, a pier and a harbour. St Davids St David's is the smallest city in the United Kingdom, with a population of under 2,000 people. It lies on the River Alun, on Saint David's peninsula in Pembrokeshire, Wales. St David's is the de facto ecclesiastical capital of Wales and the final resting place of Saint David, the patron saint of Wales. Porthcawl Porthcawl is a town on the south coast of Wales in the county borough of Bridgend, 25 miles (40 kilometres) west of the capital city, Cardiff and 19 miles (30.5 kilometres) south-east of Swansea. Situated on a low limestone headland on the South Wales coast, overlooking the Bristol Channel, Porthcawl developed as a coal port during the 19th century, but its trade was soon taken over by more rapidly developing ports such as Barry. Fishguard Fishguard is a coastal town in Pembrokeshire. A regular ferry leaves for Rosslare in Ireland from the port of Fishguard Harbour (not actually in Fishguard, but a mile away at Goodwick). Fishguard is the terminus of the A40 London to Fishguard trunk road. It is in the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park and on the Pembrokeshire Coast Path. Fishguard is served by train at Fishguard Harbour railway station. Ogmore-by-Sea Ogmore-by-Sea is a seaside village in the Vale of Glamorgan, Wales. It lies on the western limit of the Glamorgan Heritage Coastline of south Wales. It has, along with neighbouring Southerndown one of the most spectacular locations for a residential area anywhere on the Celtic seaboard, and is visually very similar to Bude and Widemouth Bay in Cornwall (this is unsurprising - both locations in Cornwall have the same carboniferous cliffs as Ogmore).	i don't know
Running from Goa in the north to Cape Comorin on the country's southern tip, what name is given to India's southwestern coastline?	South Asia - ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 354 FIGURE 12.1 I South Asia South Asia - ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page... SCHOOL View Full Document This is the end of the preview. Sign up to access the rest of the document. Unformatted text preview: ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 354 FIGURE 12.1 I SOUTH ASIA This region is the second most populated in the world, primarily because of India’s more than 1 billion residents. Bordering India on the west and east are Pakistan and Bangladesh, two large countries with predominantly Muslim populations. The two Himalayan countries of Nepal and Bhutan, along with the island nations of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, round out the region. (right) Although South Asia is well know for its poverty, it is also home to a number of thriving high-technology firms. (Reuters/Corbis/ Bettmann) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 355 CH 12 A P TE R South Asia SETTING South Asia forms a distinct landmass separated from the rest of the Eurasian continent by a series of sweeping mountain ranges, including the Himalayas—the highest in the world. For this reason it is often called the Indian subcontinent, in reference to its largest country. South Asia also includes a number of islands in the Indian Ocean, including the countries of Sri Lanka and the Maldives, as well as the Indian territories of the Lakshadweep, Andaman, and Nicobar Islands. India is by far the largest South Asian country, both in size and in population. Covering more than 1 million square miles from the Himalayan crest to the southern tip of the peninsula at Cape Comorin, India is the world’s seventh largest country in terms of area and, with more than 1 billion inhabitants, second only to China in population. Although mostly a Hindu country, India contains tremendous religious, ethnic, linguistic, and political diversity. Pakistan, the next largest country, is less than one-third the size of India. Stretching from the high northern mountains to the arid coastline on the Arabian Sea, its population of 166 million is only about 15 percent of India’s. Despite this imbalance, these two countries have been locked in a tense struggle, especially over the disputed territory of Kashmir. Until independence in 1947, Pakistan was one portion of a larger undivided British colonial realm simply called India. Because of its strong ties to Islam, however, some Pakistanis argue that their country is now more closely connected to its Muslim neighbors in Southwest Asia than it is to India and the rest of South Asia. Bangladesh, on India’s eastern shoulder, is also a largely Muslim country. Originally created as East Pakistan in the hurried division of India in 1947, it achieved independence after a brief civil war in 1971. Although a small country in area (54,000 square miles), Bangladesh is one of the world’s most densely populated places—and also one of the poorest—with 145 million people living in an area about the size of Wisconsin. Bangladesh has a short ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY — While the arid parts of South Asia suffer from water shortages and the salinization of the soil, the humid areas often experience devastating floods. SETTLEMENT AND POPULATION — South Asia will soon become the most populous region of the world. Birthrates have, however, come down substantially in recent years. CULTURAL COHERENCE AND DIVERSITY — South Asia is one of the most culturally diverse regions of the world, with India alone having more than a dozen official languages as well as numerous adherents of most major religions. GEOPOLITICAL FRAMEWORK — South Asia is burdened not only by a number of violent secession movements, but also by the struggle between the nuclear-armed countries of India and Pakistan. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Although South Asia is one of the poorest regions of the world, certain areas are experiencing rapid economic growth and technological development. — THE BOUNDARIES border with Burma (Myanmar), but it is otherwise bordered only by India. Nepal and Bhutan are both located in the Himalayan Mountains, sandwiched between India and the Tibetan plateau of China. Nepal, with some 26 million people, is much larger in both area and population, and is far more open to the contemporary world. Bhutan, on the other hand, has purposely disconnected itself from the global system, remaining a relatively isolated Buddhist kingdom of approximately 1 million inhabitants. The two island countries of Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) and the Maldives round out South Asia. Each of these countries has its own problems that cloud the future. Sri Lanka (population of 20 million) has since 1983 been mired in a civil war. The predicament facing the small island nation of the Maldives is quite different. If global warming continues and if sea levels rise as predicted, this island nation—where the highest point is only 6 feet above sea level—will be entirely flooded and its 300,000 inhabitants will have to seek higher ground elsewhere. SOUTH ASIA, A LAND OF DEEP HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL INTERCONNECTIONS, has recently experienced intense political conflict. Since independence from Britain in 1947, the two largest countries, India and Pakistan, have fought several wars and remain locked in a bitter conflict. Political tensions have reached such heights that many experts consider South Asia the leading candidate for a nuclear war. Religious divisions lie beneath the geopolitical turmoil, for India is primarily a Hindu country (with a large Muslim minority), while neighboring Pakistan and Bangladesh are both predominantly Muslim (Figure 12.1; see “Setting the Boundaries”). South Asia also has its share of economic and demographic problems. Given its current rate of growth, South Asia will soon surpass East Asia as the world’s most populous region. Although agricultural production has increased slightly faster than population in recent decades, some experts think that farming improvements are approaching their limit.Compounding this serious situation is the widespread poverty of South Asia, which is one of the poorest parts of the world. South Asia is less connected to the contemporary globalized world than are East or Southeast Asia. It is, however, beginning to have a significant global impact, based on its high levels of scientific and technical talent,the international links that the region has established through migration, and the enormous size of its local markets. Parts of India, for example, have recently emerged as major players in the global information technology industry. 355 ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 356 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 356 South Asia Environmental Geography: Diverse Landscapes, from T ropical Islands to Mountain Rim FIGURE 12.2 I PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH ASIA This region is composed of four extensive physical subregions: the high Himalayan mountains in the north; the expansive Indus-Ganges lowland that reaches from Pakistan in the west to the delta lands of Bangladesh; peninsular India, dominated by the Deccan Plateau; and the island realm that includes Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The region is subject to a number of natural hazards, including earthquakes, flooding, and typhoons (tropical storms) from the Bay of Bengal. South Asia’s diverse environmental geography ranges from the highest mountains in the world to densely populated delta islands barely above sea level; from some of the wettest places on Earth to dry,scorching deserts;and from tropical rainforests to eroded scrublands (Figure 12.2). All of these ecological zones have their own Significant earthquakes since 1885 u Kush Hind EURASIAN PLATE Mountain region. The collision of the Indian plate into the Asian plate has created the highest mountains in the world. Numerous earthquakes occur along the plate boundary. J m R. Islamabad Severe flooding risk Tropical storm paths Godwin Austen Peak (K2) lu he an ge H ma nR i Rav PAKISTAN A L NEPAL G am Desert Indu s Rann of ge an li R al av Ar un a N D ge R. I Y Kathmandu an s Gh a Ga I A ng gh ar a e s R. V i n dh Kathiawar Peninsula Pl ain A Dhaka Tapti Gulf of Khambhat ım We Plateau aR G h a ts . Kris h na Bay of Bengal EURASIAN PLATE Ganges River delta. The delta of the Ganges River is the largest delta in the world. Although its soils are very fertile, the delta region often experiences devastating floods. rn R. te s a Gh ndel at Mala s ba r Co ast Lakshadweep Andaman Islands An da m a n t lk S tra i 10°N e lt a Deccan rn INDO-AUSTRALIAN PLATE G a n ges D avari R. ste The Western Ghats. The rugged Western Ghat mountains separate the narrow western Indian coastal plain from the rest of the country. ang e R. G od Bh Chota Nagpur Hills Mahanad R. rom a 20°N ng e ya Ra rmada R. Na Satpura R R. BANGLADESH Co A rabi an S ea Thimphu BHUTAN C o a st Gulf of Kutch S u t ra Brahmap R. Kutch Tropic of Cancer A Mt. Everest E r ak al M C e n tr a n g e R an New Delhi Y ARABIAN PLATE 500 km 250 M . jR tle Thar R. 0 500 mi EURASIAN PLATE I Su lai Su R. 250 0 Pa Sea Cape Comorin Nicobar Islands SRI LANKA Colombo INDO-AUSTRALIAN PLATE Male MALDIVES 0° INDIAN OCEAN Equator 0° 70°E 80°E 90°E ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 357 Environmental Geography: Diverse Landscapes, from Tropical Islands to Mountain Rim I 357 distinct and complex environmental problems. To illustrate the complexity of South Asian environmental issues, let us begin by looking at the building of India’s new “Golden Quadrilateral” highway system. Building the Quadrilateral Highway India’s need for improved transportation is difficult to deny. As of 2006, the average speed for a trucker traveling between Kolkata (Calcutta) and Mumbai (Bombay) could be as low as 11 kilometers per hour.Multilane highways are rare,while checkpoints and tollbooths, typically demanding long waits, abound.To address the transport needs generated by its booming economy, India has recently undertaken a massive $6.25 billion road project designed to connect its four largest cities, New Delhi, Kolkata (Calcutta), Chennai (Madras), and Mumbai (Bombay), with a modern highway (Figure 12.3). Building the new highway system has not, however, proved easy. Truckers have protested the higher taxes and tolls that are needed to finance it,while citizen groups have stopped construction on several occasions with large protests demanding more underpasses, overpasses, and cattle crossings. While some concessions have been made, many rural Indians are infuriated that their homes have been destroyed and their farms bisected by the massive project. Highway construction has also generated both religious and environmental conflicts. Several Hindu temples have had to be relocated, prompting local worshippers to try to stop the project. Many thousands of trees are also being destroyed, generating further opposition.Not only are large trees rare in many parts of India,but they are also often regarded as sacred by devout Hindus. As a result, contractors are sometimes forced to hire Muslims to cut down trees under the cover of night. Such actions, not surprisingly, anger local villagers. Villagers must also worry about a number of other environmental problems, a few of which are examined below. Environmental Issues in South Asia As is true in other poor and densely settled regions of the world, South Asia faces a number of serious environmental issues (Figure 12.4). The region suffers from severe natural hazards, especially flooding in the region’s large river deltas; deforestation, both for agricultural expansion and commercial export purposes; and widespread water and air pollution, which often accompany early industrialization. South Asia has also suffered from some of the world’s worst environmental disasters. The 1984 explosion of a fertilizer plant in Bhopal, India, for example, killed more than 2,500 persons and maimed many more. Compounding all of these problems are the immense numbers of new people added each year through natural population growth. Natural Hazards in Bangladesh The link between population pressure and environmental problems is nowhere clearer than in the delta area of Bangladesh, where the search for fertile land has driven people into hazardous areas, putting millions at risk from seasonal flooding as well as from the powerful cyclones (tropical storms) that form over the Bay of Bengal. For thousands of years, drenching monsoon rains have eroded and transported huge quantities of sediment from the Himalayan slopes to the sea by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, gradually building this low-lying delta environment. While farming in the fertile delta supports Bangladesh’s large population, it increases the number of people affected by natural disasters. Although periodic flooding is a natural, even beneficial, phenomenon that enlarges deltas by depositing fertile river-borne sediment, flooding has become a serious problem for people living in these low-lying areas. In September 1998, for example, more than 22 million Bangladeshis were made homeless when water covered two-thirds of the country (Figure 12.5). With the populations of both Bangladesh and northern India growing rapidly, there is a strong possibility that flooding will take even higher tolls in the next decade as desperate farmers relocate FIGURE 12.3 I THE GOLDEN QUADRILATERAL HIGHWAY India’s infrastructure is notoriously poor, but the government is now responding with a massive highway construction program. The so-called Golden Quadrilateral Highway, shown here, has generated numerous protests, as villagers object to the destruction of houses, temples, and trees that lie in its path. (Tyler Hicks/The New York Times/ Redux Pictures) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 358 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 358 South Asia Green Revolution. Agriculture has successfully increased wheat production in the Punjab area through heavy application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. As a result, nearby wells and rivers are contaminated with agricultural chemicals. Eastern and Western Himalaya Foothills. Widespread logging of Himalayan forests has led to a critical wood shortage problem for villagers in this area. Additionally, deforestation has created severe soil erosion and landslide problems on steep valley slopes. Chipko "treehugging" movement by Indian women has led to some restrictions on forest cutting in the past several decades. 0 0 T r o p ic 200 200 400 mi 400 km of Can cer Bhopal Kolkata (Calcutta) R. mada Nar 20°N Narmada River. A proposed dam that would irrigate large areas of Gujarat state has faced strong local and international opposition due to negative social and environmental consequences, specifically the displacement of local farmers and loss of wildlife habitat. Ganges Delta. Sedimentation brought down from the Himalayas has created a vast low-lying delta area that is now densely-settled by rice farmers. However, river flooding and storm surge from oceanic cyclones (hurricanes) cause devastation and high loss of life each year. 10°N Forest areas 0° Forest destroyed Desertification Coastal pollution Salinization 70°E Equator INDIAN OCEAN 80°E FIGURE 12.4 I ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN SOUTH ASIA As might be expected in a highly diverse and densely populated region, there are a wide range of environmental problems. These range from salinization of irrigated lands in the dry lands of Pakistan and western India to groundwater pollution from Green Revolution fertilizers and pesticides. Additionally, deforestation and erosion are widespread in upland areas. 90°E into the hazardous lower floodplains.Deforestation of the Ganges and Brahmaputra headwaters magnifies the problem. Since forest cover and ground vegetation intercept rainfall and slow runoff, deforestation in the river headwaters results in increased flooding. Forests and Deforestation Tropical monsoon forests and savannah woodlands once covered most of the region, except for the desert areas in the northwest, but in most areas tree cover has vanished as a result of human activities. The Ganges Valley and coastal plains of India, for example, were largely deforested hundreds of years ago to make room for agriculture. Elsewhere, forests were cleared more gradually for agricultural, urban, and industrial expansion. More recently, hillslopes in the Himalayas and elsewhere have been logged for commercial purposes. Extensive forests can still be found, however, in the far northern, southwestern, and east-central areas. As a result of deforestation, many South Asian villages suffer from a shortage of fuelwood for household cooking, forcing people to burn dung cakes from cattle. While this low-grade fuel provides adequate heat,it also prevents manure from being used as fertilizer. Where wood is available, collecting it may involve many hours of female labor because the remaining sources of wood are often far from the villages. In many areas, extensive eucalyptus stands have been planted to supply fuelwood and timber.These nonnative Australian trees support little if any wildlife,thus adding to problems of declining biodiversity throughout the region. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 359 Environmental Geography: Diverse Landscapes, from Tropical Islands to Mountain Rim I 359 South Asia’s Monsoon Climates The dominant climatic factor for most of South Asia is the monsoon, the distinct seasonal change of wind direction, which corresponds to wet and dry periods.This monsoon pattern is caused by large-scale climatic processes that affect much of Asia. During the Northern Hemisphere’s winter, a large high-pressure system forms over the cold Asian landmass. Since winds flow from high pressure to low (just as water flows from high elevation to low), cold, dry winds flow outward from the continental interior,over the Himalayas and down across South Asia.This is the cool and dry season, extending from November until February. Only a few areas get rainfall during this otherwise dry time. As winter turns to spring, these winds diminish, resulting in the hot, dry season of March through May. Eventually the buildup of heat over South and Southwest Asia produces a large low-pressure cell. By early June the low-pressure is strong enough to cause a shift in wind direction so that warm, moist air from the Indian Ocean moves toward the continental interior. This signals the onset of the warm and rainy season of the southwest monsoon, which lasts from June through October (Figure 12.6). Orographic rainfall is caused by the uplifting and cooling of moist monsoon winds over the Western Ghats and the Himalayan foothills. As a result, some areas receive more than 200 inches (508 centimeters) of rain during the four-month wet season (Figure 12.7).Cherrapunji,in northestern India,is one of the world’s wettest places, with an average rainfall of 450 inches (1,128 centimeters). On the Deccan Plateau, however,rainfall is dramatically reduced by a strong rain-shadow effect. A rain shadow is the area of low rainfall found on the downwind side of a mountain range. As winds move downslope, the air becomes warmer and dry conditions usually prevail. FIGURE 12.5 I FLOODING IN BANGLADESH Devastating floods are common in the low-lying delta lands of Bangladesh. Heavy rains come with the southwest monsoon, especially to the Himalayas, and powerful cyclones often develop over the Bay of Bengal. (Baldev/Corbis/Sygma) Physical Subregions of South Asia To better understand environmental conditions in this diverse region,South Asia can be broken down into four physical subregions,starting with the high mountain ranges of its northern edge and extending to the tropical islands of the far south.Lying south of the mountains are the extensive river lowlands that form the heartland of both India and Pakistan. Between river lowlands and the island countries is the vast area of peninsular India, extending more than 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometers) from north to south (Figure 12.8). Mountains of the North South Asia’s northern rim of mountains is dominated by the great Himalayan Range, forming the northern borders of India, Nepal, and Bhutan. More than two dozen peaks exceed 25,000 feet (7,620 meters), including the world’s highest mountain, Everest, on the Nepal–China (Tibet) border at 29,028 feet (8,848 meters). To the east are the lower Arakan Yoma Mountains, forming the border between India and Burma (Myanmar) that separates South Asia from Southeast Asia. These mountain ranges are a result of the dramatic collision of northward-moving peninsular India with the Asian landmass.The entire region is still geologically active, putting all of northern South Asia in serious earthquake danger (see Figure 12.2). A massive earthquake in the Pakistani-controlled section of Kashmir on October 8, 2005,for example,resulted in roughly 100,000 deaths and left over three million people homeless.A massive international relief effort was subsequently required to ensure that most of the survivors would not perish during the rigorous Himalayan winter. While most of South Asia’s northern mountains are too rugged and high to support dense human settlement,major population clusters are found in the Katmandu Valley of Nepal, situated at 4,400 feet (1,340 meters), and the Valley, or Vale, of Kashmir in northern India, at 5,200 feet (1,580 meters). Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra Lowlands South of the northern mountains lie large lowlands created by three major river systems that have deposited sediments to build huge alluvial plains of fertile and easily farmed soils. These densely settled lowlands constitute the population core areas of Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. FIGURE 12.6 I MONSOON RAIN During the summer monsoon, some Indian cities such as Mumbai (Bombay) receive more than 70 inches of rain in just three months. These daily torrents cause floods, power outages, and daily inconvenience. However, these monsoon rains are crucial to India’s agriculture. If the rains are late or abnormally weak, crop failure often results. (Sharad J. Devare/Dinodia Picture Agency) 1/29/07 Page 360 South Asia Islamabad 15 40 10 20 5 0 -20 BSh Delhi H H 20 60 15 40 10 20 J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 7.7 100 INDIA 80 BSh Chennai (Madras) Am 0 Aw 60 15 40 10 20 Am 0 Mumbai (Bombay) INDIA 25 20 60 15 40 10 20 J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 71.3 0 70°E A TROPICAL HUMID CLIMATES Af Tropical wet climate Am Tropical monsoon Aw INDIA 0 BANGLADESH hi lo Temperature (°F) Am 25 20 15 40 10 20 5 0 -20 Am J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 75.6 0 Colombo 25 100 20 SRI LANKA 80 25 Af 80 Am 5 0 -20 100 J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 25.2 60 Chennai (Madras) Colombo hi lo Temperature (°F) hi lo Temperature (°F) 80 0 J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 29.6 5 80 Andaman Sea Aw Precipitation (in.) 100 100 5 -20 10°N 10 20 Dhaka 25 20 20 15 Hyderabad Hyderabad 5 0 -20 Aw 25 40 Aw 60 15 40 10 20 80°E 0 5 -20 INDIAN OCEAN Precipitation (in.) 80 Delhi INDIA 0 60 -20 hi lo Temperature (°F) 25 Precipitation (in.) 100 J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 425.1 0 Bay of Bengal Mumbai (Bombay) hi lo Temperature (°F) PAKISTAN Precipitation (in.) Karachi hi lo Temperature (°F) Dhaka Cwa 20 80 Am Arabian Sea 20°N 0° 100 Cherrapunji Karachi BSh 40 20 -20 Cwa of Canc er 60 40 0 0 J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 37.9 BWh T r o p ic 80 60 Precipitation (in.) BSh 60 Precipitation (in.) Islamabad 100 80 hi lo Temperature (°F) 400 km 200 20 0 J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 50.0 B DRY CLIMATES Equator 20 60 15 40 10 20 5 0 -20 90°E J FMAM J J A SOND Annual Precip.: 92.3 0 C MILD MIDLATITUDE CLIMATES BWh Tropical and subtropical desert BSh Tropical and subtropical steppe Tropical savanna climate hi lo Temperature (°F) 0 H 400 mi 100 Precipitation (in.) 200 INDIA 25 80 hi lo Temperature (°F) 0 Cherrapunji PAKISTAN 100 Precipitation (in.) 360 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Precipitation (in.) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD Cwa Humid subtropical, with dry season, hot summers H HIGHLAND H Complex mountain climates FIGURE 12.7 I CLIMATES OF SOUTH ASIA Except for the extensive Himalayas, South Asia is dominated by tropical and subtropical climates. Many of these climates show a distinct summer rainfall season that is associated with the southwest monsoon. The climographs for Mumbai (Bombay) and Delhi are excellent illustrations. Of these three rivers the Indus is the longest, covering more than 1,800 miles (2,880 kilometers) as it flows from the Himalayas through Pakistan to the Arabian Sea, providing much-needed irrigation waters for the Pakistan’s southern deserts. Despite the abundant flow of the Indus,Pakistan still ranks as one of the world’s most water-stressed countries. More famous, however, is the Ganges, which flows southeasterly some 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers) to empty into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges has provided the fertile alluvial soil that has made northern India one of the world’s most densely settled areas. Given the central role of this important river throughout Indian history, it is understandable why Hindus consider the Ganges sacred. Finally, the Brahmaputra River rises on the Tibetan Plateau and flows more than 1,700 miles (2,720 kilometers) before joining the Ganges in central Bangladesh and spreading out over the world’s largest delta. Peninsular India Extending southward is the familiar shape of peninsular India, made up primarily of the Deccan Plateau, which is bordered on each sides by narrow coastal plains backed by north–south mountain ranges. On the west are ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 361 Population and Settlement: The Demographic Dilemma I 361 the higher Western Ghats, which are generally about 5,000 feet in elevation (1,520 meters); to the east, the Eastern Ghats are lower and less continuous. On both coastal plains, fertile soils and an adequate water supply support population densities comparable to the Ganges lowland to the north. Soil quality ranges from fair to poor over much of the Deccan Plateau, but in Maharashtra state lava flows have produced particularly fertile black soils. A reliable water supply for agriculture, however, is a major problem in much of the area. The western portion of the plateau lies in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats, giving it a somewhat dry climate.Small reservoirs or tanks have been the traditional method for collecting monsoon rainfall for use during the dry season. More recently, the installation of deep wells and powerful pumps allow groundwater development to support more widespread irrigation. Partly because of the overuse of these groundwater resources, the Indian government is building a series of large dams to provide for irrigation. Dam building, however, is controversial because the resulting reservoirs are displacing hundreds of thousands of rural residents. A case in point is the Sardar Sarovar Dam project on the Narmada River in the state of Madhya Pradesh, which alone will dislodge more than 100,000 people. Local residents and activists throughout India have joined forces in opposition, but farmers in neighboring Gujarat, who will reap the benefits, strongly support the project. The Southern Islands At the southern tip of peninsular India lies the island country of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka is ringed by extensive coastal plains and low hills, but mountains reaching more than 8,000 feet (2,438 meters) occupy the southern interior, providing a cool, moist climate. Because the main monsoon winds arrive from the southwest, that portion of the island is much wetter than the rain shadow areas of the north and east. Forming a separate country are the Maldives, a chain of more than 1,200 islands stretching south to the equator some 400 miles (640 kilometers) off the southwestern tip of India. The combined land area of these islands is only about 116 square miles (290 square kilometers), and only a quarter of the islands are actually inhabited. Like many islands of the south Pacific, the Maldives are mainly flat, low coral atolls. With its highest elevation just over 6 feet (2 meters) above sea level,the country plays a prominent role in the international debate about global warming and the accompanying rise in sea level (see Chapter 2). Population and Settlement: The Demographic Dilemma South Asia will soon surpass East Asia as the world’s most populated region (Figure 12.9). India alone is home to well more than 1 billion people, second only to China in population, while Pakistan and Bangladesh, with 166 and 147 million residents, respectively, rank among the world’s 10 most populous countries (Table 12.1).Furthermore,South Asia is growing more than twice as fast as East Asia. India alone adds some 18 million people each year. Although South Asia has made remarkable agricultural gains over the last several decades, there is still widespread concern over its ability to feed itself.The threat of crop failure, although much reduced, remains, in part because much South Asian farming is vulnerable to the unpredictable monsoon rains. Continuing population growth is also an issue. While all South Asian countries have family planning programs, the commitment to these policies—along with the results—varies widely from place to place. Widespread concern over India’s population growth began in the 1960s.To some extent,the measures to control population growth taken over the last 40 years have been successful; the total fertility rate (TFR) dropped from 6 in the 1950s to the current rate of 2.9. Fertility rates vary widely within India, from lows of 1.9 and 2.0 in the states of Goa and Kerala to a high of 4.8 in Uttar Pradesh. As is the case in FIGURE 12.8 I SOUTH ASIA FROM SPACE The four physical subregions of South Asia are clearly seen in this satellite photograph, from the snow-clad Himalayan mountains in the north to the islands of the south. The Deccan Plateau is dark, fringed by white clouds as moist air is lifted over the uplands of the Western Ghats. (Earth Satellite Corporation/ Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 362 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 362 South Asia POPULATION: Metropolitan areas 1,000,000–5,000,000 Peshawar Metropolitan areas over 5,000,000 Rawalpindi Lahore Faisalabad Ludhiana Meerut Delhi Jaipur Agra Lucknow Kanpur Varanasi Karachi Ahmadabad 20°N Arabian Sea Vadodara Mumbai (Bombay) River valleys and deserts. Pakistan's huge population is highly concentrated in the valley of the Indus River and in the Punjab. Desert areas in the west and along the boundary with India remain relatively sparsely settled. 10°N Patna Dhaka Bhopal Indore Surat Valley of Kashmir. Whereas the highlands of northern South Asia are not heavily populated in general, the densely settled Valley of Kashmir is readily apparent on this map. Chittagong Kolkata (Calcutta) Nagpur Bay of Bengal Pune Vishakhapatnam Hyderabad Chennai (Madras) Eastern Ghats. Some districts Bangalore Lakshadweep (INDIA) Cochin Coimbatore Madurai in the eastern Ghats remain relatively sparsely populated. Many tribal peoples live in this area. 70°E 10°N Andaman Sea Migration and the Settlement Landscape (INDIA) Fewer than 5 More than 100 (INDIA) Nicobar Islands PEOPLE PER SQUARE KILOMETER 5–25 25–50 50–100 Andaman Islands I NDI AN O C EAN 80°E FIGURE 12.9 I POPULATION MAP OF SOUTH ASIA Except for the desert areas of the west and the high mountains of the north, South Asia is a densely populated region. Particularly high densities of people are found on the fertile plains along the Indus and Ganges rivers and in India’s coastal lowlands. In rural areas the population is typically clustered in villages, often located near water sources, such as streams, wells, canals, or small tanks that store water between monsoon rains. China,a distinct cultural preference for male children is found in most of South Asia,a tradition that further complicates family planning. Where allowed, sex determination clinics provide couples with information about the sex of the fetus,resulting in a higher rate of abortion for female fetuses. In southern South Asia (particularly Sri Lanka and the Indian state of Kerala), where women generally have a higher social position, sex ratios are balanced and birthrates are much lower. Pakistan, on the other hand, lacks an effective, coordinated family planning program. As a result, the TFR remains very high at 4.6, and the current rate of natural increase of 2.4 percent adds about 4 million children each year. While some attribute Pakistan’s high birthrate to its strong Muslim culture, the two are not necessarily linked. Although Bangladesh is predominantly Muslim, it has made significant strides in family planning (Figure 12.10). As recently as 1975 the TFR was 6.3, but it had dropped to 3.0 by 2005. The success of family planning can be attributed to strong support from the Bangladesh government, advertised through radio and billboards. South Asia is one of the least urbanized regions in the world, with only about a quarter of its huge population living in cities. The majority of its people reside in 0 250 500 mi compact rural villages. Rapid migration from villages to 0° 0 250 500 km large cities, however, is occurring. This often results as 90°E much from desperate conditions in the countryside as it does from employment opportunities in the city. A primary cause of urbanization is changes in agriculture: increased mechanization with resulting unemployment; the higher costs of farming modern crops; expansion of large farms at the expense of subsistence agriculture; and environmental deterioration. The most densely settled areas of South Asia still coincide with areas of fertile soils and dependable water supplies. The largest rural populations are found in the core I TABLE 12.1 • Population Indicators I Country Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Population (millions) 2006 Population Density (Per Square Mile) Rate of Natural Increase Total Fertility Rate Percent Urban Life Expectancy 146.6 2,637 1.9 3.0 23 61 0.9 49 1.3 2.9 31 63 1,121.8 884 1.7 2.9 29 63 0.3 2,537 1.5 2.8 27 70 26.0 457 2.2 3.7 14 62 165.8 539 2.4 4.6 34 62 19.9 784 1.3 2.0 20 74 Source: Population Reference Bureau, World Data Sheet, 2006. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 363 Population and Settlement: The Demographic Dilemma I 363 FIGURE 12.10 I FAMIL PLANNING IN Y BANGLADESH Bangladesh has been one of the most successful nations in South Asia in reducing its fertility rate through family planning. Many women in Bangladesh use oral contraceptives. This photo shows a woman receiving a contraceptive implant. (Peter Barker/Panos Pictures) area of the Ganges and Indus river valleys and on the coastal plains of India. Settlement is less dense on the Deccan Plateau and is relatively sparse in the highlands of the far north and the arid lands of the northwest. As is true in most other parts of the world,South Asians have historically migrated from poor and densely populated areas to places that are either less densely populated or wealthier. Migrants are often attracted to large cities such as Mumbai (Bombay), but those from Bangladesh are settling in large numbers in rural portions of adjacent Indian states,creating ethnic and religious tensions.Sometimes migrants are forced out by war; a large number of both Hindus and Muslims from Kashmir, for example, have recently sought security away from their battle-scarred homeland. Agricultural Regions and Activities South Asian agriculture has historically been relatively unproductive, especially when compared with that of East Asia. Since the 1970s, however, agricultural production has generally grown faster than the population. Crop Zones South Asia can be divided into several distinct agricultural regions, all with different problems and potentials. These regions are based on the production of three subsistence crops—rice, wheat, and millet. Rice is the main crop and foodstuff in the lower Ganges Valley,along the lowlands of India’s eastern and western coasts, in the delta lands of Bangladesh, along Pakistan’s lower Indus Valley,and in Sri Lanka (Figure 12.11).This distribution reflects the large volume of irrigation water needed to grow rice. The sheer amount of rice grown in South Asia is impressive: India ranks behind only China in world rice production, and Bangladesh is the fourth largest producer. Wheat is the principal crop of the northern Indus Valley and in the western half of India’s Ganges Valley. South Asia’s “breadbasket”is the northwestern Indian state of Punjab and adjacent areas in Pakistan. Here the so-called Green Revolution has been particularly successful in increasing grain yields.In the less fertile areas of central India, millet and sorghum are the main crops, along with root crops such as manioc. In general, wheat and rice are the preferred staples throughout South Asia, although poorer people must often subsist on millet. The Green Revolution The main reason South Asian agriculture has been able to keep up with population growth is the Green Revolution, which originated during the 1960s in agricultural research stations established by international development agencies. By the 1970s it was clear that these efforts to breed highyield varieties of rice and wheat had succeeded in reaching their initial goals. As a FIGURE 12.11 I RICE CULTIVATION A large amount of irrigation water is needed to grow rice, as is apparent from this photo from Sri Lanka. Rice is also the main crop in the lower Ganges Valley and delta, along the lower Indus River of Pakistan, and in India’s coastal plains. (Mahaux Photography/Getty Images, Inc.—Image Bank) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 364 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 364 South Asia FIGURE 12.12 I GREEN REVOLUTION FARMING Because of “miracle” wheat strains that have increased yields in the Punjab area, this region has become the breadbasket of South Asia. India more than doubled its wheat production in the last 25 years and has moved from continual food shortages to self-sufficiency. Increased production, however, has led to both social and environmental problems. (Earl Kowall/Corbis) result, South Asia was transformed from a region of chronic food deficiency to one of self-sufficiency. India more than doubled its annual grain production between 1970 and the mid-1990s (Figure 12.12). While the Green Revolution was clearly an agricultural success, many experts highlight its ecological and social costs.Serious environmental problems result from the chemical dependency of the new crop strains. Not only do they typically need large quantities of industrial fertilizer,which is both expensive and polluting,but they also require frequent pesticide applications because they lack natural resistance to plant diseases and insects. Social problems have also followed the Green Revolution. In many areas only the wealthiest farmers are able to afford the new seed strains,irrigation equipment,farm machinery,fertilizers,and pesticides.As a result,poorer farmers have sometimes been forced from their lands.Many of these people either become wage laborers for their more successful neighbors or migrate to the region’s already crowded cities. Although the Green Revolution has been subjected to serious criticism,it also has been strongly defended. Some advocates argue that its environmental dangers have been reduced as farmers learn to grow new crop varieties using traditional methods of fertilization and pest control.Others contend that overall poverty and malnutrition have decreased markedly in areas where the new techniques have been adopted. While the Green Revolution has fed South Asia’s expanding population over the past several decades, it remains unclear whether it will be able to continue doing so. Another option for increasing agricultural yield is to expand water delivery systems (either through canals or wells), as many fields remain unirrigated. Irrigation,however,brings its own problems.In much of Pakistan and northwestern India, where irrigation has been practiced for generations,soil salinization, or the buildup of salt in fields, is already a major constraint (see Figure 12.4). Additionally, groundwater is being depleted, especially in the Punjab, India’s breadbasket. Urban South Asia FIGURE 12.13 I MUMBAI (BOMBAY) CENTRAL CITY The heart of this metropolitan area of 16 million is Bombay Peninsula. Because space is limited and building restrictions are severe, most recent growth has been in the east and to the north of the city center. (Rob Crandall/ Rob Crandall, Photographer) Although South Asia is relatively little urbanized, with only about a quarter of its population living in cities, this does not mean that its cities are unimportant. South Asia actually has some of the largest urban areas in the world. India alone lists more than 30 cities with populations greater than a million, most of which are expanding rapidly. Because of this rapid growth, South Asian cities have large problems with homelessness, poverty, congestion, water shortages, air pollution, and sewage disposal. In Kolkata (Calcutta), perhaps half a million people sleep on the streets each night. Throughout South Asia, sprawling squatter settlements, or bustees, exist in and around urban areas, providing shelter for many migrants. Mumbai (Bombay) The largest city in South Asia, Mumbai (Bombay) is India’s financial, industrial, and commercial center (Figure 12.13). The major port on the Arabian Sea, Mumbai is responsible for much of the country’s foreign trade. Long noted as the center of India’s textile manufacturing, the city is also the focus of its film industry, the largest in the world. Mumbai’s economic vitality draws people from all over India, resulting in mounting ethnic tensions. Partly in reaction to ethnic turmoil, the nationalist party that governed the city in the 1990s asserted its local identity by officially changing the city’s name from Bombay—a colonial name—to Mumbai, after the Hindu goddess Mumba. Because of restricted space,most of Mumbai’s growth has taken place to the north and east of the historic city. Building restrictions in the downtown area have also resulted in skyrocketing commercial and residential rents, which are now some of the highest in the world. Even members of the city’s thriving middle class have a difficult time finding adequate housing. Hundreds of thousands of less-fortunate immigrants,eager for work in central Mumbai,live in “hutments,”crude shelters built on formerly busy sidewalks (Figure 12.14).The least fortunate sleep on the street or in simple plastic tents, often placed along busy roadways. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 365 Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Common Heritage Undermined by Religious Rivalries I 365 Despite Mumbai’s extraordinary contrasts of wealth and poverty, it remains in many ways an orderly and relatively crime-free city. It is less dangerous to walk the streets of central Mumbai than those of many major North American cities. Organized crime is a problem, especially in the massive film industry, but it has relatively few effects on the lives of the average people. Delhi Delhi, India’s sprawling capital, has more than 11 million people in its greater urban area. It consists of two contrasting landscapes expressing its past: Delhi (or old Delhi), a former Muslim capital, is a congested town of tight neighborhoods; New Delhi, in contrast, is a city of wide boulevards, monuments, parks, and expansive residential areas. New Delhi was born as a planned city when the British moved their colonial capital from Calcutta in 1911. Located here are the embassies, luxury hotels, government office buildings, and airline offices necessary for a vibrant political capital. Kolkata (Calcutta) To many, Kolkata—more often called by its old name of Calcutta—symbolizes the problems faced by rapidly growing cities in developing countries. Not only is homelessness widespread, but this city of more than 12 million falls far short of supplying its residents with water, power, or sewage treatment. Electrical power is so inadequate that every hotel, restaurant, shop, and small business has to have some sort of standby power system. During the wet season, many streets are routinely flooded. With rapid growth as migrants pour in from the countryside, a mixed HinduMuslim population that generates ethnic tension, a decayed economic base, and an overloaded infrastructure, Kolkata (Calcutta) faces a problematic future. Yet it remains a culturally vibrant city noted for its fine educational institutions, theaters, and publishing firms. The city is currently trying to nurture an information technology industry, but it remains to be seen whether it will prove successful. Karachi Karachi, a rapidly growing port city of more than 7 million people, is Pakistan’s largest urban area and commercial core. It also served as the country’s capital until 1963, when the new city of Islamabad was created in the northeast. Karachi, however, has suffered little from the departure of government functions; it is the most cosmopolitan city in Pakistan, its streets lined with businesses and highrise buildings. Karachi, however, suffers from serious political and ethnic tensions that have periodically turned parts of the city into armed camps, if not battlegrounds. During the worst of the violence in the 1990s, more than 200 people were killed on the city’s streets each month; as a result, army bunkers were placed at the largest urban crossroads. Karachi’s main conflict is that between the Sindis, the region’s native inhabitants, and the Muhajirs, the Muslim refugees from India who settled in and around the city after independence and division from India in 1947.Clashes between Sunni and Shiite Muslims are also common. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Common Heritage Undermined by Religious Rivalries Historically, South Asia is a well-defined cultural region. A thousand years ago, virtually the entire area was united by the religion of Hinduism. The subsequent arrival of Islam added a new religious dimension but did not really undercut the region’s cultural unity.British imperialism later added a number of cultural features to the entire region,from the widespread use of English to a passion for cricket.Since the mid-20th century, however, religious strife has intensified, leading some to question whether South Asia can still be considered a culturally unified region. India has been a secular state since its creation, with the Congress Party, its guiding political organization until the 1980s, struggling to keep politics and religion separate. Since the 1980s, this secular political tradition has come under increasing FIGURE 12.14 I MUMBAI HUTMENTS Hundreds of thousands of people in Mumbai live in crude hutments, with no sanitary facilities, built on formerly busy sidewalks. Hutment construction is forbidden in many areas, but wherever it is allowed, sidewalks quickly disappear. (Rob Crandall/Rob Crandall, Photographer) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 366 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 366 South Asia pressure from the growth of Hindu nationalism, which promotes Hindu values as the essential basis of Indian society. Hindu nationalists have gained considerable political power through the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). In several high-profile instances, Hindu mobs demolished Muslim mosques that had allegedly been built on the sites of ancient Hindu temples (Figure 12.15). Fundamentalism, Islamic in this case, has also been a divisive issue in Pakistan.Powerful fundamentalist leaders want to make Pakistan a religious state under Islamic law, a plan rejected by the country’s secular intellectuals and international businesspeople. The government has attempted to mediate between the two groups, but seldom with much success. Since 2000, moreover, radical Islamic fundamentalism has also emerged as an increasingly divisive force in Bangladesh. Origins of South Asian Civilizations FIGURE 12.15 I DESTRUCTION OF THE AYODHYA MOSQUE A group of Hindu nationalists are seen listening to speeches urging them to demolish the mosque at Ayodhya, allegedly built on the site of a former Hindu temple. The mosque was later destroyed by Hindu fundamentalists. (Sunil Malhotra/Reuters/Getty Images, Inc.) FIGURE 12.16 I HINDU TEMPLE Hindu temples dot India’s landscape, taking many different forms, and are devoted to a wide range of deities. This is the Shantadurga temple in Ponda, Goa. (Rob Crandall/Rob Crandall, Photographer) Many scholars think that the roots of South Asian culture extend back to the Indus Valley civilization, which flourished more than 5,000 years ago in what is now Pakistan. This remarkable urbanoriented society vanished almost entirely around 1800 B.C.E. By 800 B.C.E., however, a new focus of civilization had emerged in the middle Ganges Valley. Hindu Civilization The religion that emerged out of this early Ganges Valley civilization was Hinduism, a complicated faith that lacks a single system of belief. Certain deities are recognized, however, by all believers, as is the notion that these various gods are all expressions of a single divine entity (Figure 12.16). All Hindus, moreover, share a common set of epic stories, usually written in Sanskrit, the sacred language of their religion. Hinduism is noted for its mystical tendencies, which have long inspired many men (and few women) to seek an ascetic lifestyle, renouncing property and sometimes all regular human relations. One of its hallmarks is a belief in the transmigration of souls from being to being through reincarnation. Hinduism also gave birth to India’s caste system, the strict division of society into hereditary groups that are ranked as superior or inferior to each other. Buddhism Ancient India’s caste system was challenged from within by Buddhism. Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born in 563 B.C.E. in an elite caste. He rejected the life of wealth and power, however, and sought instead to attain enlightenment, or mystical union with the universe. He preached that the path to such enlightenment (or “nirvana”) was open to all, regardless of social position. His followers eventually established Buddhism as a new religion. Buddhism spread through South Asia and later expanded through most of East, Southeast, and Central Asia. But for all of its successes abroad, Buddhism never replaced Hinduism in India. By 500 C.E. Buddhism was on the retreat throughout South Asia, and within another 500 years it had disappeared from most of the region. Arrival of Islam The next major challenge to Hindu society—Islam—came from the outside. Around the year 1000, Turkish-speaking Muslims began to invade from Central Asia. By the 1300s, most of South Asia lay under Muslim power, although Hindu kingdoms persisted in southern India. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Mughal Empire, the most powerful of the Muslim states, dominated much of the region from its power center in the upper Indus-Ganges basin (Figure 12.17). At first Muslims formed a small ruling elite, but over time increasing numbers of Hindus converted to the new faith.Conversions were most pronounced in the northwest and northeast,and eventually the areas now known as Pakistan and Bangladesh became predominantly Muslim. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 367 Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Common Heritage Undermined by Religious Rivalries I 367 FIGURE 12.17 I THE TAJ MAHAL India’s Mughal Empire was noted for both its political power and its artistic glories. The Taj Mahal, build by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, is now a major symbol of Indian historical achievement. The Caste System Caste is one of the historically unifying features of South Asia, as certain aspects of caste organization are even found among the Muslim populations of Pakistan and Bangladesh. Islam, however, has gradually reduced its significance, and even in India, caste is now being de-emphasized, especially among the more educated people. But caste remains significant throughout India, especially in the rural areas. Marriage across caste lines, for example, is still rare. In 2006, moreover, a major controversy erupted when the Indian government proposed to significantly increase the number of positions in public universities reserved for members of the lower castes. Proponents claimed that such a measure was necessary to address discrimination, whereas opponents claimed that it would result in lower educational standards, thereby damaging India’s economic prospects. Caste is actually a rather clumsy term referring to the complex social order of the Hindu world. It combines two distinct local concepts: varna and jati. Varna refers to the ancient fourfold social hierarchy of the Hindu world, which distinguishes the Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Sundras (farmers and craftsmen) in declining order of supposed purity.Standing outside of this traditional order are the so-called untouchables, now usually called Dalits, whose ancestors held “impure” jobs, such as those associated with leatherworking. Jati, on the other hand, refers to the hundreds of local endogamous (“marrying within”) groups that Islamabad exist at each varna level. Different jati groups are often called subcastes. 0 250 0 500 mi 500 km 250 Contemporary Geographies of Religion South Asia thus has a mainly Hindu heritage overlain by a significant Muslim presence. Such a picture fails, however, to capture the enormous diversity of religion in contemporary South Asia. The following discussion looks specifically at the geographical patterns of the region’s main faiths (Figure 12.18). PAKISTAN New Delhi NEPAL Kathmandu Tropic of C anc BANGLADESH N D I Dhaka A 20°N Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal FIGURE 12.18 I RELIGIOUS GEOGRAPHY OF SOUTH ASIA Hindu-dominated India is bordered by the two important Muslim countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh. More than 150 million Muslims, however, live within India, making up roughly 15 percent of the total population. Of particular note are the Muslims in northwest Kashmir and in the Ganges Valley. Sikhs form the majority population in India’s state of Punjab. Also note the Buddhist populations in Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and northern Nepal, the areas of tribal religion in the east, and the centers of Christianity in the southwest. BHUTAN er I Hinduism Fewer than 1 percent of the people of Pakistan are Hindu, and in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka Hinduism is a minority religion. Almost everywhere in India, however—and in Nepal, as well—Hinduism is very much the faith of the majority. In east-central Thimphu Andaman Islands Lakshadweep (INDIA) (INDIA) MAJOR RELIGIONS 10°N Hinduism Islam Buddhism Sikhism Christianity Jainism Tribal Religions Andaman Sea Nicobar Islands SRI LANKA (INDIA) Colombo MALDIVES Male INDIAN OCEAN 80°E 90°E ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 368 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 368 South Asia India, more than 95 percent of the population is Hindu. Hinduism is itself a geographically complicated religion, with different aspects of faith varying across different parts of India. Islam Islam may be considered a “minority” religion for the region as a whole, but such a designation hides the importance of this religion in South Asia. With more than 400 million members, the South Asian Muslim community is one of the largest in the world. Bangladesh and especially Pakistan are overwhelmingly Muslim. India’s Muslim community, although constituting only some 15 percent of the country’s population, is still roughly 150 million strong. Muslims live in almost every part of India. They are, however, concentrated in four main areas: in most of India’s cities; in Kashmir, in the far north, particularly in the densely populated Vale of Kashmir (more than 80 percent of the population here follows Islam); in the central Ganges plain, where Muslims constitute 15 to 20 percent of the population; and in the southwestern state of Kerala, which is approximately 25 percent Muslim. Interestingly, Kerala was one of the few parts of India that never experienced prolonged Muslim rule. Islam in Kerala is historically connected not to Central Asia, but rather to trade across the Arabian Sea. Kerala’s Malabar Coast historically supplied spices and other luxury products to Southwest Asia, encouraging many Arab traders to settle there. Gradually many of Kerala’s native residents converted to the new religion as well. Sri Lanka, also historically connected by trade to the Arabian Peninsula, is approximately 9 percent Muslim, whereas the Maldives are almost entirely Muslim. FIGURE 12.19 I BUDDHIST MONASTIC LANDSCAPE Buddhism is the dominant faith in most of the Himalayan districts of the far north and in central and southern Sri Lanka. Monasteries are particularly important in the north, where Tibetan Buddhism predominates. (Linde Waidhofer/Getty Images, Inc.—Liaison) Sikhism The tension between Hinduism and Islam in northern South Asia gave rise to a new religion called Sikhism. Sikhism originated in the late 1400s in the Punjab, near the modern boundary between India and Pakistan. The Punjab was the site of religious competition at the time; Islam was gaining converts and Hinduism was on the defensive. The new faith combined elements of both religions. Many orthodox Muslims viewed Sikhism as dangerous because it incorporated elements of their own religion in a manner that was contrary to accepted beliefs. Periodic persecution by Muslim rulers led the Sikhs to adopt a militantly defensive stance. Even today, many Sikh men work as soldiers and bodyguards. At present the Indian state of Punjab is approximately 60 percent Sikh. Small but often influential groups of Sikhs are scattered across the rest of India. Devout Sikh men are immediately visible, since they do not cut their hair or their beards. Instead, they wear their hair wrapped in a turban and often tie their beards close to their faces. Buddhism and Jainism Although Buddhism virtually disappeared from India in medieval times, it persisted in Sri Lanka. Among the island’s dominant Singhalese people, Theravada Buddhism developed into a national religion. In the high valleys of the Himalayas, Buddhism also survived as the majority religion (Figure 12.19). Here one finds Tibetan Buddhism. The town of Dharmsala in the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh is the seat of Tibet’s government-inexile and of its spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, who fled Tibet in 1959 after an unsuccessful revolt. At roughly the same time as the birth of Buddhism (circa 500 B.C.E.), another religion emerged in northern India: Jainism. This religion also stressed nonviolence, taking this creed to its ultimate extreme. Jains are forbidden to kill any living creatures, and as a result the most devoted members of the community wear gauze masks to prevent them from inhaling small insects. Agriculture is forbidden to Jains, since plowing can kill small creatures. As a result, most members of the faith have looked to trade for their livelihoods. Many have prospered, aided by the frugal lifestyles required by their religion. Today Jains are concentrated in northwestern India, particularly Gujarat. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 369 Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Common Heritage Undermined by Religious Rivalries I 369 Other Religious Groups The most prosperous religious group in India is the Parsis, or Zoroastrians, concentrated in Mumbai. The Parsis arrived as refugees, fleeing from Iran after the arrival of Islam in the 7th century. Although numbering only a few hundred thousand, the Parsi community has had a major impact on the Indian economy. Several of the country’s largest industrial firms are still controlled by Parsi families. Intermarriage and low fertility, however, now threaten the survival of the community. Indian Christians are more numerous than either Parsis or Jains. Their religion arrived some 1,700 years ago as missionaries from Southwest Asia brought Christianity to India’s southwestern coast. Today, roughly 20 percent of the population of Kerala follows Christianity. Several Christian sects are represented, but the largest are affiliated with the Syrian Christian Church of Southwest Asia. Another stronghold of Christianity is the small Indian state of Goa, a former Portuguese colony. Here Roman Catholics make up roughly half of the population. During the colonial period, British missionaries went to great efforts to convert South Asians to Christianity. They had very little success, however, in Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist communities. The remote tribal districts of British India, on the other hand, proved to be more receptive to missionary activity. In the uplands of India’s extreme northeast, entire communities abandoned their traditional animist faith in favor of Protestant Christianity. } Iranian Kashmiri Pashtun Punjabi A Indo-European Indo-Aryan Dravidian Tibeto-Burman Unaffiliated Austro-Asiatic (scattered tribal languages) PAKISTAN Brahui Baluchi NEPAL BHUTAN Rajasthani Assamese Sindhi T r o p ic of Canc e Bihari Hindi r BANGLADESH Bengali Gujarati I N D I A 20°N A A A Arabian Sea Marathi Oriya A Bay of Bengal Telugu Konkani Kannada Andaman Islands (INDIA) Lakshadweep (INDIA) 10°N Malayalam Andaman Sea Tamil Tamil Nicobar Islands (INDIA) SRI LANKA A Sinhalese 0 0 200 200 400 mi MALDIVES 400 km INDIAN OCEAN 0° 70°E Geographies of Language South Asia’s linguistic diversity matches its religious diversity. In fact, one of the world’s most important linguistic boundaries runs directly across India (Figure 12.20). North of the line, languages belong to the Indo-European family, the world’s largest. The languages of southern India, on the other hand, belong to the Dravidian family, a linguistic group unique to South Asia. Along the mountainous northern rim of the region a third linguistic family, Tibeto-Burman, is dominant, but this area is marginal to South Asia. Within these broad divisions there are many different languages, each associated with a distinct culture. In many parts of South Asia, several languages are spoken within the same region or even city,and the ability to speak several languages is common everywhere. Any modern Indo-European language of India, such as Hindi or Bengali, is more closely related to English than it is to any Dravidian language of southern India, such as Tamil. But South Asian languages on both sides of this linguistic divide do share a number of features. All of the major Dravidian languages, for example, have borrowed words from Sanskrit, particularly those associated with religion and scholarship. Each of the major languages of India is associated with an Indian state, as the country deliberately structured its political subdivisions along linguistic lines a decade after attaining independence.As a result,one finds Gujarati in Gujarat,Marathi in Maharashtra, Oriya in Orissa, and so on.Two of these languages, Punjabi and Bengali, extend out of India into Pakistan and Bangladesh, respectively, since these borders were established on religious rather than linguistic lines. Nepali, the national language of Nepal, is largely limited to that country. Minor dialects and languages, most of which are neither written nor standardized, are common in many of the more remote parts of the region. 80°E 0° Equator 90°E FIGURE 12.20 I LANGUAGE MAP OF SOUTH ASIA A major linguistic divide separates the Indo-European languages of the north from the Dravidian languages of the south. In the Himalayan areas, most languages instead belong to the Tibeto-Burmese family. Of the Indo-European family, Hindi is the most widely spoken, with some 480 million speakers, which makes it the second most widely spoken language in the world. Most other major languages are closely associated with states in India. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 370 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 370 South Asia FIGURE 12.21 I KOLKATA (CALCUTTA) BOOKSTORE Although Kolkata (Calcutta) is noted in the West mostly for its abject poverty, the city is also known in India for its vibrant cultural and intellectual life, illustrated by its large number of bookstores, theaters, and publishing firms. (Earl & Nazima Kowall/CORBIS) FIGURE 12.22 I MUL TILINGUALISM This fourlanguage sign, in Malayalam, Tamil, Kannada, and English, shows the multilingual nature of contemporary South Asia. In many ways, English, the colonial language of British rule, still serves to bridge the gap between the many different languages of the region. (Rob Crandall/Rob Crandall, Photographer) The Indo-European North The most widely spoken language of South Asia is Hindi (not to be confused with the Hindu religion). With some 480 million speakers, Hindi is the second most widely spoken language in the world. It occupies a prominent role in present-day India, both because so many people speak it and because it is the main language of the Ganges Valley, India’s historical and demographic core. Many northerners would like Hindi to become the country’s common language, but many other Indians, particularly southerners, resist the idea. Still, most Indian students learn some Hindi, often as their second or third language. Bengali is the second most widely spoken language in South Asia. It is the national language of Bangladesh and the main language of the Indian state of West Bengal. Spoken by roughly 200 million people, Bengali is the world’s ninth most widely spoken language. Its significance extends beyond its official status in Bangladesh and its large number of speakers. Bengali also has an extensive literature, as West Bengal (particularly its capital city of Kolkata [Calcutta]) has long been one of South Asia’s main literary and intellectual centers (Figure 12.21). The Punjabi-speaking zone in the west was similarly split at the time of independence, in this case between Pakistan and the Indian state of Punjab. While an estimated 100 million people speak Punjabi, it does not have the significance of Bengali. Punjabi did not become the national language of Pakistan, even though it is the day-to-day language of some two-thirds of the country’s people. Instead, that position was given to Urdu. Urdu, like Hindi,originated on the plains of northern India.The difference between the two was largely one of religion:Hindi was the language of the Hindu majority,Urdu that of the Muslim minority. Because of this distinction, Hindi and Urdu are written differently—the former in the Devanagari script (derived from Sanskrit) and the latter in the Arabic script. Although Urdu contains many words borrowed from Persian, its basic grammar and vocabulary are almost identical to those of Hindi. With independence in 1947,millions of Urdu-speaking Muslims from the Ganges Valley fled to the new state of Pakistan. Since Urdu had a higher status than Pakistan’s native tongues, it was quickly established as the new country’s official language. Languages of the South The four main Dravidian languages are confined to southern India and northern Sri Lanka. As in the north, each language is closely associated with an Indian state: Kannada in Karnataka, Malayalam in Kerala, Telugu in Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil in Tamil Nadu. Tamil is usually considered the most important member of the family because it has the longest history and the largest literature. Tamil poetry dates back to the first century C.E., making it one of the world’s oldest written languages. Although Tamil is spoken in northern Sri Lanka,the country’s majority population, the Singhalese,speak an Indo-European language. Apparently the Singhalese migrated from northern South Asia several thousand years ago.The migrants evidently settled on the island’s fertile and moist southwestern coast and central highlands,which formed the core of a number of Singhalese kingdoms.These same people also migrated to the Maldives,where the national language,Divehi,is essentially a Singhalese dialect.The drier north and east of Sri Lanka, on the other hand, were settled many hundreds of years ago by Tamils from southern India. Linguistic Dilemmas The multilingual countries of Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and India are all troubled by linguistic conflicts. Such problems are most complex in India, simply because India is so large and has so many different languages (Figure 12.22). Indian nationalists have long dreamed of a national language, one that could help unify their country. But linguistic nationalism, or the linking of a specific language with political goals, faces the resistance of many people. The obvious choice for a national language would be Hindi, and Hindi was indeed declared as such in 1947. Raising Hindi to this position, however, angered many non-Hindi speakers, especially in the Dravidian south. As a result, in the 1950 Indian consti- ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 371 Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Common Heritage Undermined by Religious Rivalries I 371 tution Hindi was demoted to sharing the position of “official language” of India with 14 other languages. Regardless of opposition, the role of Hindi is expanding, especially in the IndoEuropean north. Here local languages are similar to Hindi, which can therefore be learned fairly easily.Hindi is spreading through education,but more significantly through television and motion pictures.Films and television programs are made in several northern languages, but Hindi remains primary. In a poor but modernizing country such as India, where many people experience the wider world largely through moving images, the influence of a national film and television culture can be tremendous. Even if Hindi is spreading, it still cannot be considered anything like a common national language. In the south its role remains strictly secondary. National-level communication is thus conducted in English, an “associate official language”of contemporary India. Before independence, many educated Indians learned English for its political and economic benefits under colonialism. Today many nationalists wish to de-emphasize English. Others, however, advocate English as a neutral national language, since all parts of the country have an equal stake in it. Furthermore, English gives substantial international benefits. English-medium schools abound throughout South Asia, and many children of the elite learn this global language well before they begin school. South Asians in a Global Cultural Context The widespread use of English in South Asia not only aids the spread of global culture into the region,but it has also helped South Asians’cultural production to reach a global audience.The global spread of South Asian literature,however,is nothing new. As early as the turn of the 20th century, Rabindranath Tagore gained international acclaim for his poetry and fiction, earning the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. The expansion of South Asian culture abroad has been accompanied by the spread of South Asians themselves. Migration from South Asia during the time of the British Empire led to the establishment of large communities in such distant places as eastern Africa,Fiji,and the southern Caribbean (Figure 12.23).Subsequent migration has been aimed more at the developed world; there are now several million people of South Asian descent living in Britain and a similar number in North America. Many present-day migrants to the United States are doctors, software engineers, and members of other professions. 120°W 60°W FIGURE 12.23 I THE SOUTH ASIAN GLOBAL DIASPORA During the British imperial period, large numbers of South Asian workers settled in other colonies. Today, roughly 50 percent of the population of such places as Fiji and Mauritius are of South Asian descent. More recently, large numbers have settled, and are still settling, in Europe (particularly Britain) and North America. Large numbers of temporary workers, both laborers and professionals, are employed in the wealthy oil-producing countries of the Persian Gulf. 0° 60°E 120°E 60°N 60°N 30°N 30°N Tropic of Cancer PACIFIC OCEAN Equator 0° 0° PACIFIC OCEAN 30°S ATLANTIC OCEAN INDIAN OCEAN Tropic of Capricorn 30°S 60°S Antarctic Circle Major populations of South Asian descent, established under British colonialism Main flow of temporary workers Main flow of contemporary emigration Centers of recent settlement 60°S ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 372 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 372 South Asia FIGURE 12.24 I GOA BEACH SCENE The liberal Indian state Goa, formerly a Portuguese colony, is now a major destination for tourists, both from within India and from Europe and Israel. European tourists come in the winter for sunbathing and for “Goan Rave parties,” where ecstasy and other drugs are widely available. Indian tourists typically find the scantily clad foreigners unusual if not bizarre. (Rob Crandall/Rob Crandall, Photographer) In South Asia itself, the globalization of culture has brought tensions as severe as those felt anywhere in the world.Traditional Hindu and Muslim religious norms frown on any overt display of sexuality—a staple feature of global popular culture.Religious leaders thus often criticize Western films and videos as immoral.Still,the pressures of internationalization are hard to resist.In the tourism-oriented Indian state of Goa,such cultural tensions are on full display. There, German and British sun-worshipers often wear nothing but thong bikini-bottoms, whereas Indian women tourists go into the ocean fully clothed. Young Indian men, for their part, often simply walk the beach and gawk, good-naturedly, at the semi-naked foreigners (Figure 12.24). Geopolitical Framework: A Deeply Divided Region Before the coming of British imperial rule, South Asia had never been politically united. While a few empires at various times ruled most of the subcontinent, none covered its entire extent. Whatever unity the region had was cultural, not political. The British, however, brought the entire region into a single political system by the middle of the 19th century. Independence in 1947 witnessed the separation of Pakistan from India; in 1971 Pakistan itself was divided with the independence of Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan. Today, serious geopolitical issues continue to plague the region (Figure 12.25). South Asia before and after Independence in 1947 During the 1500s, when Europeans first arrived, most of northern South Asia was ruled by the Muslim Mughal Empire (Figure 12.26), while Southern India remained under the control of the powerful Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagara. European merchants, eager to obtain spices, textiles, and other Indian products, established a series of coastal trading posts. The Portuguese carved out an enclave in Goa, while the Dutch gained control over much of Sri Lanka,but neither was a significant threat to the Mughals. In the early 1700s, however, the Mughal Empire weakened rapidly. A number of competing states—some ruled by Muslims, others by Hindus, and a few by Sikhs—emerged in former Mughal territories. As a result, the 1700s was a century of political and military turmoil. The British Conquest These unsettled conditions provided an opening for European imperialism. The British and French, having largely displaced the Dutch and Portuguese, competed for trading posts. Before the Industrial Revolution, ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 373 Geopolitical Framework: A Deeply Divided Region I 373 0 Jammu and Kashmir. Both Pakistan and India claim the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistan controls the area to the north and west of the red line ("Azad Kashmir"), while India controls the area to the south and west. Much fighting has recently occurred in the area controlled by India. KASHMIR Amritsar C PAKISTAN I N 200 400 mi 400 km A UTTARANCHAL X T r o p ic H 0 200 X NEPAL Karachi of Canc er X BHUTAN X BANGLADESH X JHARKHAND 20°N Arabian Sea X CHHATTISGARH X I N D I X Bay of Bengal A Ethnic Conflict. Conflict between indigenous tribal peoples and recent migrants from Bangladesh and India. X Civil War. Northeastern Sri Lanka proclaimed as homeland by Tamil independence movement. This has led to a prolonged civil war. Andaman Islands (INDIA) Andaman Lakshadweep (INDIA) 10°N Sea Nicobar Islands (INDIA) SRI LANKA 90°E Areas claimed by India, controlled by China MALDIVES 0° Areas claimed by China, controlled by India INDIAN OCEAN Equator 70°E Indian cotton textiles were considered the best in the world, and British and French merchants needed huge quantities for their global trading networks. After Britain’s overwhelming victory over France in the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), France retained only a few minor coastal cities. Britain, or more specifically the British East India Company, the private organization that acted as an arm of the British government, now monopolized trade and was free to stake out its own South Asian empire. By the 1840s, British control over South Asia was essentially completed. Valuable local allies, however, were allowed to remain in power, provided that they did not threaten British interests. The territories of these indigenous (or “princely”) states, however, were gradually reduced while British advisors increasingly dictated their policies. The continuing reduction of the indigenous states, coupled with the growing arrogance of British officials, led to a rebellion in 1856 across much of South Asia. When this uprising (sometimes called the Sepoy Mutiny) was finally crushed,a new X Areas experiencing serious separtist movements in the past 20 years New Indian states, emerging after 2000 Pre-partition Jammu and Kasmir Areas experiencing serious Maoist revolutionary movements FIGURE 12.25 I GEOPOLITICAL ISSUES IN SOUTH ASIA Given the cultural mosaic of South Asia, it is not surprising that ethnic tensions have created numerous geopolitical problems in the region. Particularly troubling are ethnic tensions in Sri Lanka, Kashmir, and northeastern India. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 374 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 374 South Asia 0 500 km 0 Peshawar 0 500 mi 500 mi 500 km 0 Lahore NEPAL Panipat Multan Delhi BHUTAN Agra Patna MUGHAL EMPIRE Diu 20°N Arabian Sea Bombay Surat Daman Bassein Benares Chandernagore Allahabad Seramoore Calcutta 20°N Bay of Bengal Pulicat Madras Sadras Pondicherry Tranquebar Negapatam Goa Calicut 10°N BRITISH INDIA Cochin GOA Mahé Pondicherry (FRENCH) (FRENCH) FRENCH 10°N CEYLON Indian states (indirect British rule) Direct British rule British protectorates Portuguese I NDI A N O CE A N 0° 80°E 70°E 90°E I N D I AN O C EAN 80°E 90°E FIGURE 12.26 I GEOPOLITICAL CHANGE 0 500 mi 500 km 0 Islamabad Lahore NEPAL PAKISTAN New Delhi BHUTAN Kathmandu Karachi Thimphu Dhaka INDIA 20°N Mumbai (Bombay) Kolkata (Calcutta) BANGLADESH East Pakistan, 1947–1971 Chennai (Madras) Lakshadweep 10°N Colombo MALDIVES SRI LANKA Male I NDI A N O CE A N 0° 70°E Andaman Islands (INDIA) (INDIA) 80°E Nicobar Islands (INDIA) At the onset of European colonialism before 1700, much of South Asia was dominated by the powerful Mughal Empire. Under Britain, the wealthiest parts of the region were ruled directly, but other lands remained under the partial authority of indigenous rulers. Independence for the region came after 1947, when the British abandoned their extensive colonial territory. Bangladesh, which was formerly East Pakistan, gained its independence in 1971 after a short struggle against centralized Pakistani rule from the west. political order was implemented. South Asia would now be ruled by the British government, with the Queen of England as its head of state (Figure 12.27). Britain now enjoyed direct control over the region’s most productive and densely populated areas, including almost the entire Indus-Ganges Valley and coastal plains. It also ruled Sri Lanka, having replaced the Dutch in the 1700s. British officials continually worried about threats to their immensely profitable Indian colony, particularly from the Russians advancing across Central Asia. In response, they attempted to expand as far to the north as possible. In some cases this merely required making alliances with local rulers. In such a manner Nepal and Bhutan retained their independence, although they would no longer be free of British interference. In the extreme northeast, a number of small states and tribal territories, most of which had never been part of the South Asian cultural sphere, were taken over by the British Indian Empire. A similar policy was conducted on the vulnerable northwestern frontier. Independence and Partition The framework of British India began to unravel in the early 20th century as the people of South Asia increasingly demanded independence. The British, however, were determined to stay, and by the 1920s South Asia was caught up in massive political protests. The leaders of the rising nationalist movement faced a dilemma in attempting to organize a potentially independent country. Many leaders, including Mohandas Gandhi—the father-figure of Indian independence—favored a unified state that ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 375 Geopolitical Framework: A Deeply Divided Region I 375 FIGURE 12.27 I FORMER BRITISH HILL STATION Britain’s imperial officials in India often longed for the cool weather and lush gardens of their homeland. As a result, Britain build many high-elevation “hill stations” as resorts. Today, these one-time symbols of imperialism are popular tourist destinations for the Indian elite. (Oberoi Hotels & Resorts) would include all British territories in mainland South Asia. Most Muslim leaders, however, feared that a unified India would leave their people in a vulnerable position.They therefore argued for the division of British India into two new countries: a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. In several parts of northern South Asia, however, Muslims and Hindus were settled in roughly equal numbers. A more significant problem was the fact that the areas of clear Muslim majority were located on opposite sides of the subcontinent, in present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. The British withdrew in 1947. As this occurred, South Asia was indeed divided into two countries: India and Pakistan. Partition was a horrific event; not only were millions of people displaced, but hundreds of thousands were killed. Hindus and Sikhs fled from Pakistan, to be replaced by Muslims fleeing India (Figure 12.28). The Pakistan that emerged from partition was for several decades a clumsy twopart country,its western section in the Indus Valley,its eastern portion in the Ganges Delta. The Bengalis, occupying the poorer eastern section, complained that they were treated as second-class citizens. In 1971 they launched a rebellion, and, with the help of India, quickly prevailed. Bangladesh then emerged as a new country. This second partition did not solve Pakistan’s problems, however, as it remained politically unstable and prone to military rule. Pakistan retained the British policy of allowing almost full autonomy to the Pashtun tribes living along its border with Afghanistan, a relatively lawless area marked by clan fighting. This area would later lend much support to Afghanistan’s Taliban regime and to Osama bin Laden’s Al Qaeda organization. Geopolitical Structure of India The leaders of newly independent India were committed to democracy but faced a major challenge in organizing such a large and culturally diverse country. They decided to pursue a middle ground between centralization and local autonomy. India itself was thus organized as a federal state, with a significant powers being given to its individual states. The national government, however, retained full control over foreign affairs as well as a large degree of economic authority. Following independence, India’s constituent states were reorganized to follow linguistic geography.Yet only the largest groups received their own territories,which has led to recurring demands from smaller groups that have felt politically excluded. Over time,several new states have appeared on the map.Goa,following the forced eviction of the Portuguese in 1961, emerged as a separate state in 1987. In 2000 three new states were added: Jharkand, Uttaranchal, and Chhattisgarh. Ethnic Conflicts in South Asia The movement for new states in India is rooted in ethnic tensions. Unfortunately, more violent ethnic conflicts have emerged in other parts of South Asia.Pakistan was threatened in the 1950s, for example, when many of the Pashtuns of the northwest demanded independence,but at present its major problem is in the southwest,where separatist Baluch rebels fight against the central government. India also suffers from a number of linguistically or religiously based conflicts,as does Sri Lanka.South Asia’s most complex—and perilous—struggle is that of Kashmir,which involves both India and Pakistan. Kashmir Relations between India and Pakistan were hostile from the start, and the situation in Kashmir has kept the conflict burning (Figure 12.29). During the British period, Kashmir was a large princely state with a primarily Muslim FIGURE 12.28 I PARTITION, 1947 Following Britain’s decision to leave South Asia, violence and bloodshed broke out between Hindus and Muslims in much of the region. With the creation of Pakistan (originally in two different sectors, west and east), millions of people relocated both to and from the new states. Many were killed in the process, damaging relations between India and Pakistan. (Bettmann/Corbis) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 376 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 376 South Asia Claimed by India, controlled by China Claimed by India, controlled by Pakistan TAJIKISTAN Claimed by Pakistan, controlled by India Pakistan-India Divided Control Line AFGHANISTAN NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE AZAD KASHMIR FEDERALLY ADMINISTERED TRIBAL AREAS K JAMMU a Srinagar Valley of C ISLAMABAD CAPITAL TERRITORRY R nab he LA D KASHMIR AK H Jammu . Lahore Amritsar HIMACHAL PRADESH CHANDIGARH PUNJAB BALUCHISTAN CHINA . Islamabad Kashmir AKSAI CHIN s h m i AND Indu r sR PUNJAB Su tle . jR UTTARANCHAL R. PAKISTAN s HARYANA In d u DELHI Delhi New Delhi I N D I A 200 km FIGURE 12.29 I CONFLICT IN KASHMIR Unrest in Kashmir maintains hostility between the two nuclear powers of India and Pakistan. Under the British, this region of predominantly Muslim population was ruled by a Hindu maharaja, who managed to join the province to India upon partition. Today many Kashmiris wish to join Pakistan, while many others argue for an independent state. R. 100 200 mi Ga ng e s 0 100 . 0 na R SIND u am RAJASTHAN NEPAL Y UTTAR PRADESH core joined to a Hindu district in the south (Jammu) and a Tibetan Buddhist district in the northeast (Ladakh). Kashmir was ruled by a Hindu maharaja, a king subject to British advisors. During partition, Kashmir came under severe pressure from both India and Pakistan. After troops from Pakistan gained control of western Kashmir, the maharaja decided to join India. But neither Pakistan nor India would accept the other’s control over any portion of Kashmir, and as a result they have since fought several wars over the issue. Although the Indo-Pakistani boundary has remained fixed, fighting in Kashmir intensified, reaching a peak in the 1990s. Many Muslim Kashmiris hope to join their homeland to Pakistan;others would rather see it became an independent country.Indian nationalists,on the other hand, are determined that Kashmir remain part of India. Militants from Pakistan, moreover, continue to cross the border, ensuring that tensions between the two countries remain high.The result has been a low-level but periodically brutal war. Efforts have been made to reach a peaceful settlement, but they seem unlikely to succeed. The Vale of Kashmir,with its lush fields and orchards nestled among some of the world’s most spectacular mountains, was once one of South Asia’s premier tourist destinations;now,however,it is a battle-scarred war zone. The Punjab Religious conflict also lay at the root of violence in India’s Punjab. The original Punjab, an area of Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh communities, was divided between India and Pakistan in 1947. During partition, virtually all Hindus and Sikhs fled from Pakistan’s allotted portion, just as Muslims left the Indian zone. Relations between Hindus and Sikhs, which had been relatively friendly, soon began to deteriorate. In the 1970s and 1980s, as the area prospered due to the Green Revolution, Sikh leaders began to strive for more self-government within India while Sikh radicals pressed for independence. Since many Sikh men had maintained their military traditions, this secession movement soon became a strong fighting force. As the Indian government reacted with force, tensions grew. Violence increased in 1984 when the Indian army raided the main Sikh temple at Amritsar, in which a group of militants had barricaded themselves (Figure 12.30). Shortly thereafter, the president of India, Indira Gandhi, was assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards. As hostility escalated, the Indian government placed the Punjab under martial law. Such a policy eventually proved quite successful in restoring peace. Renewed conflict in the Punjab, however, remains possible. The Northeast Fringe A more complicated ethnic conflict emerged in the 1980s in the uplands of India’s extreme northeast, particularly in the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and Manipur. Much of this largely tribal area has never really been part of the South Asian cultural sphere, and many of its peoples want more autonomy if not actual independence. Another problem is rooted in population growth and cultural conflict. Much of this area is still relatively lightly populated and as a result has attracted hundreds of thousands of migrants from both Bangladesh and northern India. Many local people consider this movement a threat to their lands and their culture. On several occasions local guerillas have attacked newcomer villagers and, in turn, have suffered reprisals from the Indian military. This is a remote area, however, and relatively little information from it reaches the outside world. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 377 Geopolitical Framework: A Deeply Divided Region I 377 Tensions in the northeast have complicated India’s relations with Bangladesh.India accuses Bangladesh of allowing separatists sanctuary on its side of the border, and objects as well to continuing Bangladeshi emigration. As a result, India is currently building a 2,500-mile (4,000-km) fence along the border between the two countries. Not all of South Asia’s current conflicts are rooted in ethnic or religious differences. Poverty and inequality in east-central India, for example, have generated a persistent revolutionary movement that finds inspiration in the thoughts and actions of the former Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong. As of 2006, this Maoist insurgency was intensifying, especially in the states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, and Andhra Pradesh, greatly frustrating India’s leaders. While India’s Maoist rebellion is too small to effectively challenge the state, the same cannot be said in regard to Nepal. Nepalese Maoists, frustrated by the lack of development in rural areas, emerged as a significant force in the 1990s. In 2002, Nepal’s king Gyanendra,citing the communist threat,dissolved parliament and took over total control of the country’s government.This move only intensified the struggle, however, and within a few years the rebels gained control over 70 percent of the country. Atrocities were committed by both sides,resulting in more than 13,000 deaths.By 2005,Nepal’s urban population also turned against the monarchy,launching massive protests in Katmandu.In 2006,King Gyanendra agreed to restore democratic rule, while at the same time the Maoist rebels announced that they would quit fighting and instead enter into the democratic political process. A sense of hope has thus returned to Nepal, but the massive damage caused by the insurgency will not easily be fixed. Separatism in Indian’s Punjab region is strong because of hostility between the Sikh majority and the Indian government. These tensions were magnified in 1984 when the Indian army raided the Amritsar temple to dislodge Sikh militants. (Daniel O’Leary/Panos Pictures) FIGURE 12.31 I CIVIL WAR IN SRI LANKA The majority of Sri Lankans are Singhalese Buddhist, many of whom maintain that their country should be a Buddhist state. A Tamil-speaking Hindu minority in the northeast strongly resists this idea. Tamil militants, who have waged war against the Sri Lankan government for several decades, hope to create an independent country in their northern homeland. INDIA l The Maoist Challenge FIGURE 12.30 I SIKH TEMPLE AT AMRITSAR k S Tamil Hindus (18% of population) it tra Singhalese Buddhists (74% of population) Pa Sri Lanka Ethnic violence in Sri Lanka has been especially severe. Here the conflict stems from both religious and linguistic differences. Northern and eastern Sri Lanka are dominated by Hindu Tamils, while the island’s majority group is Buddhist in religion and Singhalese in language. Relations between the two communities have historically been fairly good, but tensions mounted soon after independence (Figure 12.31). The basic problem is that Singhalese nationalists favor a centralized government, some of them arguing that Sri Lanka should be a Buddhist state. Most Tamils, on the other hand,want political and cultural autonomy,and they have accused the government of discriminating against them. In 1983 war erupted when the rebel force known as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam attacked the Sri Lankan army. A Norwegian-brokered ceasefire in 2000 brought some hope that the conflict was winding down, but fighting again intensified in 2006. Large portions of northern Sri Lanka remain under the control of the well-organized “Tamil Tigers.” Hindus and Buddhists Claimed as Tamil state (Tamil Eelam) by the Tamil Tigers Gulf of Mannar International and Global Geopolitics South Asia’s major international geopolitical problem is the continuing cold war between India and Pakistan (Figure 12.32).Since independence,these two countries have regarded each other as enemies,and both maintain large military forces.Today, however, the stakes are considerably higher because both India and Pakistan have nuclear weapons. During the global Cold War, Pakistan allied itself with the United States and India leaned slightly toward the Soviet Union. Such alliances fell apart with the end of the superpower conflict in the early 1990s. Since then Pakistan has forged an informal alliance with China, which has long been in military competition with India. India,for its part,has gradually been moving into a position of informal alliance with the United States. The conflict between India and Pakistan became more complex after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Until that time, Pakistan had been supporting Afghanistan’s Taliban regime. After Osama bin Laden’s attack on the World Trade Center and Pentagon, the United States gave Pakistan a stark choice: Either it would 8°N SRI LANKA Colombo 0 0 25 25 50 mi 50 km 6°N 80°E INDIAN OCEAN 82°E ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 378 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:56 PM Page 378 South Asia FIGURE 12.32 I BORDER TENSIONS An Indian officer looks through binoculars in war-torn Kashmir. Relationships between India and Pakistan have been extremely tense since independence in 1947. Moreover, with both countries now nuclear powers, the fear that border hostilities will escalate into wider warfare has become a nightmarish possibility. (Danish Ismail/Reuters/Corbis/Bettmann) assist the United States in its fight against the Taliban and receive financial aid in return, or it would completely lose favor with the U.S. government. Pakistan’s President Pervez Musharraf quickly agreed to help, and Pakistan offered valuable intelligence to the U.S. military. Pakistan’s decision to help the United States,however,came with large risks.Osama bin Laden had gained much popularity among Pakistan’s more extreme Islamic fundamentalists. Both he and the Taliban enjoy substantial support among the Pashtun populace of Pakistan’s wild North-West Frontier Province and its Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Although Pakistan’s military has conducted operations in this area, success has been limited and the northwest remains a refuge for Islamic militants. Several almost successful attempts have been made to assassinate President Musharraf, who is seen by many Pakistanis as far too friendly toward the United States. AntiAmerican sentiments in Pakistan, moreover, increased in 2006 when President Bush announced that the U.S. would offer India full civil nuclear energy cooperation, even though India has never signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. After reaching the brink of war in the late 1990s, India and Pakistan have more recently moved to reduce tensions, conducting negotiations and allowing larger numbers of their citizens to cross the border. Both Muslim and Hindu extremists, however, have sought to undermine this tentative peace process. Hindu mobs in India have attacked Muslims on several occasions, while Islamic militants have conducted bombing campaigns. In March, 2006, for example, two bombs went off in Varanasi, the most holy city of Hinduism, killing 14 people. Economic and Social Development: Rapid Growth and Rampant Poverty FIGURE 12.33 I POVERTY IN INDIA India’s rampant poverty results in a significant amount of child labor. In this photo, a 10-year-old boy is moving a large burden of plastic waste by bicycle. (Deshakalyan Chaudhury/AFP/Getty Images) South Asia is,along with Sub-Saharan Africa,the poorest world region,yet it is also the site of great wealth. Many of South Asia’s scientific and technological accomplishments are world-class,but it also has some of the world’s highest illiteracy rates.While South Asia’s high-tech businesses are closely integrated with the global economy, the South Asian economy as a whole was until recently one of the world’s most isolated. South Asian Poverty One of the clearest measures of human well-being is nutrition, and by this score South Asia ranks very low indeed. Probably nowhere else can one find so many chronically undernourished people (Figure 12.33). More than 800 million Indians live on less than $2 a day, and Bangladesh is poorer still (Table 12.2). By many measures, Nepal and Bhutan are in even worse condition. Despite such deep and widespread poverty, South Asia should not be regarded as a zone of misery.India especially has a large and growing middle class,as well as a small but very wealthy upper class.More than 150 million Indians are now able to purchase such modern goods as televisions, motor scooters, and washing machines. This is a large market, and it has begun to interest corporate executives worldwide. India’s economy has grown since the 1950s at an accelerating pace, and certain areas are now booming. But if several Indian states have shown marked economic progress, others have seen little development. Similarly, some parts of South Asia have made impressive gains in social well-being,but others have made only modest improvements. Geographies of Economic Development After independence, the governments of South Asia attempted to build new economic systems that would benefit their own people rather than foreign countries or corporations. Planners initially stressed heavy industry and economic selfsufficiency. While some gains were realized, the overall pace of development remained slow. Since the 1990s, governments in the region, and especially that of India, have gradually opened their economies to the global economic system. In the process, core areas of development and social progress have emerged, surrounded by large peripheral zones that have lagged behind. ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:56 PM Page 379 Economic and Social Development: Rapid Growth and Rampant Poverty I 379 I TABLE 12.2 • Development Indicators I Country GNI Per Capita (2004) Bangladesh $440 Bhutan $620 GDP Average Annual Growth (2000–04) 83 5.2 149 77 50 31 80 6.2 123 85 73 48 Adult Literacy Rate (% ages 15 and older) Male Female $760 India Percent Population Living on Less Than $2 a Day Under Age 5 Mortality Rate (per 1,000 children) 1990 2004 Maldives $2,410 Nepal $250 69 2.5 145 76 63 35 Pakistan $600 74 4.1 130 101 62 35 $1,010 42 3.7 32 14 92 89 Sri Lanka Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2006, and Population Reference Bureau, World Data Sheet, 2006. The Himalayan Countries Both Nepal and Bhutan are disadvantaged by their rugged terrain and remote locations and by the fact that they have been relatively isolated from modern technology and infrastructure. But such measurements can be misleading, especially for Bhutan, since many areas in the Himalayas are still largely subsistence-oriented. Bhutan has purposely remained virtually disconnected from the modern world economy, and its small population lives in a relatively pristine natural environment. Indeed, Bhutan is so isolationist that it has only recently allowed tourists to enter—provided that they do so as part of an official group and spend a considerable amount of money. Nepal, on the other hand, is more heavily populated and suffers much more severe environmental degradation. It is also more closely integrated with the Indian economy. Nepal has also relied heavily on international tourism, but its tourist industry virtually collapsed as its political crisis deepened after 2002 (Figure 12.34). Bangladesh By several measurements, Bangladesh is the poorest South Asian country. Environmental degradation and colonialism have contributed to Bangladesh’s poverty, as did the partition of 1947. Most of pre-partition Bengal’s businesses were located in the west, which went to India. Bangladesh has also suffered because of its agricultural emphasis on jute, a plant that yields tough fibers useful for making ropes and burlap bags. Bangladesh failed to discover any major alternative export crops as synthetic materials undercut the global jute market. But not all of the economic news coming from Bangladesh is negative.The country is internationally competitive in textile and clothing manufacture,in part because its wage rate is so low. Low-interest credit provided by the internationally acclaimed Grameen Bank has given hope to many poor women in Bangladesh, allowing the emergence of a number of healthy small-scale enterprises (Figure 12.35). By 2000, with the country’s birthrate steadily falling,Bangladesh’s economy was finally beginning to grow substantially faster than its population.Political instability and religious extremism, however, cloud its economic future. Pakistan Pakistan also suffered from partition in 1947. For several decades after independence, however, Pakistan maintained a more productive economy than India. The country has a strong agricultural sector, as it shares the fertile Punjab with India. Pakistan also boasts a large textile industry, based in part on its huge cotton crop. FIGURE 12.34 I TOURISM IN NEPAL Nepal has long been one of the world’s main destinations for adventure tourism, although business has suffered greatly in recent years due to the country’s Maoist insurgency. Many tourists in Nepal stay in rustic lodges such as the one shown in this photograph. (Marion Tipple/Amati Images) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 380 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:57 PM Page 380 South Asia Pakistan’s economy, however, is less dynamic than that of India, with a lower potential for growth. Part of the problem is that Pakistan is burdened by very high levels of defense spending. Additionally, a small but powerful landlord class that pays virtually no taxes to the central government controls much of its best agricultural lands. Unlike India, moreover, Pakistan has not been able to develop a successful high-tech industry.Pakistan’s economic growth rate did,however,accelerate after it was granted concessions by the international community for its role in combating global terrorism. As of 2006, it was growing at a rapid pace, keeping pace with India for the first time in years. FIGURE 12.35 I GRAMEEN BANK This innovative institution loans money to rural women so they can buy land, purchase homes, or start cottage industries. In this photo, taken in Bangladesh, women proudly repay their loans to a bank official as testimony to their success. (John Van Hasselt/Corbis/Sygma) FIGURE 12.36 I MUMBAI (BOMBAY) STOCK EXCHANGE Evidence of this city’s central role in the globalizing South Asia economy is the stock exchange, upper right, located in the heart of the city. (Rob Crandall/Rob Crandall, Photographer) Sri Lanka and the Maldives Sri Lanka’s economy is one of the most highly developed in South Asia. Its exports are concentrated in textiles and agricultural products such as rubber and tea. By global standards, however, Sri Lanka is still a very poor country. Its progress, moreover, has been undercut by its ongoing civil war. If it did not suffer from this conflict, Sri Lanka would benefit more from the prime location of the port of Colombo and from its high levels of education. The Maldives is the most prosperous South Asian country based on per capita economic output, but its total economy, like its population, is very small. Most of its revenues are gained from fishing and international tourism. India’s Less Developed Areas India’s economy, like its population, dwarfs those of other South Asian countries. While India’s per capita GNI is roughly the same as that of Pakistan, its total economy is more than five times larger. As the region’s largest country, India also has far more internal variation in economic development. The most basic economic division is that between India’s more prosperous southern and western areas and its poorer districts in the north and east. India’s least developed, and most corrupt, state is Bihar, located in the lower Ganges Valley. Neighboring Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state, is also extremely poor. Like Bihar, it is densely populated and has experienced little industrial development. While both Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have fertile soils, their agricultural systems have not profited as much from the Green Revolution as have those of the Punjab. Both states are also noted for their socially conservative outlooks and caste tensions. India’s Centers of Economic Growth The northwestern Indian states of Punjab and Haryana are showcases of the Green Revolution. Their economies rest largely on agriculture, but investments have been made recently in food processing and other industries. On Haryana’s eastern border lies the capital district of New Delhi. India’s political power and much of its wealth are concentrated here. The west-central states of Gujarat and Maharashtra are noted for their industrial and financial power, as well as for their agricultural productivity. Gujarat was one of the first parts of South Asia to experience industrialization, and its textile mills are still among the most productive in the region. Gujaratis are well known as merchants and overseas traders, and they are heavily represented in the Indian diaspora, the migration of Indians to foreign countries. Cash remittances sent home from these emigrants help the state’s economy. Maharashtra is usually viewed as India’s economic pacesetter. The huge city of Mumbai (Bombay) has historically been the financial center and media capital of India (Figure 12.36). Major industrial zones are located around Mumbai and in several other parts of Maharashtra. In recent years, Maharashtra’s economy has grown more quickly than those of most other Indian states, reinforcing its primacy. The center of India’s fast-growing high-technology sector lies farther to the south, especially in Karnataka’s capital of Bangalore. The Indian government selected the upland Bangalore area, which is noted for its pleasant climate, for technological investments in the 1950s. Other businesses soon followed. In the 1980s and 1990s, a quickly growing computer software and hardware industry emerged, earning Bangalore the label of “Silicon Plateau” (Figure 12.37). By 2000, large numbers of American software, accounting, and data-processing jobs were being transferred, ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:57 PM Page 381 Economic and Social Development: Rapid Growth and Rampant Poverty I 381 or“outsourced,”to Bangalore and other India cities,generating much criticism in the United States. More recently, the U.S. government has pledged to increase its technological ties with India. India has proved especially competitive in software because software development does not require a sophisticated infrastructure. Computer code can be exported by wireless telecommunication systems without the use of modern roads or port facilities. What is necessary, of course, is technical talent, and this India has in great abundance. Many Indian social groups have long been highly committed to education,and India has been a major scientific power for decades. With the growth of the software industry, India’s brain power has finally begun to create economic gains (Figure 12.38). Whether such developments can spread benefits beyond the rather small high-tech areas they presently occupy remains to be seen. Globalization and India’s Economic Future South Asia is not highly globalized. The volume of foreign trade is not large; foreign direct investment is still relatively small;and (with the exception of the Maldives) international tourists are few.But globalization is advancing rapidly,especially in India. To understand South Asia’s low level of globalization, it is necessary to examine its recent economic history. After independence,India’s economic policy was based on widespread private ownership combined with governmental control of planning, resource allocation, and certain heavy industrial sectors. India also established high trade barriers to protect its economy from global competition. This mixed socialistcapitalist system encouraged the development of heavy industry and allowed India to become nearly self-sufficient,even in the most technologically sophisticated goods. By the 1980s, however, problems with this model were becoming apparent, and frustration with India’s limited progress was growing among business and political leaders. Slow economic growth meant that the percentage of Indians living below the poverty line remained almost constant.At the same time,countries such as China and Thailand were experiencing rapid development after opening their economies to globalization. Many Indian businesspeople also disliked the governmental regulations that undercut their ability to expand. In response to these difficulties, India’s government began to open up its economy in 1991. Many regulations were eliminated, and the economy was gradually opened to imports and international businesses. Other South Asian countries have followed a somewhat similar path. Pakistan, for example, began to privatize many of its state-owned industries in 1994. Overall, India’s economic reforms have proved successful. As of 2006, its economy was growing at more than 8 percent a year, a figure that, if sustained, should result in rapid poverty reduction. Many Indian information technology firms are world-class,and a number have begun to expand globally.Growth has been so rapid in this sector that some companies are now having difficulty finding and retaining qualified workers; as a result wages are increasing rapidly. Recent growth has also demonstrated the need for India to improve its dismal infrastructure, but it is not clear how it will be able to afford the necessary investments in roads, railroads, and electricity generation and transmission facilities. It must also be recognized that the gradual internationalization and deregulation of the Indian economy has generated substantial opposition. Foreign competitors are now seriously challenging some domestic firms. Cheap manufactured goods from China are seen as an especially serious threat. While globalization often generates faster economic growth, it can also bring heightened insecurity. Social Development South Asia has relatively low levels of health and education, which is hardly surprising considering its poverty. Levels of social well-being vary greatly across the region. As might be expected, people in the wealthier areas of western India are healthier, live longer, and are better educated, on average, than people in the poorer areas,such as the lower Ganges Valley.Bihar thus stands at the bottom of most social-development rankings, while Punjab, Gujarat, and Maharashtra stand near the FIGURE 12.37 I INDIA’S SILICON PLATEAU Since a significant proportion of its population is extremely well educated, India is suited for high-tech jobs both in computer assembly and manufacture and software development. Many of California’s Silicon Valley firms draw upon facilities in India, which is 12 hours away in time zones, to run nonstop operations. (Chris Stowers/Panos Pictures) FIGURE 12.38 I INDIAN INSTITUTES OF TECHNOLOGY India’s seven government-run Institutes of Technology provide world-class training for the country’s top students in science and engineering, helping develop the country’s globally oriented information technology industries. (Balan Madhavan/Hornbil Images Pvt. Ltd.) ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 382 I C H A P T E R 1 2 4:57 PM Page 382 South Asia top. Several key measurements of social welfare, moreover, are higher in India than in Pakistan. Pakistan has done a particularly poor job of educating its people, which is one reason why fundamentalist Islamic organizations have been able to recruit effectively in much of the country. On the other hand, homelessness and malnutrition are not as widespread in Pakistan as they are in India. Several oddities stand out when one compares South Asia’s map of economic development with its map of social well-being.Portions of India’s extreme northeast, for example, show relatively high literacy rates despite their poverty; this is largely because of the educational efforts of Christian missionaries. In regard to health, longevity, and education, however, the south outpaces other parts of the region. This advantage is especially notable in the Indian state of Kerala, which is economically troubled yet quite successful in terms of social development. FIGURE 12.39 I EDUCATION IN KERALA India’s southwestern state of Kerala, which has virtually eliminated illiteracy, is South Asia’s most highly educated region. It also has the lowest fertility rate in South Asia. Because of this, many argue that women’s education and empowerment is the best and most enduring form of contraception. (Rob Crandall/ Rob Crandall, Photographer) The Educated South Southern South Asia’s relatively high levels of social welfare are clearly visible when one examines Sri Lanka. Considering its meager economy and endless civil war, Sri Lanka must be considered a social developmental success. Sri Lanka’s average longevity of 74 years stands in favorable comparison with many of the world’s industrialized countries, as does its literacy rate. Equally impressive is the fact that Sri Lanka’s fertility rate has been reduced to the replacement level. The Sri Lankan government has achieved these results through universal primary education and inexpensive medical clinics. On the mainland, Kerala in southwestern India has achieved even more impressive results. Kerala is not a prosperous state. It is extremely crowded and has long had some difficulty feeding its population. Its overall economic figures are only slightly above average for India. Kerala’s level of social development, however, is the country’s highest (Figure 12.39). Some observers attribute Kerala’s social successes to its state policies. Kerala has often been led by a socialist party that has stressed education and community health care. While this has no doubt been an important factor, it does not seem to offer a complete explanation. Some researchers suggest that one of the key factors is the relatively high social position of women in Kerala. The Status of Women It is often argued that South Asian women have a very low social position in both the Hindu and Muslim traditions. Throughout most of India, women traditionally leave their own families shortly after puberty to join those of their husbands. As outsiders, often in distant villages, young brides have few opportunities. Women in the Indus-Ganges basin suffer much discrimination. In Pakistan, Bangladesh, and such Indian states as Rajasthan, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, female literacy lags far behind male literacy. An even more disturbing statistic is that of gender ratios, the relative proportion of males and females in the population. All things being equal, there should be slightly more women than men in any population, since women generally have a longer life expectancy. Northern South Asia, however, contains many more men than women. An imbalance of males over females often results from differences in care. In poor families, boys typically receive better nutrition and medical care than do girls, which results in higher rates of survival. An estimated 10 million girls, moreover, have been lost in northern India due to sex-selective abortion over the past 20 years. Economics play a major role in this tragedy. In rural households, boys are usually viewed as a blessing, since they typically remain with their families and work for its well-being. In the poorest groups, elderly people (especially widows) subsist largely on what their sons can provide. Girls, on the other hand, marry out of their families at an early age and must be provided with a dowry. They are thus seen as an economic liability. Some evidence suggests that the social position of women in South Asia is improving, especially in the more prosperous parts of western India where employment opportunities outside the family are emerging. But even in many of the region’s middle-class households, women still experience discrimination. Indeed, dowry demands are increasing in some areas, and there have been a number ROWNMC12_0131756958.QXD 1/29/07 4:57 PM Page 383 Key Terms I 383 of well-publicized murders of young brides whose families failed to deliver an adequate supply of goods. While the social bias against women across northern South Asia is striking, it is much less evident in southern India and Sri Lanka.In Kerala especially,women have relatively high status,regardless of whether they are Hindus,Muslims,or Christians.Here the gender ratio shows the normal pattern.Female literacy is very high in Kerala,which is one reason why the state’s overall illiteracy rate is so low.Kerala’s fertility rate is one of the lowest in India, which may be another sign of its women’s social power. SUMMARY South Asia, a large and complex area of more than a billion people, has in many ways been overshadowed by neighboring world regions: by the uneven globalization of Southeast Asia, by the size and political weight of East Asia, and by the geopolitical tensions of Southwest Asia. Much of that is changing, however, as South Asia now figures prominently in discussions of world problems and issues. Environmental degradation and instability pose particular problems for South Asia. Due to its monsoon climate, both floods and droughts tend to be more problematic here than in most other world regions. Global climate change directly threatens the low-lying Maldives and may play havoc with the monsoon-dependent agricultural systems of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Continuing population growth in this already densely populated region demands attention. Although fertility rates have declined in recent years, Pakistan, northern India, and Bangladesh cannot easily meet the demands imposed by their expanding populations. Increasing social and political instability, as well as environmental degradation, may result as cities mushroom in size and even rural areas grow more crowded. South Asia’s diverse cultural heritage, shaped by peoples speaking several dozen languages and following several major religions, makes for a particularly rich social environment. Unfortunately, cultural differences have often translated into political conflicts. Ethnically or religiously based separatist movements have severely challenged the governments of Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka. In India, moreover, religious strife between Hindus and Muslims persists, whereas in Pakistan and Bangladesh Islamic radicals clash with the state while Sunni and Shiite Muslims frequently fight against each other. Geopolitical tensions within South Area are particularly severe, again demanding global attention. The long-standing feud between Pakistan and India escalated dangerously in the late 1990s, leading many observers to conclude that this was the most likely part of the world to experience a nuclear war. Although tensions between the two countries were reduced in the early years of the new century, the underlying sources of conflict—particularly the struggle in Kashmir—remain unresolved. Although South Asia remains one of the poorest parts of the world, much of the region has seen rapid economic expansion in recent years. Many argue that India in particular is well positioned to take advantage of economic globalization. Large segments of its huge labor force are well educated and speak excellent English, the major language of global commerce. But will these global connections help the vast numbers of India’s poor or merely the small number of its economic elite? Advocates of free markets and globalization tend to see a bright future, while skeptics more often see growing problems. KEY TERMS British East India Company (page 373) bustees (page 364) caste system (page 366) Dalit (page 367) Dravidian language (page 369) federal state (page 375) Green Revolution (page 363) Hindi (page 370) Hindu nationalism (page 366) Indian diaspora (page 380) Jainism (page 368) linguistic nationalism (page 370) maharaja (page 376) monsoon (page 359) Mughal Empire (also spelled Mogul) (page 366) orographic rainfall (page 359) rain-shadow effect (page 359) salinization (page 364) Sanskrit (page 366) Sikhism (page 368) subcontinent (page 355) Urdu (page 370) ... Lyceum of the Philippines University LPU 303 - Spring 2015 1. What is Elite Domination? The contemporary Philippine politics, where powerful tra PPC	Malabar Coast
The Bob Dylan songs 'Desolation Row', 'Tombstone Blues' and 'Like A Rolling Stone' featured on which album?	1) Explain the differences between India's eastern and western coastal plains. - INSIGHTS You can add the eastern plain gets lesser rainfall in comparison to western coastal plains. Pragya Its there..see the last point. WOZ oops..sry..missed that. Gunvant NIce answer Pragya u can also add WC as it is reach in biodiversity especially western ghats. also EC is reach in mineral wealth and constitute the reach deltas like Mahanadi, Godavari etc. Pragya Thanks Gunvant..That’s indeed a good point. urlovin no its not a good point bcoz western ghat is rich in biodivrsty not western coastal region. This ques asks about coastal region only. Acanthus Hey friend I think you have used wrong word ‘ reach ‘ ( rich ) may be I wrong if I am just ignore it. Sarvam Sivam but western ghats border the WCP right? or does it lie on it? Anany Nice answer, have covered all the important differences… sandy one more point need to be added that in WCP rivers forms estuaries due to steep slope while ECP rivers forms delta due to gentle slope.As estuaries forms with mixing of fresh and saline water so it is more suitable for fish culture. The south west mansoon Western branch (Arabian sea branch) do orographic rain fall as it find suitable condition for that while eastern branch of SWM do not hit the eastern coast because eastern ghats parallel to that branch although retreating mansoon do the rainfall in eastern ghats. The Eastern Coast is smooth and unfit for making ports. So, very few ports are developed there.But the Western Coast is broken and indented and suitable for ports. For this, a large number of ports are in western coast. sandy good answer cover almost all the points abhinav sahu The reason for delta formation by ECP rivers is becaus ethey are sow and traverse much more length than WCP rivers Same point can be said while comparing Ganga-Brahmputra and Pennisular river deltas. Its natural physics that the more length a river travel ,more will be the sand/slit content in it which in turn is responsible for delta formations. Priyank Mishra Thunder Storm http://www.importantindia.com/10095/differences-between-eastern-and-western-coastal-plains/ i think u have reffered this only , we all do research for knowing more about the facts. but we should process the facts rather than presenting it as it is. Iread your ans just now and i thought i had gone through it apart from ncerts. If this link belongs to you then SORRY, if not then you sud have presented it differently after processing . Firstly i thought i sud not write this , but gs4 forced me to do so. Pragya Thanks Thunder Storm. Thumbs up for your GS4 preparation 🙂 This question required no creativity..just facts. I did the same. However, I shall bear that in mind the next time. shankar Chhavi Difference are 1) Western Coastal plains are sandwiched between Arabian sea & Western Ghats where as Eastern coastal plains are sandwiched between Eastern Ghats & Bay of Bengal. 2) Western Coastal plains is coastline of submergence while Eastern Coastal plains is coastline of emergence. 3) Western Coastal plains is narrow; its a thin strip about 50 km in width while Eastern Coastal plain is broad; width varying from 100-130 km 4) Western Coastal plains provides natural sites for many harbours; abundance of ports such as Marmagao, Cochin etc while eastern coastal does not provide natural sites for harbours as the continental shelf is too broad. 5) rivers draining through western coastal plains do not form deltas; form estuaries such Narmada, Tapi while rivers draining thorough eastern coastal plains form deltas such as Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi. 6) Western coastal plains is rocky and indented while eastern coastal plains are rich in alluvial deposits. Anany thank u.. 🙂 Galaxy2015 The Coastal plains of India are confined between peninsular tableland and mainland shoreline.Locationally they are classified into WCP and ECP. The WCP are submerged coastal plain and therefore are narrow providing natural ports and harbours.While on ECP are emergent coastal plains and more in width. With short courses in WCP rivers such as surya,kali deposit coarser deposits and delta’s are absent. While ECP with large rivers such as mahandi,godavari have long routes and finer alluvium deposits with delta formation thus making it suitable for agriculture. WCP lying on windward side of Western ghats receive heavy rainfall with ECP receiving moderate rainfall. WCP are more famous for beautiful backwaters called Kayals while ECP are known for sandy beaches. WCP are less prone to cyclones as compared to ECP. Anany Good point on cyclones. Very good answer. kid monkey 1.width- east is wider against western coast. 2.deltas- are common in east. 3.type – most of western coast is emerged variety with lagoons. eastern coasts are of submerged variety. 4.streams- more number of small streams in west. confluent old river systems on east. 5.resources- minerals like thorium are high in east. ilimanite and coal, natural gas depositions are more. 6.slope gradient- greater in west against eastern coast. this gives wider continental shelf in east coast. 7.human settlements- more in eastern coast. 8. ecological value- lake systems like kolleru and chilaka on east. and 9. strategic significance- east coast- best suited for rocket launching and missile testing. west coast- best suited for rocket launching and minor port development and tidal energy harvesting. 10. disaster vulnerability- cyclones are common on eastern coast. land slides are common in west coast. long coast is our asset and vulnerability as well. coastal erosion and ecological degradation are two problem areas that are to be focused. because of differences in eastern and western coasts we must adopt different strategies and policies in dealing with them. Anudeep very comprehensive, conclusion is d best part. mukesh your ‘slope gradient’ is good point ,,, !! tenaciouslalit very well written….different from conventional answer and raised some significant points like disaster vulnerability, human settlement, strategic significance etc…..but in point 9 as you have written that west coast are best suited for rocket launching; correct me,my friend, if i am wrong;no country has its rocket launching station on western coast. conclusion is very very good. kid monkey you are right.we locate rocket launching centers near magnetic equator of earth to reduce thrust force that is needed to place satellite at desired heights. and yes when we launch it from west to east we can take the advantage of spin of earth. we prefer east coast as in case of failure it will be lodged in seas but not on human settlements. hence we prefer launching rockets from sriharikota over tumba. but as we have a rocket station in kerala, i mentioned it here. you are absolutely right. Neha Mani Tripathi nice ans…just a query..in point 3, you have written western coast is of emergent type but it is submergent..that is why no deltas that side..only estuaries…the same goes with eastern coast.. hope you rectify ..:) kid monkey yes. both varieties are found on both the sides. but lagoons, best known as backwaters are common in kerala coast. this is extensive. but such emerged coast is limited to very limited places in eastern coast, say srihari kota. what you said is right. the west coast in its north location is submerged. please correct me if i m wrong. vishal your 6th point?????? i think western shelf has more width about 150 km but eastern has only 50 km continental shelf width.that is why western coast has more marine fish catch. reference ———savindra singh, physical geography ,chapter-relief of ocean basins,page-332. kid monkey i m sorry. thank you for informing. you are right. i learnt the wrong thing. Bhanu Saurabh The eastern coastal plains (ECP) facing Bay of Bengal are the home of numerous deltas. It’s bounded by sandy alluvium hills of Eastern Ghat (EG) with gentler slope towards the sea. The alluvial soil makes it fertile.The rainfall is more in northern ECP due to southeastern monsoon. The low heights of the EG is unable to trap the moisture laden northeast monsoon, thus the southern ECP is relatively dry. The western coastal plains (WCP) are comparatively shorter and they are mainly submerged coastal plains. It faces Arabian Sea. The rivers that flows down to these plains are swift and don’t form delta. It’s due to the presence to high rocky hills of Western Ghat (WG). Although WG is less fertile soil but it’s able to trap the southwestern monsoon and other local monsoons, resulting in heavy rainfall and houses large biodiversity. The WCP receives more rain in south. It also has backwaters in the south. The most striking feature of the WCP is naturally monazite sands in the south. ECP mainly comprises of Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta, Mahanadi-Godavari-Krishna Delta and Coromandal Coast whereas WCP consists Kathiawar Coast, Konkan Coast, Goan Coast and Malabar Coast. Anany Eastern coast (Northern Circar, Coromandel) and Western coastal plains (Katch, Kathiwar, Konkan, Goan, Canara and Malabar) are results of active geomorphological processes and are among the important physiograhic divisions of Peninsular India. They are however quite different geologically, physically and are of varied economic importance. While the western coastal plains are the formed due to subsidence of peninsular plateau, the eastern coastal plains are result of deposition. The western coast line is much more intended than the eastern. The deep western coast line due to submergence, provides favourable conditions for natural harbours (Kandla, Mangalore , Marmagao, Kocchi) while the eastern coast being emergent makes difficult the development of harbours and ports and so few ports most of them artificial (Chennai, Vishakhapatnam). The eastern coast plains are broader ones and have well developed deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, while the rivers flowing in west coastal plains forms estuaries. Therefore the eastern coast plains are more fertile than the western plains. Amol B. @Anany:disqus You have write correct answer. Intro can be better. Otherwise flow and explanantion is correct. Just add some new points by refering other answer. Keep writing Anany Thanks Amol for reviewing the answer…Looked at other answers there were many new points… will improve on. Thanks Aman however one more point can be added that WCP receive more rainfall than ECP Anany Thank you Aman for reviewing, will definitely improve further:) Pragya Good answer. few lesser imp points are missing. you can add them too. rest is perfect 🙂 Anand Doss hello Anany, you have written ‘intended’ which i believe ‘indented’. next, i would like to know the source for the western coastal plain formation. are you sure that subsidence is the main reason for the depth ? other than that, your answer is different and accurate. its not the number of points but the quality of points and its precision to the question that matters and yours fit the question best so far.. Amol B. Hey question is explain difference, dont enlist differences. kid monkey thank you dear. i would have read the question twice. you are right. Akshay 1.Eastern coastal plains lie along the east coast of Peninsular India, whereas western coastal plains lie along west coast of Peninsula. 2. Eastern coastal plains are broader than western coastal plains. 3. Eastern coastal plains are characterized by deltas, whereas western coastal plains are characterized by Estuaries. 4. Western coastal plains are highly indented and hence naturally suitable for making ports. Eastern coastal plains are smooth and hence not suitable for making ports. 5. Western coastal plains are characterized by heavy rainfall. Eastern coastal plains are characterized by medium to high rainfall Autonomous Shreelay (Ajulkumar Words: ~143 The plains along the east coast are much wider than those on the west coast and contain prominent river deltas like that of the Mahanadi, Godavary, Krishna and Cauvery. The Continental Shelf along the east is generally narrower than that of the west coast except south of Ganga-Brahmaputra delta and between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. The west coast has a much greater variety in its relief. It is marked by numerous lagoons which form excellent waterways. The Malabar coast has several cliffs with coves and embankments with rocky islands suggesting submergence. Deccan Region has scrubs to mixed deciduous forest. While Malabar Coast is Rich in forest vegetation, also commercially important for crops like coconut, coffee, tea, rubber, and cashew-nut. Eastern plains receive less rainfall but they more prone to cyclones, while Western Plains receive more rainfall and are less prone to cyclones. aimias The differences between eastern coastal plain and western coastal plain are:- 1.the western coast is narrow (25-40).in southern part, they are more than 100 km, while eastern coast is wide ranging from (150-350)km.narrowest in North sirkar, widest in tamil nadu. 2.western coast is tectonically they are submergent type eg. Kathiawar, konkan etc.While eastern coast is largely emergent type eg. Coromandal etc. 3.western coast have coastal alluvial deposit, while eastern have deltaic deposit 4.western coast are highly indented and they have creeks, estuaries, backwaters, while eastern coast have convex and projected coastline with delta. 5.western coast are erosional features while eastern coast have depositional features eg. Lagoon, beaches, sand bars etc. 6.western coast have rainfall(200-300)cm, eastern coast (60-100)cm rainfall. 7.western coast have condition of per-humid to humid climate while eastern coast have condition have sub-humid to semi-arid climate. 8.western coast has faultline zone of subduction in arabian basin.thus deep water parts, while eastern coast have continental shelf wide but shallow.so ports are absent except vizag.chennaI is man-made. 9.western coast have widest continental shelves because of subsidence. eastern coast are wide but less than western coast and produced by wave erosion.they are wave built platform. 10.in western coast river make waterfall, eastern coast form delta. aimias Plz review my answer frnds.. Ridhu Shree Nice… 🙂 Tuks The Eastern Coastal Plain is extending from the mouth of the river Subarnarekha to Kanyakumari. The Western Coastal Plain is stretching from Kutchh peninsula in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. The differences between India’s Eastern and Western Coastal Plains are explained as. ———————————————————————————————————— Whereas the Western Coastal Plain is narrow with a width of 50 to 65 km. 2.The large rivers make wide deltas on the Eastern Coastal Plains. e.g. Deltas of Godavari , Krishna rivers etc. But the western side rivers do not make any deltas on the West Coast. 3.The Eastern Coastal Plain is formed by fine alluvial soil and is fertile especially on the deltas. Consequently agriculture is developed. The Western Coastal Plain is formed by coarse grained soil. It is infertile and agriculturally not prosperous except in the Malabar Coast. 4.The Eastern Coastal plain is sandy with alluvium and slopes gently towards the sea. Sand dunes and marshy lands are also found.In some Coastal strips lagoons (e.g.Chilka, Pulicat) are formed. Whereas the Western Coastal plain is relatively rocky with sand and sand dunes. It slopes abruptly down to the sea. There is no lagoon on the northern part. It has many estuaries on the Konkon Coast. But the southern part especially the Malabar Coast has the beautiful scene of back-water country with a series of lagoons. 5.Eastern Coastal plain receives rainfall twice in a year specially the Coromandel coast that is from North West monsoon and from Retreating monsoon. Whereas Western Coastal plain receives only summer rainfall that is from North West monsoon 6.As the Eastern coastal plain is fertile and well communicated, it is densely populated and has a large number of towns and cities. But the Western coastal plain is not so densely populated . 7.Eatsern Coast plain is developed both in agro-based and mineral based industries. But Western coastal plain is developed in mineral based industries. suganyaNS vishal dear friend continental shelf width of 500 km is very much.as per my oceanography knowledge,only few places in world ocean has 500 and more shelf width like in dogger bank in north sea, newfoundland grand bank in north atlantic, patagonian coast in south atlantic,arctic sea shelf .but in indian coast nowhere is such huge continental shelf. for detail you may refer book of sharma ,vatal on oceanography. or savindra singh on physical geography. there are standard textbooks and as i m geography optional student ,i follow these books. suganyaNS oh ok thank you for your information sir. actually i am a beginner but i has seen so much interest in studying geography so i am going to choose geography as my optional. now i am gaining information from ncert and certificate of physical ad human geography after that i think to study indian geography by majid hussain is good. what about ur suggestions regarding my preparation plan and books. i want to share ur ideas of studying suganyaNS friends largest salt water lake in India is Sambar or Chilka lake plz explain Raja Bhukya Maharaj Dubey @suganyaNS:disqus Sambhar lake is India’s largest inland salt water lake that means it has no connection to sea Whereas Chilka lake is Asia’s largest lagoon that has varied salinity in varied climates and hence it is India’s largest salt water lake but it is a lagoon and not an inland lake. Hope you get the diff…one is lagoon and the other one is an inland lake suganyaNS i got it thank you sir Shubham Nearly 6000km long mainland coastline of India is physiologically devided in two parts i.e. Western coast and Eastern coast. Differences between India’s Western and Eastern coasts are as below- 1) Western coasts of India are submerging coasts and eastern coasts are emerging coasts. It is because of movement of Indian plate in peninsular part towards north west. 2) Continental shelf on western coast is very short( about 10-20 km) but that of eastern coast is very long (about 500km). 3) Number of ports on western coast is far more then that of eastern coast. This is because water on eastern coast is very shallow as compared to western coast because of their emerging nature. 4) Western ghats on western coast are more contiguous and higher than that of eastern ghats on eastern coast. 5) Annual rainfall on western coast is far more than that on eastern coast. Shubham answer is about coastal plain so you can use the wods WCP and ECP priyanka As we know that India has long coastal line. on the basis of the location & active Geomorphological processes it can be divided into – THE WESTERN COASTAL LINE(WCL) & THE EASTERN COASTAL LINE (ECL). DIFFERENCE :- 1. WCL are narrow in the middle & get broader towards north& south and WCL is an example of SUBMERGED coastal plane, while ECL is broader and is an example of an EMERGENT coast. 2.WCL : Because of it’s submerged nature it has various natural ports such as KANDLA, MAZAGAON, MARMAGAON, MANGLORE COCHIN etc. ECL : because of its Emergent nature it is well developed in deltas like Deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna & kaveri Rivers etc. 3. Extending from North to South WLC are divided into the Kachchh & Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast inMaharashtra, Goan coast and Malabar coast in Karnataka and Kerala divisions. there is no such division for ELC. 4. The WCL are narrow in the middle and get broader towards north and south thus The rivers flowing through this coastal plain do not form any delta. and in The ECL The continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the development of good ports and harbours. 5. WCL: The Malbar coats are used for Inland navigation and for fishing because of its distinguishing feature of KAYALs i.e. Backwater. priyanka Please review friends……….. flyingsquarrel Good but starting of answer could have been better.. small intro on coastal plain missing n avoid short forms in exam..overall good:) priyanka thanx dude……..vl improve definitely singhr Nicely written according to the demands of the question… 🙂 pr39048 India’s physiography can be broadly divided in six major parts viz. The great Himalayas, The northern plains, The peninsular plateau, The coastal plains, The Indian desert and the Islands. The coastal plains can be divided into the eastern and western coastal plains. The Western coastal plains is known as the Konkan in the north, Kannada plains in the centre and the Malabar coast in the south. The northern part of the eastern coastal plains is referred to as the Northern Circar, while the southern part is known as the Coromandal Coast. The western coastal plains are narrow belt and slightly submerged into the sea which makes ideal conditions for the ports, whereas the eastern plains are wide and the continental shelf extends approx. 500 km in water and because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours. The rivers flowing in the western coastal plains are small and do not form any delta whereas in the eastern coastal plains the large rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri form extensive delta on this coast, which are very beneficial commercially. naren shankar Differences between India’s western coastal plain and easter’s coastal plain are the following: -Being windward side of the SE monsoon winds, the western coastal plain receives heavy rainfall, while eastern coast on the leeward side receive less rainfall. -western coastal narrow compared to eastern coastal plain -western coastal plain is know cash crops production like cotton, coffee, and rubber etc, while eastern coast is endowed with the most staple food crop of India;rice -Eastern coastal plain is a submergence coastal plain while western coastal plain is an emergenvce plain. -western coastal plain is prone to landslide while easter coastal plain is prone to flood, tsunami and cyclone. -eastern coastal plain is densly populated compared to western coastal plain. -western coastal plain forms delta while it is absent in westaern coastal plain due to steep slope -western coastal plain has charming scenic beauty being adjacent to the western ghat (biodiversity) -western coastal plain is comparatively having intense economic activity than eastern coastal plain Thus, the advantage and disadvantages vary between both the coast with respect to social, cultural, economical and other activities. plz rvw frnds Good points, especially about crops.. shankar thanks kp rvwing shiva051 Coastal plains of India are the waved landforms and raised beaches above the water marks. These are mainly the emerged land floors from the sea that are adjacent to the land. Though having limited vegetation, yet the coastal plains in India significantly contributes to the geography of the country. The major differences between western and eastern coastal plains were discussed below: The western coastal plain is sandwiched between Arabian sea and Western Ghats, whereas the eastern coastal plain lies between Bay of Bengal and Eastern Ghats. Western coastal plains have submerged plains which results in indented and narrow belts providing satisfactory conditions for development of ports and harbors. Eastern coastal plains has smooth and broader plains unfit for making ports. Short swift rivers (like Narmada, Tapi, Mahe etc) do not make any delta in the eastern plains. Large Rivers like subarnarekha, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc drains in the western coastal plains which favors the formation of wide deltas. The western coastal plain is formed by infertile, coarse grained soil and agriculturally not prosperous except Malabar coast. And the eastern plain is formed by fine fertile alluvial soil which supports agricultural activities especially in deltas. The western coast is relatively rocky with sand and sand dunes.The Malabar coast has got certain distinguishing features n the form of ‘Kayals’ (back waters with series of lagoons) which facilitates inland navigation, fishing and attracts tourism. No lagoons are found in the northern part of the coast. The presence of alluvium soil,gentle slopes towards the sea, marshy land and sand dunes depicts the topography of eastern coast Along the coastal strips, lagoons are also formed. The western coastal plain is divided into four regions:- Kutch and Kathiawar coast, Konkan coast, Kannadi plains and Malabar coast. And the eastern coastal plains are locally known as northern circars in the north between river Mahanadi and Krishna, and coromondel coast in the southern part between krishna and cauvery. The eastern coast receives rainfall twice a year (SW and NE monsoon), whereas the eastern coast receives only once in summer. The eastern coast is situated in much lower attitude than the western coast. naren you just correct last third its western coast which receive rainfall once in year .. Manoj Kumar Historically, in the colonial regime, the western plains are industrialized more than their counter parts because of industrialized cities like Bombay and the near cotton industry cluster. The black soil of the Deccan plateau is good for cotton growth and hence caused a huge cotton industry sector in the area. Though Madras is also a coastal city and well developed in the British rule, the land is not as conducive for growth of any cash crop. Thus the geographical differences made the Western plains and the Eastern plains significantly differnet from each other. naren nice answer Praveen India is located on the southern age of asia and it has a vast coastal plains from both eastern and western sides.Although both the coast are important and have some significant features still there are some differences. Western coastal plains runs from kutchh region to kanyakumari.It has indented coastline that makes it suitable for ports.there lies beautiful western ghats which consist very wide biodiversity.Here south-west monsoon bring rain in the month of may-june.Rivers in the western ghats are small ones and that drains into arabian sea.anaimalai,nilgiri hills etc lies in western ghats. Whereas eastern ghats runs from west-bengal orissa border to the south tip of tamilnadu.These coastal plains are smooth running.Here so many big rivers drain into bay of bengal like narmada,krishna,cauvery and forms some beautiful deltas.Here north-eastern monsoon(retreating monsoon) bring rains. So in all both the coastal plains have varied diversity.and are very important for coastal living population. Praveen WCP is more corals i.e. lakshdeewps etc and ECP is more mangroves i.e.sunderban. devesh The main difference between eastern and western coastal plain of india lies in the rivers that drained in to the bay of bengal and Arabian sea. Most of the rivers which falls in to the Bay of Bengal forms delta before they fall in to the sea this delta land formed by alluvial soils is highly fertile. Whereas the rivers which fall in to the Arabian sea that means western coast of india forms estuary. the western coast of india is of zigzag formation and have world famous natural harbours, whereas eastern coast has many man made harbours. the island found in western coast are of Coral Nature and are very small in size. The western coastal plains of india is rich source of thorium as the sands of beach are rich in monzaite a thorium ore. additionly they are rich in iron ore also. IWRA India has two long coastal plains across its two sides:Western coastal plain & Eastern coastal plain.Both have different characteristics: WCP is a Submerged coastal plain,hence is narrow and provides natural ports and harbors.Many important ports like Kandala,Marmagao,mangalore,Kochin are found along this plain.ECP is an emergent plain and is broader,has extended continental shelve upto 500 km in sea.Hence its doesn’t offer natural ports and has lesser no of ports compared to WCP. Rivers flowing through WCP do not form delta,wheras in ECP crossing rivers form delta like delta of Mahanadi,Godavari,Krishna and Kaveri. Another feature of WCP which is absent in ECP is occurrence of Kayal which is basically an inland lake formed of backwater.These Kayals are great tourist attractions. naren last paragraph was gud Asmita The Peninsular Plateau of India is flanked by narrow coastal plains of varied width north to south, known as the Western coastal plains and Eastern coastal plains. The Western Coastal Plains are sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea,50 kms in width,beginning at Gujarat in north and ending at Kerala in the south whereas the Eastern Coastal Plains lay between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal,wider than western coastal plains, stretching from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. The Northern part of the Western coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai-Goa), the central stretch is called the Kannad Plain while the southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar Coast whereas the Eastern coast is locally known as Northern Circars in the northern part between Mahanadi and Krishna rivers and Coromandel Coast in the southern part between Krishna and Kaveri rivers. The Western coastal plains are submerged plains leading a narrow belt and provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours whereas Eastern coast is an emergent one. The rivers flowing through Western plains do not form any delta whereas there are well developed deltas in Eastern plains. The rivers that originate in WG, either flow eastwards or westwards. There is a high gradient for the west flowing rivers than the east flowing rivers. Therefore with being very close to coast and with high gradient, there’s less chances of rivers getting wide (spread out) towards the sea unlike east flowing rivers. More gradient means higher is the velocity of the river. Therefore West flowing rivers end up forming estuaries rather than deltas. Eastern Ghats are not a continuous chain of mountains. They are broken. Most rivers are already wide when flowing through Eastern Ghats. They spread out forming deltas near the seas. naren India’s western coastal plains lies between Maharashtra and Kerala and is divided into Konkan coast, Kannada Coast and Malabar Coast. Eastern coastal plains lie between Mahanadi Delta and Kaveri delta and is called as Northern Circars and Coramandal Coast. The differences between two coastal plains are as follows:- 1.Western coastal plain is narrow in width whereas eastern coastal plain is broader 2.Western coastal plain is partially submerged in sea thereby making natural harbors along its shoreline. Eastern coast has emergent shoreline and has many man made ports 3.Western coast of India receives rainfall from South west monsoon and has continuous western ghats on its eastern side. Eastern plains receive rainfall from both South West and North East monsoon and has discontinuous Eastern Ghats on its west 4.Rivers flowing into western coastal plains like Narmada, Tapi, Mahi etc. are deprived of sediments and thus do not form delta. Rivers flowing into eastern coastal plains have sediments in them and form big deltas like Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari etc. prayas Explain the differences between India’s eastern and western coastal plains. bhatt Q) Explain the differences between India’s eastern and western coastal plains. (150 Words) Ans – Differences between India’s eastern and western coastal plains A) EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS: 1. Eastern Coastal Plains refer to a wide stretch of landmass of India, lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. 2. These plains are wider and level as compared to the western coastal plains. 3. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to west Bengal in the north.It is divided in two parts 4. Lake Chilika is a important feature along the eastern coast.( The Chilika Lake is the largest salt water lake in India/ It lies in the state of Orissa, to the south of the Mahanadi Delta) 5. The region receives both the northeast and southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000 mm(40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in) . 6. The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130 km. 7. It is locally known as Northern Circars in the northern part between Mahanadi and Krishna rivers and coromandel coast in the southern part between Krishna and Kaveri rivers B) WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS : 1. The Western Coastal Plains is a thin strip of coastal plain 50 kilometers in width between the west coast of India and the Western hills, which starts near the south of river Tapi. 2. Its lies between the Western Ghats and the Arabian sea. 3. The plains begins at Gujarat in the north and end at Kerala in the south. 4. It also includes the states of MH, Goa and Karnataka. It is divided in three parts. 5. The Northern part of the coast is called the konkan ;the central stretch is called the kannad plain while the southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar Coast. 6. On its northern side there are two gulfs: the gulf of Khambat and the gulf of Kachch. achu24 The difference between eastern and western coastal plains are as follows: 1. western coastal plain is sandwiched between arabian sea and western ghats while the eastern coastal plains is sandwiched between bay of bengal and eastern ghats. 2. western coastal plain are submerged coast while the eastern coastal plain are emergent coast. 3. WCP are narrow (50-60km) while ECP are wider(80-100km) 4. WCP provides natural site for harbours and abundant ports such as marmagoa, cochin etc.. whereas ECP doesnot provide natural harbours due to broader continental shelf. 5. rivers draining through ECP form deltas hence rich in alluvial deposit, whereas short swift rivers flowing through ECP dont form any delta but form a distinguished feature in the form of kayals also called backwaters. 6. WCP lying on the windward side size of western ghats receives heavy rainfall as compared to ECP. vishwa reddy The Western Coastal Strip is the land mass between the WesternGhats and the Arabian sea and the Eastern Coastal plains is the landmass between the BayofBengal Sea and the Eastern Ghats The differences between the westerna coastal plains and Eastern Coastal Plains can be broadly classified in terms of Landforms and Climatic Factors 1. Landforms: a.The WCP extends form Gujarat Coast in the North to Kearala in the South , the ECP extends form Orissa in North and TN in the South b. The WCP are more narrow in the middle and gets broader in the south and the north ( varies from 50km ) ,ECP are broad in nature around 120 km . c. The WCP has few rivers that flow to the west though originating the Westernghats are swift and few in nubmber like Narmada,Tapi etc . The ECP are very fertile lands and have the sediments from the various rivers that flow through the ECP like krishna, Cauvery, Godavari which originate in Western Ghats d. Most of the rivers that flow from the WestCoastal plains from Esturies and are good for pisciculture , whereas the rivers that flow through the ECP from deltas and are very fertile lands escpecially the godavari, krishna and cauvery deltas e. The WCP form a a good region for ports because of the submerged coast, the ECP have a long continental Shelf so not very apt for ports. 2. Climatic Factors: a. The south west monsoon that reach the peninsular india are divided intot he west and east, Most of the rain occurs in the WCP because of the WesternGhats obstruct further flow of moisture becasue of its height the same monssons pass through the EasterGhats which are comparitively less in height and cause rainfall, The retreating northeast monsoon brign heavy rainfall in the ECP b. The WCP is less affected by severe cyclones because of the depression created in Arabian sea is not fully carried onto the ECP whereas the ECP are severely affted by the Cyclones because of the depression in the Bay of Bengal. pls review Thanks Rajesh Indian coastal region is divided into two coastal regions – eastern and western coast. Differences between them are below : 1. Western coastal plain in slimmer in the middle when we goes from north to south while eastern coasts are much broader. 2. Western coasts plains having natural ports while eastern coastal plains don’t have ports and harbors due to having a large area of continental shelf which makes it unsuitable for having any ports. 3. Rivers flowing through the western coastal plains doesn’t form any deltas while in eastern coastal plains it is just opposite. Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri form delta in this eastern region. 4. Western coast gets a heavy rainfall as compared to eastern coast due to the south west monsoon which originate near the arabian sea. 5. Western coast is less fertile in comparison of Eastern coast as it majorly consists of rocky soil while EC contains a mix of alluvium and sandy soil. shruti India has a very long coastal line. on the basis of its location and geomorphological processes, diveded into two – eastern coastal plains(ECP) and western coastal plains(WCP). ECP are wide stretch of land mass lying between eastern ghats and bay of bengal and is an emergent coast. it stretches from west bengal in north to tamil nadu in south. there are so many deltas formed by rivers flowing towards bay of bengal. so it is suitable for agricultural activities. the continental shelf extends upto 500kms there fore no possibility of ports or harbours. the lake chilka which is largest salt lake in india is an important feature of eastern coast. WCP is a narrow thin strip lying between western ghats and arabian sea and is a submerged coastal plain. it stretches from gujarat in north to kerala in south. there are very less number of rivers flowing towards arabian sea and this coast is intersected by mountain ridges so no delta formation is possible here. but it is suitable for ports and harbours. there are two gulfs – khambat and kachchh, the rivers here end up forming estuaries and therefore ideal for pisciculture. the special feature of malabar coast is ‘kayals'(backwaters), which are used for fishing, inland navigation and for tourism. Legolas India’s western coastal plain is a submerged coastal plain and hence has natural conditions for development of ports and harbours. It is a narrow coast which is comparatively broader in the north and south. The rivers flowing in the western coastal plain do not form deltas. There are some backwaters in the south in the malabar coast that allow for inland fishing and navigation. On the other hand, the eastern coast is broader and is an emergent coast. The continental shelf extends till about 500 sq. km into the sea. It is not naturally suitable for ports and harbours. The rivers flowing in this coastal plain form lasrge deltas before flowing in the Bay of bengal. Deltas of Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri are fertile areas. Abhijit	i don't know
The names of five of the six elements that make up the Nobel Gases end with which two letters?	Noble gases facts, information, pictures \| Encyclopedia.com articles about Noble gases Isolation of the Noble Gases HELIUM. Helium is an unusual element in many respects—not least because it is the only element to have first been identified in the Solar System before it was discovered on Earth. This is significant, because the elements on Earth are the same as those found in space: thus, it is more than just an attempt at sounding poetic when scientists say that humans, as well as the world around them, are made from "the stuff of stars." In 1868, a French astronomer named Pierre Janssen (1824-1907) was in India to observe a total solar eclipse. To aid him in his observations, he used a spectroscope, an instrument for analyzing the spectrum of light emitted by an object. What Janssen's spectroscope showed was surprising: a yellow line in the spectrum, never seen before, which seemed to indicate the presence of a previously undiscovered element. Janssen called it "helium" after the Greek god Helios, or Apollo, whom the ancients associated with the Sun . Janssen shared his findings with English astronomer Sir Joseph Lockyer (1836-1920), who had a worldwide reputation for his work in analyzing light waves. Lockyer, too, believed that what Janssen had seen was a new element, and a few months later, he observed the same unusual spectral lines. At that time, the spectroscope was still a new invention, and many members of the worldwide scientific community doubted its usefulness, and therefore, in spite of Lockyer's reputation, they questioned the existence of this "new" element. Yet during their lifetimes, Janssen and Lockyer were proven correct. NEON, ARGON, KRYPTON, AND XENON. They had to wait a quarter century, however. In 1893, English chemist Sir William Ramsay (1852-1916) became intrigued by the presence of a mysterious gas bubble left over when nitrogen from the atmosphere was combined with oxygen. This was a phenomenon that had also been noted by English physicist Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) more than a century before, but Cavendish could offer no explanation. Ramsay, on the other hand, had the benefit of observations made by English physicist John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919). Up to that time, scientists believed that air consisted only of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. However, Rayleigh had noticed that when nitrogen was extracted from air after a process of removing those other components, it had a slightly higher density than nitrogen prepared from a chemical reaction. In light of his own observations, Ramsay concluded that whereas nitrogen obtained from chemical reactions was pure, the nitrogen extracted from air contained trace amounts of an unknown gas. Ramsay was wrong in only one respect: hidden with the nitrogen was not one gas, but five. In order to isolate these gases, Ramsay and Rayleigh subjected air to a combination of high pressure and low temperature, allowing the various gases to boil off at different temperatures. One of the gases was helium—the first confirmation that the element existed on Earth—but the other four gases were previously unknown. The Greek roots of the names given to the four gases reflected scientists' wonder at discovering these hard-to-find elements: neos (new), argos (in active), kryptos (hidden), and xenon (stranger). RADON. Inspired by the studies of Polish-French physicist and chemist Marie Curie (1867-1934) regarding the element radium and the phenomenon of radioactivity (she discovered the element, and coined the latter term), German physicist Friedrich Dorn (1848-1916) became fascinated with radium. Studying the element, he discovered that it emitted a radioactive gas, which he dubbed "radium emanation." Eventually, however, he realized that what was being produced was a new element. This was the first clear proof that one element could become another through the process of radioactive decay. Ramsay, who along with Rayleigh had received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his work on the noble gases, was able to map the new element's spectral lines and determine its density and atomic mass. A few years later, in 1918, another scientist named C. Schmidt gave it the name "radon." Due to its behavior and the configuration of its electrons, chemists classified radon among what they continued to call the "inert gases" for another half-century—until Bartlett's preparation of xenon compounds in 1962. Presence of the Rare Gases on Earth IN THE ATMOSPHERE. Though the rare gases are found in minerals and meteorites on Earth, their greatest presence is in the planet's atmosphere. It is believed that they were released into the air long ago as a by-product of decay on the part of radioactive materials in the Earth's crust. Within the atmosphere, argon is the most "abundant"—in comparative terms, given the fact that the "rare gases" are, by definition, rare. Nitrogen makes up about 78% of Earth's atmosphere and oxygen 21%, meaning that these two elements constitute fully 99% of the air above the Earth. Argon ranks a distant third, with 0.93%. The remaining 0.07% is made up on water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone (O3), and traces of the noble gases. These are present in such small quantities that the figures for them are not typically presented as percentages, but rather in terms of parts per million (ppm). The concentrations of neon, helium, krypton, and xenon in the atmosphere are 18, 5, 1, and 0.09 ppm respectively. IN THE SOIL. Radon in the atmosphere is virtually negligible, which is a fortunate thing, in light of its radioactive qualities. Few Americans, in fact, even knew of its existence until 1988, when the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released a report estimating that some ten million American homes had potentially harmful radon levels. This set off a scare, and during the late 1980s and 1990s, sales of home radon detectors boomed. Meanwhile, the federal government increased concerns with additional reports, advising people to seal their basements and ventilate their homes if radon exceeded certain levels. A number of scientists have disputed the government's claims, yet some regions of the United States appear to be at relatively high risk due to the presence of radon in the soil. The element seems to be most plentiful in soils containing high concentrations of uranium. If radon is present in a home that has been weather-sealed to improve the efficiency of heating and cooling systems, it is indeed potentially dangerous to the residents. Chinese scientists in the 1960s made an interesting discovery regarding radon and its application to seismography, or the area of the earth sciences devoted to studying and predicting earthquakes. Radon levels in groundwater, the Chinese reports showed, rise considerably just before an earthquake. Since then, the Chinese have monitored radon concentrations in water, and used this data to predict earthquakes. EXTRACTING RARE GASES. Radon, in fact, is not the only rare gas that can be obtained as the result of radioactive decay: in 1903, Ramsay and British chemist Frederick Soddy (1877-1956) showed that the breakdown of either uranium or radium results in the production of helium atoms (beta particles). A few years later, English physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) demonstrated that radiation carrying a positive electrical charge (alpha rays) was actually a stream of helium atoms stripped of an electron. Many of the noble gases are extracted by liquefying air—that is, by reducing it to temperatures at which it assumes the properties of a liquid rather than a gas. By controlling temperatures in the liquefied air, it is possible to reach the boiling point for a particular noble gas and thereby extract it, much as was done when these gases were first isolated in the 1890s. THE UNIQUE SITUATION OF HELIUM. Helium is remarkable, in that it only liquefies at a temperature of −457.6°F (−272°C), just above absolute zero. Absolute zero is the temperature at which the motion of atoms or molecules comes to a virtual stop, but the motion of helium atoms never completely ceases. In order to liquefy it, in fact, even at those low temperatures, it must be subjected to pressures many times that exerted by Earth's atmosphere. Given these facts, it is difficult to extract helium from air. More often, it is obtained from natural gas wells, where it is present in relatively large concentrations—between 1% and 7% of the natural gas. The majority of the Earth's helium supply belongs to the United States, where the greatest abundance of helium-supplying wells are in Texas , Oklahoma , and Kansas . During World War II , the United States took advantage of this supply of relatively inexpensive helium to provide buoyancy for a fleet of airships used for reconnaissance. There is one place with an abundant supply of helium, but there are no plans for a mining expedition any time soon. That place is the Sun, where the nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms creates helium. Indeed, helium seems to be the most plentiful element of all, after hydrogen, constituting 23% of the total mass of the universe. Why, then, is it so difficult to obtain on Earth? Most likely because it is so light in comparison to air; it simply floats off into space. Applications for the Noble Gases RADON, ARGON, KRYPTON, AND XENON. Though radon is known primarily for the hazards it poses to human life and well-being, it has useful applications. As noted above, its presence in groundwater appears to provide a possible means of predicting earthquakes. In addition, it is used for detecting leaks, measuring flow rates, and inspecting metal welds. One interesting use of argon and, in particular, the stable isotope argon-40, is in dating techniques used by geologists, paleontologists, and other scientists studying the distant past. When volcanic rocks are subjected to extremely high temperatures, they release argon, and as the rocks cool, argon-40 accumulates. Because argon-40 is formed by the radioactive decay of a potassium isotope, potassium-40, the amount of argon-40 that forms is proportional to the rate of decay for potassium-40. The latter has a half-life of 1.3 billion years, meaning that it takes 1.3 billion years for half the potassium-40 originally present to be converted to argon-40. Using argon-40, paleontologists have been able to estimate the age of volcanic layers above and below fossil and artifact remains in east Africa. Krypton has a number of specialized applications—for instance, it is mixed with argon and used in the manufacture of windows with a high level of thermal efficiency. Used in lasers, it is often mixed with a halogen such as fluorine. In addition, it is also sometimes used in halogen sealed-beam headlights. Many fans of Superman, no doubt, were disappointed at some point in their lives to discover that there is no such thing as "kryptonite," the fictional element that caused the Man of Steel to lose his legendary strength. Yet krypton—the real thing—has applications that are literally out of this world. In the development of fuel for space exploration, krypton is in competition with its sister element, xenon. Xenon offers better performance, but costs about ten times more to produce; thus krypton has become more attractive as a fuel for space flight. In addition to its potential as a space fuel, xenon is used in arc lamps for motion-picture film projection, in high-pressure ultraviolet radiation lamps, and in specialized flashbulbs used by photographers. One particular isotope of xenon is utilized for tracing the movement of sands along a coastline. Xenon is also applied in high-energy physics for detecting nuclear radiation in bubble chambers. Furthermore, neuroscientists are experimenting with the use of xenon in diagnostic procedures to clarify x-ray images of the human brain. NEON. Neon, of course, is best-known for its application in neon signs, which produce an eye-catching glow when lit up at night. French chemist Georges Claude (1870-1960), intrigued by Ramsay's discovery of neon, conducted experiments that led to the development of the neon light in 1910. That first neon light was simply a glass tube filled with neon gas, which glowed a bright red when charged with electricity. Claude eventually discovered that mixing other gases with neon produced different colors of light. He also experimented with variations in the shapes of glass tubes to create letters and pictures. By the 1920s, neon light had come into vogue, and it is still popular today. Modern neon lamps are typically made of plastic rather than glass, and the range of colors is much greater than in Claude's day: not only the gas filling, but the coating inside the tube, is varied, resulting in a variety of colors from across the spectrum. Though the neon sign is its best-known application, neon is used for many other things. Neon glow lamps are often used to indicate on/off settings on electronic instrument panels, and lightweight neon lamps are found on machines ranging from computers to voltage regulators. In fact, the first practical color television, produced in 1928, used a neon tube to produce the red color in the receiver. Green came from mercury, but the blue light in that early color TV came from another noble gas, helium. HELIUM. Helium, of course, is widely known for its use in balloons—both for large airships and for the balloons that have provided joy and fun to many a small child. Though helium is much more expensive than hydrogen as a means of providing buoyancy to airships, hydrogen is extremely flammable, and after the infamous explosion of the airship Hindenburg in 1937, helium became the preferred medium for airships. As noted earlier, the United States military made extensive use of helium-filled airships during the World War II. The use of helium for buoyancy is one of the most prominent applications of this noble gas, but far from the only one. In fact, not only have people used helium to go up in balloons, but divers use helium for going down beneath the surface of the ocean. In that situation, of course, helium is not used for providing buoyancy, but as a means of protecting against the diving-related condition known as "the bends," which occurs when nitrogen in the blood bubbles as the diver rises to the surface. Helium is mixed with oxygen in diver's air tanks because it does not dissolve in the blood as easily as nitrogen. Among the most fascinating applications of helium relate to its extraordinarily low freezing point. Helium has played a significant role in the low-temperature science known as cryogenics, and has found application in research concerning superconductivity: the use of very low temperatures to develop materials that conduct electrical power with vastly greater efficiency than ordinary conductors. Close to absolute zero, helium transforms into a highly unusual liquid unlike any known substance, in that it has no measurable resistance to flow. This means that it could carry an electrical current hundreds of times more efficiently than a copper wire. WHERE TO LEARN MORE "The Chemistry of the Rare Gases" (Web site). <http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch10/raregas.html> (May 13, 2001). "Homework: Science: Chemistry: Gases" Channelone.com (Web site). <http://www.channelone.com/fasttrack/science/chemistry/gases.html> (May 12, 2001). Knapp, Brian J.; David Woodroffe; David A. Hardy. Elements. Danbury, CT: Grolier Educational, 2000. Mebane, Robert C. and Thomas R. Rybolt. Air and Other Gases. Illustrations by Anni Matsick. New York : Twenty-First Century Books, 1995. "Noble Gases" Xrefer.com (Web site). <http://www.xrefer.com/entry/643259> (May 13, 2001). Rare Gases. Praxair (Web site). <http://www.praxair.com/Praxair.nsf/X1/gase_rarega?openDocument> (May 13, 2001). Stwertka, Albert. Superconductors: The Irresistible Future. New York: F. Watts, 1991. Taylor, Ron. Facts on Radon and Asbestos. Illustrated by Ian Moores. New York: F. Watts, 1990. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. MLA	On
In Judaism, what name is given to the Jewish New Year?	Actinides Series The Actinides series consist of the elements in the f-block in the seventh period of the periodic table. All the elements of Actinides series are radioactive and most are synthetic, that is, human-made. All have a silvery or silvery-white luster in metallic form. Periodic Table Trends When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical properties. Some of these properties include atomic radius, electronegativity, ionization energy and metallic characteristics. Factors affecting these properties include the number of protons in the nucleus, the distance from the nucleus and amount of shielding inner electrons provide to the valence electrons. Atomic radius The atomic radius is a somewhat imprecise measure that can refer to the mean distance from the center of the nucleus to the boundary of the surrounding electron cloud. We can determine the radius by dividing the distance between two bonded atoms in half. Depending upon the type of bond we can obtain very different values. If the bond is covalent it is called a covalent radius. If the bond is ionic it is called an ionic radius. The Atomic radius tend to decrease when moving across a period from left to right. As we move across a period electrons are added to the same energy level and protons are added to the nucleus; increasing the effective nuclear charge and pulling the electrons closer to the nucleus. The Atomic radius tend to increase when moving down a group from top to bottom. As we go down a group additional energy levels are added; and each subsequent energy level is further from the nucleus. Electronegativity Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons. It cannot be measured directly and needs to be computed from other atomic properties. The Pauling scale is a dimensionless quantity developed by Linus Pauling used to describe the electronegativity of an atom. The two key factors in determining electronegativity are its atomic number and radius. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity and francium the lowest. If the electronegativity difference between two atoms is very large, then the bond type tends to be more ionic, if the difference in electronegativity is small then it is a nonpolar covalent bond. Ionization energy The first ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove an electron from a neutral atom in gaseous phase. In general, the 1st ionzation energy increases as we go across a period; as the electrons are held closer to the nucleus with the increasing effective nuclear charge. In general, the 1st ionization energy decreases as we go down a group; as the electrons are further from the nucleus with each increasing energy level. The noble gases possess very high ionization energies because their full valence shell makes them highly stable. In general, the (n+1)th ionization energy is larger than the nth ionization energy. Metal Characteristics Metals are usually shiny, malleable, hard and are good conductors of electricity and heat. Metals have low ionization energy and low electronegativity which allows them to conduct electricity as electrons can flow through them easily. Metal characteristics tend to increase when moving from the top-right to bottom-left of the periodic table. The most nonmetallic elements(oxygen, fluorine, chlorine) occur at the top right of the Periodic Table. Periodic Table blocks The periodic table can be divided up into several blocks based on their highest energy electron orbital type. There are 4 types of electron orbitals; "s" which can hold 2 electrons and is sperical in shape, "p" which can hold 6 and is shaped like a dumb-bell, "d" which can hold 10 and "f" which can hold 14. For example Helium has an electron configuration of 1s2; the "1" denotes the energy level or shell (also known as the principle quantum number "n") the "s" the type of orbital and the "2" denotes the number of electrons. The s-block consists of the groups 1 and 2 elements plus Helium. The p-block consists of the groups 13 to 18 elements but not Helium. The d-block consists of the groups 3 to 12 elements. The f-block consists of the Lanthanides and Actinides. We can also divide the table between main group and transition metals. The main group elements include groups 1 and 2 (excluding Hydrogen) on the left of the periodic table and groups 13 to 18 on the right of the table. The transition metals are the metallic elements that serve as a bridge, or transition, between the two sides of the table. The lanthanides and the actinides at the bottom of the table are sometimes referred to as the inner transition metals.	i don't know
The names of all five elements that make up the Halogens end with which three letters?	List of Periodic Table Groups List of Periodic Table Groups These are the element groups found in the periodic table of the elements. There are links to lists of elements within each group. Cobalt is a hard, silvery-gray metal. Ben Mills 1. Metals Most elements are metals. In fact, so many elements are metals there are different groups of metals, such as alkali metals, alkaline earths, and transition metals. Most metals are shiny solids, with high melting points and densities. Many of the properties of metals, including large atomic radius , low ionization energy , and low electronegativity , are due to the fact that the electrons in the valence shell of a metal atoms can be removed easily. One characteristic of metals is their ability to be deformed without breaking. Malleability is the ability of a metal to be hammered into shapes. Ductility is the ability of a metal to be drawn into wire. Metals are good heat conductors and electrical conductors. More » continue reading below our video Trends in the Periodic Table These are crystals of sulfur, one of the nonmetallic elements. U.S. Geological Survey 2. Nonmetals The nonmetals are located on the upper right side of the periodic table. Nonmetals are separated from metals by a line that cuts diagonally through the region of the periodic table. Nonmetals have high ionization energies and electronegativities. They are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity. Solid nonmetals are generally brittle, with little or no metallic luster . Most nonmetals have the ability to gain electrons easily. Nonmetals display a wide range of chemical properties and reactivities. More » Xenon normally is a colorless gas, but it emits a blue glow when excited by an electrical discharge, as seen here. pslawinski, wikipedia.org 3. Noble Gases or Inert Gases The noble gases, also known as the inert gases , are located in Group VIII of the periodic table. The noble gases are relatively nonreactive. This is because they have a complete valence shell. They have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. The noble gases have high ionization energies and negligible electronegativities. The noble gases have low boiling points and are all gases at room temperature. More » This is a sample of pure chlorine gas. Chlorine gas is a pale greenish yellow color. Greenhorn1, public domain 4. Halogens The halogens are located in Group VIIA of the periodic table. Sometimes the halogens are considered to be a particular set of nonmetals. These reactive elements have seven valence electrons. As a group, halogens exhibit highly variable physical properties. Halogens range from solid to liquid to gaseous at room temperature . The chemical properties are more uniform. The halogens have very high electronegativities . Fluorine has the highest electronegativity of all elements. The halogens are particularly reactive with the alkali metals and alkaline earths, forming stable ionic crystals. More » Tellurium is a brittle silver-white metalloid. This image is of an ultra-pure tellurium crystal, 2-cm in length. Dschwen, wikipedia.org 5. Semimetals or Metalloids The metalloids or semimetals are located along the line between the metals and nonmetals in the periodic table . The electronegativities and ionization energies of the metalloids are between those of the metals and nonmetals, so the metalloids exhibit characteristics of both classes. The reactivity of the metalloids depends on the element with which they are reacting. For example, boron acts as a nonmetal when reacting with sodium yet as a metal when reacting with fluorine. The boiling points , melting points , and densities of the metalloids vary widely. The intermediate conductivity of metalloids means they tend to make good semiconductors. More » Sodium metal chunks under mineral oil. Justin Urgitis, wikipedia.org 6. Alkali Metals The alkali metals are the elements located in Group IA of the periodic table. The alkali metals exhibit many of the physical properties common to metals, although their densities are lower than those of other metals. Alkali metals have one electron in their outer shell, which is loosely bound. This gives them the largest atomic radii of the elements in their respective periods. Their low ionization energies result in their metallic properties and high reactivities. An alkali metal can easily lose its valence electron to form the univalent cation. Alkali metals have low electronegativities. They react readily with nonmetals, particularly halogens. More » Crystals of elemental magnesium, produced using the Pidgeon process of vapor deposition. Warut Roonguthai 7. Alkaline Earths The alkaline earths are the elements located in Group IIA of the periodic table. The alkaline earths possess many of the characteristic properties of metals. Alkaline earths have low electron affinities and low electronegativities. As with the alkali metals, the properties depend on the ease with which electrons are lost. The alkaline earths have two electrons in the outer shell. They have smaller atomic radii than the alkali metals. The two valence electrons are not tightly bound to the nucleus, so the alkaline earths readily lose the electrons to form divalent cations . More » Pure gallium has a bright silver color. These crystals were grown by the photographer. Foobar, wikipedia.org Metals are excellent electric and thermal conductors , exhibit high luster and density, and are malleable and ductile. More » Palladium is a soft silvery-white metal. Tomihahndorf, wikipedia.org 9. Transition Metals The transition metals are located in groups IB to VIIIB of the periodic table. These elements are very hard, with high melting points and boiling points. The transition metals have high electrical conductivity and malleability and low ionization energies. They exhibit a wide range of oxidation states or positively charged forms. The positive oxidation states allow transition elements to form many different ionic and partially ionic compounds . The complexes form characteristic colored solutions and compounds. Complexation reactions sometimes enhance the relatively low solubility of some compounds. More » Pure plutonium is silvery, but acquires a yellowish tarnish as it oxidizes. Photo is of gloved hands holding a button of plutonium. Deglr6328, wikipedia.org 10. Rare Earths The rare earths are metals found in the two rows of elements located below the main body of the periodic table . There are two blocks of rare earths , the lanthanide series and the actinide series . In a way, the rare earths are special transition metals , possessing many of the properties of these elements. More » Samarium is a lustrous silvery metal. Three crystal modifications also exist. JKleo, wikipedia.org 11. Lanthanides The lanthanides are metals that are located in block 5d of the periodic table. The first 5d transition element is either lanthanum or lutetium, depending on how you interpret the periodic trends of the elements. Sometimes only the lanthanides, and not the actinides, are classified as rare earths. Several of the lanthanides form during the fission of uranium and plutonium. More » Uranium is a silvery-white metal. Photo is a billet of highly enriched uranium recovered from scrap processed at the Y-12 Facility in Oak Ridge, TN. U.S. Department of Energy 12. Actinides The electronic configurations of the actinides utilize the f sublevel. Depending on your interpretation of the periodicity of the elements, the series begins with actinium, thorium, or even lawrencium. All of the actinides are dense radioactive metals that are highly electropositive. They tarnish readily in air and combine with most nonmetals. More »	INE
What name is given to the Jewish Day of Atonement?	Alphabetical list by Name of the chemical elements of the periodic table For chemistry students and teachers: The tabular chart on the right is alphabethically listed. The first chemical element is Actinium and the last is Zirconium. Please note that the elements do not show their natural relation towards each other as in the Periodic system. There you can find the metals, semi-conductor(s), non-metal(s), inert noble gas(ses), Halogens, Lanthanoides, Actinoids (rare earth elements) and transition metals.	i don't know
The Vouli is the name of the parliament in which European country?	GREEK PARLIAMENT All Publications THE HELLENIC PARLIAMENT The Parliament is the supreme democratic institution that represents the citizens through an elected body of Members of Parliament (MPs). In the current composition the Parliament consists of 300 MPs, elected at the last general elections of September 20th, 2015. Speaker of the Parliament is currently for the 17th Parliamentary Term, Mr Nikolaos Voutsis elected with SYRIZA (Coalition of the Radical Left). The Speaker presides over parliamentary sittings, is in charge of parliamentary functions and represents Parliament in international parliamentary organizations and bilateral inter-parliamentary sittings. Ηe is in charge of all Hellenic Parliament directorates, departments and divisions and coordinates their work and activities. Virtual tour INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS The institutional role of the Parliament in shaping Greek foreign policy is acknowledged in a series of Constitutional articles and clauses as well as in its Standing Orders. Hellenic Parliament steadily promotes stronger links with other EU national parliaments and the European Parliament (EP). Given this framework, the Parliament is actively involved in meetings between EU national parliaments and the EP, exchanges views on significant European affairs and acquaints the aforementioned parliaments with its views. Parliament capitalizes on parliamentary diplomacy for building ‘bridges’ in favor of stronger cooperation between people, bringing the people closer together and encouraging an exchange of views and ideas while forging ties of friendship and promoting the image of Greece abroad.	Greece
Which television scriptwriter created the children's programmes 'The Clangers', 'Ivor the Engine' and 'Bagpuss'?	Learn and talk about Vouli Tileorasi, 1999 establishments in Greece, Greek-language television stations, Hellenic Parliament, Hellenic Television OTE TV Channel 100 Voulí Tileórasi ( Greek : Βουλή Τηλεόραση, Parliament TV) is a Greek network dedicated to airing non-stop coverage of government proceedings and public affairs programming. The name comes from Greek Βουλή Voulí, meaning 'assembly', 'council', or 'parliament'; and Tileórasi, meaning television. The primary aim of the channel is to give each citizen direct access to the inner workings of the Hellenic Parliament . It broadcasts live all sessions of parliament and the meetings of the department of parliamentary recess. Also broadcast, recorded not live, the work of the various permanent parliamentary committees. Voulí TV broadcasts a daily parliamentary newscast that gives briefings on the day-to-day business of parliament, as well as information on democratic institutions and the parliamentary history of Greece. It also features updates on the European parliament with special emphasis on the Greek members of parliament. The network also features non-political type programming, a block of cultural programming airs daily from 6pm-Midnight, with documentaries (covering various topics such as the arts, society, nature, history and science), films, theatre, dance, opera and classical music. Voulí TV is the only channel of its kind in Europe that broadcasts terrestrially, FTA without the need for any special equipment or subscription fees. The signal is transmitted from 19 broadcast centres on the country which enable it to reach over 50% of the population. Efforts are under way to increase transmission so that the entire country can receive the signal. Voulí is also available on satellite, the signal transmits on Hotbird 3 and HellasSat. References[ edit ] This article includes a list of references , related reading or external links , but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations . Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2016) Original courtesy of Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vouli_Tileorasi — Please support Wikipedia. This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia . A portion of the proceeds from advertising on Digplanet goes to supporting Wikipedia. We're sorry, but there's no news about "Vouli Tileorasi" right now. Limit to books that you can completely read online Include partial books (book previews) Oops, we seem to be having trouble contacting Twitter Support Wikipedia A portion of the proceeds from advertising on Digplanet goes to supporting Wikipedia. Please add your support for Wikipedia! Searchlight Group Digplanet also receives support from Searchlight Group. Visit Searchlight Copyright © 2009-2016 Digparty. All rights reserved.	i don't know
In which English county is Flodden Field, the site of the famous battle of the same name?	Historic Scottish Battles - From Rampant Scotland Rampant Scotland Historic Scottish Battles For centuries, the direction of Scotland's development was influenced by the outcome of the many battles which took place on her soil - or over the Border in England. There were glorious victories and terrible defeats. Many, but not all battles, were fought against the English. And, it has to be said, it was not unknown for the Scots to initiate the contest by invading their larger neighbour! This extensive list of 40 conflicts gives an outline of many of these battles and in all cases there are links to other Websites where you can find out more. Battle of Ancrum Moor - 1545 During the "Rough Wooing" as King Henry VIII of England tried to persuade Mary Queen of Scots to marry his son, an English force marched into the Scottish Borders, destroying Melrose Abbey. The invaders were defeated at Ancrum Moor by a force only half their size consisting of Douglases, Leslies, Lindsays and Scotts. Battle of Bannockburn - 1314 An English army, led by Edward II, marching to relieve Stirling Castle, were met by King Robert the Bruce at Bannock Burn, near Stirling. The over-confident English army was soundly defeated, losing 3/4,000 men, Scottish casualties were light. King Edward II escaped back to England. Battle of Flodden - 1513 When King James V had married Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII, in 1503, he had signed a "Treaty of Everlasting Peace" between Scotland and England. But James had renewed the "Auld Alliance" with France when King Henry VIII of England had invaded France. James did not need to take action but nevertheless advanced into England, in part because Henry VIII had opened old wounds by claiming to be the overlord of Scotland which angered the Scots and the King. The Pope threatened James with ecclesiastical censure for breaking his peace treaties with England and subsequently James was excommunicated. After some minor successes he met an English army at Flodden on September 9 1513. The battle was the heaviest defeat ever experienced by a Scottish army, with the slaughter of the King and the flower of Scottish nobility - at least ten earls, countless lords and an estimated death toll of 10,000 Scots from the Highlands and the Lowlands. Battle of the Boyne - 1690 Using finance and troops supplied by Louis XIV of France, James VII made a final attempt to regain his throne. He landed in Ireland where he had a large number of supporters amongst the Catholic community. King William (of Orange) personally led an army of 30,000 men, outnumbering the Jacobites. As James advanced towards Dublin, the armies met west of Drogheda, at the river Boyne. James was defeated and fled back to France. Battle of the Braes - 1882 While perhaps not in the same league as many other battles on Scottish soil, the Battle of the Braes got a lot of publicity at the time. It arose as part of the Highland "Clearances" when a group of crofters at Braes, near Portree, refused to allow the Sheriff's Officer deliver a summons. 50 Glasgow policemen were sent to put down the "uprising" and a battle took place at Braes when 100 crofters attacked them. The ensuing court cases received a lot of publicity and helped to highlight the problems being faced by the crofting communities. Battle of Carberry Hill - 1567 A confrontation between Mary Queen of Scots and an army of lords, led by James Douglas, Earl of Morton. The lords wanted to arrest Lord Bothwell, Mary's husband, because they believed that Bothwell had been involved in the murder of Mary's second husband, Lord Darnley. After long negotiations (there was no actual fighting) Mary agreed but Bothwell fled to Orkney. A few days later, Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle. Battle of Carham - 1018 An army from Northumberland, seeking to recover Lothian which had been captured by King Malcolm II of Scotland, clashed with Malcolm at Carham on the river Tweed. The Scots were victorious and henceforth the river Tweed became accepted as the border between Scotland and England. Battle of the Clans - 1396 To resolve a dispute between the clans Chattan and Kaye, King Robert III arranged for representatives of the two clans to meet in combat on the North Inch in Perth. Watched by the king, his courtiers and a large crowd, clan Kaye was routed - supposedly only one survived, by swimming across the nearby river Tay. Battle of Culloden - 1746 The final battle of the Jacobite Uprising of 1745/46. The army of Prince Charles Edward Stewart, consisting mainly of Highlanders, was soundly defeated by the Duke of Cumberland, bringing to an end the ambitions of the "Young Pretender" to recover the throne for the Stewart dynasty. Battle of Dunbar, 1296 When King Edward I of England ordered his puppet, King John (Balliol) to supply Scots troops to fight in France, Parliament refused to allow it and forced Balliol to renounce his allegiance. Edward immediately invaded Scotland, captured Berwick and, a few weeks later, crushed the Scottish army at a battle outside Dunbar. Many of the Scottish nobles who were captured were sent south to act as hostages. Battle of Dunbar - 1650 Oliver Cromwell advanced into Scotland, initially with 16,000 men, supported by ships along the east coast, in pursuit of King Charles I. The Scots army, led by David Leslie, thwarted his attempts to take the port of Leith and Cromwell retired to Dunbar. The pursuing Scottish army was badly organised for the battle and Cromwell won not only won the battle but was able to hold sway over most of Lowland Scotland. Battle of Dunkeld - 1689 After the death of the brilliant James Graham, Viscount Dundee, at Killiecrankie, the Jacobite army had no leader of quality. In August, 5,000 clansmen attacked Dunkeld which was held by a much smaller Government force of Cameronians. They fought a determined rear-guard action through the town, killing many of the attacking Jacobites in the process. Eventually, the Jacobites withdrew and, with the onset of winter, the Highlanders dispersed. With the defeat of King James VII at the Battle of the Boyne in Northern Ireland the following year, Dunkeld was the last battle in Scotland in the 17th century to restore the Stewarts to the throne. Battle of Dunnichen - 685 It has been argued that if the King Bruide of the Picts had not defeated an invasion by Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria on May 20, 685, Scotland as a separate nation would not have come into being. The Northumbrians had already advanced as far as Lothian, south of the river Forth and defeated the Gododdin and had subjugated the southern lands of the Picts. The Picts had suffered a serious defeat on the plain of "Manau" (near Grangemouth) and 12 years later a huge force of Northumbrians advanced into the land of the Picts. But using local knowledge of the area around Dunnichen (known as Nechtansmere to the later southern historians), the Picts won an overwhelming victory, bringing to an end the northern advance of the Northumbrians. Battle of Dupplin Moor - 1332 The defeat of Bannockburn in 1314 rankled with Edward III and he encouraged a group of exiled Scottish nobles, (the so-called "Disinherited") led by Edward Balliol (son of John Balliol) to invade Scotland using ships supplied by the English king. A landing was made at Kinghorn but they were confronted by a Scottish force led by Donald, the earl of Mar, Regent of Scotland during the minority of King David II. Balliol was successful, slew the earls of Mar, Menteith and Moray and 2,000 of the defenders. Balliol went on to claim the throne only to be overthrown later the same year by a new Regent, the earl of Moray. Battle of Falkirk - 1298 Wallace's victory at Stirling Bridge in September 1297 was short lived. King Edward marched north and met Wallace's army at Falkirk in July, 1298. The English (and Welsh) bowmen depleted the Scottish ranks, many of whom were untrained conscripts. Wallace was to continue the fight but in a guerilla a war and was betreayed and captured in 1305. Battle Of Falkirk - 1746 The retreating Jacobite army of Prince Charles Edward Stewart, pursued by the Duke of Cumberland, marched from Glasgow on 3 January 1746 towards Stirling. Units of the two armies clashed, the MacDonald regiments in particular gave a good account of themselves and the Jacobites were victorious. Nevertheless, they headed north again - to the final battle at Culloden three months later. Battle of Flodden - 1513 Once again the "Auld Alliance" between Scotland and France came into play and King James IV responded to a request from Louis XII of France who was being attacked by King Henry VIII of England. Despite treaties which had been signed between Scotland and England in 1502, James IV advanced into England with an army said to number 30,000. After some early successes, a number of castles fell to the Scottish cannon. But an English army, led by the earl of Surrey, met the Scots on Flodden Field in Northumberland. After a bloody battle, in which King James and the flower of Scottish nobility fell, the English commander estimated that 10,000 Scottish soldiers had been killed. Battle of Glenfruin - 1603 400 MacGregors ambushed a larger number of Colquhouns in the glen. They took no prisoners and 140 Colquhouns were killed. A large number of sheep and cattle were stolen. Two days before he journied to London to assume the title of King of England as well as Scotland, King James VI held a judicial review of the incident. The MacGregor name was banned Battle of Glenshiel - 1719 After the abortive Jacobite Uprising of 1715, the "Old Pretender" returned to France and then Italy. However, in 1719 he became involved in an armada from Spain which was to invade England. The main fleet was wrecked by storms and only a small force arrived at Eilean Donan Castle at Loch Duich on the west coast of Scotland. The mixed force of Spaniards and clansmen marched to Glenshiel and were met by government forces and defeated. Battle of Halidon Hill - 1333 Despite being driven out of Scotland, Edward Balliol made another attempt to gain the throne of Scotland. This time the English King Edward III marched north himself and laid siege to Berwick. A relief force, under Archibald, lord of Douglas, was confronted by the English army on the slopes of Halidon Hill. Douglas had a numerically superior army but the English longbow men decimated them. Berwick fell soon after. Battle of Harlaw - 1411 When Donald, Lord of the Isles, marched with possibly as many as 10,000 clansmen eastwards from his stronghold, sacking Inverness and headed for Aberdeen. Alexander, earl of Mar gathered together a force of volunteers and marched with his smaller force to meet the invaders. Despite numerous charges by the clansmen, they were unable to break through the earl of Mar's lines and eventually withdrew, back to Inverness and the west. Casualties at "Bloody Harlaw" were high on both sides. Battle of Inverlochy - 1645 The Marquis of Montrose, after his success at the Battle of Tippermuir (see below), was being pursued by a Covenanting force led by the Marquis of Argyll and his Campbell clan (though a General Baillie also though he was in command and the two men could not stand the sight of one another!). Argyll's forces amounted to 3,000 experienced Highland fighters; Montrose had about half that but they were also well trained - and included a contingent of MacDonalds who had scores to settle with the Campbells. Montrose showed his skill as a general and confused Covenanters who were subsequently routed - it is said that 1,500 Campbells and their allies were killed that day. Battle of Killiecrankie - 1689 The Jacobites, led by James Graham, Viscount Dundee, gathered at Killiecrankie. Many of the Highland clans assembled there in support of James VII, including Cameron of Lochiel, MacLean of Duart, MacDonald, Stewart, McNeil, MacLeods and Fraser. The government forces of King William, under Hugh Mackay of Scourie, advanced through the Pass of Killiecrankie and joined battle. After a fierce conflict, the government forces were forced to retreat. But the cost to the Jacobites was high - their commander, Viscount Dundee,, was killed by a musket shot. Just at this moment of victory, the Jacobite cause was lost as there was no-one of his stature to lead them. Battle of Kilsyth - 1645 The Marquis of Montrose led his royalist force of Highlanders and Irish to another victory at Kilsyth, leaving him in control of much of Scotland. In England, King Charles I was not faring so well against Cromwell, having been defeated at the Battle of Naseby. Battle of Langside - 1568 Having escaped from Loch Leven Castle in Fife, Mary Queen of Scots attempted to reach Dumbarton Castle in the west. The earl of Moray quickly assembled an army and attempted to cut her off as she travelled to the south of Glasgow. Moray held the high ground at Langside and after an exchange of cannon fire, this became an advantage in the ensuing hand to hand fighting. Mary's army was routed and she fled to England where, after 19 years of imprisonment, she was beheaded at Fotheringay Castle by her cousin, Queen Elizabeth I. Battle of Largs - 1263 In the middle of the 13th century, King Hakon of Norway ruled not only in Scandinavia but also over the Western Isles of Scotland, the Isle of Man and Iceland. In 1263 he set sail with the largest fleet ever assembled and set sail for Scotland. Hampered by bad weather, Hakon eventually arrived in the estuary of the river Clyde. They pillaged around Loch Long but on 30 September strong winds forced them ashore. The Scots plundered the ships and Hakon sent a force of 700-800 warriors ashore to reclaim his vessels. The Scots attacked again and the Vikings withdrew. While not a great battle, it marked the start of their decline in the west of Scotland. Battle of Mons Graupius - AD84 The precise place where the Caledonian leader, Calgacus, met the Roman advance led by Agricola is not known but it was probably in north-east Scotland in what is now Aberdeenshire. There were said to be 30,000 Caledonii who were defeated by the disciplined Roman legions in the only known set piece battle in the north. 1,300 years later, a transcription error led to the name becoming "Grampian" which is the name now given to the Cairngorm mountains, east and south of the river Spey. Battle of Neville's Cross - 1346 Responding to a request for assistance by King Philip of France, King David II led an army into the north of England, advancing as far as Durham. The northern English barons, Neville and Percy, assembled an army to meet the invading Scots, who were numerically superior. Again the English longbows and better tactics won the day and not only were the Scots defeated, King David was captured. He remained a prisoner in the Tower of London for eleven years. Battle of Otterburn - 1388 A successful foray by James, second earl Douglas, into northern England, swept as far as Durham and then fell back destroying and pillaging as it went. Henry Percy, better known as "Hotspur" assembled an army and set off in pursuit. Douglas was leading a force of around 3,000 men and Hotspur had twice that number. The two forces met south of Otterburn late in the evening of 19 August. The battle continued into the night - the darkness meant that the English bowmen were ineffective. By morning, the wounded Hotspur had been captured and 1,000 English had been killed. However, Douglas himself, leading a charge into the enemy, was fatally wounded. Battle of Pinkie - 1547 King Henry VIII of England tried to persuade Mary Queen of Scots to marry his son, and undertook a series of incursions into Scotland known as the "Rough Wooing". The Duke of Somerset assembled an English army in Newcastle in 1547 and marched into the Borders of Scotland with 16,000 men. The Regent of Scotland at that time was the Earl of Arran and he allowed the English to advance as far as the river Esk in Lothian. The Scots army of 25,000 men looked formidable but the greater fire power of English cannon (both on land and from a fleet off the coast) and better tactics crushed the Scottish army. It is estimated that 10,000 Scots fell that day and English losses were said to be only 250. Battle of Prestonpans - 1745 After raising his standard at Glenfinnan on August 19, Prince Charles Edward Stewart marched south to Edinburgh, reaching there by September 14. The Hanoverian army under Sir John Cope gathered near the hamlet of Prestonpans to the east of the city. A local force of Jacobite sympathisers surprised the Government forces by picking their way across a marsh during the night and attacking at dawn. They soon put the redcoats to flight. Casualties on both side were relatively light but 1600 government soldiers and their supplies were captured. Battle of Rullion Green - 1666 After the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660, the king attempted to impose his Episcopalian ideas on the Church of Scotland, replacing clergy who would not co-operate. The new ministers were not popular and in November 1666 and there was a rebellion, starting in Galloway but spreading throughout the south-west. As the Covenanters advanced towards Edinburgh they were pursued by Sir Thomas (Tam) Dalyell who caught up with around 1,000 of them in the Pentland Hills at Rullion Green. The rebels made a brave stand but were overwhelmed. Some were hung, many others were transported abroad. Battle of Sauchieburn - 1488 James III alienated a number of his nobles, and a number of barons he had dispossessed rebelled, supported by the king's son. James III led his forces, mainly from the north, to confront the rebels and they met at Sauchieburn (not far from Bannockburn). King James was killed (he escaped the battle but was murdered shortly afterwards). His son, now James IV, wore an iron chain round his waist for the rest of his life to atone for his part in his father's death. Battle of Sherrifmuir - 1715 The Earl of Mar, leading the Jacobite forces in support of James Francis Edward Stewart (the "Old Pretender"), had taken control of most of Scotland north of Perth. The government forces led by the Duke of Argyll advanced from the south and the two armies met on the hills of Sherrifmuir, east of Dunblane in November 1715. The battle was inconclusive but afterwards the Jacobites withdrew. The Old Pretender arrived in Scotland (much later than expected) in December 1715 but stayed only six weeks before being persuaded to return to France. Battle of Solway Moss - 1542 After a raid into Scotland by the Earl of Norfolk, King James V sent a force of 10,000 into England in retaliation. Led by Lord Maxwell, the Scots were met short of Solway Moss by an English force led by Sir Thomas Wharton. Badly led, the Scots army disintegrated. A few weeks later King James V died at Falkland Palace, leaving the infant Mary Queen of Scots to inherit the throne. Battle of Stirling Bridge - 1297 William Wallace fought a guerrilla war for a number of years against the English who were effectively in occupation with the English king's puppet, John Balliol on the throne. The Earl of Surrey led an punitive force to confront Wallace and they met at Stirling Bridge. The overconfident English army advanced across a narrow bridge across the Forth. At the right moment, Wallace ordered the attack and the English foot soldiers were swept into the river. Battle of the Standard - 1138 Taking advantage of the precarious hold King Stephen of England had on the throne, King David I of Scotland made a number of successful incursions into northern England. In 1138, in another push into Northumberland, his mixed force of Lowlanders, Highlanders and Galloway men were confronted by an army of Northern nobles recruited by the Archbishop of York. Their flying banners gave the battle, beyond Northallerton in Northumberland. A number of charges were beaten back by English bowmen and King David decided to make an orderly withdrawal back across the border. Battle of Tippermuir - 1644 Marching towards Perth, the Duke of Montrose found his way blocked by a force of Covenanters led by Lord Elcho who commanded the garrison at Perth. Montrose was victorious and marched into Perth, much to the discomfort of the local clergy.	Northumberland
What nationality was the composer Jean Sibelius?	<center>Albion's Seed Grows in the Cumberland Gap</head> Backcountry Building Ways: Border Origins of Cabin and Cowpen As early as the mid-eighteenth century, travelers also found a characteristic style of vernacular architecture in the Appalachian highlands. "These people live in open log cabins with hardly a blanket to cover them." Charles Woodmason observed in 1767.43 Log cabins had not been much used by English colonists in Massachusetts, Virginia or the Delaware Valley during the seventeenth century and were not invented on the American frontier. The leading authority on this subject, H. B. Shurtleff, concludes after long study that the log cabin was first introduced by Scandinavians, and popularized mainly by Scots-Irish settlers in the eighteenth century. "The log cabin did not commend itself to the English colonists," Shurtleff wrote. "The Scotch Irish who began coming over in large numbers after 1718 seem to have been the first . . . to adopt it." 44 The historiography of the log cabin has centered mostly on the history of the log, but at least equally important is the history of the cabin. The trail of that topic leads from the American backcountry to the British borderlands. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, cabin architecture was commonplace throughout the Scottish lowlands and northern Ireland, and also in the English counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland, but not often in the south of England. Travelers in the border country expressed surprise at the state of housing they found there. One soldier from the south of England, marching north near Duns a few miles beyond the river Tweed, noted that the "husbandmen's houses ... resemble our swine coates, few or none of them have more storeys than one, and that very low and covered usually with clods of earth, the people and their habits are suitable to the dwellings." 45 Small and impermanent houses were common throughout North Britain, in part because the system of land tenure gave no motive for improvement. An historian of Scotland wrote in 1521: In Scotland, the houses of the country people are small, as it were, cottages, and the reason is this: they have no permanent holdings, but hired only, or in lease for four or five years, at the pleasure of the lord of the soil; therefore do they not dare to build good houses, though stone abound, neither do they plant trees or hedges for their orchards, nor do they dung their land; and this is no small loss and damage to the whole realm. 46 On the borders, this factor was compounded by chronic insecurity. There, cottages became cabins of even more primitive construction. The word "cabin" itself was a border noun that meant any sort of rude enclosure, commonly built of the cheapest materials that came to hand: turf and mud in Ireland, stone and dirt in Scotland, logs and clay in America.... Methods of construction also tended to be much the same on both sides of the water. The spaces between the logs or other materials were "daubed" with clay. In the English border county of Cumberland, this was done in a communal event called a "claydaubin" where neighbors and friends of a newly married couple came together and built them a cabin with weathertight walls. The work was directed by men called daubers. The same technique of wattle and clay daubing (sometimes called wattle and funk) was widely used in the American backcountry. In 1753, for example, James Patton had two "round log houses" on his Shenandoah farm, with "clapboard roofs, two end log chimnies, all chunked and daubed both inside and out." ....Cabin architecture was striking for its roughness and impermanence . It was a simple style of building, suitable to a migratory people with little wealth, few possessions and small confidence in the future. It was also an inconspicuous structure, highly adapted to a violent world where a handsome building was an invitation to disaster. In that respect, cabin architecture was an expression of the insecurity of life in the northern borders. 47 The cabin was also the product of a world of scarcity. It was a style of vernacular architecture created by deep and grinding poverty through much of north Britain during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century. In that barren country, cabins made of earth and stone were an adaptation to an environment in which other building materials were rare. Cabin architecture was also a style of building well suited to a people who had a strong sense of family and a weak sense of individual privacy. Travelers from the south of England expressed horror at the lack of respect for privacy. Much the same observations were also made in the American backcountry. "They sleep altogether in common in one room, and shift and dress openly without ceremony," Woodmason wrote, "... nakedness is counted as nothing." Sometimes there was not even a bed. William Byrd described one backcountry family that "pigged lovingly together" on the floor." 48 In the eighteenth century, these cabins began to rise throughout the American backcountry wherever migrants from North Britain settled. The strong resemblance of these houses to the vernacular architecture of the borders was noted by travelers who knew both places. One English traveler noted of a Scots-Irish settlement in the backcountry of Pennsylvania that the people lived in "paltry log houses, and as dirty as in the north of Ireland, or even Scotland." 49 Cabin architecture was not static in its new environment. Folklorists have studied in fascinating detail the hewing of cabin logs, the notching of corners, the development of floor plans and the refinement of fenestration. This was mostly a form of cultural involution, in which things changed by becoming more elaborately the same. 50 The architecture of the cabin itself was merely one part of an , entire regional vernacular which also included other structures. Barns and stables were crude, impermanent shelters, often made of saplings and boughs a method widely used in the border country.51 Cattle were kept in simple enclosures called cowpens, descended from border "barmkins" which had been built for centuries in North Britain. Historians Bouch end Jones note that "the basis of medieval settlement appears to have been the 'barmkin,' a sort of corral or stockade, where behind a timber fence, cattle and dependents could shelter, defended by menfolk." Cowpens became very common throughout the southern highlands in the eighteenth century. One such area in the Carolina upcountry became the site of the battle of Cowpens during the American War for Independence. 52 In North Britain the architecture of cabin and cowpen began to be abandoned during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as violence diminished and prosperity increased. The vernacular architecture that one finds throughout the region today was a later development. "In the seventeenth century," one local historian writes, "the statesmen had begun to build better houses, in imitation of Jacobean manor halls, and evolved a type of their own the low, rough-cast building with porch and pent- house, a dead-nailed door and massive threshwood, mullioned windows, and behind the rannel-balk a great open fire-spit where peat burned on the cobble-paved hearth." 53 But the architecture of cabin and cowpens persisted for many generations in the American backcountry. As late as 1939 there were 270,000 occupied log cabins in the United States. Many were in the southern highlands. In the county of Halifax, Virginia, 42 percent of all houses were log cabins as recently as World War II. 54 Even today an architecture of impermanence survives in new forms such as prefabricated houses and mobile homes, which are popular throughout the southern highlands. The mobile home is a cabin on wheels small, cheap, simple and temporary. The materials have changed from turf and logs to plastic and aluminum, but in its conception the mobile home preserves an architectural attitude that was carried to the backcountry nearly three centuries ago. Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Family Ways:Border Ideas of Clan and Kin The family ways of the backcountry, like its speech and building ways, were also brought from the borderlands of North Britain and adapted to a new American environment with comparatively little change. "The conquest of the back parts," writes Carl Bridenbaugh, "was achieved by families.... The fundamental social unit, the family, was preserved intact . . . in a transplanting and reshuffling of European folkways." 55 From the perspective of an individual within this culture, the structure of the family tended to be a set of concentric rings, in which the outermost circles were thicker and stronger than among other English-speaking people. Beyond the nuclear core, beyond even the extended circle, there were two rings which were unique to this culture. One was called the derbfine. It encompassed all kin within the span of four generations. For many centuries, the laws of North Britain and Ireland had recognized the derbfine as a unit which defined the descent of property and power. It not only connected one nuclear family to another, but also joined one generation to the next. Beyond the derbfine lay a larger ring of kinship which was, called the clan in North Britain. We think of clans today mainly in connection with the Scottish Highlands. But they also existed in the lowlands, northern Ireland and England's border counties where they were a highly effective adaptation to a world of violence and chronic insecurity. The clans of the border were not precisely the same as those of the Scottish Highlands, and very different from the Victorian contrivances of our own time. They had no formal councils, tartans, sporrans, bonnets or septs. But they were clannish in the most fundamental sense: a group of related families who lived near to one another, were conscious of a common identity, carried the same surname, claimed descent from common ancestors and banded together when danger threatened. Some of these border clans were very formidable. The Armstrongs, one of the largest clans on the Cumbrian border in the sixteenth century, were reputed to be able to field 3,000 mounted men, and were much feared by their neighbors. The Grahams held thirteen towers on the western border in 1552, and bid defiance to their foes. The Rutherfords and Halls were so violent that royal officials in 1598 ordered no quarter to be given to anyone of those names. The Johnston-Johnson clan adorned their houses with the flayed skins of their enemies the Maxwells in a blood feud that continued for many generations. 56 The migration from North Britain to the backcountry tended to become a movement of clans. A case in point was the family of Robert Witherspoon, a South Carolinian of Border-Scots descent. Witherspoon recalled: My grandfather and grandmother were born in Scotland about the [year] 1670. They were cousins and both of one name. His name was John and hers was Janet. They lived in their younger years in or near Glasgow and in 1695 they left Scotland and settled in Ireland in the county of Down . . . where he lived in good circumstances and in good credit until the year 1734, [when] he removed with his family to South Carolina. When Witherspoon used the word "family" he meant not merely a nuclear or extended family but a clan. His grandparents, their seven children, at least seventeen grandchildren and many uncles and cousins all sailed from Belfast Lough to America and settled together in the same part of the southern backcountry. Witherspoon described their exodus in detail: We did not all come in one ship nor at one time. My uncles William James and David Wilson, and their families with Uncle Gavin left Belfast in the beginning of the year 1732 and Uncle Robert followed us in 36. 57 Here was a classic example of serial migration or stream migration which was common in the peopling of the backcountry. A few clan members opened a path for others, and were followed by a steady stream of kin. These North British border clans tended to settle together in the American backcountry. An example was the Alexander clan. In North Carolina's Catawba County, the first United States Census of 1790 listed 300 nuclear families named Alexander. Most were blood relations. Similar concentrations appeared throughout the backcountry the Polks of Mecklenberg, the Calhouns of Long Cane, the Grahams of Yadkin, and the Crawfords of upper Georgia, to name but four examples. These concentrations of kinsmen, all bearing the same surname, created endless onomastic confusion. We are told that in Catawba County, "so numerous were the tribe of the Alexanders that they had to be designated by their office, their trade or their middle name." The most eminent Alexander was called "Governor Nat" to distinguish him from "Red Head Nat" and "Fuller Nat." This became a common custom throughout the southern highlands. 58 The clan system spread rapidly throughout the southern highlands, and gradually came to include English and German settlers as well as North Britons, because it worked so well in the new environment. When George Gilmer compiled his classic history of upper Georgia, he organized his book by clans, beginning with the Gilmers and moving to others in order of their kinship with the author. He specifically described these groups as clans, and wrote that their members "called each other cousin, and the old people uncle and aunt. They lived in the most intimate social way meeting together very often." 59 The internal structure of the clan was not what some modern observers have imagined. Historian Ned Landsman writes, ". . . among the distinctive features of clan organization was the emphasis on collateral rather than lineal descent. In the theory of clan relationships, all branches of the family younger as well as older, female as well as male were deemed to be of equal importance. This fit in well with the mobility of the countryside, which prevented the formation of 'lineal families' in which sons succeeded to their fathers' lands." 60 Admission by marriage was a process of high complexity. "When a Scottish man or woman took a spouse who was not of Scottish descent," Landsman writes, "the whole family could be absorbed into the 'Scottish' community." 61 But when the bride had belonged to a rival clan, then the question of loyalty became more difficult. Generally a new bride left her own kin, and joined those of her husband. Elaborate customs regulated the relationship between the wife and the family she had joined by marriage. These customs were highly complex, but by and large they established the principle that marriage ties were weaker than blood ties. One marriage contract in Westmorland explicitly stated that a newly married wife could never sit in her mother-in- law's seat. 62 In many cases the husband and wife both came from the same clan. In the Cumbrian parish of Hawkshead, for example, both the bride and groom bore the same last names in 25 percent of all marriages from 1568 to 1704. Marriages in the backcountry like those on the borders, also occurred very frequently between kin. 63 Within these family networks, nuclear households were highly cohesive, drawing strength from the support of other kin groups round about them. Landsman writes: "The patterned dispersal of the Scots, rather than isolating individual settlers from their homes and families, served instead to bind together the scattered settlements through a system of interlocking family networks. Rather than a deterrent, mobility was an essential component of community life." The effect was reinforced by exchanges of land, by rotations of children, and by chain migrations. 64 The clan was not an alternative to the nuclear family, but its nursery and strong support. The pattern of cohesion was different from the nuclear families of Puritans and Quakers which had exceptionally strong internal bonds, powerfully reinforced by ethical and religious teachings. Among the North Britons the clan system provided an external source of cohesion supporting each nuclear family from the outside like a system of external buttresses. Nuclear households were large in the backcountry among the largest in British America during the eighteenth century. The Anglican missionary Charles Woodmason wrote with his usual mixture of fact and prejudice, ". . . there's not a cabin but has ten or twelve young people in it . . . in many cabins you will see ten or fifteen children children and grand children of one size and the mother looking as young as the daughter." 65 Woodmason's account was exaggerated, but other evidence confirms the same general pattern. North Carolina's governor Arthur Dobbs, who had served as surveyor general of Ireland, took his own informal census of household size in the backcountry, and found that of thirty households on Rocky River, near the boundary of North and South Carolina, there were "not less than from five or six to ten children in each family." 66 In the first comprehensive census of the backcountry, taken in 1800, fertility ratios in the southern highlands were 40 percent higher than in the Delaware Valley, and higher also than on the northern frontier. An unusually large proportion of backcountry households were intact, with both husband and wife present. Many were also joint households, with more than one nuclear family living under the same roof. As late as 1850 one-third of all households in the southern highlands included members who were not of the primary nuclear group. 67 There was no "emergence of the modern nuclear family" in this region, through its first two hundred years. The very opposite was the case. As time passed, clans became stronger rather than weaker in the southern highlands. In the early twentieth century, a mountain woman wrote: All the children in the district are related by blood in one degree or another. Our roll-call includes Sally Mary and Cripple John's Mary and Tan's Mary, all bearing the same surname; and there is, besides, Aunt Rose Mary and Mary-Jo, living yon side the creek. There are different branches of the Rogers family Clay and Frank, Red Jim and Lyin' Jim and Singin' Jim and Black Jim Rogers in this district, their kin intermarried until no man could write their pedigree or ascertain the exact relation of their offspring to each other. This question, however, does not disturb the children in the least. They never address each other as cousin; they are content to know that uncle Tan's smokehouse is the resource of all in time of famine; that Aunt Martha's kind and strong hands are always to be depended on when one is really ill; that Uncle Filmore plays the fiddle at all the dances, and Uncle Dave shoes all the mules owned by the tribe. 68 These clans fostered an exceptionally strong sense of loyalty, which a modern sociologist has called "amoral familism," from the ethical perspective of his own historical moment. 69 In its own time and place, it was not amoral at all, but a moral order of another kind, which recognized a special sense of obligation to kin. That imperative was a way of dealing with a world where violence and disorder were endemic. Long after it had lost its reason for being, family loyalty retained its power in the American backcountry. An example was the persistence of the family feud, which continued for many centuries in the southern highlands. These feuds flowed from the fact that families in the borderlands and backcountry were given moral properties which belonged mainly to individuals in other English-speaking cultures. Chief among them were the attributes of honor and shame. When one man forfeited honor in the backcountry, the entire clan was diminished by his loss. When one woman was seduced and abandoned, all her "menfolk" shared the humiliation. The feuds of the border and the backcountry rose mainly from this fact. When "Devil Anse" Hatfield was asked to explain why he had murdered so many McCoys, he answered simply, "A man has a right to defend his family." And when he spoke of his family, he meant all Hatfields and their kin. This backcountry folkway was strikingly similar to the customs of the borderers. 70 Historians of a materialist persuasion have suggested that the feud was a modern invention in the southern highlands. One has called it a "response to industrialism." Another has interpreted it as the product of changes in the means of production. These modern processes would indeed provide many occasions for feuds. 71 But they were not the cause of the feuding itself, which had deeper cultural roots. Other historians have argued that southern feuds were mainly a legacy of the Civil War. But feuds occurred in the backcountry before 1861. They were part of the brutal violence of the American Revolution in the backcountry. Strong continuities in family feuding may be traced from the borders of North Britain to the American backcountry a pattern that persisted throughout the southern highlands even into the twentieth century. 72 Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Marriage Ways:Border Origins of Bridal Customs Marriage customs among the people of the backcountry alsc derived from border roots. An ancient practice on the British borders was the abduction of brides. In Scotland, Ireland and the English border counties, the old custom had been elaborately regulated through many centuries by ancient folk laws which required payment of "body price" and "honor price." Two types of abduction were recognized: voluntary abduction in which the bride went willingly but without her family's prior consent; and involuntary abduction in which she was taken by force. 73 Both types of abduction were practiced as late as the eighteenth century. It was observed of the borderlands and Ulster during this period that "abductions, both 'under the impulse of passion and from motives of cupidity,' were frequent." 74 The border custom of bridal abduction was introduced to the American backcountry. In North and South Carolina during the eighteenth century, petitioners complained to authorities that "their wives and daughters were carried captives" bv rival clans.... 75 Most backcountry courtships (though comparable) were not quite as primitive as this. The strict Protestantism of Scottish and Ulster Presbyterians created a heavy overlay of moral restraint. But many backcountry marriages included mock abduction rituals that kept the old customs alive in a vestigial way. A wedding in the back-settlements was apt to be a wild affair. On the appointed day, the friends of the groom would set out for the wedding in a single party, mounted and heavily armed. They would stop at cabins along the way to fire a volley and pass around the whiskey bottle, then gallop on to the next. Their progress was playfully opposed by the bride's friends, also heavily armed, who felled trees along the road, and created entanglements of grape vines and branches to block the passage of the groomsmen.... Marriage customs in the American backcountry bore a striking resemblance to those of the British border lands complete even to the abductions and mock abductions, the competitions and mock combats, bidden weddings and bridewain, the wild feasts and heavy drinking, wedding reels and jigs, the rituals of the wedding chamber, and the constant presence of Black Betty. Some of these customs were shared by other cultures. But in their totality the backcountry wedding was a unique adaptation of ancient border customs to the conditions of an American region. The distinctiveness of this system also appeared in quantitative indicators. Age at marriage in the backcountry was different from every other American region. Both brides and grooms were very young. South Carolinian David Ramsay wrote of the backcountry, ". ...marriages are early and generally prolific . In one district, containing upwards of 17,000 white inhabitants, there is not one woman at the age of twenty-five who is neither wife or widow." 75 That impression has been solidly confirmed by statistical fact. Historian Mark Kaplanoff finds that in three districts of upcountry South Carolina during the eighteenth century, women married at the average age of nineteen; men at twenty-one. In no other region of British America did both sexes marry so early. Nowhere else were the ages of males and females so nearly the same. 76 This was partly the result of a frontier environment, but not entirely so. Other frontiers were very different. And it is interesting to observe that of all the regions of England, age at marriage was lowest in the north as much as three years below southern England. Here again, the backsettlers followed their ancestral ways. 77 Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Gender Ways:Border Rituals of Love and Violence In his account of backcountry marriages, Samuel Kercheval recorded another curious custom called the wedding toast. After dinner, as Black Betty passed from hand to hand, each male guest raised the bottle in his right fist and cried: "Here's to the bride, thumping luck and big children!" Kercheval explained: Big children,especially big sons, were of great importance, as we were few in number and engaged in perpetual hostility with the Indians, the end of which no one could foresee. Indeed many of them seemed to suppose war was the natural state of man, and therefore did not anticipate any conclusion of it; every big son was therefore considered a young soldier. Here was the basis of gender relationships in the backcountry. The first principle was that men were warriors. The second was that women were workers. These ideas had long flourished on the borders of north Britain. When they were combined with the ethics of Christianity, the result was a gender system of high complexity which might best be described as a bundle of paradoxes. One paradox concerned gender distinctions. In the backcountry, work roles were not as sharply divided by sex as in other English cultures. But at the same time, the people of the backcountry had exceptionally clear-cut ideas of masculinity and feminity in manners, speech, dress, decorum and status. 78 Travelers in the backcountry often reported that women and men routinely shared the heaviest manual labor. Both sexes worked together in the fields, not merely at harvest time but through the entire growing season. Women not only tended the livestock but also did the slaughtering of even the largest animals. Travelers were startled to observe delicate females knock down beef cattle with a felling ax, and then roll down their sleeves, remove their bloody aprons, tidy their hair, and invite their visitors to tea. Females also helped with the heavy labor of forestclearing and ground-breaking. William Byrd noted that women in the back settlements were not merely "up to their elbows in housewifery," but also busy with what other English cultures took to be a man's work. 79 Those customs have sometimes been explained as a response to the frontier environment. But they did not exist in quite the same way on the Puritan frontier, and the same patterns had long been observed by travelers in the borderlands of North Britain. One anonymous visitor to the counties of Cumberland and Westmorland wrote that wives of even landowners were expected to share equally in the heavy farm work. "These petty landowners work like slaves," one traveler observed in 1766. "They cannot afford to keep a manservant, but husband, wife, sons and daughters all turn out to work in the fields." 80 Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Sex Ways:The Border Celebration of Sensuality On the subject of sex, the backsettlers tended to be more open than were other cultures of British America. Sexual talk was free and easy in the backcountry more so than in Puritan Massachusetts or Quaker Pennsylvania, or even Anglican Virginia. So too was sexual behavior. The Anglican missionary Charles Woodmason was astounded by the open sexuality of the backsettlers. "How would the polite people of London stare, to see the Females (many very pretty) . . . ," he wrote. "The young women have a most uncommon practice, which I cannot break them of. They draw their shirt as tight as possible round their Breasts, and slender waists (for they are generally very finely shaped) and draw their Petticoat close to their Hips to show the fineness of their limbs as that they might as well be in purl naturalibus indeed nakedness is not censurable or indecent here, and they expose themselves often quite naked, without ceremony rubbing themselves and their hair with bears' oil and tying it up behind in a bunch like the indians being hardly one degree removed from them. In a few years I hope to bring about a reformation." 81 The backsettlers showed very little concern for sexual privacy in the design of their houses or the style of their lives. "Nakedness is counted as nothing," Woodmason remarked, "as they sleep altogether in common in one room, and shift and dress openly without ceremony . . . children run half naked. The Indians are better clothed and lodged." 82 Samuel Kercheval remembered that young men adopted Indian breechclouts and leggings, cut so that "the upper part of the thighs and part of the hips were naked. The young warrior, instead of being abashed by this nudity, was proud of his Indian-like dress," Kercheval wrote. "In some few places I have seen them go into places of public worship in this dress." 83 Other evidence suggests that these surface impressions of backcountry sexuality had a solid foundation in fact. Rates of prenuptial pregnancy were very high in the backcountry higher than other parts of the American colonies. In the year 1767, Woodmason calculated that 94 percent of backcountry brides whom he had married in the past year were pregnant on their wedding day, and some were "very big" with child. He attributed this tendency to social customs in the back settlements: Nothing more leads to this than what they call their love feasts and kiss of charity. To which feasts, celebrated at night, much liquor is privately carried, and deposited on the roads, and in bye paths and places. The assignations made on Sundays at the singing clubs, are here realized. And it is no wonder that things are as they are, when many young people have three, four, five or six miles to walk home in the dark night, with convoy, thro' the woods? Or perhaps staying all night at some cabbin (as on Sunday nights) and sleeping together either doubly or promiscuously? Or a girl being mounted behind a person to be carried home, or any wheres. All this contributes to multiply subjects for the king in this frontier country, and so is wink'd at by the Magistracy and Parochial Officers. 84 Another factor was a scarcity of clergy to perform marriages in the backcountry. But there was also a different explanation. Rates of illegitimacy and prenuptial pregnancy had long been higher in the far northwest of England than in any other part of that nation. The magnitude of regional differences was very great. Rates of bastardy in the northwest were three times higher than in the east of England during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Regional disparities persisted from the beginning of parish registers to the twentieth century. Historian Peter Laslett notes that "in early Victorian times Cumberland . . . had the highest recordings [of bastardy] in the country." Westmoreland was also very similar. High rates of illegitimacy and prenuptial pregnancy in the backcountry were not the necessary consequences of frontier conditions. Puritans also moved onto new lands in the northern colonies and continued to behave in puritanical ways. The same continuities appeared among the Quakers when they moved to the frontier. The sexual customs of the southern backcountry were similar to those of northwestern England.... 85 Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Age Ways:The Border Idea of the Elder-Thane Not many elderly emigrants moved to the back settlements during the first few years. This was a country for young people. In the eighteenth century, less than 1 percent of the population were over sixty-five a very small minority. But a few older folk were to be found in even the newest settlements. The manner of their treatment tells us many things about this regional culture. Even more than in most societies, the status of elders in the backcountry tended to vary from one older person to the next. Some received deference and deep respect. A case in point was Patrick Calhoun, "Squire Calhoun" as he was called, the founder and family patriarch of the Calhouns of Long Cane, and also his wife Catherine Calhoun. This aged couple sat in the seats of honor on public occasions. Their wisdom was routinely consulted on domestic questions, and their word was law in the community.... 86 In North Britain, from time immemorial, the rule of tanistry (or thanistry, as in thane) had long determined the descent of authority within a clan, It held that "succession to an estate or dignity was conferred by election upon the 'eldest and worthiest' among the surviving kinsmen." 87 Candidates for this honor were males within the circle of kin called the derbfine all the relatives within the span of four generations. By the rule of tanistry, one man among that group was chosen to head the family: he who was strongest, toughest and most cunning. This principle became an invitation to violent conflict, and the question was often settled by a trial of strength and cunning. The winner became the elder of his family or clan, and was honored with deference and deep respect. The losers were degraded and despised if they were lucky. In ancient days they were sometimes murdered, blinded or maimed. This rule of tanistry had long existed throughout parts of Ireland and Scotland. For many centuries, it had been formally invoked to decide the descent of the Scottish crown. 88 Tanistry caused much violence in the history of North Britain. It was also a product of that violence, for it was a way of promoting elders who had the strength and cunning to defend their families, and command respect. But those elders who were unable to do so became a danger to their people. They were degraded and even destroyed. Here was yet another custom by which the culture of North Britain adapted itself to conditions of chronic disorder. By the rule of tanistry, families, clans and even kingdoms gained strong leaders who were able to protect them.... Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Death Ways:The Border Idea of Nescient Fatalism In the borderlands of North Britain, death had long been the constant companion of life. Warfare and raiding took a heavy toll of the population on both sides of the border. Communities shattered by violence also suffered much from famine, and their weakened inhabitants became easy prey for epidemic disease. This pattern changed during the eighteenth century, when the toll of epidemics diminished, and the worst excesses of violence were also suppressed. But life remained precarious upon the borders, and death was still its dark companion. The American backcountry, for all its romantic reputation as a "bloody ground," was healthier than the British borderlands had been. Rates of morbidity were higher in the southern highlands than in the northern colonies largely as a consequence of the malaria which the colonists themselves introduced, and later of other environmental illnesses such as the "milk sick." But rates of mortality were lower than in the Chesapeake country, and below those of North Britain as well. 89 Even so, there were dangers enough in the formative years of this region. Settlers and Indians warred constantly upon one another. Bandit gangs roamed the wilderness, and many an unwary traveler disappeared without a trace. Regulators enforced order with vigilante violence as savage as the acts they condemned. Major wars broke out at least once in every generation from 1689 to 1865. These bloody events did not drive death rates as high in the backcountry as in the Chesapeake region, or other places in British America. But they created a climate of danger and uncertainty that kept old border customs alive. Attitudes toward death in the backcountry long remained very much the same as they had been in the borderlands.... The people of this culture were very superstitious about death. They searched the world for signs and portents.... (People of the Cumberland Gap share this belief in portents as well.) The rituals of dying in the backcountry also differed from those of other English-speaking people, in ways that were connected to these attitudes and to the conditions which produced them. When the last moment came, the dying man or woman was gently lifted from the bed and lowered to the floor, where the spirit was thought to be in touch with the mysterious forces of the earth. Then the corpse was laid upon a board and watched constantly by friends and relations. A platter of salt was mixed with earth and placed on the stomach of the corpse. The salt was a symbol of the spirit; earth represented the flesh. 90 Everyone in the neighborhood was expected to pay a visit, friend and foe alike. All were compelled to touch the corpse. This practice derived from an ancient belief that when a murderer laid hands upon the body of his victim, the corpse would begin to bleed again. Every "touching" was closely watched, for on the borders foul play was often suspected. 91 The death watch was followed by a wake in which many folk rituals were performed by family, friends and neighbors: On the death of a person, the nearest neighbors cease working till the corpse is interred. Within the house where the deceased is, the dishes and all other kitchen utensils are removed from the shelves or dressers; looking-glasses are covered or taken down, clocks are stopped, and their dial-plates covered. Except in cases deemed very infectious, the corpse is always kept one night, and sometimes two. This sitting with the corpse is called the Wake, from LikeWake (Scottish), the meeting of the friends of the deceased before the funeral. Those meetings are generally conducted with great decorum; portions of the Scriptures are read, and frequently a prayer is pronounced, and a psalm given out fitting for the solemn occasion. Pipes and tobacco are always laid out on a table, and spirits or other refreshments are distributed during the night. If a dog or cat passes over the dead body, it is immediately killed, as it is believed that the first person it would pass over afterwards, would take the falling sickness. A plate with salt is frequently set on the breast of the corpse. These customs were recorded in Carrickfergus, northern Ireland, during the eighteenth century. They continued to be kept in Appalachia for two hundred years. 93 In North Britain, the corpse was carried to the burying ground while the church bells were rung in a complex rhythm that announced many things about the deceased. The cadence of the bells told the age, gender, estate and reputation. The funeral itself was a great event; guests were "bidden" to attend in large number. The Cumbrian "statesman" Benjamin Browne invited 271 guests to the funeral of his first wife. His own funeral was attended by 258. The service and burial were followed by an elaborate ritual of dining and drinking. Small cakes called "arval bread" were served to the guests. These were taken home by the mourners, as "a parting gift from the deceased." 94 Most wills in the border country contained a provision for these presents, which often consumed a large portion of a small estate. The will of a Cumberland statesman named John Wilson declared, "I hereby order that all persons that shall attend my funeral shall be treated with ale and bread according to the custom." 95 People of wealth distributed presents to the entire community on a lavish scale. An example was the funeral which a rich Cumbrian gentleman named Daniel Fleming of Rydal Hall arranged for his wife, who died 13 April 1675, two days after having given birth to her fourteenth child. Her grieving husband ordered six quires of paper (150 large sheets) for folding "sweetmeats." He also ordered that the poor of Cumberland should receive four pennies apiece, and for that purpose he set aside the sum of 30 pounds, ten shillings, and four pence enough for 1,831 poor people. 96 Daniel Fleming also spent another large sum on ringing, singing, sermons, gravemaking,and a "coffin and clasp." But this was an exceptional event. Coffins were not generally used in this impoverished region. Borderers were buried in cloth sacks. A statue of 1678 required that south of the Scottish border, only English wool could be used. The Scots and Irish preferred linen, but in most respects the customs were much the same. 97 These border customs were carried to the American backcountry in the eighteenth century. The same process of death-watching and laying-out was followed. Even the smallest details were observed in the New World. The corpse was laid out on an open board, and touched by the mourners, just as on the border. 98 A plate of salt and earth was placed on the body in the back settlements, as it had been in North Britain. One North Carolinian told a folk-lore collector in the twentieth century: "The corpse is stretched on a board. On it is placed a platter of salt and earth, unmixed. The salt is an emblem of the immortal spirit, the earth of the flesh." 99 A backcountry funeral was a great event which brought large crowds together. When a North British immigrant named Robert Stuart and his three sons were killed by sulphur vapors in a well that they were digging, their burial attracted a great throng. "They were buried in one ground, where was judged to be a thousand people," one neighbor noted in 1767. This was not an unusual attendance. In the same neighborhood, two years later, an ordinary funeral of a borderer named John Scarborough drew "above a thousand people." 100 Death rituals which had long existed in the borderlands of North Britain were preserved in the southern highlands for two hundred years. Even in the twentieth century, folklore collectors were astonished by the continuities which they observed in the death ways of this American region. 101 Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Religious Ways: The North British Field-Meeting Style The backcountry was indeed very mixed in its religious denominations much as the borders of North Britain had been. But most visitors observed that Presbyterians generally predominated by the middle decades of the eighteenth century. 102 The English also tended to include growing numbers of dissenters of many different sects. Even members of the Church of England behaved like dissenters in the backcountry, as they had often done in the north of England. On both sides of the British border there had been a strong antipathy to state churches, religious taxes and established clergy. 103 Throughout the backcountry and borderlands, Anglican priests were held in special contempt for their lack of personal piety, and for their habit of subservience to landed elites. Clerical diaries from the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century suggest that there was truth in these complaints. The diary of an Anglican clergyman named George Williamson in the English county of Cumberland was an extraordinarily secular document, full of detail about his hunting, fishing, coursing, drinking and gambling but with little mention of spiritual questions. One of the few references to church affairs was the record of a bet on whether a colleague would continue as rector of a parish. Established clergymen such as Williamson were regarded as corrupt and alien presences on the borders. That prejudice was carried to the backcountry where Anglican missionaries met with much hostility, not only from Scots and Scots-Irish, but from English settlers as well. 104 There was, however, no hostility to learned and pious ministers of acceptable opinions. Presbyterian settlers sent home to Scotland and Northern Ireland for their own college- trained clergy who came out to serve them. As early as 1736, it was written that "about this time, the people began to form into societies and sent back to Ireland for a minister." 105 These Presbyterian ministers were proud of their learning. One of them infuriated a Quaker by allegedly arguing that "the most ignorant College learnt man could open the true meaning of the Scriptures better then the best and wisest of God's children that had not College learning." 106 These ministers were valued for their skill at preaching, which combined appeals to reason with strong emotions. In the backcountry, before the end of the eighteenth century, a familiar form of evangelical religion was the camp meeting. This was an outdoor gathering, commonly convened in some sylvan setting, where a large number of people worshiped together for several days. Many historians have mistakenly believed that the camp meeting was invented on the American frontier. In fact it was transplanted to America from the border counties of Britain, where it was well established by the eighteenth century. Even the Anglican population of that region often met in outdoor "field meetings" during the eighteenth century. So also did Scottish Presbyterians who held frequent "Holy Fairs," which were camp meetings by another name. The following hostile description of a Scottish Holy Fair dates from the year 1759: At the time of the administration of the Lord's supper, upon the Thursday, Saturday and Monday, we have preaching in the fields near the church. Allow me then, to describe it as it really is: at first you find a great number of men and women lying upon the grass; here they are sleeping and snoring, some with their faces toward heaven, others with their faces turned downwards, or covered with their bonnets; their you find a knot of young fellows and girls making assignations to go home together in the evening, or to meet in some ale-house; in another place you see a pious circle sitting around some ale-barrel, many of which stand ready upon carts for the refreshment of the saints.... In this sacred assembly there is an odd mixture of religion, sleep, drinking, courtship, and a confusion of sexes, ages and characters. When you get a little nearer the speaker, so as to be within reach of the sound, tho' not of the sense of his words, for that can reach only a small circle . . . you will find some weeping and others laughing, some pressing to get nearer the tent or tub in which the parson is sweating, bawling, jumping and beating the desk...there is such an absurd mixture of the serious and comick, that were we convened for any purpose than that of worshipping the God and Governour of Nature, the scene would exceed all power of farce." 107 Many borderers deeply believed in this form of worship and had been persecuted for it in Great Britain and Ireland. Robert Witherspoon remembered that his father had been "one of the sect that followed field meetings, some of his kindred and himself were much harassed." 108 Presbyterian emigrants such as the Witherspoons introduced field meetings to the American backcountry as early as 1734, probably earlier. Outdoor assemblies of the same sort were held by Presbyterians and Baptists before the Revolution. Woodmason recorded many instances of "big meetings," as they were called, as early as 1768." 109 After the Revolution, Presbyterians and Methodists began to sponsor large "field meetings" on a regular basis. At Mabry's Chapel, Brunswick circuit, Virginia, a quarterly meeting was thought to have drawn 4,000 souls, black and white together, on 25 and 26 July 1785. An even larger one was held et Jones Chapel, 17-28 July 1785. On the first day, 5,000 people attended; on the second day, the meeting was so large that nobody could count it. More startling than the size of the crowd was the intensity of its behavior. The shouting was heard half a mile away, and on the ground there were wild displays of emotion. "Such a sight," wrote one observer, "I never had before. Numbers were saints in their ecstasies, others crying for mercy, scores lying with their eyes set in their heads, the use of their powers suspended, and the whole congregation in animation." 110 The Methodist itinerant Francis Asbury preached at many such meetings in the 1780s500 people at Bayside Chapel, on Maryland's eastern shore (1783); 400 gathered round a great sycamore in western Virginia (1784); 1,000 in an urban meeting at Baltimore (1785)." 111 Most were held for two days. These assemblies began with prayer and preaching, reached their climax in what was called a "great shout," and ended in a Christian "love feast." Other camp meetings followed in a series of waves, spreading south into the Carolinas and west to the far frontier. There they developed into something called the "Kentucky style" which was marked by close cooperation among denominations, careful preparation and much advance work, a battery of skillful preachers, the use of anxious seats, and fellowship meetings. 112 The borderers also introduced another form of worship which had spread widely among reformed Christians throughout Europe. This was a ceremony of fellowship which in North Britain was called the "Feast of Fat Things" or the "Love Feast." A backsettler named Benjamin Ferris wrote, in the year 1726, "I came into communion with the Presbyterian Church and ate bread and drank wine with them at that feast of fat things as they often called it and many times they used to call it a love feast. But I could not see it to be so; for many of the members was often in contention and quarreling, back-biting and slandering." 113 Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Food Ways: North British Origins of Southern Highland Cooking In regard to diet, the southern back settlements differed fundamentally from other regions of British America. Samuel Kercheval recalled that the "standard" supper dish in the mid-eighteenth century was a wooden bowl of milk and mushseasoned with a splash of bear oil. The Anglican missionary Charles Woodmason regarded these backcountry meals with horror, and complained incessantly about what he was expected to eat. "Crabber, butter, fat mushy bacon, cornbread," he wrote, "as for tea and coffee they know it not . . . neither beef nor mutton nor beer, cyder or anything better than water." When he visited a community of Ulster emigrants, Woodmason noted that "the people are all from Ireland, and live wholly on butter, milk, crabber and what in England is given to hogs. 115 Many visitors remarked that backsettlers ate food which other English-speaking people fed to their animals. This observation was repeated so often that it became a clichi of travel literature in the southern highlands. It is interesting to discover that precisely the same statements were made by English travelers in the borderlands of North Britain. 116 Backcountry food ways are sometimes thought to be the product of frontier conditions. So they were, in some degree. But mainly they were an expression of the folk customs that had been carried from the borders of North Britain. Strong continuities appeared in favored foodstuffs, in methods of cooking and also in the manner of eating. One important staple of this diet was clabber, a dish of sour milk, curds and whey which was eaten by youngsters and adults throughout the backcountry, as it had been in North Britain for many centuries. In southern England it was called "spoiled milk" and fed to animals; in the borderlands it was "bonny crabber" and served to people. Travelers found this dish so repellent that some preferred to go hungry. 117 Another important foodstuff in the borderlands and the back settlements was the potato. This American vegetable had been widely introduced to western Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and became especially popular in Ireland, Scotland and the north of England. Despite its American origins, the potato had been uncommon in the English colonies until the North Britons arrived during the eighteenth century, and made it an important part of backcountry diet. 118 Yet another staple was a family of breadstuffs variously called "clapbread," "haverbread," "hearth bread," "griddle cakes," and "pancakes." Sometimes they were also called scones, after an old Norse word for crust. Ingredients varied, but methods of cooking were often the same: small cakes of unleavened dough were baked on a flat bakestone or a circular griddle in an open hearth. These breadstuffs were brought from the borderlands to the backcountry, where they remained a major part of regional cuisine for many generations. 119 In other respects, backcountry food ways necessarily departed from the customs of North Britain. Oats yielded to maize, which was pounded into cornmeal and cooked by boiling. But this was merely a change from oatmeal mush to cornmeal mush, or "grits" as it was called in the southern highlands. The ingredients changed, but the texture of the dish remained the same. Another change occurred in the consumption of meat. The people of North Britain had rarely eaten pork at home. Pigs' flesh was as loathesome to the borderers as it had been to the children of Abraham and Allah. But that taboo did not survive in the New World, where sheep were difficult to maintain and swine multiplied even more rapidly than the humans who fed upon them. Pork rapidly replaced mutton on backcountry tables, but it continued to be boiled and fried in traditional border ways. 120 New American vegetables also appeared on backcountry tables. Most families kept a "truck-patch," in which they raised squashes, cushaws (a relative of squash), pumpkins, gourds, beans and sweet roasting ears of Indian corn. Many families also raised "sallet" greens, cress, poke and bear's lettuce. Here again, the ingredients were new, but the consumption of "sallet" and "greens" was much the same as in the old country. 121 The distinctive backcountry beverage was whiskey. A taste for liquor distilled from grain was uncommon in the south and east of England. But it was highly developed in north Britain, and was brought to the American backcour try by the people of that region. "'Wheyski,"' the Marquis de Chastelleux wrote in backcountry Virginia, "was our only drink, as it was on the three days following. We managed however to make a tolerable towdy [toddy] of it." 122 A change of ingredients was made necessary by the new environment. In the back settlements Scotch whiskey (which hadbeen distilled from barley) yielded to Bourbon whiskey (which was made mainly from corn and rye). But there was no other change from the borders, except perhaps in the quantity of consumption. Whiskey became a common table drink in the backcountry. Even little children were served whiskey at table, with a little sugar to sweeten its bitter taste. 123 Temperance took on a special meaning in this society. Appalachia's idea of a moderate drinker was the mountain man who limited himself to a single quart at a sitting, explaining that more "might fly to my head." 124 Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Sport Ways: North British Origins of Southern Highland Games The people of the backcountry also brought their own folk games which had long been popular on the borders of north Britain. These entertainments were often very violentas many folk amusements had been throughout England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. But the games of the border country had a special quality which derived from the endemic fighting in that region. "Scots and English," for example, was a favorite game on both sides of the border. Two teams of boys faced each other with their hats and coats in piles behind them. The object was to make a raid across the line, and to plunder the other team of its possessions without being captured. The boys shouted the ancient war cries of their region. 124 Border folk-games, like so many other parts of its culture, not only reflected the insecurity of life in that region.They also prepared men to deal with it. More than other parts of England, the sports of the border were contests of courage, strength and violence. Special importance was given to wrestling, an ancient sport on the borders, commonly pronounced "wrasslin" or "russlin." There were two types of wrestling in this region. One was care" fully regulated and elaborately staged in annual tournaments. The burly contestants commonly dressed in sleeveless vests, long tights tucked into stockings, and velvet trunks incongruously embroidered with delicate flowers. Each man stood facing the other, arms locked around the opponent's body and chins tucked into each other's right shoulder: When both men have taken hold, the bout begins, slowly at first as competitors move crab-like, sizing each other up, but suddenly with a flutter of legs there is action as one man is thrown. If any part of his body other than his feet touches the ground, the 'rout is lost; similarly if a competitor loses his hold he forfeits the bout Clearly such a sport calls for not only great reserves of strength but also for skill, stamina and physical fitness. 125 This sport was brought to Appalachia where wrestling tournaments were regularly held. A North Carolina settler named Cyrut Hunter recalled that "wrestling and jumping [were] two om` the most prominent sports" of that early period. 126 The borderers also engaged in another sort of combat called "wrassling" or "fighting." This was a wild struggle with no holds barred that continued until one man gave upor gave out. 127 These events often began with a contest in "bragging and boasting" between men who had been drinking heavily beforehand. In the Lake District of England, one gentleman justice witnessed such a happening, and put a stop to it. "On Thursday," he wrote, "I went again to Ambleside . . . to see the wrestling. It was very good. A man from Cumberland with a white hat and brown shirt threatened to fling everybody, and fight them afterwards. The fighting I put a stop to."5 ve out.4 These events often began with a contest in "bragging and boasting" between men who had been drinking heavily beforehand. In the Lake District of England, one gentleman justice witnessed such a happening, and put a stop to it. "On Thursday," he wrote, "I went again to Ambleside . . . to see the wrestling. It was very good. A man from Cumberland with a white hat and brown shirt threatened to fling everybody, and fight them afterwards. The fighting I put a stop to." 128 The border sport of bragging and fighting was also introduced to the American backcountry. where it came to be called "rough and tumble." Here again it was a savage combat between two or more males (occasionally females), which sometimes left the contestants permanently blinded or maimed. A graphic description of "rough and tumble" came from the Irish traveler Thomas Ashe, who described a fight between a West Virginian and a Kentuckian. A crowd gathered and arranged itself into an impromptu ring. The contestants were asked if they wished to "fight fair" or "rough and tumble." When they chose "rough and tumble," a roar of approval rose from the multitude. The two men entered the ring, and a few ordinary blows were exchanged in a tentative manner. Then suddenly the Virginian "contracted his whole form, drew his arms to his face," and "pitched himself into the bosom of his opponent," sinking his sharpened fingernails into the Kentuckian's head. "The Virginian," we are told, "never lost his hold . . . fixing his claws in his hair and his thumbs on his eyes, [he] gave them a start from the sockets. The sufferer roared aloud, but uttered no complaint." Even after the eyes were gouged out, the struggle continued. The Virginian fastened his teeth on the Kentuckian's nose and bit it in two pieces. Then he tore off the Kentuckian's ears. At last, the "Kentuckian, deprived of eyes, ears and nose, gave in." The victor, himself maimed and bleeding, was "chaired round the grounds," to the cheers of the crowd. 129 Sporadic attempts were made to suppress "rough and tumble." Virginia's tidewater legislators passed a general statute against maiming in 1748, and in 1772 added a more specific prohibition against "gouging, plucking or putting out an eye, biting, kicking or stomping. " 130 In 1800 the grand jury of Franklin Country, Tennessee, in the manner of American juries, generally indicted the "practice of fighting, maiming and pulling out eyes, without the offenders being brought to justice." 131 But in the southern highlands, rough and tumble retained its popularity. During the War of Independence, and English prisoner named Thomas Anburey witnessed several backcountry gouging contests. "An English boxing match," he wrote, ". . . is humanity itself compared with the Virginian mode of fighting," with its "biting, gouging and (if I may so term it) Abelarding each other." 132 Anburey described "a fellow, reckoned a great adept in gouging, who constantly kept the nails of both his thumbs and second fingers very long and pointed; nay, to prevent their breaking or splitting . . . he hardened them every evening in a candle." Bloodsports have existed in many cultures, but this was one of the few that made an entertainment of blinding, maiming, and castration." 133 Backcountry Work Ways: Border Attitudes toward War and Work Where the warrior ethic is strong, the work ethic grows weak. This was so among the borderers and backsettlers, on both sides of the water. A traveler in North Britain remarked that the inhabitants were "indolent in high degree, unless roused to war." 134 In the American backcountry, other travelers frequently made similar observations.... Crop farming remained very primitive in Appalachia. It was mainly a system of hoe-husbandry that was also introduced from North Britain. In the 1730s, the tools for each hand in one settlement were "one axe, one broad hoe and one narrow hoe," with very little use of the plow. 135 Except for the abandonment of the plow, this system of farming had been followed very generally throughout the English border counties, the Scottish lowlands and northern Ireland. It was introduced to the American backcountry at an early date. 136 A traveler in the backcountry noted, "A fresh piece of ground . . . will not bear tobacco past two or three years unless cow-penned; for they manure their ground by keeping their cattle . . . within hurdles, which they remove when they have sufficiently dunged one spot" 137 At some seasons of the year, large herds of grazing animals were allowed to browse freely in the forests and canebreaks of the old southwest, and later on the open range of Texas. In 1773, a surveyor for South Carolina described this system in detail. He reported that vast herds of cattle, often more than a thousand animals, were raised in the woods throughout the backcountry between the Savannah and Ogechee rivers. They were tended by "gangs under the auspices of cow-pen keepers, which move (like unto the ancient patriarchs or the modern Bedouins in Arabia) from forest to forest in a measure as the grass wears out or the planters approach them." Once a year, these animals were rounded up, penned and driven to market on the hoof. 138 This system of herding had also been practiced in the North British borderlands, and was transferred to the American backcountry. A few important changes were made necessary by the new environment. Sheep, which had been the main support of British animal husbandry, became an easy prey for predators in the American wilderness. They were replaced by swine which were allowed to breed freely on the range, rapidly reverting to the wild species from which they had descended. This process of devolution produced the backcountry razorback, which was more like a wild boar than a barnyard pig. It became so wild that it was hunted with a rifle.... The backsettlers also kept... temporal customs of high complexity. Their culture assigned many fixed seasons for doing things. Their folklore told them, for example: Never mix April 30th milk with that of May 1st or the butter will be slow in coming. Make soap on the full of the moon or else it won't set. A swarm of bees in June is worth a silver spoon. A swarm of bees in July is not worth a fly. As slow as Christmas coming. Sprinkle ashes on animals and fowl on Ash Wednesday. The flow of life was regulated by many of these rhythms annual, monthly, weekly, even daily. Sunday, of course, was a day of worship. Mondays and Tuesdays were favorite days for visiting Fridays were days for going to market. But Friday and Saturday were thought to be unlucky for new enterprises. President Andrew Jackson, "to the end of his life, never liked to begin any thing of consequence on Friday, and would not if it could be avoided." 139 At the same time that these folk rules were kept with great care, the people of the back settlements startled travelers from other cultures by their complaisant attitudes toward the use of time. The proverbs of the backcountry showed a strong spirit of temporal fatalism in a world of insecurity: To-day's to-day and tomorrow's tomorrow. Come day, go day, God send Sunday. You can't rush God. The Backcountry Comity: Patterns of Migration, Settlement, and Association The borderers were a restless people who carried their migratory ways from Britain to America. There had been many folk movements in their history before the Atlantic crossing, and many more were yet to come. The history of these people was a long series of removals from England to Scotland, from Scotland to Ireland, from Ireland to Pennsylvania, from Pennsylvania to Carolina, from Carolina to the Mississippi Valley, from the Mississippi to Texas, from Texas to California, and from California to the rainbow's end. Rates of geographic migration were very high in this culture. In Britain, some of the highest rates of rural migration were to be found on the northern borders. The Scottish village of Fintray, for example, had a turnover of 75 percent in five years (1696-1701) a rate much above the parishes of southern England. 141 The backsettlers thought about moving in a way that was different from more sedentary people. There was a folk-saying in the southern highlands: "When I get ready to move, I just shut the door, call the dogs and start." This was the footloose way in which . Andrew Jackson was said to have come into the backcountry, with nothing but two riding horses, a gun at his side, and a pack of hunting dogs at his heel. 142 Most geographic migration in both the British borderlands and the American backcountry consisted of short-distance movements that covered only a few miles, as families searched for slightly better living conditions. Frequent removals were encouraged by low levels of property-owning and by characteristic atti. tudes toward wealth and land and work in this culture. During the first few years of settlement, backcountry folk settled close to one another for mutual protection. The result was the planting of "stations" in Tennessee, and "forts" in Kentucky. But as the backcountry gradually became more secure, another pattern appeared one that was very different from the comities of Massachusetts, Virginia and Pennsylvania. The backcountry ideal was a scattered settlement pattern in isolated farmsteads, loosely grouped in sprawling "neighborhoods" that covered many miles. The German traveler Schoepf observed that in North Carolina the farms were "scattered about in these woods at various distances, three to six miles, and often as much as ten or fifteen or twenty miles apart." 143 North Carolina Congressman Nathaniel Macon startled his Yankee colleagues by arguing that "no man ought to live so near another as to hear his neighbor's dog bark." 144 That attitude was widely shared in the backcountry. In this culture, a house became a hermitage, beyond sight and sound of every human habitation. Once again, Andrew Jackson personified his culture. Jackson's home in Tennessee was actually called the Hermitage. When he was away from it he wrote home to his wife expressing his longing for "sweet retirement," apart from other people. 145 Return to Table of Contents Backcountry Order Ways: The Border Idea of Order as Lex Talionis Within this comity, personal relations between backsettlers were often brutally direct. The mother of President Jackson prepared her son for this world with some very strong advice. "Andrew," said she, "never tell a lie, nor take what is not your own, nor sue anybody for slander, assault and battery. Always settle them cases yourself." 146 That folk saying was a classical expression of backcountry attitudes toward order, which differed very much from other regions of British America. In the absence of any strong sense of order as unity, hierarchy, or social peace, backsettlers shared an idea of order as a system of retributive justice. The prevailing principle was lex talionis , the rule of retaliation. It held that a good man must seek to do right in the world, but when wrong was done to him he must punish the wrongdoer himself by an act of retribution that restored order and justice in the world. This backcountry idea of order rested upon an exceptionally strong sense of self- sovereignty. Something of the same principle had also existed in tidewater Virginia, where the gentry were fond of quoting the old English cliche that every man's home was his castle. But the people of the backcountry went a step farther. A North Carolina proverb declared that "every man should be sheriff on his own hearth." 147 That folk saying had been brought to the backcountry from the borderlands of North Britain, where it existed in almost the same words: "Every man is a sheriff on his own hearth." 148 This idea implied not only individual autonomy, but autarchy. Further, it narrowly circumscribed the role of government, for if every man were sheriff on his own hearth. then there was not very much work for a county sheriff to do, except to patrol the roads that lay in between. The same ideas also appeared in the ordering institutions of the backcountry. There were official sheriffs and constables through out that region, but the heaviest work of order-keeping was done by ad hoc groups of self-appointed agents who called themselve' regulators in the eighteenth century, vigilantes in the nineteenth, and nightriders in the twentieth. This was not a transitional phenomenon unless one wishes to think of a transition five centuries long. Nor was it the reflexive product of a frontier environment, for other frontiers experienced little or none of it. It rose instead from a tradition of retributive folk justice which had been carried from the British borderlands to the American backcountry. During the eighteenth century the back settlements suffered much from "banditti" whose depredations were punished by the summary justice of these self-styled "regulators." When, for example, one robber gang grew so bold that it tried to steal the horses of an entire congregation as they sat in church, the backcountry rose spontaneously. In retaliation' a "posse" of regulators reported it had "pursued the rogues, broke up their gangs, burnt the dwellings of all their harborers and abetters whipped 'em and drove the idle, vicious and profligate out of the province, men and women without distinction." 149 Conflicts between bandits and "regulators" continued on the southwestern frontier for many generations. But it was not characteristic of the frontier itself. Nothing quite like it occurred on most parts of the northern frontier in New England or in the upper northwest. 150 Vigilante movements began in the southern backcountry during the 1760s. Their legitimacy rested upon a doctrine called "Lynch's law," which probably took its name from Captain William Lynch (1742-1820), of Pittsylvania County, Virginia, and later Pendleton District, South Carolina. Captain Lynch was a backcountry settler of border descent. "Lynch's Law" began as a formal agreement among his neighbors: Whereas, many of the inhabitants of Pittsylvania have sustained great and intolerable losses by a set of lawless men .. . we will inflict such corporal punishment on him or them, as to us shall seem adequate to the crime committed or the damage sustained. 151 Lynch's law was swift and violent. Its victims were often flogged and sometimes killed without much attention to due process, or even to the evidence. One backcountry gravestone read: "George Johnson, Hanged by Mistake." 152 This system of justice captured the two vital principles of backcountry order ways the idea that order was a system of retributive violence and that each individual was the guardian of his own interests in that respect. Even sheriffs in the backcountry shared the same ideal of retributive violence, and often took the law into their own hands. Alabama's Tombigbee County, for example, had five justices of the peace in 1810, of whom three were themselves fugitives. Two were wanted on charges of murder, and a third for helping an accused murderer break jail." 153 The idea of retributive justice was also reflected in common forms of disorder throughout the southern backcountry. One example was the prevalence of the blood feud in the southern highlands. The custom of feuding had been very common on the borders of North Britain. Bloody strife continued for many generations between families on both sides of the border. During the eighteenth century, this custom of the blood feud was introduced to the backcountry. In that new environment it flourished for more than two hundred years. Feuds occurred in many forms between individuals, families, clans and communities. They began in a variety of ways loss of property or reputation, political rivalries, sexual jealousies, moral insults and material injuries. In the classical feud between the Hatfields and the McCoys, the casus belli was a dispute over two razorback hogs which led to the killing of twenty people and the wounding of at least twenty more. Both families were of border stock; their feud arose more generally from an entire culture and its concept of order as retributive justice. Another expression of lex talionis was the heavy preponderance of crimes against persons over crimes against property. One study of criminal indictments in Ohio County, Virginia (1801-10), found that murders and assaults were more common than all other crimes and misdemeanors combined, and more than five times as common as property offenses. 154 This pattern persisted for two centuries. In the 1930s, an Appalachian lawyer wrote: Our people . . . are as a rule only charged with crimes of impulse, such as assault and battery, homicides of the different degrees, etc., or crimes against prohibitory statutes which they think interfere with their personal freedom, such as moonshining, and~ offenses of that nature. Seldom do you find them accused of crimes such as larceny, burglary or what are known as social crimes. 155 Treatment of the disorderly was also different from other regions of British America. Backcountry courts tended to punish property crimes with the utmost severity, but to be very lenient with crimes of personal violence. In Cumberland County, Virginia, during the eighteenth century, a court administered the following punishments: for hog stealing, death by hanging; for scolding, five shilling fine; for the rape of an eleven- year-old girl, one shilling fine." 156 This structure of values continued for many generations in the backcountry. Historian Edward Ayers finds that in the southern upcountry during the nineteenth century, county courts "treated property offenders much more harshly than those accused of violence." 157 This system of order created a climate of violence in the American backcountry which remained part of the culture of that region to our own time. The proverbs of the backcountry are full of the spirit of violence: "A word and a blow and the blow first," Carolinians would say. "Evil words cut mair than swords." 158 This ethic of violence in the backcountry was far removed from the chivalric ideals of the tidewater elite. It is interesting that the proverbs of the backcountry justified the use of violence only when it promised to succeed. The backsettlers said: Better a coward than a corpse. Better a living dog than a dead lion. He that fights and runs away Will live to fight another day. Backcountry proverbs did not glorify fighting for its own sake, but fighting for the sake of winning. Here was an ethic of violence which had been formed in ambuscades and border-raiding. It had nothing to do with combats of chivalry or the idea of war as a gentleman's game. The classical example of this instrumental attitude toward violence was Andrew Jackson. A friend who knew him well for forty years said that "no man knew better than AndrewJackson when to get into a passion and when not. " James Parton commented that Jackson's anger was "a Scotch-Irish anger. It was fierce, but never had any ill effect upon his purposes; on the contrary, he made it serve him, sometimes, by seeming to be much more angry than he was; a way with others of his race. 159 But backcountry violence also had another side. Andrew Jackson's strategy of controlled anger worked because most rage was genuine in this culture. Violence often consisted of blind, unthinking acts of savagery by men and women who were unable to control their own feelings. Much backcountry violence occurred within the family. Visitors recorded with horror the violence of parents against children, husbands against wives, and friends against neighbors.... Backcountry Freedom Ways: The Border Idea of Natural Liberty said Woodrow Wilson: "In these mountains is the original stuff of which America was made" The backsettlers, no less than other colonists in every part of British America, brought with them a special way of thinking about power and freedom, and a strong attachment to their liberties. As early as the middle decades of the eighteenth century their political documents contained many references to liberty as their British birthright. In 1768, the people of Mecklenberg County, North Carolina, declared, "We shall ever be more ready to support the government under which we find the most liberty." 163 No matter whether they came from the England or Scotland or Ireland, their libertarian ideas were very much alike and profoundly different from notions of liberty that had been carried to Massachusetts, Virginia and Pennsylvania. The traveler Johann Schoepf was much interested in ideas of law and liberty which he found in the backcountry. "They shun everything which appears to demand of them law and order, and anything that preaches constraint," Schoepf wrote of the backsettlers. "They hate the name of a justice, and yet they are not transgressors. Their object is merely wild. Altogether, natural freedom . . . is what pleases them." 164 This idea of "natural freedom" was widespread throughout the southern back settlements. But it was not a reflexive response to the "frontier" environment, nor was it "merely wild," as Schoepf believed. The backcountry idea of natural liberty was created by a complex interaction between the American environment and a European folk culture. It derived in large part from the British border country, where anarchic violence had long been a condition of life. The natural liberty of the borderers was an idea at once more radically libertarian, more strenuously hostile to ordering institutions than were the other cultures of British America. In 1692, for example, a British borderer named Thomas Brockbank, who had been born and raised in the county of Westmorland, sent a letter to his parents on the subject of natural liberty. "Honored parents, " he wrote, "liberty is a thing which every animate creature does naturally desire, yea and even vegetables themselves also seem to have a great tendency towards it. But man, the perfection of the vast creation, who is endowed with a rational soul, does more eagerly pursue freedom, because he has knowledge and can give a just estimate of the true value thereof." 165 In North Britain this idea of natural liberty as something which "every animate creature does naturally desire, yea and even vegetables themselves," was rapidly in process of decay during the eighteenth century. But in the hour of its extinction, it was carried to the American back settlements, where conditions conspired to give it new life. The remoteness of the population from centers of government and the absence of any material necessity for large-scale organization created an environment in which natural liberty flourished... When backcountrymen moved west in search of that condition of natural freedom which Daniel Boone called "elbow room," they were repeating the thought of George Harrison, a North, Briton who declared in the borderlands during the seventeenth century that "every man at nature's table has a right to elbow room." The southern frontier provided space for the realization of this ideal, but it did not create it." 166 This libertarian idea of natural freedom as "elbow room" was very far from the ordered freedom of New England towns, the hegemonic freedom of Virginia's county oligarchs, and the reciprocal freedom of Pennsylvania Quakers. Here was yet another freedom way which came to be rooted in the culture of an American region, where it flourished for many years to come.	i don't know

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