Datasets:

cfli
/

ssss

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 73.3k rows

question stringlengths 18 1.2k	facts stringlengths 44 500k	answer stringlengths 1 147
On which river is the Cabora Bassa dam situated?	Cahora Bassa \| dam and hydroelectric facility, Mozambique \| Britannica.com dam and hydroelectric facility, Mozambique Written By: Alternative Titles: Cabora Bassa, Cabora Bassa Dam, Cahora Bassa Dam, Hidroeléctrica de Cabora Bassa Similar Topics Aswan High Dam Cahora Bassa, also spelled Cabora Bassa, arch dam and hydroelectric facility on the Zambezi River in western Mozambique . The dam, located about 80 miles (125 km) northwest of Tete, is 560 feet (171 m) high and 994 feet (303 m) wide at the crest. It has a volume of 667,000,000 cubic yards (510,000,000 cubic m). The dam impounds Lake Cahora Bassa , which is 150 miles (240 km) long and 19 miles (31 km) wide at its widest point. The lake has a capacity of 51,075,000 acre-feet (63,000,000,000 cubic m) and extends to the Zambia-Mozambique border. The dam was built by a consortium of Portuguese, German, British, and South African companies; construction of the dam began in 1969 and was completed in 1974. The last of five 425-megawatt generators was installed in 1979. Cahora Bassa dam supplies power primarily to South Africa over an 870-mile- (1,400-kilometre-) long, dual 530-kilowatt transmission line and also to Maputo, Tete, and the Moatize coal mines near the town of Tete. Power transmission to South Africa was interrupted during the Mozambican civil war but resumed during the mid-1990s. The Companhia Hidroeléctrica de Cahora Bassa was owned by Portugal until 1992. Learn More in these related articles:	Zambezi
Cuba and Jamaica are part of which group of West Indian islands?	Dams / The Zambezi Basin / Home - HCB Dams Major hydraulic undertakings One of the hydraulic undertakings is the Kariba dam and reservoir, which has a maximum storage capacity of 180 Km3 of water, which makes it the 3rd largest artificial lake in the world and the 2nd largest in Africa. It is located on the stretch of the Middle Zambezi which separates Zimbabwe from Zambia and it is managed by the Zambezi River Authority (ZRA). The other major hydraulic undertaking is the Cahora Bassa dam and reservoir, also on the final stretch of the Middle Zambezi. This reservoir has a maximum capacity of 63 Km3 of water which is the 12th largest reservoir in the world and the 5th largest in Africa. In order of importance, there follow the Itezhitezi and Kafue Gorge dams, on the Kafue River, Lunsemfwa on the river of the same name, Mulungushi, in Zambia, and Manyame, Masvikadei, Sebakwe and Chivero, in Zimbabwe, which all have storage capacities in excess of 200 million cubic metres. In addition, there are a further 24 large dams, but of lesser capacity, in the Zambezi Basin, 23 of which are in Zimbabwe and 1 in Malawi. Sites for other major hydraulic undertakings have been identified. For some of these, work is at the stage of preliminary or viability studies, or in the Project phase. The diagram shows the main existing undertakings and those envisaged for the main course of the Zambezi River: Batoka, Devil's Gorge and Mupata Gorge, on the Zambia-Zimbabwe international stretch, and M'Panda Uncua, Boroma and Lupata, in Mozambican territory. These undertakings, together with those that already exist, represent, in the envisaged configurations, a total potential of 12,087 MW, including the Cahora Bassa north bank power station and the potency installed at Victoria Falls. Apart from the large dams mentioned above, there is a substantial series of small dams. Most of these dams, which rarely exceed the capacity of 100000 m3, are intended for agricultural purposes and for public water supply. The great majority of them are in Zimbabwe and Zambia. It is estimated that in Zimbabwe there are about 11,000 small dams, of which 5,820 are located in the Zambezi River Basin. This corresponds to a storage capacity estimated at about 4.6 million cubic metres. In Zambia, although there is no exact knowledge of the number of small dams, it is estimated that their storage capacity amounts to about 12 billion cubic metres, significantly more than in Zimbabwe. They are also located almost exclusively in the Zambezi basin. In Mozambique, apart from Cahora Bassa and the South Bank power station, already built, the construction of the M´Panda Uncua dam is envisaged. Viability studies and the drafting of projects are under way. But, even during the studies undertaken by MFPZ (Zambezi Promotion and Peopling Mission) and later by the GPZ, a total of 12 sites with hydro-electric and hydro-agricultural potential were identified along the main course of the Zambezi and its main tributaries. These undertakings are envisaged on the Luia River, with a total potency to be installed of around 1,076 MW; at 3 sites on the Revubué River, with a total potency to be installed of around 533 MW, and at Nhamalabué, with a potency to be installed of 1,170 MW. Taken together, these undertakings represent about 9,000 MW, which is less than the hydro-electric potential of the Zambezi basin in Mozambican territory.	i don't know
Who was the expedition leader when Edmund Hillary became the first person to climb Mount Everest?	Hillary and Norgay Were the First to Climb Mt. Everest By Jennifer Rosenberg Updated March 29, 2016. After years of dreaming about it and seven weeks of climbing, New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Nepalese Tenzing Norgay reached the top of Mount Everest , the highest mountain in the world, at 11:30 a.m. on May 29, 1953. They were the first people to ever reach the summit of Mount Everest. Earlier Attempts to Climb Mt. Everest Mount Everest had long been considered unclimbable by some and the ultimate climbing challenge by others. Soaring in height to 29,035 feet (8,850 m), the famous mountain is located in the Himalayas, along the border of Nepal and Tibet, China. Before Hillary and Tenzing successfully reached the summit, two other expeditions got close. Most famous of these was the 1924 climb of George Leigh Mallory and Andrew "Sandy" Irvine. They climbed Mount Everest at a time when the aid of compressed air was still new and controversial. The pair of climbers was last seen still going strong at the Second Step (about 28,140 - 28,300 ft). continue reading below our video Profile of Tenzing Norgay Many people still wonder if Mallory and Irvine might have been the first to make it to the top of Mount Everest. However, since the two men did not make it back down the mountain alive, perhaps we'll never know for sure. The Dangers of Climbing the Highest Mountain in the World Mallory and Irvine certainly were not the last to die upon the mountain. Climbing Mount Everest is extremely dangerous. Besides the freezing weather (which puts climbers at risk for extreme frostbite) and the obvious potential for long falls from cliffs and into deep crevasses, climbers of Mount Everest suffer from the effects of the extreme high altitude, often called "mountain sickness." The high altitude prevents the human body from getting enough oxygen to the brain, causing hypoxia. Any climber who climbs above 8,000 feet could get mountain sickness and the higher they climb, the more severe the symptoms may become. Most climbers of Mount Everest at least suffer from headaches, cloudiness of thought, lack of sleep, loss of appetite, and fatigue. And some, if not acclimated correctly, could show the more acute signs of altitude sickness, which includes dementia, trouble walking, lack of physical coordination, delusions, and coma. To prevent the acute symptoms of altitude sickness, climbers of Mount Everest spend a lot of their time slowly acclimating their bodies to the increasingly high altitudes. This is why it can take climbers many weeks to climb Mt. Everest. Food and Supplies In addition to humans, not many creatures or plants can live in high altitudes either. For this reason, food sources for climbers of Mt. Everest are relatively nonexistent. So, in preparation for their climb, climbers and their teams must plan, purchase, and then carry all of their food and supplies with them up the mountain. Most teams hire Sherpas to help carry their supplies up the mountain. (The Sherpa are a previously nomadic people who live near Mt. Everest and who have the unusual ability of being able to quickly physically adapt to higher altitudes.) Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay Go Up the Mountain Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay were part of the British Everest Expedition, 1953, led by Colonel John Hunt. Hunt had selected a team of people who were experienced climbers from all around the British Empire . Among the eleven chosen climbers, Edmund Hillary was selected as a climber from New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay, though born a Sherpa, was recruited from his home in India. Also along for the trip was a filmmaker to document their progress and a writer for The Times, both were there in the hopes of documenting a successful climb to the summit. Very importantly, a physiologist rounded out the team. After months of planning and organizing, the expedition began to climb. On their way up, the team established nine camps, some of which are still used by climbers today. Out of all the climbers on the expedition, only four would get a chance to make an attempt to reach the summit. Hunt, the team leader, selected two teams of climbers. The first team consisted of Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans and the second team consisted of Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay. The first team left on May 26, 1953 to reach the summit of Mt. Everest. Although the two men made it up to about 300 feet shy of the summit, the highest any human had yet reached, they were forced to turn back after bad weather set in as well as a fall and problems with their oxygen tanks. Reaching the Top of Mount Everest At 4 a.m. on May 29, 1953, Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay awoke in camp nine and readied themselves for their climb. Hillary discovered that his boots had frozen and thus spent two hours defrosting them. The two men left camp at 6:30 a.m. During their climb, they came upon one particularly difficult rock face, but Hillary found a way to climb it. (The rock face is now called "Hillary's Step.) At 11:30 a.m., Hillary and Tenzing reached the summit of Mount Everest. Hillary reached out to shake Tenzing's hand, but Tenzing gave him a hug in return. The two men enjoyed only 15 minutes at the top of the world because of their low air supply. They spent their time taking photographs, taking in the view, placing a food offering (Tenzing), and looking for any sign that the missing climbers from 1924 had been there before them (they didn't find any). When their 15 minutes were up, Hillary and Tenzing began making their way back down the mountain. It is reported that when Hillary saw his friend and co-New Zealand climber George Lowe (also part of the expedition), Hillary said, "Well, George, we've knocked the bastard off!" News of the successful climb quickly made it around the world. Both Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay became heroes.	John Hunt
In the Christian church in Britain, which feat day falls on the first Thursday after Trinity Sunday?	Mount Everest Expedition 1953 Mount Everest Expedition 1953 Mount Everest Expedition 1953 Along with Edmund Hillary and other climbers, Eric Shipton saw the Western Cwm and the south side of Everest for the first time on the 1951 Mount Everest Reconnaissance Expedition. At last, here was a route to the summit of Everest. However, the British no longer had a monopoly on the mountain, and in 1952 the Nepali authorities gave the Swiss permission to climb Everest. Raymond Lambert made two attempts in both the spring and the autumn and, with Tenzing Norgay at his side, reached the highest point on the mountain to date. The summit, however, remained elusive. In 1953, under the leadership of John Hunt, the British were given permission to climb Mount Everest. Hunt brilliantly orchestrated the necessary equipment and scientific preparations and, through his belief in teamwork, brought together a band of men who together would attempt this lofty peak. From Kathmandu the team set off for Bhagaon with several tonnes of equipment. After 17 days trekking they reached Thyangboche in Solu Khumbu. On arrival, Hunt sent small teams off to acclimatize and prepare for the ordeal of climbing Everest. Base Camp was established on April 12, 1953 and thereafter the Khumbu Icefall became an important feature of life in climbing Mount Everest. Ever since, the Icefall has been renowned as one of the most treacherous parts on the attempt of Everest. An ever-shifting river of ice, with huge crevasses and frozen blocks of ice and rock, this monster of nature had to be overcome. Establishing a route through the Icefall took several days. Thereafter it had to be kept open for a constant succession of men and equipment. The team established nine camps from the Khumbu Glacier, through the Icefall, up the Western Cwm and on to the South Col of Everest. For several weeks Sherpas busily moved supplies ever further up the mountain. By May 21, 1953 Wilfred Noyce and Annullu had reached the South Col, a symbolic and crucial objective. The final objective, however, was the summit. On May 26, 1953, the first assault party comprising Tom Bourdillon and Charles Evans set off for the south summit, using closed-circuit oxygen equipment. At the south summit they realized that they would not be able to reach the summit owing to lack of time. Wearily, they returned to Camp XIII. On May 28, the second assault party comprising Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay made their bid. Together they set off, establishing Camp IX at 27,900 feet (8503 m) before spending a bitterly cold and desolate night trying to sleep. At 4 a.m., they finally rose and began preparing themselves for the day ahead. Using open-circuit oxygen equipment they departed at 6.30 a.m. Climbing steadily, they reached the south summit at 9 a.m. Onward and upwards into the unknown they persevered. As Hillary stated: “I continued hacking steps along the ridge and then up a few more to the right … to my great delight I realized we were on top of Mount Everest and that the whole world spread out below us”. It was 11.30 a.m. on May 29, 1953. Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary had reached the highest point on the earth. The dramatic ice formations of the Icefall were just one of the many obstacles that had to be overcome in climbing Mount Everest, which can be seen behind in the distance. Photo: Edmund Hillary, 1953 Meandering through the Khumbu Icefall, Sherpas carrying heavy loads appear as busy ants intent on reaching Camp II. Photo: George Lowe, 1953	i don't know
Which scale is used to measure the intensity, not the magnitude, of earthquakes?	How Are Earthquake Magnitudes Measured? How Are Earthquake Magnitudes Measured? The Richter Scale Figure 1 - Charles Richter studying a seismogram. There are a number of ways to measure the magnitude of an earthquake. The first widely-used method, the Richter scale, was developed by Charles F. Richter in 1934. It used a formula based on amplitude of the largest wave recorded on a specific type of seismometer and the distance between the earthquake and the seismometer. That scale was specific to California earthquakes; other scales, based on wave amplitudes and total earthquake duration, were developed for use in other situations and they were designed to be consistent with Richter’s scale. The Moment Magnitude Scale Unfortunately, many scales, such as the Richter scale, do not provide accurate estimates for large magnitude earthquakes. Today the moment magnitude scale, abbreviated MW, is preferred because it works over a wider range of earthquake sizes and is applicable globally. The moment magnitude scale is based on the total moment release of the earthquake. Moment is a product of the distance a fault moved and the force required to move it. It is derived from modeling recordings of the earthquake at multiple stations. Moment magnitude estimates are about the same as Richter magnitudes for small to large earthquakes. But only the moment magnitude scale is capable of measuring M8 (read ‘magnitude 8’) and greater events accurately. Magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale (base 10). What this means is that for each whole number you go up on the magnitude scale, the amplitude of the ground motion recorded by a seismograph goes up ten times. Using this scale, a magnitude 5 earthquake would result in ten times the level of ground shaking as a magnitude 4 earthquake (and 32 times as much energy would be released). To give you an idea how these numbers can add up, think of it in terms of the energy released by explosives: a magnitude 1 seismic wave releases as much energy as blowing up 6 ounces of TNT. A magnitude 8 earthquake releases as much energy as detonating 6 million tons of TNT. Pretty impressive, huh? Fortunately, most of the earthquakes that occur each year are magnitude 2.5 or less, too small to be felt by most people. Magnitude scales can be used to desribe earthquakes so small that they are expressed in negative numbers. The scale also has no upper limit, so it can describe earthquakes of unimaginable and (so far) unexperienced intensity, such as magnitude 10.0 and beyond. Here's a table describing the magnitudes of earthquakes, their effects, and the estimated number of those earthquakes that occur each year. The Mercalli Scale Figure 2 - Giuseppe Mercalli Another way to measure the strength of an earthquake is to use the Mercalli scale. Invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902, this scale uses the observations of the people who experienced the earthquake to estimate its intensity. The Mercalli scale isn't considered as scientific as the Richter scale, though. Some witnesses of the earthquake might exaggerate just how bad things were during the earthquake and you may not find two witnesses who agree on what happened; everybody will say something different. The amount of damage caused by the earthquake may not accurately record how strong it was either. Some things that affect the amount of damage that occurs are: the building designs, the distance from the epicenter, and the type of surface material (rock or dirt) the buildings rest on. Different building designs hold up differently in an earthquake and the further you are from the earthquake, the less damage you'll usually see. Whether a building is built on solid rock or sand makes a big difference in how much damage it takes. Solid rock usually shakes less than sand, so a building built on top of solid rock shouldn't be as damaged as it might if it was sitting on a sandy lot.	Mercalli intensity scale
Who is credited with being the first Archbishop of Canterbury?	Richter Scale - How Earthquakes Work \| HowStuffWorks How Earthquakes Work Prev Next Whenever a major earthquake is in the news, you'll probably hear about its Richter scale rating. You might also hear about its Mercalli Scale rating, though this isn't discussed as often. These two ratings describe the power of the earthquake from two different perspectives. The most common standard of measurement for an earthquake is the Richter scale, developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California Institute of Technology. The Richter scale is used to rate the magnitude of an earthquake -- the amount of energy it released. This is calculated using information gathered by a seismograph . Up Next Famous Volcanoes Quiz The Richter scale is logarithmic, meaning that whole-number jumps indicate a tenfold increase. In this case, the increase is in wave amplitude. That is, the wave amplitude in a level 6 earthquake is 10 times greater than in a level 5 earthquake, and the amplitude increases 100 times between a level 7 earthquake and a level 9 earthquake. The amount of energy released increases 31.7 times between whole number values. As we previously noted, most earthquakes are extremely small. A majority of quakes register less than 3 on the Richter scale; these tremors, called microquakes, aren't even felt by humans. Only a tiny portion -- 15 or so of the 1.4 million quakes that register above 2.0 -- register at 7 or above, which the threshold for a quake being considered major [source: USGS ]. The biggest quake in recorded history was the 9.5 quake that struck Chile in 1960. It killed nearly 1,900 people and caused about $4 billion in damage in 2010 dollars [source: USGS ]. Generally, you won't see much damage from earthquakes that register below 4 on the Richter scale. Richter ratings only give you a rough idea of the actual impact of an earthquake, though. As we've seen, an earthquake's destructive power varies depending on the composition of the ground in an area and the design and placement of man-made structures. The extent of damage is rated on the Mercalli scale. Mercalli ratings, which are given as Roman numerals, are based on largely subjective interpretations. A low intensity earthquake, one in which only some people feel the vibration and there is no significant property damage, is rated as a II. The highest rating, a XII, is applied to earthquakes in which structures are destroyed, the ground is cracked and other natural disasters, such as landslides or tsunamis , are initiated. Richter scale ratings are determined soon after an earthquake, once scientists can compare the data from different seismograph stations. Mercalli ratings, on the other hand, can't be determined until investigators have had time to talk to many eyewitnesses to find out what occurred during the earthquake. Once they have a good idea of the range of damage, they use the Mercalli criteria to decide on an appropriate rating. Liquefaction In some areas, severe earthquake damage is the result of liquefaction of soil. In the right conditions, the violent shaking from an earthquake will make loosely packed sediments and soil behave like a liquid. When a building or house is built on this type of sediment, liquefaction will cause the structure to collapse more easily. Highly developed areas built on loose ground material can suffer severe damage from even a relatively mild earthquake. Liquefaction can also cause severe mudslides.	i don't know
What is the name of the national UK charity that was founded by Sir Arthur Pearson in 1915 to help blind ex- servicemen and women?	Timeline of blind veterans uk We leave Church Stretton and return to Brighton. 1948 Our administrative headquarters moves to 191 Old Marylebone Road, London. 1952 Her Majesty the Queen becomes our Patron. This role was initially taken on by her great-grandmother Queen Alexandra soon after we were founded. 1965 We collaborate with institutions in the United States on the development of the new ‘long cane’ walking stick and with the RNIB on its introduction in this country 1976 Tony Parkinson and Ray Peart are the first of our blind veterans to compete in the Paralympic Games (then known as the 'Olympiad for the Physically Disabled'), held in Toronto, Canada. 1979 Together with the RNIB, we evaluate the Kurzweil - the first reading machine to instantly convert print into speech. 1984 We move headquarters to our current location in Harcourt Street, London. 1985 HM The Queen visits our Brighton centre to open the new South Wing. This provides additional facilities and extra accommodation for our blind veterans and their partners. 2000 We change our constitution, expanding to allow all veterans who have lost their sight to join us, irrespective of when and how this occurred. 2004 Ray Hazan, who was blinded whilst serving in Northern Ireland, is elected as our President. Ray continues to hold this position and in 2012 was awarded the OBE for his services to the blind ex-service community. 2005 We open a new centre in Sheffield, enabling rehabilitation and training to be provided more accessibly for those of our blind veterans living in the north of the country. 2009 Henry Allingham, the world's oldest man, who had joined us in 2005, dies peacefully at our Brighton centre at the age of 113. The funeral is held with full military honours at St Nicholas Church, Brighton. 2011 We open another new centre, at Llandudno in north Wales. 2012 We change name to Blind Veterans UK, to help more people understand who we are and what we do. We also launched our No One Alone campaign, to reach out to new blind veterans in need of our support. 2013 Our Brighton centre celebrates its 75th anniversary with many special events. 2015 We celebrate our 100th anniversary with special events including a Buckingham Palace Garden Party and a service at Westminster Abbey Explore	Blind Veterans UK
Which is Britain's oldest public museum?	St. Dunstan’s Hostel for Blind Soldiers and Sailors \| The National Archives blog Empire Marketing Board 1927-1933 poster, A Blast Furnace CO 956/260 St. Dunstan’s Hostel for Blind Soldiers and Sailors Thursday 15 October 2015 \| Vicky Iglikowski \| Records and research , Technology and innovation \| 6 comments In a series of blog posts on medical technology in the First World War , we’ve attempted to cover many of the ways warfare influenced people’s lives well beyond the war itself. This month we focus on vision loss, and on convalescence homes during and after the conflict. There are many reasons soldiers, and indeed civilians, lost their sight during the war. Some injuries were more immediate, such as shrapnel wounds, and others could be diagnosed long after the conflict, with blindness caused by mustard gas being reported 20 years after the war’s end. A group from St. Dunstan’s Torquay Annexe visiting the seaside, from St. Dunstan’s annual report 1929 (catalogue reference: PIN 15/1061) In 1914 St. Dunstan’s Hostel for Blind Soldiers and Sailors was founded by Sir Arthur Pearson, author of Victory Over Blindness. A year later it moved to a property in Regent’s Park. The idea was to provide a hostel where ex-servicemen would go after they had received hospital treatment to ‘learn to be blind’. 1 The legacy of the war meant that in 1921 men were still waiting to be accomodated, with 57 men awaiting admission. By 1929 there were still two thousand men in their care. The intake included 103 colonial ex-servicemen who were trained during their time at St Dunstan’s. 2 The emphasis of the organisation was training, which often involved varying forms of technology that enabled the men to utilise their skills. This included adapted typewriters and telephones, with standardised assessments to encourage employment. St Dunstan’s often found itself in the papers and, as a more understood form of ‘disability’, attracted public sympathy. Image from St. Dunstan’s annual report, showing training in progress, 1929 (catalogue reference: PIN 15/1061) Not all blind people got this kind of treatment – as with disabilities more generally at this time veterans were in a unique position of being seen as particularly deserving of support. Julie Anderson has remarked that ‘Blind people were the most politically active disabled group during the immediate post-war period’. In 1920 there was a march of 250 blind people in support of the passage of the Blind Persons Act, 1920. None of the men from St Dunstan’s were claimed to have been involved. 3 Numerous pension files detail the experience of men at St. Dunstan’s, including several annual reports. A treasury file also explains more peripheral concerns around convalescence of blind ex-servicemen. In 1918, concerns were raised about the taxation on good arriving into the country. The goods consisted of 800 braille watches sent from Switzerland for the men of St Dunstan’s given by the National Association of Goldsmiths. 4 An original watch can be seen in the Imperial War Museum’s collections. Braille pocket watch for use by blind or partially sighted British ex-servicemen at St Dunstan’s in 1919 (image courtesy of the Imperial War Museum) The file shows the importance of being seen to support veterans – with Bonar Law, at this time Chancellor of the Exchequer, writing to the organisation to state the Prime Minister could not waver the law to change the payment, but had arranged the duty to be paid from a special fund. Clearly gestures such as this from the government were seen as important to morale among ex-soldiers injured in the war. However St Dunstan’s was not without controversy. In June 1923 The National Union of the Professional & Industrial Blind of Great Britain and Ireland complained that St Dunstan’s was undermining the professions of blind workers by putting their work on the market for less than the cost of production. It was voted on at conference: ‘This Conference vigorously protests against the action of the authorities of St. Dunstan’s in placing goods, more particularly mats, upon the market at prices considerably below the cost of production… merits the strongest condemnation and we urge the competant authorities to make a thorough investigation’ 5 A letter regarding St Dunstan’s however notes the ultimate positives of the organisation, not only did it look after blinded veterans but it was a factor in changing public awareness of people living with blindness. In the aftermath of the First World War this appears to have been St Dunstan’s key legacy. Letter regarding the legacy of St. Dunstan’s (catalogue reference: PIN 15/1060) Look out for our Disability History Month Keeper’s Gallery display from 1 December, on the theme of ‘First World War: Impact on Physical and Mental Health’. It will display a cross section of the items we hold on these themes. Image from an appeal for funds by Captain Ian Faser (also blinded in the Somme in 1916), 1929 (catalogue reference: PIN 15/1061) Notes:	i don't know
Which opera does the famous aria 'Nessun Dorma' come from?	Turandot \| The Opera 101 The Opera 101 Fill out the fields below to contact us! Your name * Quiz About Turandot is Puccini’s final opera (unfinished at his death) and perhaps as a result, it is by far and away his most musically adventurous. As in Madama Butterfly , the score is filled with Asian touches, the percussion section in particular packed with gongs and various tuned instruments (xylophones, glockenspiels and the like). It is still, however, an Italian opera with the outrageously titled Ping, Pang and Pong a spin on classic Commedia dell’arte characters. Turandot at the Royal Opera House It’s an opera that blends epic chorus passages with some brilliantly intimate moments. Indeed the chorus plays a much more significant role than in Puccini’s other operas, acting as an onstage witness to well over half of the action. The opening is a powerful series of five chords, said to musically depict an executioner’s axe falling, and that hair-raising effect is spectacularly well maintained throughout. The Opening of Turandot Turandot also contains arguably the most famous tenor aria in all of opera, "Nessun Dorma", an instantly recognizable piece of music that has lost its dark meaning by being repeatedly considered out of context. The conclusion stretches incredulity even by operatic standards, but as Puccini didn’t write it, he can’t be blamed! Characters Formerly king of Tartary. Currently old and blind. Synopsis Act I - Running Time: 35 mins The curtain rises on a surging crowd. A mandarin announces that anyone wishing to marry Princess Turandot must answer three riddles. Failure means death. The Prince of Persia has just failed and will be executed when the moon rises. The bloodlust of the crowd is dealt with brutally by the palace guards, and Timur, a blind, old man is knocked to the ground. Liu, his slave, cries out for help and Calaf comes to their aid. As luck would have it Calaf is Timur’s son! Timur was king of Tartary, making Calaf a prince, but has long been deposed. Only Liu has remained faithful to him. Calaf warns them not to mention his name as he fears being discovered by the Emperor. Turandot at the Forbidden City Calaf (Jose Cura) © Johan Persson/Royal Opera As the moon rises the Prince of Persia is led to his death. The crowd appeals in his favor but Turandot appears and signals for the execution to continue. Calaf sees Turandot and falls in love. The Prince of Persia is executed. Blinded by Turandot’s beauty, Calaf is about to rush forward and bang the gong, signaling that he wishes to take the riddles, when Ping, Pang and Pong appear. The jaunty threesome tell him not to risk it, as do Timur and Liu, the latter being not very secretly in love with Calaf. Calaf is touched but never the less runs forward shouting Turandot’s name and bangs the gong three times. Turandot accepts his challenge as the curtain falls on Act I. Act II - Running Time: 50 mins Scene 1 Ping, Pang and Pong discuss their place in society, interspersing humor - do we prepare for a wedding or a funeral - and nostalgia - we are living in an era of endless death. A trumpet sounds announcing the entrance of the Emperor. Scene 2 The Emperor asks Calaf to withdraw his challenge. Turandot emerges and begins to describe why no man may possess her. (This is actually the first music she sings in the opera.) Her ancestor Princess Lo-u-Ling ruled until she was raped and murdered by a foreign prince, and Turandot believes Lo-u-Ling lives in her. Out of revenge, no man will ever have her. She advises Calaf to withdraw but he is having none of it. She gives the three riddles... What is born each night and dies each dawn? What flickers red and warm like a flame, but is not fire? What is like ice, but burns like fire? ...each of which he correctly answers. Turandot is distraught at having to marry and pleads with her father, but he insists that she go through with it. Calaf, believing love will win out, gives her one possible escape: he is a prince and if she can learn his name before sunrise, then he will die at dawn. Turandot accepts and the curtain falls - the Emperor hoping the Prince will be his son. Act III - Running Time: 40 mins Scene 1 Turandot has commanded that no one sleep until the Prince’s name is discovered. Everyone will be killed if they don’t learn the name and she has to marry. Calaf awaits the dawn, and while he’s at it sings a ditty called "Nessun Dorma" (you’ve probably heard it before). Placido Domingo sings "Nessun Dorma" Ping, Pang and Pong turn up and try to buy off Calaf with women and riches. He is not interested. They then drag in Timur and Liu but Calaf pretends he knows nothing about them. They get roughed up a bit, and suddenly Liu, to protect Timur, claims that she alone knows the Prince’s name but will not give it up. She is tortured but still refuses. Turandot asks why she would suffer such pain and she answers love. Turandot doesn’t think much of this answer so she has Liu tortured further. Liu tells Turandot that she will soon learn love before promptly taking a dagger off a soldier and stabbing herself. As Liu falls dead Timur must be informed since he is blind, and he cries out in sadness. The crowd and he leave with the body of Liu. Calaf chastises Turandot for effectively slaughtering the heart and soul of the opera and then pulls her in and kisses her. (At this point Puccini finishes and Alfano takes over). After the kiss Turandot is horrified but gradually she softens. She reveals that she has always (since Act I at least) both hated and loved the Prince. She tells him to leave, but he bravely reveals his name: “I am Calaf, son of Timur.” His life sits in her hands... Scene 2 Predictably but rather unbelievably - not to mention mawkishly - the couple approach the emperor and Turandot announces that she knows the Prince’s name and it is love. Everyone is happy and the opera ends to the tune of "Nessun Dorma". Turandot finale in MET's Zeffirelli production © Marty Sohl/Met Opera Major Arias Tu che di gel sei cinta Liu Where in the World Turandot takes place in fictional ancient China. Peking is specified (marked in Red), which is the old name for Beijing, but it might as well be set in Shanghai for all the geographical detail. Story Origins Nizami Ganjavi The story of Turandot originates in a French collection of fairy tales by François Pétis de la Croix “Les mille et un jours” translated into English as “The thousand and one days”. You might know “One thousand and one nights” or the “Arabian Nights” from which we acquired Aladdin, Sinbad, Ali Baba and host of other famous tales. These collections shouldn’t be confused however, “Nights” is made up of genuine Middle Eastern stories compiled in Arabic over centuries. “Days” has a more dubious provenance. In many cases these stories only exist in de la Croix’s rendering leading some to believe he might have conjured them up himself. If Turandot has a precursor it is a 12th Century work by the Azerbaijani poet and philosopher Nizami Ganjavi “Seven Beauties”. In any case, Puccini arrived at the text through a Schiller play that was in turn a German version of an Italian commedia dell'arte by Carlo Gozzi who took the story from the de la Croix. Puccini was first introduced to the text in an Italian translation of the Schiller by Andrea Maffei who is perhaps most famous for writing the libretto to Verdi’s I masnadieri. Puccini wasn’t the first composer to get to it either. Antonio Bazzini wrote Turanda in 1867, Ferruccio Busoni Turandot in 1917 only a few years before Puccini began his. Puccini had not heard Busoni’s version but Bazzini had been a teacher of Puccini’s in Milan. History Puccini was always a fastidious and deliberate composer, but the writing of Turandot was an especially drawn out process. In the four years before his death, Puccini vacillated over the number of acts, whether or not he should turn his attention to something less serious, and absolutely fixated over the final love duet that he believed was the essential, earth-shattering culmination of the entire evening. Despite these circumstances, he poured himself into the work, writing to a friend in March 1924, “I have placed, in this opera, all my soul.” Premiere Program from La Scala Turandot premiered at La Scala in Milan on 25 April 1926, almost a year and a half after Puccini’s death. Puccini’s friend Arturo Toscanini, who had worked on the score with the composer during the last months of Puccini’s life, conducted the premiere. As is widely recorded, when the opera reached the last note written by Puccini, Toscanini ended the performance. What he said at the time has been variously reported, from the poetic “Here death triumphed over art” to the poigniant “For me, the work ends here.” An eyewitness quoted in a recent biography puts it somewhere between the two: “Here ends the opera, because at this point the maestro was dead.” The Alfano version was presented the following night. Fun Facts Popular? Birgit Nilsson as Turandot The 16th most performed opera in the world from 2007-2012, according to Operabase. This frequency was not always the case. Beginning in 1930, Turandot was not performed for more than three decades at the Met, after Maria Jeritza, who premiered the role there, sang her last of 23 Turandots. It did not return until 1961 when Birgit Nilsson took on the princess, a role she owned in New York until 1970, singing it 52 times. The long break was due at least partly to a dearth of sopranos capable of singing the difficult title role, a criteria which some opera lovers of a certain age feel should be applied today to any role ever sung by Maria Callas. In China Until the end of the 20th century, Turandot was banned in the People’s Republic of China because the government felt the opera portrayed China unfavourably. The ban ended in style, with an epic performance in 1998 given in the Forbidden City, the home of actual Chinese emperors until they stopped having them in 1912. The production was originally staged and conducted in Florence, Italy, by Zubin Mehta and Chinese film director Zhang Yimou (who later directed the opening and closing ceremonies of the Beijing Olympics). A documentary called “The Turandot Project” tells how the production eventually came to China and how it was adapted. There is also a video of the actual concert (you can see a clip in the synopsis), with the snappy title “Turandot at the Forbidden City of Beijing.” Vincero The second syllable of vincerò, “I will win,” is a high B, near the top of most tenors’ ranges and a nice note for them to show off. As the Ricordi vocal score shows, that B is really just a sixteenth note, a grace note. The final syllable, on A, is supposed to be held, although again not nearly as long as it generally is by the large-lunged tenors of today. While Lucciano Pavarotti may be credited with popularizing this basking in high-B land, the trend actually goes much further back. In fact, one of the few (if not the only) tenors to end the aria the way Puccini wrote it is Francesco Merli, heard here from the first complete recording of Turandot, done in 1938. Compare with Pavarotti, live from San Francisco in 1977. options font-size=14 width=400 space=20 player=true tempo=60 accidentals=standard tabstave notation=true tablature=false notes :8d B/4 :16 D/5 \| :hd G/5 :8d D/5 :16 B/5 \| :w A/5 Francesco Merli sings Nessun Dorma, 1938 Pavarotti sings Nessun Dorma, 1977 The Ending How to end Turandot remains an ongoing problem. After Puccini’s death, his friend Arturo Toscanini, who would conduct the premiere, suggested the task of finishing the opera be given to the young composer Franco Alfano. Alfano had piles of Puccini’s sketches from which to work, but much of it was difficult to decipher, including the intriguing note regarding the love duet “Then Tristan...” referring to Wagner’s opera Tristan und Isolde, which ends absolutely breathtakingly as the soprano transfigures in a love-death to be with her true love who has already died. An edited version of Alfano’s ending, which no one really finds satisfactory, pretty much rules opera houses today, although in 2001 the Italian composer Luciano Berio, produced a version that many critics feel should supplant the Alfano version. Among other attempts were Janet Maguire’s rather less successful go in the 1970s and Chinese composer Hao Weiya (see the Mo Li Hua fun fact). Mo Li Hua The Jasmine Flower song, or Mo Li Hua, was one of several traditional Chinese tunes that Puccini incorporated into the score of Turandot. He likely heard the piece on a music box belonging to his friend Baron Alberto Fassini. It is still sufficiently popular that it is a track on Disney's Baby Einstein: World Music album. It was also the tune used by Chinese composer Hao Weiya to end the opera in his 2008 attempt at (another) new ending. That latest attempt was, perhaps not surprisingly, adored by the Chinese press but probably will not supplant the Alfano ending any time soon. Mo Li Hua from Baby Einstein: World Music In Brief Librettist Giuseppe Adami and Renato Simoni Language Italian Date of premiere April 25, 1926 Number of Acts 3	Turandot
Which is the only one of New York's five boroughs that is situated on the mainland?	Giacomo Puccini's 'Turandot' : NPR Giacomo Puccini's 'Turandot' As he woos Turandot, Calaf (tenor Vladimir Galouzine) hopes he'll have a better fate than three of her previous suitors, in a production of Turandot from Houston Grand Opera. Brett Coomer hide caption toggle caption Brett Coomer From Houston Grand Opera, Calaf (tenor Vladimir Galouzine) woos Princess Turandot, and hopes to avoid the fate of her previous suitors. Brett Coomer Chris Holloway .... Prince of Persia Houston Grand Opera Orchestra and Chorus Patrick Summers, conductor THE HIT SINGLE Picking the biggest hit from Turandot is a no-brainer. In Act 3, Calaf anticipates victory over the willful princess in 'Nessun dorma!' — 'None shall sleep!' Here it is in two recordings, classic and current. One is by Franco Corelli, who rattled the rafters in the 1950s, and the other by Placido Domingo, who is still wowing audiences today. The Essential Placido Domingo Embed Embed <iframe src="https://www.npr.org/player/embed/12012240/12033130" width="100%" height="290" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" title="NPR embedded audio player"> The Very Best of Franco Corelli Embed Embed <iframe src="https://www.npr.org/player/embed/12012240/12033128" width="100%" height="290" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" title="NPR embedded audio player"> Remember Helen of Troy — the beautiful princess with the "face that launched a thousand ships"? Well, in Giacomo Puccini's opera Turandot, the title character is another legendary princess — whose face chopped off a thousand heads! Turandot is based on an ancient fable, originating in Persia and set in China. It tells of a princess so desirable that men came by the hundreds, from all over the world, and queued up to vie for her love. There was a catch, of course. To have any shot at all with Turandot, a suitor first had to answer three vexing riddles — and anyone who failed wound up with his head on a stake, as a warning to all the suitors still standing in line. The opera tells us about the one fellow who did solve the riddles. But winning the heart of Turandot turns out to take more than just three clever answers. In telling the colorful story, Puccini created an opera that's simultaneously extravagant, exotic, musically powerful and dramatically "over the top." That is, it's got everything an operatic potboiler could possibly want, and then a little bit more! Article continues after sponsorship As a bonus, the man who eventually wins Turandot's heart gets more than just the lovely princess. He also gets to sing what may be the most famous number in opera, the soaring tenor aria "Nessun dorma!" — "None shall sleep!" Even people who think they've never heard an opera aria have probably heard this one. It's been performed by everyone from The Three Tenors, to Sarah Brightman, to the Scottish Fiddle Orchestra! On World of Opera, host Lisa Simeone brings us a production of Turandot from Houston Grand Opera. The tenor who sings the big aria is Vladimir Galouzine , with the American soprano Jennifer Wilson in the title role. The Story of 'Turandot' Email July 20, 200712:00 PM ET Turandot's ministers Ping, Pang and Pong discuss their cruel princess, and the bloodthirsty state of their kingdom. Brett Coomer hide caption toggle caption Brett Coomer Ana Maria Martinez sings the pivotal role of Liu in Houston Grand Opera's production of Turandot. Brett Coomer hide caption toggle caption Composer Giacomo Puccini died in 1924, leaving Turandot unfinished. Getty Images hide caption toggle caption Getty Images BACKGROUND: Turandot was first performed in 1926 at La Scala, in Milan. The story originated two centuries earlier, in a fiaba, or dramatic fairy tale, by the Italian writer Carlo Gozzi. His inspiration was a compilation of traditional Asian stories, and the tale of Turandot became even more famous when Gozzi's version was adapted by the German playwright Friedrich Schiller. Puccini began sketching music for the opera early in 1921. He wanted some authentic Chinese touches, so he listened to a friend's Chinese music box, and studied sheets of folk music. But when Puccini died in November of 1924, the opera was incomplete. Conductor Arturo Toscanini suggested that the score be given to the composer Franco Alfano for completion. Toscanini wasn't thrilled with the result. He did conduct the premiere, but in the third act, at the point where Puccini's music stopped and Alfano's began, Toscanini laid down his baton. The score was eventually published with Alfano's ending, edited by Toscanini. ACT 1: The action is set in "legendary times" in Beijing. As the opera opens, a Mandarin reads a proclamation: Any man who wants to marry Princess Turandot must answer three riddles. If he fails, he will die. Turandot's latest suitor, the Prince of Persia, has failed the test and is scheduled to be executed that night. The people have come to view these events as entertainment, and an agitated crowd urges on the executioner. Suddenly, a slave girl called Liu cries out for help — her master has been shoved to the ground and is in danger of being trampled in the mob. A handsome young man comes to her aid, and recognizes the old man as his long-lost father, Timur, the former king of the Tartars. Timur tells his son, Calaf, that he is still fleeing from his enemies, and that only Liu has remained faithful to him. Calaf asks her why. She says it's because once, long ago, Calaf smiled at her. As the mob cries out for blood, the moon rises. It's the sign for the execution. The condemned Prince of Persia marches by, and the sight of him moves the crowd so much that they ask Princess Turandot to spare him. She refuses. With a gesture of contempt, she tells the executioner to proceed, and the prince is beheaded. Despite her coldness, Calaf is entranced by Turandot and determines to win her over. He approaches a ceremonial gong, ready to strike it as the official signal that the princess has a new suitor. Turandot's ministers Ping, Pang and Pong try to discourage Calaf. Timur and Liu also beg him to stop. But Calaf strikes the gong and calls out Turandot's name. ACT 2: Ping, Pang and Pong, recall all the lives lost to Turandot's whims, and hope for a more peaceful future. But for now, crowds are gathering to hear the princess put Calaf to the test. To begin his trial, Turandot recounts the gruesome murder of one of her ancestors, the story that explains her cold and vengeful nature. She then confronts Calaf with the first riddle: "What is born each night and dies at dawn?" "Hope," Calaf answers, correctly. Unwavering, Turandot asks the second question: "What flickers red and warm like a flame, yet is not fire?" "Blood," says Calaf. Turandot is shaken. No one else has ever gotten even this far with her riddles. She asks the third question: "What is like ice yet burns?" Boldly, Calaf answers, "Turandot!" Right again. Aghast, Turandot turns to her father. She begs him not to make her go through with the marriage. Seeing her distress, Calaf proposes a riddle of his own: If she can guess his name by dawn, he will give up his claim on Turandot, and sacrifice his life. ACT 3: In the palace gardens, the stage is set for one of opera's most famous moments. There has been an official decree: On pain of death, no one in Beijing shall sleep until Turandot learns his name. Hearing this, Calaf realizes how desperate the Princess has become, and he ponders his impending victory over Turandot in the the aria — "Nessun dorma!" — "None shall sleep!" Ping, Pang, and Pong arrive and try to get him to call off the whole thing. It seems Turandot has told the ministers that they'll all be killed if Calaf's identity remains a secret. The citizens, crazed with fear of Turandot, threaten to stab Calaf unless he tells them his name. Suddenly soldiers enter, dragging Liu and Timur. These two, they say, have been seen with Calaf, and seem to know him. Calaf tries to convince the mob that neither one of them knows his secret. When Turandot orders Timur to speak, Liu comes forward and says that she alone knows the stranger's identity. Turandot orders soldiers to torture Liu, but she says nothing. Turandot asks Liu what gives her such astonishing strength. "Love," Liu says. Unimpressed, Turandot orders the torture to continue. Afraid that Calaf might intervene to save her, Liu snatches a dagger from one of the soldiers and kills herself, saying that through her sacrifice, Turandot will learn about love's true power. Timur and the crowd follow as her body is carried away. Turandot and Calaf are left alone. Finally, Calaf takes her in his arms, and forces her to kiss him. Until now, Turandot has never experienced true passion, and she weeps. Calaf, confident that he has won her over, reveals his name. As the people sing the praises of the emperor, Turandot approaches his throne, and announces the stranger's identity. His name, she says, is "Love." Web Resources	i don't know
Which British athlete was taking part in her sixth Summer Olympic Games when she competed in the 1996 Atlanta event?	Kelly Holmes (Medalist) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News Kelly Holmes Middle Distance Athlete and Olympic Gold Medallist Female Born Apr 19, 1970 Dame Kelly Holmes, DBE is a retired British middle distance athlete. Holmes specialised in the 800 metres and 1500 metres events and won a gold medal for both distances at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She set British records in numerous events and still holds the records over the 600, 800, 1000, and 1500 metres distances.… Read More related links Queenâs Baton Relay For Commonwealth Games Comes To Bury Bury Free Press - Jan 29, 2014 ' The Queenâs Baton Relay is coming to Bury St Edmunds as part of its journey across the UK to launch the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. The Baton will arrive in Suffolk on Monday June 9 and visit Lowestoft, Newmarket, Bury St Edmunds and Ipswich. It will arrive in Bury in the early afternoon and visit a Super 8âs schools athletics competition in the town. Cllr Sara Mildmay-White, St Edmundsbury cabinet member for health, well being and sport, said: âI am thrilled that the Queenâs Baton wi... The Fight For Equality In Sport Rages On Huffington Post Sports - Oct 30, 2013 'One hundred years ago, Emily Davison ran on to Epsom racecourse during the Derby horse race, and was killed by the King\'s horse. In 1913 she was generally considered mad. It wasn\'t until later that she became a feminist icon who paid the ultimate price in her quest for equal rights for women. There is a BBC documentary on the incident that is well worth watching. \nHer sacrifice did not go unheeded and society in much of the world has come a long way in terms of gender equality, but the b... Adopted Yorkshire Triathlon Star Is Proud Of Her Welsh Roots Yorkshire Evening Post - Jul 12, 2013 ' Named after St Davidâs mother St Non, triathlete Non Stanford is deeply proud of her Welsh roots. But success for Wales will be success for Leeds with the girl dubbed âa female Brownleeâ in love with Yorkshire two years on from her arrival. Stanford, 24, is the current under-23 world champion who is fourth in the Elite Women World Series in which she tasted victory in Madrid in June. And key to the relentless progress has been the Swansea-born starâs move to Leeds to join the cityâs thriv... Paralympic Honours Row: David Weir Should Have Got A Knighthood, Says Mp Guardian (UK) - Dec 30, 2012 ' Former sports minister Gerry Sutcliffe says honours committee missed an opportunity to show consistency in sporting awards The former sports minister Gerry Sutcliffe has weighed into the controversy about perceived double-standards for Olympic and Paralympic athletes in the New Year honours list. Sutcliffe said the decision not to give more Paralympians top honours was a \"big mistake\" and a \"missed opportunity\" to be consistent with their Olympic counterparts. His comments came afte... Learn about the memorable moments in the evolution of Kelly Holmes. CHILDHOOD 1970 Birth Born on April 19, 1970. 1980 10 Years Old Her hero was British middle distance runner Steve Ovett, and she was inspired by his success at the 1980 Summer Olympics. … Read More However, Holmes later turned her back on athletics, joining the British Army at the age of 18, having left school two years earlier, working initially as a shop assistant in a sweet shop and later as a nursing assistant for disabled patients. In the Army, she was initially a lorry driver in the Women's Royal Army Corps (WRAC), later becoming a basic Physical Training Instructor (PTI). Read Less TEENAGE 1987 17 Years Old Holmes was born in Pembury, Kent, the daughter of Derrick Holmes, a Jamaican-born car mechanic, and an English mother, Pam Norman. Her mother, 18 at the time of her birth, married painter and decorator Michael Norris, whom Holmes regards as her father, seven years later, and the couple had two more children (Kevin, born 1977 and Stuart, born 1980) before splitting up in 1987. … Read More Holmes grew up in Hildenborough and attended Hildenborough CEP School, and then Hugh Christie Comprehensive School in Tonbridge at the age of 12.<br /><br /> She started training for athletics at the age of 12, joining Tonbridge Athletics Club, where she was coached by David Arnold and went on to win the English schools 1500 metres in her second season in 1983. Read Less TWENTIES 1990 20 Years Old Holmes then elected in June 1990 to attend the first course to be run under the new Army Physical Training Corps syllabus, and successfully passed out as a Class 2 PTI. … Read More Although militarily quite young, Holmes' athletic prowess was impressive and she was encouraged to attend the course selection for full-time transfer to the Army Physical Training Corps (APTC). Read Less Show Less Holmes eventually qualified as a Sergeant Class 1 PTI, although she remained in the Adjutant General's Corps after the disbandment of the WRAC in 1992. … Read More She also became British Army judo champion and in Army athletics events once competed in the men's 800 metres at a meeting, as it was considered that for her to run in the women's event would be too embarrassing for the other competitors. At another event, she competed in and won an 800 metres, a 3000 metres and a relay race all in a single day. She also won the Heptathlon. Read Less Holmes watched the 1992 Summer Olympics on television, and seeing Lisa York in the heats of the 3000 metres, an athlete whom she had competed against, and beaten, decided to return to athletics. 1994 24 Years Old … Dame Kelly Holmes, MBE (Mil), DBE (born 19 April 1970) is a retired British middle distance athlete. <br /><br />Holmes specialised in the 800 metres and 1500 metres events and won a gold medal for both distances at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She set British records in numerous events and still holds the records over the 600, 800 and 1000 metre distances. <br /><br />Inspired by a number of successful British middle distance runners in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Holmes began competing in middle distance events in her youth. She joined the British Army, but continued to compete at the organisation's athletics events. Read Less She turned to the professional athletics circuit in the early 1990s and in 1994 she won the 1500 m at the Commonwealth Games and took silver at the European Championships. 1995 25 Years Old She won a silver and a bronze medal at the 1995 Gothenburg World Championships, but suffered from various injuries over the following two years, failing to gain a medal at her first Olympics in Atlanta 1996. … Read More She won silver in the 1500 m at the 1998 Commonwealth Games and bronze in the 800 m at the 2000 Sydney Olympics; her first Olympic medal. Read Less 1997 27 Years Old For several years she combined both athletics and her employment in the Army, until increased funding allowed her to become a full-time athlete in 1997. THIRTIES 2002 32 Years Old Holmes won the 1500 m at the 2002 Commonwealth Games and the 800 m bronze at the Munich European Championships that year. Show Less The 2003 track season saw her take silver in the 1500 m at the World Indoor Championships and the 800 m silver medals at the World Championships and first World Athletics Final. While training in 2003 for the 2004 Summer Olympics at a French training camp, Holmes suffered leg injuries and was very depressed, she began to meditate using an English lantern "I made one cut for every day that I had been injured", Holmes stated in an interview with the News of the World newspaper. … Read More At least once, she considered suicide, but she eventually sought help from a doctor and was diagnosed with clinical depression. While she could not use anti-depressants because it would affect her performance, she began using herbal serotonin tablets. In 2005, after her achievements at the 2004 Summer Olympics, Holmes chose to talk about her self-harm to show others that being a professional athlete is an extremely difficult thing to do and places the athlete under tremendous amounts of stress. Read Less Show Less She took part in her final major championship in 2004 â she turned in a double gold medal-winning performance at the Athens Olympics, finishing as the 800 m and 1500 m Olympic Champion. … Read More For her achievements she won numerous awards and was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 2005. She retired from athletics in 2005 and has since made a number of television appearances. Read Less 2004 saw Holmes arrive at a major competition, the Athens Olympics, with no injury worries for just about the first time in her career. … Read More She had originally planned to compete in just the 1500 m but a victory over Jolanda Äeplak before the games had many saying she should take her chance in the 800 m as well. Holmes did not announce her decision to race in both events until five days before the 800 m finals.<br /><br /> Along with three time World Champion Maria de Lurdes Mutola and Äeplak, Holmes was considered one of the favourites for the gold medal in the 800 m. In the final, Holmes ran a well-paced race, ignoring a fast start by a number of the other competitors, and moved into the lead ahead of Mutola on the final bend, taking the gold on the line ahead of Hasna Benhassi and Äeplak, with Mutola in fourth. Holmes became the seventh British woman to win an athletics gold, and the second after Ann Packer in 1964 to win the 800 metres. Read Less … In the final of the 1500 m, again running from the rear of the field, she took the lead in the final straight, holding off World Champion Tatyana Tomashova of Russia. She thus became only the third woman in history to do the 800 m and 1500 m double (after Tatyana Kazankina of the Soviet Union in 1976 and Svetlana Masterkova of Russia in 1996), and Britain's first double gold medallist at the same games since Albert Hill in 1920. Her time of 3 minutes 57.90 seconds in the 1500m final also set a new British record for the distance. <br /><br />Subsequently, Holmes was given the honour of carrying the British flag at the closing ceremony of the games, on 29 August, the day after her second victory. A home-coming parade was held in her honour through the streets of Hildenborough and Tonbridge on 1 September, which was attended by approximately 40,000 people. Read Less Holmes won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year in 2004, saying she achieved her goals after "twenty years of dreaming". … Read More She also asserted the award was "the biggest sporting honour your country can give you". The tributes to her at the BBC awards ceremony were led by the six British female athletes who had previously won gold at the Olympic Games in a "Magnificent Seven"-style feature â those six being Mary Rand, Ann Packer, Mary Peters, Tessa Sanderson, Sally Gunnell and Denise Lewis.<br /><br /> In 2008, Holmes founded the DKH Legacy Trust, a registered charity, to support young athletes and help the lives of young people across the UK. As part of her pledge to the charity, she will participate in the Powerman UK duathlon in 2014, one of several fundraising events she will take part in.<br /><br /> Since 2004, Holmes has taken part in Norwich Union sponsored "On Camp with Kelly" athletics camps helping train more junior athletes. Read Less	Tessa Sanderson
Which type of tradesman is a 'gaffer', often seen in the production credits at the end of a film?	Kelly Holmes (Medalist) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News Kelly Holmes Middle Distance Athlete and Olympic Gold Medallist Female Born Apr 19, 1970 Dame Kelly Holmes, DBE is a retired British middle distance athlete. Holmes specialised in the 800 metres and 1500 metres events and won a gold medal for both distances at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She set British records in numerous events and still holds the records over the 600, 800, 1000, and 1500 metres distances.… Read More related links Queenâs Baton Relay For Commonwealth Games Comes To Bury Bury Free Press - Jan 29, 2014 ' The Queenâs Baton Relay is coming to Bury St Edmunds as part of its journey across the UK to launch the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow. The Baton will arrive in Suffolk on Monday June 9 and visit Lowestoft, Newmarket, Bury St Edmunds and Ipswich. It will arrive in Bury in the early afternoon and visit a Super 8âs schools athletics competition in the town. Cllr Sara Mildmay-White, St Edmundsbury cabinet member for health, well being and sport, said: âI am thrilled that the Queenâs Baton wi... The Fight For Equality In Sport Rages On Huffington Post Sports - Oct 30, 2013 'One hundred years ago, Emily Davison ran on to Epsom racecourse during the Derby horse race, and was killed by the King\'s horse. In 1913 she was generally considered mad. It wasn\'t until later that she became a feminist icon who paid the ultimate price in her quest for equal rights for women. There is a BBC documentary on the incident that is well worth watching. \nHer sacrifice did not go unheeded and society in much of the world has come a long way in terms of gender equality, but the b... Adopted Yorkshire Triathlon Star Is Proud Of Her Welsh Roots Yorkshire Evening Post - Jul 12, 2013 ' Named after St Davidâs mother St Non, triathlete Non Stanford is deeply proud of her Welsh roots. But success for Wales will be success for Leeds with the girl dubbed âa female Brownleeâ in love with Yorkshire two years on from her arrival. Stanford, 24, is the current under-23 world champion who is fourth in the Elite Women World Series in which she tasted victory in Madrid in June. And key to the relentless progress has been the Swansea-born starâs move to Leeds to join the cityâs thriv... Paralympic Honours Row: David Weir Should Have Got A Knighthood, Says Mp Guardian (UK) - Dec 30, 2012 ' Former sports minister Gerry Sutcliffe says honours committee missed an opportunity to show consistency in sporting awards The former sports minister Gerry Sutcliffe has weighed into the controversy about perceived double-standards for Olympic and Paralympic athletes in the New Year honours list. Sutcliffe said the decision not to give more Paralympians top honours was a \"big mistake\" and a \"missed opportunity\" to be consistent with their Olympic counterparts. His comments came afte... Learn about the memorable moments in the evolution of Kelly Holmes. CHILDHOOD 1970 Birth Born on April 19, 1970. 1980 10 Years Old Her hero was British middle distance runner Steve Ovett, and she was inspired by his success at the 1980 Summer Olympics. … Read More However, Holmes later turned her back on athletics, joining the British Army at the age of 18, having left school two years earlier, working initially as a shop assistant in a sweet shop and later as a nursing assistant for disabled patients. In the Army, she was initially a lorry driver in the Women's Royal Army Corps (WRAC), later becoming a basic Physical Training Instructor (PTI). Read Less TEENAGE 1987 17 Years Old Holmes was born in Pembury, Kent, the daughter of Derrick Holmes, a Jamaican-born car mechanic, and an English mother, Pam Norman. Her mother, 18 at the time of her birth, married painter and decorator Michael Norris, whom Holmes regards as her father, seven years later, and the couple had two more children (Kevin, born 1977 and Stuart, born 1980) before splitting up in 1987. … Read More Holmes grew up in Hildenborough and attended Hildenborough CEP School, and then Hugh Christie Comprehensive School in Tonbridge at the age of 12.<br /><br /> She started training for athletics at the age of 12, joining Tonbridge Athletics Club, where she was coached by David Arnold and went on to win the English schools 1500 metres in her second season in 1983. Read Less TWENTIES 1990 20 Years Old Holmes then elected in June 1990 to attend the first course to be run under the new Army Physical Training Corps syllabus, and successfully passed out as a Class 2 PTI. … Read More Although militarily quite young, Holmes' athletic prowess was impressive and she was encouraged to attend the course selection for full-time transfer to the Army Physical Training Corps (APTC). Read Less Show Less Holmes eventually qualified as a Sergeant Class 1 PTI, although she remained in the Adjutant General's Corps after the disbandment of the WRAC in 1992. … Read More She also became British Army judo champion and in Army athletics events once competed in the men's 800 metres at a meeting, as it was considered that for her to run in the women's event would be too embarrassing for the other competitors. At another event, she competed in and won an 800 metres, a 3000 metres and a relay race all in a single day. She also won the Heptathlon. Read Less Holmes watched the 1992 Summer Olympics on television, and seeing Lisa York in the heats of the 3000 metres, an athlete whom she had competed against, and beaten, decided to return to athletics. 1994 24 Years Old … Dame Kelly Holmes, MBE (Mil), DBE (born 19 April 1970) is a retired British middle distance athlete. <br /><br />Holmes specialised in the 800 metres and 1500 metres events and won a gold medal for both distances at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She set British records in numerous events and still holds the records over the 600, 800 and 1000 metre distances. <br /><br />Inspired by a number of successful British middle distance runners in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Holmes began competing in middle distance events in her youth. She joined the British Army, but continued to compete at the organisation's athletics events. Read Less She turned to the professional athletics circuit in the early 1990s and in 1994 she won the 1500 m at the Commonwealth Games and took silver at the European Championships. 1995 25 Years Old She won a silver and a bronze medal at the 1995 Gothenburg World Championships, but suffered from various injuries over the following two years, failing to gain a medal at her first Olympics in Atlanta 1996. … Read More She won silver in the 1500 m at the 1998 Commonwealth Games and bronze in the 800 m at the 2000 Sydney Olympics; her first Olympic medal. Read Less 1997 27 Years Old For several years she combined both athletics and her employment in the Army, until increased funding allowed her to become a full-time athlete in 1997. THIRTIES 2002 32 Years Old Holmes won the 1500 m at the 2002 Commonwealth Games and the 800 m bronze at the Munich European Championships that year. Show Less The 2003 track season saw her take silver in the 1500 m at the World Indoor Championships and the 800 m silver medals at the World Championships and first World Athletics Final. While training in 2003 for the 2004 Summer Olympics at a French training camp, Holmes suffered leg injuries and was very depressed, she began to meditate using an English lantern "I made one cut for every day that I had been injured", Holmes stated in an interview with the News of the World newspaper. … Read More At least once, she considered suicide, but she eventually sought help from a doctor and was diagnosed with clinical depression. While she could not use anti-depressants because it would affect her performance, she began using herbal serotonin tablets. In 2005, after her achievements at the 2004 Summer Olympics, Holmes chose to talk about her self-harm to show others that being a professional athlete is an extremely difficult thing to do and places the athlete under tremendous amounts of stress. Read Less Show Less She took part in her final major championship in 2004 â she turned in a double gold medal-winning performance at the Athens Olympics, finishing as the 800 m and 1500 m Olympic Champion. … Read More For her achievements she won numerous awards and was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 2005. She retired from athletics in 2005 and has since made a number of television appearances. Read Less 2004 saw Holmes arrive at a major competition, the Athens Olympics, with no injury worries for just about the first time in her career. … Read More She had originally planned to compete in just the 1500 m but a victory over Jolanda Äeplak before the games had many saying she should take her chance in the 800 m as well. Holmes did not announce her decision to race in both events until five days before the 800 m finals.<br /><br /> Along with three time World Champion Maria de Lurdes Mutola and Äeplak, Holmes was considered one of the favourites for the gold medal in the 800 m. In the final, Holmes ran a well-paced race, ignoring a fast start by a number of the other competitors, and moved into the lead ahead of Mutola on the final bend, taking the gold on the line ahead of Hasna Benhassi and Äeplak, with Mutola in fourth. Holmes became the seventh British woman to win an athletics gold, and the second after Ann Packer in 1964 to win the 800 metres. Read Less … In the final of the 1500 m, again running from the rear of the field, she took the lead in the final straight, holding off World Champion Tatyana Tomashova of Russia. She thus became only the third woman in history to do the 800 m and 1500 m double (after Tatyana Kazankina of the Soviet Union in 1976 and Svetlana Masterkova of Russia in 1996), and Britain's first double gold medallist at the same games since Albert Hill in 1920. Her time of 3 minutes 57.90 seconds in the 1500m final also set a new British record for the distance. <br /><br />Subsequently, Holmes was given the honour of carrying the British flag at the closing ceremony of the games, on 29 August, the day after her second victory. A home-coming parade was held in her honour through the streets of Hildenborough and Tonbridge on 1 September, which was attended by approximately 40,000 people. Read Less Holmes won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year in 2004, saying she achieved her goals after "twenty years of dreaming". … Read More She also asserted the award was "the biggest sporting honour your country can give you". The tributes to her at the BBC awards ceremony were led by the six British female athletes who had previously won gold at the Olympic Games in a "Magnificent Seven"-style feature â those six being Mary Rand, Ann Packer, Mary Peters, Tessa Sanderson, Sally Gunnell and Denise Lewis.<br /><br /> In 2008, Holmes founded the DKH Legacy Trust, a registered charity, to support young athletes and help the lives of young people across the UK. As part of her pledge to the charity, she will participate in the Powerman UK duathlon in 2014, one of several fundraising events she will take part in.<br /><br /> Since 2004, Holmes has taken part in Norwich Union sponsored "On Camp with Kelly" athletics camps helping train more junior athletes. Read Less	i don't know
Which American disc jockey is credited with putting the name to 'Rock 'n' Roll' music?	America Rocks and Rolls [ushistory.org] 53d. America Rocks and Rolls The prosperity of the '50s allowed teenagers to spend money on records by their favorite bands and singers. Rock and roll was everything the suburban 1950s were not. While parents of the decade were listening to Frank Sinatra, Perry Como, and big bands, their children were moving to a new beat. In fact, to the horror of the older generation, their children were twisting, thrusting, bumping, and grinding to the sounds of rock and roll. This generation of youth was much larger than any in recent memory, and the prosperity of the era gave them money to spend on records and phonographs. By the end of the decade, the phenomenon of rock and roll helped define the difference between youth and adulthood. The Roots of Rock Alan Freed, the Cleveland disc jockey credited with coining the phrase "rock and roll," was the master of ceremonies at many of the first rock concerts, including his 1955 Easter Jubilee. The roots of rock and roll lay in African American blues and gospel. As the Great Migration brought many African Americans to the cities of the north, the sounds of rhythm and blues attracted suburban teens. Due to segregation and racist attitudes, however, none of the greatest artists of the genre could get much airplay. Disc jockey Alan Freed began a rhythm-and-blues show on a Cleveland radio station. Soon the audience grew and grew, and Freed coined the term "rock and roll." Early attempts by white artists to cover R&B songs resulted in weaker renditions that bled the heart and soul out of the originals. Record producers saw the market potential and began to search for a white artist who could capture the African American sound. Chuck Berry's songs about girls and cars hit a nerve with American teens and sent his star rising high in the early days of rock and roll. Sam Phillips, a Memphis record producer, found the answer in Elvis Presley. With a deep Southern sound, pouty lips, and gyrating hips, Elvis took an old style and made it his own. From Memphis, the sound spread to other cities, and demand for Elvis records skyrocketed. Within two years, Elvis was the most popular name in the entertainment business. After the door to rock and roll acceptance was opened, African American performers such as Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, and Little Richard began to enjoy broad success, as well. White performers such as Buddy Holly and Jerry Lee Lewis also found artistic freedom and commercial success. Satan's Music Elvis Presley brought rock-and-roll music to the masses during the 1950s with hits such as "Love Me Tender" and "Heartbreak Hotel." Rock and roll sent shockwaves across America. A generation of young teenagers collectively rebelled against the music their parents loved. In general, the older generation loathed rock and roll. Appalled by the new styles of dance the movement evoked, churches proclaimed it Satan's music. Because rock and roll originated among the lower classes and a segregated ethnic group, many middle-class whites thought it was tasteless. Rock and roll records were banned from many radio stations and hundreds of schools. But the masses spoke louder. When Elvis appeared on TV's The Ed Sullivan Show, the show's ratings soared. Rock and roll is the most brutal, ugly, degenerate, vicious form of expression — lewd, sly, in plain fact, dirty — a rancid-smelling aphrodisiac and the martial music of every side-burned delinquent on the face of the earth. – Frank Sinatra (1957) The commercial possibilities were limitless. As a generation of young adults finished military service, bought houses in suburbia, and longed for stability and conformity, their children seemed to take comfort for granted. They wanted to release the tensions that bubbled beneath the smooth surface of postwar America. Above all, they wanted to shake, rattle, and roll.	Alan Freed
Which military operation of World War II had the codename 'Operation Dynamo'?	American Hot Wax (NTSC DVD) American Hot Wax (NTSC DVD) American Hot Wax (NTSC DVD) CODE: KVD122 Send to friend DESCRIPTION "American Hot Wax" is a 1978 biopic film telling the story of Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed, who was instrumental in introducing and popularizing rock 'n' rollin the 1950's. Freed is often credited with coining the term "Rock 'n' Roll". The film starred Tim McIntire as Freed, as well as Fran Drescher, Laraine Newman, Melanie Chartoff and Jay Jeno in supporting roles. Moosie Drier appears in a warmly received performance as the head of a Buddy Holly fan club and a teenage-aged Cameron Crowe has a brief walk-on part. It also features performances by Chuck Berry, Jerry Lee Lewis and Frankie Ford. As well, Screamin' Jay Hawkins and the Brooklyn Dreams performed as "Kenny Vance adn the Planotones". Video Quality: Very nice Disc Format: 1 NTSC DVD IMPORTANT INFORMATION, PLEASE READ BEFORE BUYING The majority of products sold on this site have been created on burned recordable media (DVD-R, BD-R, CD-R etc) by overseas manufacturers and imported by us. All items that have not been produced on recordable media clearly state that in the description. None of the products on recordable media are available at retail stores in North America. They are rare import music videos originating from several different overseas countries. They are always pro-shot unless indicated in the product description. They are concerts and videos for music fans who are looking for rare collectable music videos. Quality varies on each title. Although we have made every effort to accurately and conservatively describe audio and video quality of each title, please understand that frequently, they will not meet the standards of a big budget Hollywood movie release. To the best of our knowledge, these rare music videos meet the copyright standards of the countries in which they are released and are allowed for export resale. It is NOT our intention to unknowingly violate any North American copyright rules on these products. We will remove from sale upon written instructions ONLY by registered mail from the valid North American copyright holder or their legal representative. PAYMENT METHODS AVAILABLE We gladly accept payment via VISA, MasterCard, International Money Order, certified cheques or regular uncertified cheques. Please refer to our Q&A section for more details. Name of your friend:	i don't know
Which London station did the 'Flying Scotsman' depart from on it's daily journey to Edinburgh?	'The world's most famous train' - The Flying Scotsman celebrates 150 years - BBC News 'The world's most famous train' - The Flying Scotsman celebrates 150 years By Liz Rawlings BBC Scotland news 18 June 2012 Read more about sharing. Close share panel Image caption The Flying Scotsman has also been known as the 'Special Scotch Express', 'The Flying Scotchman' and the 'Ten O'Clock' "Take me by the Flying Scotsman." 18 June 2012 is a landmark in Britain's railway history Bob Gwynne, National Railway Museum These were the words emblazoned across a London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) poster in 1932 promoting the famous London-Edinburgh train service. The poster wasn't re-issued - its futurist art design was unpopular at the time - but the sentiment has survived. For many, the Flying Scotsman epitomises the nostalgia, romance and glamour associated with rail travel of a by-gone era. The Flying Scotsman - the train often labelled "the most famous in the world" - celebrates 150 years in operation this month. A named, daily passenger service between London's King's Cross station and Edinburgh called the Flying Scotsman has been running since 18 June 1862. Not to be confused with 'Flying Scotsman' - the engine, which, in 1923 was given the same name as the East Coast Main Line's most illustrious express to honour the service. 'Forgotten man' Image caption The Flying Scotsman was sped up in 1932, with LNER promoting the service with this poster Bob Gwynne, associate curator of rail vehicles at the National Railway Museum in York - where the engine 'Flying Scotsman' is being restored - said the famous train came about because of one forgotten man. He said: "18 June 2012 is a landmark in Britain's railway history, thanks to the forgotten story of one man. "150 years ago at 10:00, a new service, the 'Special Scotch Express' was launched from London King's Cross going north and from Edinburgh Waverley going south at 10:00. Mr Gwynne said the train was the idea of Walter Leith, General Passenger Supt of the Great Northern Railway, whose story has since been erased from all popular history of the service. He said: "Leith's innovative idea saw the introduction of through carriages up to Scotland at a time when the East Coast Main Line was operated by three separate railway companies." In 1862 the journey time was 10 and a half hours between London and Edinburgh. The service now runs at a time of four hours, operated by East Coast. History From the 1920s the train was considered the height of luxury. Onboard there were first-class restaurant facilities, a cocktail bar and radio equipment, so passengers could hear the horse-racing results. There was even a hairdressing salon where men could have their facial hair shaved with an open razor, made possible because the barber's chair was set in such a position that there would be "no jolting". The train's hairdresser was reportedly known as "Sweeney Todd of the Rails", given his precarious trade. Image caption In the 1920s the train even had a barber on board In 1928 the train broke the record for the longest regular non-stop train journey in the world, when the LNER ran an express service for the entire 393-mile route. This record would last until 1948, when, unintentionally, the train broke its own record. The Flying Scotsman ran for 408 and a half miles in May of that year when flood damage to the main line caused diversions via St Boswells and Kelso. Throughout World War II The Flying Scotsman was one of the few titled trains that continued to operate along the East Coast - it carried troops between London and Scotland, although the headboards and roofboards were removed for security. And, on 21 June 1958, in a historic move which would signal the decline of steam, The Flying Scotsman was hauled for the first time by a diesel locomotive. 'Set clocks' The service is currently run by government-owned East Coast. In May 2011 they relaunched the service, painting one of their locomotives, the Class 91 No. 91101 with Flying Scotsman branding. At the launch East Coast said the move was "part of our policy of bringing back train names and restoring pride, passion and even a touch of glamour and romance back to the East Coast railway". Image caption "Flying Scotsman" engine, which hauled the train is being restored at York's National Railway Museum However, railway enthusiasts have lamented the loss of the traditional 10:00 departure time. The Flying Scotsman now only runs in one direction, leaving from Edinburgh Waverley at 05:40. Despite the new time, East Coast said the service was still extremely popular with rail passengers and the train was being promoted "far and wide across the UK." On its centenary, in 1968, railway writer C. Hamilton Ellis described the Flying Scotsman's endurance. He said: "For a century it has been with us. Out on the great fens, across the Plain of York, in the hill villages of the North East and in the Border farms, people have set their clocks by it, down the long years." On its 150th anniversary, the Flying Scotsman continues to hold a similar place of affection in the public consciousness.	Kings Cross
What was the title of the only painting that Vincent van Gogh sold during his lifetime?	Flying Scotsman grinds to halt on inaugural run due to 'mindless' trespassers \| UK news \| The Guardian Rail transport Flying Scotsman grinds to halt on inaugural run due to 'mindless' trespassers East coast main line and iconic steam train forced to stop during London-York journey due to fans taking pictures from tracks Thursday 25 February 2016 12.02 EST First published on Thursday 25 February 2016 05.13 EST Close This article is 11 months old After a 10-year refit costing £4.2m and meticulous preparation, Flying Scotsman’s much-anticipated return to the track was briefly halted by an unforeseen obstacle – overexcited fans. As the world-famous locomotive travelled from London to York on Thursday for the inaugural journey since its hiatus, its progress was rudely interrupted by dozens of hardy steam enthusiasts standing on the line to try to photograph the national treasure. Rail magazine editor, Nigel Harris, who was on the train, described a “big brake” before Flying Scotsman came to a “shuddering stop” near St Neots, Cambridgeshire. Footage filmed from the stationary train showed people walking down the line holding cameras. Other trains were also affected with Virgin reporting delays of 15 minutes on the east coast mainline. Network Rail press (@networkrailPR) We've had to stop all trains on the East Coast Main Line incl. #FlyingScotsman because of huge number of trespassers. Please, don't. February 25, 2016 British Transport police, who were called shortly after 9am to reports of around 60 people on the line, were forced to issue a warning of the potential consequences of trespassing on the line, while acknowledging “people are excited about the Flying Scotsman’s return”. There was a similar plea from Network Rail, but Harris did not mince his words, describing the incident as “rampant trespass by mindless hordes”. No arrests were made. Locomotive 60103 was held up for 10 minutes before resuming at a reduced speed and it eventually chugged into York station to a rapturous reception at 1.20pm, about 40 minutes behind schedule. The crowds at York mirrored those seen for the train’s 7.40am departure from London’s King’s Cross, which covered platform one in steam, and where hundreds of people arrived from 6am to secure a vantage point. Pinterest Flying Scotsman leaves King’s Cross station in London after a £4.2m restoration. Photograph: Dan Kitwood/Getty Images Some 297 VIPs, fundraisers, competition winners and members of the public who paid up to £450 were on board for the trip, many struggling to contain their excitement. Among them was Ron Kennedy, who drove Flying Scotsman from 1956 until it was retired in 1963. The 83-year-old, from Leigh-on-Sea in Essex, beamed with delight as the locomotive pulled into the station he first worked at as a cleaner almost 70 years ago. “It’s unbelievable. I never dreamt about being on it again. To be out with it is just fantastic,” he said. “It was a good engine.” Fellow passenger Tony Hey, 70, said: “This is a totally different experience. Electric trains are all the same!” Sitting on plush burgundy-red velvet seats behind white tablecloths, passengers ate porridge, sipped tea and drank champagne. The train was painted in the traditional early 1960s British Rail green for its first official outing after the restoration project, and staff wore matching uniforms. Pinterest Flying Scotsman hauled a train full of VIPs on its first London-to-York run since the restoration was complete. Photograph: Toby Smith/Getty Images Built in Doncaster, South Yorkshire, in 1923, Flying Scotsman soon became the star locomotive of the British railway system, pulling the first officially recorded train to break the 100mph barrier in 1934. It was also the first to link London to Edinburgh – the route which gave it its name - in a single journey, then the longest non-stop rail journey ever achieved. Michael Portillo, who was travelling on the train as part of filming for BBC documentary series Great British Railway Journeys, said: “This is certainly the most famous journey and most famous locomotive in Britain.” He described Flying Scotsman as an engineering triumph and praised its designer, Nigel Gresley, for having “an eye for engineering, for design, for style and for marketing”. Pinterest Flying Scotsman passes over the Digswell Viaduct near Welwyn Garden City. Photograph: Steve Parsons/PA Flying Scotsman enjoyed 40 years of service before it was bought by the industrialist Alan Pegler, who transported it across the Atlantic in 1969 to pull tourist trains on the west coast of the United States. But the venture was not a success. Pegler was forced into bankruptcy and the train was stranded in the US. William McAlpine heard about its plight and his rescue plan enabled it to be brought back to Britain in 1973, where it passed through the hands of several owners before it was eventually saved for the nation. The National Railway Museum’s director, Paul Kirkman, said Flying Scotsman was a reminder that “railways have been making this country run properly for nearly 200 years”. He described the restoration project as a “long old journey” but said it was incredibly satisfying to see the locomotive returned to service.	i don't know
In which country is the source of the River Danube?	Countries of the Danube River Basin \| ICPDR - International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River Countries of the Danube River Basin Countries of the Danube River Basin 19 countries share the Danube River Basin, which makes it the world’s most international river basin. More than 81 million people of different cultures and languages call the Danube Basin their home, for centuries they have been interconnected through the widely ramified water system of the Danube. All countries sharing over 2,000 km² of the Danube River Basin and the European Union are contracting parties of the ICPDR. Below, you find a table with some general information on all countries that have a share in the Danube River Basin. You can also find more detailed information for those countries which are contracting parties of the ICPDR on dedicated pages: Germany - Austria - Czech Republic - Slovakia - Hungary - Slovenia - Croatia - Bosnia and Herzegovina - Serbia - Montenegro - Romania - Bulgaria - Moldova - Ukraine . Basic information on the countries in the Danube River Basin Country	Germany
The 'Battle of Agincourt' took place during which war?	Find a Danube river cruise Overview From the Black Forest of Germany to the Black Sea, the Danube is a vital lifeline that pulses through the heart of Central and Eastern Europe. The Danube is not only Europe's second longest river—more than twice the length of the Rhine and nearly three and a half times the length of the Rhône—but it flows through ten different countries and more than a dozen languages are spoken on its banks. Imagine the variety in food, architecture and history that goes with each of these languages and cultures. Enjoy an intriguing, panoramic view of two thousands years of European history as you travel along the lyrical "Blue Danube." Fast Facts Watch & Learn About the Danube River Geography The Danube River has been used as an important means of transportation for commerce and military operations for nearly 2,000 years because it is the only major European river that flows west to east. The Danube rises in Germany's Black Forest and flows through the heartland of Austria, first forming the border of Austria and Slovakia, and then Slovakia and Hungary. Leaving Hungary, it runs through Croatia and Serbia to form the boundary between Serbia and Romania and then the Romania and Bulgaria border. The mighty Danube brushes the edge of Moldova and Ukraine before finally emptying into the Black Sea. The Upper Danube is home to four capital cities—Vienna, Bratislava, Budapest, and Belgrade—more than any other river in the world. Downstream from Belgrade, the Danube enters the Iron Gates, a great natural corridor through the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains. It then spills into the plains of the ancient Roman province of Wallachia. Flooding has been a problem there since Roman times and still is. Due to the floods, no major cities have been developed on the Danube downstream of Belgrade. Bucharest, the capital of Romania, is 50 miles uphill from the Danube, well protected from rising water in the spring. History Over the centuries, the Danube has been one of the most significant cultural and historic boundaries in Europe. In the early Middle Ages (3rd Century A.D.), the full length of the river formed the northern border of the Roman Empire. It remained intact as late as 454 A.D. when the Goths, Huns, Slavs, and other groups crossed the Danube in order to invade the crumbling Empire. The Roman legacy established the importance of the river as a medieval trade route, explaining why so many crucial trade and transportation centers can still be found along its shore today. The waters of the Danube also form a critical militaristic and spiritual lifeline. It was the major connection between Europe and the East, providing a pathway for crusaders to charge into Byzantium and the Holy Land. The trade corridor along the Danube gave rise to two major empires, the Austrian and Hungarian, which merged under Austria in the early 19th century. The Danube then served as a link between the industrial centers of Germany (Austrian Empire) and the agricultural areas of the Balkan Peninsula (Ottoman Empire). It also served as a critical cultural border. To this day, Romania (north of the river) and Bulgaria (south) reflect their respective and separate histories with Romania having a Romance language and Bulgaria demonstrating key historic affinities in architecture and religion with the Ottoman Turks. Both the commercial and military value of the Danube are still recognized today. Many treaties have been signed to try to keep one country from having too much control over the river. Today the Danube is still a major transportation route, with more than 3,500 ships passing through its delta each year. Extensive navigation is made possible by various dredging of canals and channels often constructed with inter-country cooperation for the benefit of all the nations that border this essential waterway. Highlights As the Danube leaves the cover of German''s Black Forest, it trolls through the pristinely-preserved medieval town of Regensburg. This bustling university town boasts ancient treasures like the Porta Praetoria—the north gate to the ancient Roman fortress, Castra Regina, built in 179 A.D. During the holidays, Regensburg shines bright with its Christmas market lighting up the historic market square. Farther downstream, Passau, Germany, is a gem of a city located at the confluence of the rivers Inn, Ilz, and Danube. Cobblestone streets lead the way to St. Stephen's Cathedral, which houses the world's largest church organ with more than 17,000 pipes. Continuing along, the village of Grein offers excellent photo opportunities, with its turreted houses lining the main square in the shadow of its idyllic castle perched high on a bluff. Situated in the rolling green hills of the Wachau Valley, Melk is home to the magnificent Benedictine Abbey, one of Europe's largest and most intriguing monasteries. Step out onto the monastic terrace to look out over the Danube and take in the mesmerizing view of the sweeping countryside. Float through the Wachau wine region to Dürnstein, known for the magnificent baroque Stiftskirche with its blue façade. Above town are the ruins of the castle where England's King Richard the Lionheart was imprisoned in 1192. Vienna, Austria's capital, is next. The "City of Music" inspired the creative genius of Mozart, Beethoven and Strauss. Once the center of the mighty Habsburg Empire, the city has much to offer—the lavish Hofburg Palace, the impressive Vienna Opera House, and the majestic Ring Boulevard, to name just a few. Visitors can waltz their way down shop-lined streets, savor the sounds of an orchestral concert, or delight in a Sachertorte or Apfelstrudel in a neighborhood café. Sail on through the picturesque Austrian views before heading to the heart of Hungary. Spanning both banks of the Danube, Budapest is Eastern Europe's liveliest and most cosmopolitan metropolis. Seven bridges, including the famous Chain and Elisabeth Bridges, connect ancient Buda on the right bank with Pest on the left. The massive hilltop castle complex with Fisherman's Bastion and the Matthias Church is among the many sights of Budapest that impress and excite. South of Budapest, the quiet town of Kalocsa, Hungary, was founded by St. Stephen in 1009. The Archbishop's Palace and the Kalocsa Cathedral are must-see sights in this town that is most known for paprika and folklore art. The Danube winds away from Hungary and through the city of Novi Sad, Serbia. Steeped in history, the hilltop Petrovaradin Fort affords dramatic views of the Danube. On to Serbia's capital, Belgrade, situated at the confluence of the Danube and Sava Rivers. Full of lively pedestrian areas and imposing cathedrals and fortresses, Belgrade is a riveting study in contrasts. The Danube flows away from Belgrade, through rustic hills lined with stunning Roman fortresses, and through the dramatic gorge of the Iron Gates. This narrow and formerly very dangerous passage divides Europe's Alps in the northwest from the Carpathians in the southeast and forms a natural border between Serbia and Romania. Downstream, Bulgaria's most ancient and breathtaking treasures can be found a short drive away from the Danube. Veliko Târnovo, situated on three hills surrounding the Yantra River, is a natural fortress with stone houses clinging to its steep slopes. The historic village of Arbanassi is nearby, featuring the well-known Etnographic Museum and intricately designed frescoes in its Church of the Nativity. Silestra is a key port city—essential to Bulgaria's thriving agricultural industry. A short distance away, the resort town of Varna sits on the shores of the Black Sea. Its storied past comes to life as you walk through Roman baths and marvel at the Gold of Varna, an archaeological wonder. Bucharest, Romania's lively capital, is only a short drive from the shores of the Danube. Its wide boulevards and Arc de Triomphe have gained it the name "Paris of the East." Enjoy people-watching in the Royal Palace Square, the scene of riots in 1989 which led to the collapse of the communist dictatorship. The Royal Palace now houses the National Art Museum and is filled with priceless examples of Eastern European art. Cruiser Profile The Danube River is the epitome of "East meets West," or rather "West meets East." Travelers who want to be exposed to a wide range of new cultures and experiences will soak up the sites along this sprawling waterway. History-, art- and music-lovers will all find the objects of their desires along these waters. The Danube also boasts a unique mix of urban and rural sites. Explorers who appreciate dramatic natural scenes and also delight in the bustle of the world's great cities will see the best of both worlds as they cruise down this mighty European river. Did You Know? The Danube Delta was first declared a nature reserve in 1938 by the Council of Ministers and recognized as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1992. The area is home to 12 habit types, 300 bird species and 45 freshwater fish species. The Danube is mentioned in the title of a famous waltz by Austrian composer Johann Strauss, "An der schönen, blauen Donau" (On the Beautiful Blue Danube), composed as Strauss was traveling down the Danube River. This piece is well known across the world and is also used widely as a lullaby. Another famous waltz about the Danube is "The Waves of the Danube" by the Romanian composer Ion Ivanovici (1845–1902), and the work took the audience by storm when performed at the 1889 Paris Exposition. The German tradition of landscape painting, the Danube school, was developed in the Danube valley in the 16th century. The Parliament House in Bucharest is the world's largest parliament building at a whopping 3.55 million square feet. The Blue Danube was the name of the first nuclear weapon of the British army.	i don't know
What is the ballet term for a leap taking off from one foot and landing on the other?	Ballet Terms Dictionary - BalletHub Ballet Terms Dictionary Learn Ballet Vocabulary BalletHub / Ballet Terms Dictionary Welcome to BalletHub’s Ballet Terms Dictionary. Here you can find and browse our online dictionary for ballet terms. Every ballet term will include it’s definition and a simple explanation possibly along with picture and video demonstration by professional ballet dancers. You can find new entries weekly until our entire ballet term dictionary is complete with all ballet terms! A Allégro In ballet, allégro is a term applied to bright, fast or brisk steps and movement. All steps where the dancer jumps are considered allégro, such as sautés, jetés, cabrioles, assemblés, and so on. Allégro in Ballet Class In ballet class, allégro combinations are usually done toward the last part of class, as the dancer is […] Arabesque In ballet, arabesque is a position where the body is supported on one leg, with the other leg extended directly behind the body with a straight knee. The standing leg can be straight or in plie, but the back leg must always be straight. Arabesque can be found in almost every aspect of a ballet, both […] Assemblé An assemblé in classical ballet has many different variations, but the basics are always the same: two legs joining together in the air. In a basic form, an assemblé is when one foot slides along the floor before brushing into the air. As the foot goes into the air, the dancer then jumps by pushing into […] Attitude An attitude in classical ballet is a position where the dancer is standing on one leg with the other lifted, usually to the front (devant) or back (derrière). The leg in the air is bent at the knee so that it forms roughly a 145 degree angle. The attitude position is commonly seen throughout many […] Avant, en En avant in classical ballet refers to the direction of the execution for a step, specifically moving forward or to the front. En avant is not an actual step or position itself and is almost always used with other terms, such as tendu en avant, which would mean to tendu directly toward the front. Adagio In ballet, Adagio refers to slow movement, typically performed with the greatest amount of grace and fluidity than other movements of dance. Adagio in Ballet Class In a classical ballet class, an adagio combination or lesson will concentrate on slow movement to help improve a dancer’s ability to control leg movement and extension, all while […] B Balançoire Balançoire is a ballet term applied to exercises such as grande battements or degagés. When a dancer is doing a combination with balançoire, they will repeatedly swing their leg from front to back and may tilt their upper body slightly forward or backwards, opposite to the direction their leg is moving. Ballerina The term ballerina is originally meant as the rank of a principal female dancer in a ballet company. When it was originally used, this meant that not every female dancer in the ballet company was considered a ballerina, and instead by their rank or simply as “a ballet dancer”. Today, a leading female ballet dancer is […] Ballerino Ballerino is used in Italian for a “male dancer” who dances principal roles in a ballet company. As ballerino is not commonly used in English speaking countries, it doesn’t hold much regard or honor as the term ballerina does and is sometimes used sarcastically to describe a male dancer. Today, boys or men who dance […] Ballet blanc Ballet blanc is a term often applied to any ballet where the dancers wear traditional “romantic” tutus of white color, originally designed by Eugène Lami for Marie Tagliono in the ballet “La Sylphide.” Other examples of white ballets include Giselle and Les Sylphides. Battement Développé Battement Développé is a classical ballet term meaning “battement developed.” From a fifth position, the dancer moves their working foot up to a retiré position and opens to the front, side or back with a deliberate motion. A battement développé finishes by closing back into fifth position. Battement Fondu Battement Fondu is a classical ballet term meaning “battement sinking down.” During a battement fondu, a dancer’s supporting leg is slowly bent in fondu with the working foot pointing on the ankle. As the dancer’s supporting leg straightens, the working leg also extends to a straight position in the air or with the toes on […] Battement jeté, grand Grand Battement Jeté is a classical ballet term meaning a “large battement thrown.” Grand battement jeté is often used in the russian school to better describe how a grand battement is “thrown.” Its the idea that the working leg quickly gets to the top of the position as opposed to slowly. A quicker grand battement […] Batterie Batterie is a classical ballet term that is used to describe all beaten steps or steps with beats as a group. For instance, a jeté battu and a cabriolé are examples of batterie because there is a beating of the dancer’s legs when performing those steps. Battu Battu is a classical ballet term that means “beaten.” Any step in classical ballet that is made more technically difficult by adding a beating of the legs in the middle of the jump or step is considered battu. For example, a jeté battu would have the dancer beat their legs once before landing in a […] Ballet Master / Ballet Mistress A ballet master or ballet mistress is a person in a ballet company whose duty is to give a daily company ballet class and rehearse ballets that the dancers will perform. Ballet masters and mistresses are considered part of an “artistic staff” of a ballet company and will usually work very closely with both the […] Ballon Ballon means “to bounce,” and in ballet refers to a dancer showing lightness and ease in jumps. Ballon describes the quality of jump, not the height. A ballet dancer who has great ballon would appear to pause at the height of a jump before descending and landing. Ballon also makes jumps easier overall, because to have […] Balloné The term balloné in classical ballet technique is step where the leg is extended to the second or fourth position (front, side or back) at 45 degrees; then the knee is bent and the foot brough to a sur le cou-de-pied position. At 45 degrees, it is called petit balloné and when done at 90 degrees, […] Barre Barre in classical ballet is a horizontal, often wooden or metal, bar that is fastened to the walls, or free-standing with supports on either side, in a rehearsal studio or class room. While doing barre exercises, a dancer will stand and hold on to the barre for additional support. Every ballet class begins with exercises […] Battement Battement is a classical ballet term which means “beating.” When a dancing is doing battement, they are essentially closing their legs in together then opening again or the other way around, staring from a closed position to an open, back to a closed. The “closing” is whats referred to as the battement or “beating.” There […] Battement, Grand Grand Battement is a classical ballet term which means “large battement.” A dancer performs a grand battement by throwing the working leg into the air from the hip and brings it back down to a position, typically fifth position. While doing a grand battement a dancer keeps both legs straight while the rest of the […] Battement Arrondi Battement Arrondi is a classical ballet term that means “rounded battement.” This term describes a step when the toes of a dancer’s working foot move in a semi-circle in the air, at about 45 degrees starting from front to back(en dehors) or back to front (en dedans). Commonly in ronde jambe exercises at barre, a […] Battement Battu Battement Battu is a classical ballet term which means “beaten battement.” Battement battu is done by placing your working foot in a sur cou-de-pied position and taping the opposite leg’s ankle devant or derriere (back or front). Battement Battu in Ballet Class Battement Battu is typically done at barre, during a frappé exercise. Battement Battu […] Battement Dégagé Battement Dégagé is a classical ballet term meaning “disengaged battement.” Usually used in Cecchetti technique, a battement dégagé is very similar to a battement tendu but done at twice the speed, with the working foot rising about 4 inches off the floor. Brisé Brisé is a classical ballet term meaning “broken” or “breaking.” A brisé is when a dancer takes off from one or two feet, jumps and beat their legs and ends on one or two feet. Brisé is either done from fifth or fourth position and can travel forwards or backwards. Basically, a brisé looks like […] Brisé Volé Brisé Volé is a classical ballet term that means “flying brise.” Basically, a brisé volé is when a dancer alternates between brisé front and back in succession. Each time the dancer jumps and lands, it is on one leg. Brisé Volé on Stage Brisé Volé is commonly seen on stage by males, particularly Bournonville ballets. […] Balancé A balancé in ballet is a step where a dancer moves while alternating balance between their feet. The rhythm is usually in three counts like a waltz and has the motion of going “down, up, down” with their legs. Typically a dancer starts in a fifth or “b-plus” position (the front foot straight and back leg […] C Cabriole Cabriole is a classical ballet term meaning “caper.” In a cabriole, a dancer jumps in the air off one leg as the other is thrown upwards, as the bottom leg raises to meet and beat with the top leg, the top leg continues to go higher as the bottom leg returns to the floor. A […] Cabriole, double A Double Cabriole is a classical ballet term given to the step where the beating of a cabriole happens twice in the air before landing. A double cabriole is almost always done by men in classical ballet and extremely rarely by women. Cabriole Fermée Cabriole Fermée is a classical ballet term meaning “closed cabriole.” The beginning and middle is the same as a standard cabriole except that a cabriole fermée has the working leg close into fifth position. A cabriole fermée is somewhat common in petit and grand allegro exercises in a ballet class. On stage, it is more […] Cavalier Cavalier is a classical ballet term that refers to the male partner of a ballerina. While this may be the general definition, the role of the cavalier is often referenced to the partner of the Sugar Plum Fairy in The Nutcracker. While this may cause a little confusion, the definition can be more understood to […] Cecchetti Cecchetti used in conversation or teaching of classical ballet refers to the Cecchetti method or possibly the founder of the method, Enrico Cecchetti. Much like other methods or syllabus in ballet, Cecchetti refers to specific way or style for classical ballet technique. These methods can be thought of a sub-technique or sub-style of the overall […] Center, the “The Center” is a classical ballet term which typically refers to the portion of class where the exercises are done away from the barre and in the center of the room. Teachers can often be heard saying “Okay, now let’s come to center.” Chaînés Chaînés is a classical ballet term that means “chains” or “links.” When a dancer is doing chaînés or “chaîné turns” What do Chaînés Look Like Chaînés or “chaîné turns” is when a dancer is performing a series of turns on both feet, picking up each foot back and forth in order to keep moving in […] Changé Changé is a classical ballet term meaning “changed.” A changé is not a step on its own, instead it is added on to names of other steps to describe a dancer’s feet changing places. Simply, if the right foot started in front at the beginning of the step, but is now in the back with […] Changement Changement is a classical ballet term meaning “change” but as a jump. What does a Changement look like A changement is when a dancer performs a jump from fifth position with the feet, jumping and changing the foot position in the air so they land with the opposite foot in front. So a dancer performing […] Chassé Chassé is a classical ballet term meaning “to chase.” Chassé is considered a basic step and is commonly seen throughout ballet and other forms of dance. What does a Chassé look like When a dancer is doing a chassé, they have one foot extended forward, the back foot then “chases” and meets up with the front […] Chassé en tournant Chassé en tournant is a classical ballet term meaning “chase, turning.” This is when a dancer performs a chassé but does a single turn in the air as the feet and legs come together, then lands on the back leg with the front leg extended front. Like chassés, chassé en tournants can be done in […] Choreographer A Choreographer is the term or title for a person who creates ballets or dances. To be a choreographer, you must create original dances or choreographic works, but the steps themselves do not necessarily need to be inventive. Meaning, a dance made by a “ballet choreographer” will contain tons of steps that are part of […] Choreography Choreography is a classical ballet term assigned to the actual steps, patterns and grouping of steps that make up a ballet or dance. While it is used in classical ballet, the term choreography is used to describe steps in a dance for every single form of dance. Choreography can describe anything from the first ballet created […] Cinq Cinq is a classical ballet term simply meaning “five.” Cinq is a direct translation and means nothing more than the number five. For example, an entrechat cinq describes a jump that the legs together beat 5 times. Or pas de cinq, would describe a dance for five ballet dancers. Class Class or ballet class is a lesson taken by a dancer or ballet dancer. For serious students or professional dancers, class is taken at least once daily, usually five or six days out of the week. For a student, dedication and resources to take a daily class is practically necessary for any hope at a […] Classical Ballet The term Classical Ballet has a couple meanings. It can be used to describe a style as well as a type of ballet. As a style of ballet, the term classical ballet is used to describe the traditional style of ballet, which features the academic technique developed and taught over the centuries. As a type […] Classical Walking A classical walk or walking classically describes the way a ballet dancer may walk in a ballet. Walking that is done “classically” is often done to show nobility or to look regal. A classical walk is always, or should, be done by a ballerina and her partner in principal roles as they move around stage. […] Cloche, en En cloche is a ballet term that means “like a bell.” It is usually used as “battement en cloche“ which has the dancer going back and forth between battement front and back, passing through first position. En cloche gets the term because as the leg goes back and forth between front and back positions, it […] Coda A Coda is a classical ballet term that refers to the finale of a group of dancers and more often, the finale of a pas de deux. In the typical structure of a pas de deux in classical ballet, the coda is the fourth section, having just followed the female’s variation. In a pas de […] Compound Step A Compound Step in classical ballet is a term used for a step made up of two or more other steps. It is not usually used within a classroom, but basically just explains that a step doesn’t have to be completely original to be called its own step. For example, a brisé is made up […] Contretemps Contretemps is a classical ballet term meaning “beating against time.” A dancer doing a contretemps looks like they are a brisé, but opening their body to the other side at the last moment. It is usually done as a preparatory step, and before the beat of the music the dancer will start a new step. […] Corps de Ballet Corps de Ballet is a classical ballet term that refers to the dancers in a ballet that dance as a group. It is also a rank within a ballet company’s structure. A Corps de Ballet role in a ballet does not usually have a particular name for each person, as opposed to soloist or principal […] Coryphée Coryphée is a classical ballet term that means “leader.” It is only applied to a leader of the corps de ballet, not to a soloist or prinicpal, and is sometimes a rank within very large ballet companies, such as Paris Opera Ballet. The term isn’t widely used nor is a dancer ever signified as “the […] Cou-de-pied, sur le Sur le cou-de-pied is a ballet term meaning “on the ‘neck’ of the foot.” This term is for a position of the foot, not an actual step. The position of sur le cou-de-pied is when the working foot is placed on the other leg between the base of the calf muscle and the top of […] Coupé Coupé is a classical ballet term meaning “cut” or “cutting.” A coupé describes a step where one foot cuts the other foot away, taking its place. Its usually done as an in-between step for a larger step, such as a coupé jeté or a coupé-chassé en tournant (the typical preparation for many big jumps for […] Coupé-jeté en tournant coupé-jeté en tournant is a classical ballet term that is usually called “coupé jeté.” It is an intermediate step that is basically a split jeté with a turn in between. A coupé jeté is usually done as a series en menège, or in a circle, but can also be done as a single step. As […] Coupé-chassé en tournant A coupé-chassé en tournant is a classical ballet term that describes a step where a dancer is turning in the air in a coupé position. More specifically, it is almost always a preparation, especially for men for grand allegro. For example, a male dancer will commonly do a coupé-chassé en tournant before a sauté basque. […] Croisé Croisé is a classical ballet term meaning “crossed.” Croisé is one of the directions of épaulement. Basically, a croisé position is when the legs appear crossed from the audience. This can be done in croisé derriére or croisé efface, or back and front. Croisé is used to describe any position of the body and legs, […] Croix, en En croix is a classical ballet term meaning “in the shape of a cross.” This term is usually used in ballet class and lets a dancer know the step should be done to the front, side and then back. Doing steps en croix can also be done in reverse where they start from the back, […] Csárdás Csárdás is a classical ballet term that is simply the name for the national dance of Hungary. A typical csárdás is has two sections, a slow (lassú) and fast (friska) movement. It was first introduced in ballets as a character dance in the first act of Coppélia in 1870. Csárdás dancers typically wear boots or heeled […] Cuisse is a classical ballet term that means “thighs.” It is used to help the dancer understand where the action of the step should take place. For example, its always used with another term, such as tendu cuisse. D Danseur Danseur is a classical ballet term simply meaning “male dancer.” There are several variations or types of danseur. Premier Danseur means “First Dancer” and is a title for a leading male dancer of a company. The Paris Opera Ballet company uses the rank of premier danseur étoile for their top male position, meaning “First Star […] Dedans, en En Dedans is a classical ballet term meaning “inward.” En dedans is always attached to another ballet term to describe the direction it should move. For example, a pirouette en dedans would mean that a dancer is pushing their back leg to the front and turning “inward” to their supporting leg. Another definition to think […] Dégagé Dégagé is a classical ballet term meaning “disengage.” A dégagé is when a dancer moves their leg off the floor from a position with a pointed foot and straight leg to the front, side or back. It gets its name dégagé because the step is a movement, not a position, where a leg “disengages” from […] Dehors, en En dehors is a classical ballet term meaning “outward.” En dehors is added to other steps and terms to describe which way a step should be moving. For example, a pirouette en dehors would mean that the dancer would turn “outward” away from the supporting leg. Another way to think of en dehors is “from the […] Demi Demi is a classical ballet term meaning “half.” It is the direct translation of the french word and should always be a part of another term. For example, demi-plie, means “half bend at the knees.” Demi is used less commonly for other terms like demi-arabesque, meaning “half arabesque,” or demi-tour, meaning “half-turn.” Derrière Derrière is a classical ballet term meaning “back” or “behind.” Its a term that describes the position or direction for another step or term. For example, a tendu derrière would describe a tendu “to the back” with the back leg from fifth position. Dessous Dessous is a classical ballet term meaning “under.” This a term used with other terms to describe that a leg or arm should pass behind the other. For example, an assemblé dessous would have the working leg close behind the supporting leg in the air. It is the opposite of its counterpart, dessus. Dessus Dessus is a classical ballet term meaning “over.” It describes other steps or terms where the working leg or foot should pass over or infront of the supporting leg. For example, an assemblé dessus would have the working leg (or first leg) close in front of the supporting leg. Dessus is the opposite of dessous. Détourné Détourné is a classical ballet term meaning “turned aside.” A dancer does a détourné by turning once completely around on both feet, on demi-pointe or pointe(for women on pointe of course). As the dancer turns, the feet position are reversed. So if the right foot was in front to start the détourné, it will finish […] Détourné, demi Demi Détourné is a classical ballet term meaning “half turn aside.” A demi détourné is when a dancer will do a half turn on both feet on demi-pointe or pointe, while switching the position of the feet as they finish. It gets its meaning from the ballet terms demi and detourné. A demi detourné is […] Devant Devant is a classical ballet term meaning “in front.” Devant is used along with a step, movement or placing of a limb in front of the body. When used with another step such as tendu devant, it is meant that the working foot is closed in front. Développé Développé is a classical ballet term meaning “to develop,” or “developing movement.” A Développé is a movement where the dancer’s working leg is drawn up to the knee of the supporting leg and extended to an open position. As the working leg is brought up, the standing leg is typically straight while also keeping the […] Divertissement Divertissement is a classical ballet term meaning “enjoyable diversion.” A divertissement is a grouping of dances called “entrées” that are part of classical ballets. These short dances are typically added to a ballet to display more dancers’ talents whether as solos or in a group piece. The divertissement isn’t always necessarily vital or directly related […] E Emboîté Emboîté is a classical ballet term meaning “fitted together.” An emboîté is a type of jeté where the dancer moves and alternates their legs in a bent position, springing from the floor into front attitudes. This step is best shown with a photo or video demonstration which we will have for your soon! Écarté Écarté is a classical ballet term meaning “separated, thrown apart.” It is one of the eight directions of the body. In écarté, (specifically écarté devant) a dancer is facing their entire body to one of the two front corners of their square box. (a box drawn perfectly around the dancer that is has its front […] Échappé Échappé is a classical ballet term meaning “slipping movement” or “escaping.” A dancer does an échappé with their legs and feet. Starting in a closed position, usually fifth position with the feet, the dancer slides both feet out equally into either second or fourth position. A standard échappé is done without the dancer’s feet never […] Effacé Effacé is classical ballet term meaning “shaded.” The term describes another step or pose in which the legs looks open, or not crossed, when seen from the front. You can say that effacé is the opposite of croisé. A dancer can perform a step effacé devant or derriére, and either à terre (on the floor) or […] Extension Extension is an English classical ballet term describing a dancer’s ability to raise and hold a leg extended in the air. Having good extension is particularly important for women in classical ballet, but is also increasingly important for men. Having great and proper extension does not happen over night and is the final product of many […] Entrechat Entrechat is a classical ballet term meaning “interweaving” or “braiding.” It describes when a dancer jumps into the air and beats their legs by changing the position of their legs and feet to the front or back of each other. This beating action with the legs could be described as looking “braided” since each leg […] Entrelacé Entrelacé is a classical ballet term meaning “interlaced.” A dancer performs an entrelacé by battementing one leg to the front while plieing on the other, then jumping and landing on the first leg while completing a half turn in the air. The second leg, or the push off leg, typically ends in an arabesque. An entrelacé […] Enveloppé Enveloppé is a classical ballet term meaning “enveloped.” This step or movement can be considered the opposite of développé. When a dancer performs an enveloppé, they start with the working leg stretched to either the front, side or back. The leg is then brought into either cou-de-pied or passé and then usually closed to fifth position. Épaulment Épaulment is a classical ballet term meaning “shouldering” and describes the placement of a dancer’s shoulders in relation to the lower half of the body. A dancer demonstrating épaulment will slightly twist their torso from the waist upward so that one shoulder has now moved forward and the other back. The head is then turned […] Étoile is a classical ballet term meaning “star.” The term is used as a rank in the Paris Opéra ballet to signify a leading dancer. Étoile is considered the same rank as a principal dancer in other companies. F Frappé Frappé is a classical ballet term meaning “struck.” A frappé is a step almost always done at the barre as an exercise to improve quick and precise movement of the legs feet. To do a frappé, the dancer usually starts with the outside leg in a flexed, turned out position lifted off the floor with […] Fouetté turns Fouetté turns is a classical ballet term meaning “whipped turns.” A fouetté turn is when a dancer, usually female, does a full turn in passe (pirouette), followed by a plie on the standing leg while the retiré leg extends to croise front and rond de jambes to the side (a la seconde). As the leg […] Fouetté Fouetté is a classical ballet term meaning “whipped.” The term fouetté is used with others to describe different steps, however, it almost always describes the quick whipping action of a dancer’s leg or body. Fouetté as a jump For example, a dancer could do a fouetté saute where they jump in the air with a […] Fondu Fondu is a classical ballet term meaning “sinking down.” It describes both the movement and the quality of a dancer where they are doing a plié on a single leg. If you think of a plié being for two legs, a fondu is the same, just for one. Fondu is one of the most beneficial […] Flic-Flac Flic-Flac is a classical ballet term meaning “a crack of a whip.” It describes a ballet dancer “flicking” a foot on the ground and around the standing leg, then another quick hit of the floor to arrive in a coupe position. A flic-flac can be done both en dedans and en dehors and is usually done […] Fish dive A fish dive, or just a “fish,” is a classical ballet term describing a step where the ballerina is in a retiré position and held low to the ground by a male dancer. A fish can be done simply from arabesque where the male places his hands around the ballerina’s waist and under the thigh […] Finger Turns A finger turn is a classical ballet term describing a step where the girl is turning while being partnered by a male dancer. Their only connection during the turn is, as you can guess, by the fingers or hands. A finger turn is typically done with the male dancer slight behind and to the left […] Finale Finale is a term used in classical ballet to mean “the end of a ballet.” Finale is not exclusive to ballet, as its used commonly in English and it’s originating language, Italian, to describe the end of something. In terms of classical ballet, a finale is usually the last dance or section of a ballet […] Fermé Fermé is a classical ballet term meaning “closed.” It is used along with other terms to describe how the legs are or are ending in a step. For example, a sissone fermé is when a dancer jumps into the air in a sissone and closes to both feet in fifth position. This jumping and landing […] Failli Failli is a classical ballet term describing a step where the dancer seems to degage each leg to the front immediately after the other with a small jump. A failli is usually done as a preperation step for jumps and is considered an in-between step. Because of the nature of a failli, it helps a […] Face, en En face is a classical ballet term describing the direction a dancer is facing and is one of the directions of the body. En face means the dancer is facing directly towards the audience. An easy way to remember en face is to think that you’re looking at the audience “face to face”, and if you’re […] G Grande Grande is a classical ballet term meaning “big” or “large.” It is always used to describe another step. For example, grande allegro translates to “big jumps.” Or, grande jete means “big throw.” It is important to know that you don’t simply add “grande” to any word to mean you make it bigger and expect a […] Glissade Glissade is a classical ballet term meaning “glide.” It is a traveling, usually small, jump that is usually used to link other steps together. It can be considered an in-between step. A dancer performs a glissade by plieing in fifth position, sliding (or gliding) one foot out into a degage side. The working leg reaches […] Gargouillade Gargouillade is a classical ballet term meaning “rumbling.” A dancer performs a gargouillade by degageing one leg to the side, then doing a small rond de jambe with that leg while pushing off the floor with the other leg and then doing a rond de jambe with that leg! The rond de jambes must both […] H Haut, en En Haut is a classical ballet term meaning “high.” It is a term used to describe another ballet term that is asked to be done in a high position. Most commonly, it is used with “fifth en haut” which is almost always referring to a high fifth position of the arms. Fifth position en haut […] J Jeté Jeté is a classical ballet term meaning “throwing” or “thrown.” Though often used with another term, jeté usually describes a type of jump where the dancer extends one leg then jumps off the floor with the other. Many jumps are forms of jetés. A jeté in its most simple presentation usually refers to a petit […] Jeté, petit Petit jeté is a classical ballet term meaning “small throw.” It describes a jump where a dancer throws, or brushes, one leg into the air, then pushes off the floor with the other jumping into the air and landing on the first leg. As you may have guessed, a petit jeté is commonly seen in […] Jeté, grand Grand jeté is a classical ballet term meaning “big throw.” It describes a big jump where the dancer throws one leg into the air, pushes off the floor with the other, jumping into the air and landing again on the first leg. A grand jeté is considered a basic grand allegro step that is often […] Jeté battu Jeté battu is a classical ballet term meaning “beaten throw.” It almost always describes a petit jeté that is beaten with straight legs before landing in cou-de-pied. Many intermediate and almost every advanced ballet class will have jeté battu as part of a petite allegro combination. It is often seen on stage as well by […] Jeté entrelacé Jeté entrelacé is a classical ballet term meaning “interlaced throw.” It describes a step where the dancer throws one leg in the air, jumps and brings the other leg up to meet the first leg, while switching their body position half way around, then landing in an arabesque. Many intermediate and advanced ballet classes will […] L Leotard A leotard is a tight fitting clothing piece as part of a practice or performance outfit for dancers that covers the torso and typically straps around the shoulders. Leotards come in many varieties, including differences in sleeve lengths (long-sleeve, mid arm, cap) and straps around the shoulders or back (spaghetti strap, racer back, thick strap). […] Line Line is a classical ballet term that describes the outline of a dancer’s complete body while performing steps or poses. Striving for a “good line” is very essential to the success of a professional dancer or advanced student. The term line is sometimes confused with an actual line, meaning how most people use line as […] M Manèges Manèges is a classical ballet term meaning “circular.” It describes when a dancer does steps in a circular pattern around the stage. Usually, manèges will be a reptetition of one or two steps, but can also be a combination of several. For example, a coupé jeté manèges is typically done by a male dancer in […] Mazurka A mazurka is a polish folk dance that is featured in many classical ballets as a character dance. Mazurkas are typically done in 3/4 time as the musical tempo. A mazurka featured in a classical ballet usually features a group of corps de ballet dancers and a lead, soloist couple. The costumes generally include longer, […] O Ouvert Ouvert is a classical ballet term meaning “open forward.” It is another way to describe a step is done effacé and is the opposite of a step done croisé. For example, a step with the right leg forward will travel toward the right corner of the room. An easy way to remember what the ballet […] P Plié A plié is when a dancer is basically bending at the knees. They are typically done in 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th positions in classical ballet, both at the barre and center in classes. Correct use and development of a plié is a basic but essential movement to a dancer’s technique. Pliés are often seen […] Pas Pas is a classical ballet term meaning “step.” This is why many classical ballet steps begin with pas! Most ballet terms that have pas in the beginning are describing a ballet step that has a transfer of a weight, just like you do every time you take a step as you walk! Simple, right? The […] Pas de couru A pas de couru is a classical ballet term meaning “running step.” It is a very common preparatory step for many grandé allegro jumps such as a grandé jeté. A dancer doing a pas d’couru will look like they’re kicking their legs infront of themselves with a specific rhythm. For example, a dancer will degage […] Pas de action Pas de action, or pas d’action, is a classical ballet term meaning “dance action.” It describes a scene in a ballet where the story is being told through expressive movements, dance and/or mime. Almost every classical ballet has a pas d’action since they are all almost story ballets. Examples of pas d’action include: Giselle, where […] Pas de basque Pas de basque is a classical ballet term meaning “basque step.” It gets its name because the step was taken from the national dances of the Basques. A dancer doing a pas de basque will start in fifth position with the right foot in front. Doing a plié on the left leg, the dancer extends […] Pas de bourrée Pas de bourrée is a classical ballet term meaning “beating steps.” A Pas de bourrée has many forms that mostly relate to the direction the dancer is moving or if the legs are bending or staying straight. It gets its defintion because a dancer doing a pas de bourrée will have his or her legs […] Pas de chat Pas de chat is a classical ballet term meaning “cat’s step.” It gets its name because the step resembles how a cat jumps. A dancer does a pas de chat by starting in fifth position with the right foot in back. The dancer pliés then jumps with the right leg going into a passé (also […] Pas de cheval Pas de cheval is a classical ballet term meaning “horse’s step.” It gets its name because a pas de cheval resembles how a horse pulls in its leg before kicking it out again. When doing a pas de cheval, a dancer will start in fifth position, lift the front leg into cou-de-pied, then extend front […] Pas de deux Pas de deux is a classical ballet term meaning “Dance for two” or “steps for two.” Pas de deux can be used to describe many “dances for two” and is usually used in context or with another word to describe what pas de deux. Often dancers will shorten pas de deux to simply “pas” since […] Pas de quatre Similar to a pas de deux, pas de quatre is a classical ballet term meaning “dance for four.” One of the most famous pas de quatre is the dance of the four little swans, or the “pas de cygnets” in the second act of Swan Lake. This shows the four female dancers with their arms […] Pas de trois Pas de trois is a classical ballet term meaning “dance for three.” Very similar to the idea of a pas de deux, just with one more dancer! A pas de trois usually assumes there is partnering, so at least one male is dancing with two women dancers or two men and one female dancer. There […] Pas de valse Pas de valse is a classical ballet term meaning “waltz step.” It is usually done individually by female dancers, but is sometimes done with a partner. A dancer doing a pas de valse will extend and step one leg as the other brushes front while decorating the step with classical looking port de bras. A […] Passé Passé is a classical ballet term meaning “passed.” It refers to the movement when a dancer goes through a retiré position, which is when one leg is bent so it looks like a triangle with the foot placed near the other leg’s knee. In ballet class, passé is often used instead of retiré to describe […] Penché Penché is a classical ballet term meaning “leaning.” When a dancer is doing or in a penché they are usually bent forward over one leg with the other in arabesque well above 90 degrees. A penché’s arabesque leg can be at many different heights and doesn’t necessarily need to be pointing straight to the ceiling […] Petit, Petite Petit or Petite are classical ballet terms meaning “small.” It is a descriptive term used with other ballet terms to show that the step is done small. For example, petite allegro, means “small jumps,” or a petit jeté means a “small jeté.” Petite is usually used to mean the opposite of grande. Petit is usually […] Pied Pied is a classical ballet term meaning “foot” with its plural from as pieds for “feet.” Its a ballet term that is used with other terms to describe the main action of a dancer’s feet. For example, cou-de-pied means “neck of the foot” and describes a dancer wrapping their foot, or pied, around the top […] Piqué Piqué is a classical ballet term meaning “pricking” and is a descriptive word to be used with other ballet terms. For example, a piqué turn would describe a “pricking turn.” It is meant to describe how a dancer transfers weight onto a leg on full pointe or high demi-pointe which is also known as piqué […] Piqué tour (turn) Piqué tour is a classical ballet term meaning “pricked turn” It is most commonly used as simply “pique turn” which is a very common step for female ballet dancers. A dancer doing a piqué tour, or piqué turn, will step directly on to a full point (when in pointe shoes) or a high demi-pointe right […] Piqué manege Piqué manege is a common classical ballet term meaning “piqués in a circle.” It is a shortened term that usually means “pique turns in a circle” or a “pique turn menage.” A piqué manege is usually done in ballet class by female ballet dancers and is very commonly done in performances in female variations by […] Pirouette Pirouette is a classical ballet term meaning “spin.” It describes when a dancer is turning around one leg with the other off the ground and in a position, most commonly in passé. A pirouette can be done either en dedans, turning in towards the supporting leg that the dancer is turning on, or en dehors, […] Pirouette a la seconde Pirouette a la seconde is a classical ballet term meaning a “spin with leg to the side” or “spin with leg in second position.” A dancing performing a pirouette a la seconde will be turning on their supporting leg with their other leg to the side and straight with a pointed foot. It can be […] Promenade Promenade is a classical ballet term meaning “a walk.” A promenade is when a dancer turns around on one leg with the standing leg’s heel on the floor, while the other leg is in a position such as an arabesque or attitude derriere. It is different than a pirouette, where a dancer is on releve […] Préparation Préparation is a classical ballet term simply meaning preparation! A preparation step is a position or movement in ballet that prepares a dancer for another, usually more difficult, step. One of the best examples of préparation is when a dancer does a plié in fourth position before a pirouette en dehors. Another good example would […] Pirouette en dedans A pirouette en dedans is a classical ballet term that describes a pirouette turning inward toward the standing leg. For example, if a dancer is turning on the right leg, the dancer will be turning to the right in an en dedans pirouette. Pirouettes en dedans are an intermediate ballet step but very commonly seen […] Pirouette en dehors A pirouette en dehors is a classical ballet term meaning “a spin, turning outward” and describes when a dancer turns toward the direction of the leg they lift into the turning position. For example, a dancer with their left foot in front, will lift the right foot into the pirouette and also turn to the […] Placement Placement is a ballet term used to describe the specific position in space a dancer should have their body, arms, legs, feet, hips, hands, fingers, and so on. For example, a dancer may be given a correction to work on “placement of your head” if their head isn’t facing the correct direction for a step. […] Pointe Shoes Pointe shoes are the shoes that ballerinas wear to be safely supported and dance on the tips of their toes in classical and contemporary ballet. They are possibly the most recognizable object aside from a tutu relating to ballet. Today, pointe shoes are made using several different materials including glue, fabrics, threads, and wood. The […] Polonaise A polonaise is a dance within a classical ballet done in 3/4 time. It is most often seen as a processional dance in ballets like Swan Lake or The Sleeping Beauty where there are royal courts leaving, or sometimes entering, a scene. When doing a polonaise step, a dancer take two steps forward on demi-pointe, […] Port de Bras Port de bras is a classical ballet term meaning “movement of the arms.” It describes how dancers move their arms from one position to another. For example, if a ballerina moves her arms from first position to fifth position, that is considered a port de bras. When doing proper port de bras, dancers will move […] Régisseur Régisseur is a classical ballet term that is a title for someone who restages or rehearses a ballet company. Depending on the size of the ballet company, there may not be a specific title of a régisseur with all of the rehearsing or restaging left up to the ballet masters or mistresses. A régisseur may […] Relevé Relevé is a classical ballet term meaning “raised.” It describes the action when a dancer rises up and seemingly is standing “on their toes” in a demi-pointe or a fully en pointe. Relevé is a ballet step that is taught to beginner’s in some of the earliest classes. It can be done in many different […] Relevé lent Relevé lent is a classical ballet term meaning “slow raising.” It is usually used in the Russian Schools of ballet. It describes when a dancer starts in one of the basic ballet positions of the feet with straight legs, then lifts one leg off the floor while raising up to relevé on the supporting leg […] Renverse A ballet dancer performing a renverse will bend their body from the waist,both sideways and backwards, with the head following the movement of the body. A renverse takes place during a turn and only applies to three steps: a pirouette, a pas de bourree en tournant and a detourne. There are different types of […] Retire Often called passe, retire is actually the position in which a ballet dancer raises their thigh en l’air with the knee bent so that the pointed foot is placed either in front, behind or to the side of the supporting knee. The difference between passe and retire is that passe is the actual movement in […] Reverence, grande A grande reverence is the elaborate curtsy performed by a female dancer after a performance to acknowledge the applause of the audience. Students, both male and female dancers, can also perform a grande reverence at the end of class to show respect to their teacher (and, if present, piano accompanist). The grande reverence exercise is […] Rivoltade Rivoltade is a classical ballet term meaning “to turn over.” The definition of this ballet term matches pretty well with the overall look of the step. A male dancer performing a rivoltade will battement one leg in the air and then jumps over it with the other leg. A rivoltade may be executed from many […] Rolling in Ballet dancers who struggle with turn-out will often try to force their legs and feet into a turned out position, often causing the ankles to roll in. If there is too much weight on the inside of a dancer’s foot it is called rolling in and is not the correct way for ballet dancers to […] Romantic ballet A romantic ballet is a style of ballet which was largely produced during the early nineteenth century. Romantic ballets have a strong focus on presenting a mood and cast of different characters to tell a story. They are often performed in romantic tutus, which are long tulle skirt that either goes to the knees or […] Rond Rond is a ballet term meaning “round” or “circular.” It is often seen at the beginning of other steps and simply describes their circular or rounding movement. For example, at the barre, it is very common for a dancer to perform a series of rond de jambes en l’air as an exercise. Rond de Bras Rond de Bras is a classical ballet term meaning “circles of the arms.” It simply describes the overall picture and roundness of a ballet dancer’s position of the arms arms such as first positions, or fifth position of the arms. Generally, rond de bras is not a very commonly used ballet term. Rond de Jambe Rond de Jambe is a classical ballet term meaning “round of the leg” or “circular movements of the leg.” A Rond de jambe is a very common step and is seen done in various forms throughout ballet class and performances by both male and female ballet dancers. Ronds de jambe, as a step, can be […] Royale Royale is a classical ballet term that describes when a dancer jumps in the air and beats their legs once before changing the position of their feet and landing. When the dancer lands this jump, the leg that started in front should now be in back. A royale is considered a petit allegro or medium […] Sauté Sauté is a classical ballet term that can be used alone or with another term to mean the step is performed while jumping. When used alone, it simply means “jump” and may be often repeated by a teacher during a combination in a ballet class… “Sauté, sauté, sauté, close fifth!” Two examples of it being […] Seconde, à la À la seconde in classical ballet typically goes along with another term to indicate that it should be done with the feet in second position or the step should be done “to the side.” For example, tendu à la seconde would mean a tendu to the side. Sur les Pointes Sur les Pointes is a classical ballet term that means “on the points” or on the tips of a dancer’s toes wearing pointe shoes. It is another way of saying a step is done “en pointe.” Ballet technique formed without the term or steps being done sur les pointes because pointe shoes were not yet […] Spotting Spotting is a ballet term that describes the action of a dancer’s head while turning. Learning how to spot correctly is a very important part of technique in all forms of dance, especially in classical ballet. When spotting correctly, a dancer becomes much less dizzy (if at all) while turning, allowing for many turns in […] Soutenu Soutenu is a classical ballet term meaning “sustained” and describes a ballet dancer turning in a sus-sous or fifth position en pointe and ending up with the opposite foot in front. It is commonly done in both classes and on stage during performances by both beginner and professional dancers. A dancer will most commonly learn […] Sus-sous Sus-sous, or sous-sus, is a classical ballet term that translates to “over-under” and describes when a dancer springs onto releve demi-pointe or pointe, quickly placing the back foot more closely behind the front in fifth position with fully stretched legs. The look a dancer having finished a sus-sous is a releve in a fifth position […] Soubresaut Soubresaut is a classical ballet term describing when a dancer performs a quick jump from two feet and lands on two feet in fifth position, traveling slightly forward during the jump. This jump is usually seen in all levels of ballet classes from beginner to professional levels by both male and female dancers. It can […] Sissonne Sissonne is a classical ballet term that describes a dancer jumping from two feet and splitting their legs “like scissors” in the air before landing. It is a very common and popular ballet step, seen in performances and throughout classes of most skill levels. A sissonne in its most simplest form is commonly taught to […] Sickling Sickling is a ballet term that is used to describe a dancer’s foot that is incorrectly placed or pointed, causing it to look curved inwards when looking at the front view of the leg. A dancer will often receive the correction of sickling many times thought out training and even into professional careers. A sickled […] Saut de Basque Saut de basque is a classical ballet term that describes a traveling jump in which the dancer jumps and turns in the air with one leg placed in a retire position. A dancer first grande battements one leg (leaving it straight in the jump), as they push off the floor with the other leg and […] Saut de Chat Saut de chat is a classical ballet term that describes a type of jump. Which jump in particular, depends on the school of technique. Saut de chat in the French School In the french school, saut de chat translates to “cat’s jump” which is similar to an Italian pas de chat. A dancer performing a […] Supporting Leg Supporting leg is a classical ballet term that describes a dancer’s leg that is supporting their whole body while the other leg is free to do another step. A dancer’s supporting leg is often called a “standing leg.” For example, if a dancer is in retire with their right leg during a pirouette, their supporting […]	Jete
Which city is home to the world's oldest stock exchange?	Different Leaps in Dance \| eHow Different Leaps in Dance Aicho Dance image by jj from Fotolia.com Jumps and leaps add elements of surprise, danger and gymnastic dazzle to dance routines. A well-executed leap can leave an impact on audiences. Most of these leaps are found in classical and contemporary ballet, modern dance, lyrical dance and jazz, though choreographers and elite dancers constantly invent new ways to make the body soar through the air. Men and women both perform these leaps. Grande Jeté A dancer can perform this classic leap in two ways, as a "grande jeté" or a "saut de chat." In the first the dancer leaps forward with both legs straight. The goal is to have a flat, 180 degree leap with both legs in the splits in the air, with legs parallel to the floor. In the saut de chat, the front leg starts bent and stretches to a straight leg while in the air. A variant is the Spanish style leap when the dancer arches back and kicks the back leg up towards her head. This is found in Spanish-themed ballets such as Don Quixote. Dancer in silhouette performing a grande jeté Switch leaps Switch leaps start like a grande jeté and switch in the air. The dancer must have the height in his jump to make the switch pronounced in the air, and must have great power when he leaves the floor to enable the legs to move while airborne. Tour Jeté A tour jeté or jeté en tournant is a turning leap. The dancer prepares toward the back of the stage and lifts one leg high in the air, then lands on the ground with the other leg. The legs should be straight, go as high as possible, and brush against one another as they pass each other in the turn. Straddle Leap A straddle leap is also called a Russian leap and is mostly found in jazz dance. The dancer does a preparation to the side, facing the audience and leaps so that both legs are extended out in a side splits or straddle position. The challenge is to make both legs symmetrical while in the air and to land gracefully. Supported Leaps Supported leaps are common in classical ballet, contact improvisation, jazz, and modern dance. Sometimes a dancer uses a partner to help her get off the ground or to catch her at the end of a leap. Support in a leap can prolong the position of the body while in the air and make the dancer go higher. Pas de Chat "Pas de chat" means "cat's step" in French. A pas de chat is a small leap, performed directly to the front of the stage, requiring turned-out legs and sharp articulation of pointed feet. One leg lifts with the knee bent and the other leg lifts immediately after to form a "squat" position briefly in the air before landing. The objective in a pas de chat is to be as high in the air as possible, and to stay in that position as long as you can, appearing to defy gravity. The Ballet Companion; Eliza Gaynor Minden; 2005 Suki Schorer on Balanchine Technique; Suki Schorer; 1999	i don't know
In 1799, which British Prime Minister introduced a new Income Tax to help finance the war against France?	William Pitt the Younger William Pitt the Younger William Pitt the Younger William Pitt the Younger William Pitt was born at Hayes , Kent on 28th May 1759. He suffered from poor health and was educated at home. His father, William Pitt , Earl of Chatham, was the former M.P. for Old Sarum and one of the most important politicians of the period. The Earl of Chatham was determined that his son would eventually become a member of the House of Commons and at an early age William was given lessons on how to become an effective orator. When William was fourteen he was sent to Pembroke Hall , Cambridge . His health remained poor and he spent most of the time with his tutor, the Rev. George Pretyman . William, who studied Latin and Greek, received his M.A. in 1776. William grew up with a strong interest in politics and spent much of his spare time watching debates in parliament. On 7th April 1778 he was present when his father collapsed while making a speech in the House of Lords and helped to carry his dying father from the chamber. In 1781 Sir James Lowther arranged for William Pitt to become the M.P. for Appleby . He made his first speech in the House of Commons on 26th February, 1781. William Pitt had been well trained and afterwards, Lord North , the prime minister, described it as the "best speech" that he had ever heard. Soon after entering the Commons, William Pitt came under the influence of Charles Fox , Britain's leading Whig politician. Pitt joined Fox in his campaign for peace with the American colonies. On 12th June he made a speech where Pitt insisted that this was an "unjust war" and urged Lord North's government to bring it to an end. Pitt also took an interest in the way that Britain elected Members of Parliament. He was especially critical of the way that the monarchy used the system to influence those in Parliament. Pitt argued that parliamentary reform was necessary for the preservation of liberty. In June 1782 Pitt supported a motion for shortening the duration of parliament and for measures that would reduce the chances of government ministers being bribed. When Lord Frederick North's government fell in March 1782, Charles Fox became Foreign Secretary in Rockingham's Whig government. Fox left the government in July 1782, as he was unwilling to serve under the new prime minister, Lord Sherburne. Short of people willing to serve him, Sherburne appointed the twenty-three year old Pitt as his Chancellor of the Exchequer. Fox interpreted Pitt's acceptance of this post as a betrayal and after this the two men became bitter enemies. On the 31st March, 1783, Pitt resigned and declared that he was "unconnected with any party whatever". Now out of power, Pitt turned his attention once more to parliamentary reform. On 7th May he proposed a plan that included: (1) checking bribery at elections; (2) disfranchising corrupt constituencies; (3) adding to the number of members for London . His proposals were defeated by 293 to 149. Another bill that he introduced on 2nd June for restricting abuses in public office was passed by the House of Commons but rejected by the House of Lords . In Parliament he opposed Charles Fox's India Bill. Fox responded by making fun of Pitt's youth and inexperience and accusing him of following "the headlong course of ambition". George III was furious when the India Bill was passed by the House of Commons . The king warned members of the House of Lords that he would regard any one who voted for the bill as his enemy. Unwilling to upset the king, the Lords rejected the bill by 95 votes to 76. The Duke of Portland's administration resigned and on 19th December, 1783, the king invited William Pitt to form a new government. At the age of only twenty-four, Pitt became Britain's youngest prime minister. When it was announced that Pitt had accepted the king's invitation, the news was received in the House of Commons with derisive laughter. Pitt had great difficulty finding enough people to join his government. Except for himself, his cabinet of seven contained no members of the House of Commons. Charles Fox led the attack on Pitt and although defeated in votes several times in the Commons, he refused to resign. After building up his popularity in the country, Pitt called a general election on 24th March, 1784. Pitt's timing was perfect and 160 of Fox's supporters were defeated at the polls. Pitt himself stood for the seat of Cambridge University . Pitt now had a majority in the House of Commons and was able to persuade parliament to pass a series of measures including the India Act that established dual control of the East India Company . Pitt also attacked the serious problem of smuggling by reducing duties on those goods that were mainly being imported illegally into Britain. The success of this measure established his reputation as a shrewd politician. In April 1785 Pitt proposed a bill that would bring an end to thirty-six rotten boroughs and to transfer the seventy-two seats to those areas where the population was growing. Although Pitt spoke in favour of reform, he refused to warn the House of Commons that he would resign if the measure was defeated. The Commons came to the conclusion that Pitt did not feel strongly about reform and when the vote was taken it was defeated by 248 votes to 174. Pitt accepted the decision of the Commons and never made another attempt to introduce parliamentary reform. The general election of October 1790 gave Pitt's government an increased majority. For the next few years Pitt was occupied with Britain's relationship with France . Pitt had initially viewed the French Revolution as a domestic issue which did not concern Britain. However, Pitt became worried when parliamentary reform groups in Britain appeared to be in contact with French revolutionaries. Pitt responded by issuing a proclamation against seditious writings. When Pitt heard that King Louis XVI had been executed in January 1793, he expelled the French Ambassador. In the House of Common's Charles Fox and his small group of supporters attacked Pitt for not doing enough to preserve peace with France . Fox therefore blamed Pitt when France declared war on Britain on 1st February, 1793. Pitt's attitude towards political reform changed dramatically after war was declared. In May 1793 Pitt brought in a bill suspending Habeas Corpus . Although denounced by Charles Fox and his supporters, the bill was passed by the House of Commons in twenty-four hours. Those advocating parliamentary reform were arrested and charged with sedition. Tom Paine managed to escape but others such as Thomas Hardy , John Thellwall and Thomas Muir were imprisoned. Pitt decided to form a great European coalition against France and between March and October 1793 he concluded alliances with Russia, Prussia, Austria, Spain, Portugal and some German princes. At first these tactics were successful but during 1794 Britain and her allies suffered a series of defeats. To pay for the war, Pitt was forced to increase taxation and to raise a loan of £18 million. This problem was made worse by a series of bad harvests. When going to open parliament in October 1795, George III was greeted with cries of 'Bread', 'Peace' and 'no Pitt'. Missiles were also thrown and so Pitt immediately decided to pass a new Sedition Bill that redefined the law of treason. Britain's continuing financial difficulties convinced Pitt to seek peace with France . These peace proposals were rejected by the French in May 1796 and William Pitt once again had to introduce new taxes. This included duties on horses and tobacco. The following year Pitt introduced additional taxes on tea, sugar and spirits. Even so, by November 1797, Britain had a budget deficit of £22 million. On several occasions Pitt was in physical danger from angry mobs and he had to be constantly protected by an armed guard. Pitt's health began to deteriorate and newspapers began reporting that the prime minister had suffered a mental breakdown and was insane. Pitt responded by passing new laws that enabled the government to suppress and regulate newspapers . Britain's financial problems continued and in his budget of December 1798 William Pitt introduced a new graduated income tax. Beginning with a 120th tax on incomes of £60 and rising by degrees until it reached 10% on incomes of over £200. Pitt believed that this income tax would raise £10 million but in fact in 1799 the yield was just over £6 million. James Gillray , William Pitt's Policy of Income Tax (1799) In 1797 Pitt appointed Lord Castlereagh as his Irish chief secretary. This was a time of great turmoil in Ireland and in the following year Castlereagh played an important role in crushing the Irish uprising. Castlereagh and Pitt became convinced that the best way of dealing with the religious conflicts in Ireland was to unite the country with the rest of Britain under a single Parliament. The policy was unpopular with the borough proprietors and the members of the Irish Parliament who had spent large sums of money purchasing their seats. Castlereagh appealed to the Catholic majority and made it clear that after the Act of Union the government would grant them legal equality with the Protestant minority. After the government paid compensation to the borough proprietors and promising pensions, official posts and titles to members of the Irish Parliament, the Act of Union was passed in 1801. George III disagreed with Pitt and Castlereagh's policy of Catholic Emancipation . When Pitt discovered that the king had approached Henry Addington to become his prime minister, he resigned from office. Although Pitt had been paid £10,500 a year as prime minister, he was now deeply in debt and for a while he feared that he would be declared bankrupt. A group of friends agreed to help but it was only after selling his family home that he was able to satisfy his creditors. In May 1804 Henry Addington resigned from office and once again William Pitt became prime minister. Lord Castlereagh was appointed Secretary for War but many leading politicians, including Charles Fox , refused to serve under Pitt. Out of the twelve man cabinet, only Pitt and Castlereagh were from the House of Commons . With Napoleon planning to invade England, Pitt quickly formed a new coalition with Russia, Austria and Sweden. When the French were defeated at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21st October 1805, Pitt was hailed as the savior of Europe. However, Napoleon fought back and in December, 1805 he triumphed over the Russians and Austrians at Austerlitz . Pitt was devastated by the news of Napoleon's victory and soon after was taken seriously ill. William Pitt died on 16th January, 1806. He was so heavily in debt that the House of Commons had to raise £40,000 to pay off his creditors.	William Pitt the Younger
Before Bill Clinton, who was the last Democrat President of America?	BBC - History - British History in depth: Prime Ministers and Politics Timeline On This Day Prime Ministers and Politics Timeline Do you know which prime minister brought 'fallen women' to 10 Downing Street? Or which one fought a duel? Or who was known as 'the Goat'? Take a political journey through nearly 300 years of high ideals and low cunning, from Gordon Brown to the first man to hold prime ministerial powers, Robert Walpole. Margaret Thatcher Conservative, 1979 - 1990 Britain's first female prime minister came to power with the country descending into industrial and economic chaos. A relatively inexperienced politician, she nonetheless adopted a personal style of indomitable self-confidence and brooked no weakness in herself or her colleagues. Derisively dubbed the 'Iron Lady' by the Soviet press, she wore the moniker with pride. Her government's free-market policies included trade liberalisation, deregulation, sweeping privatisation, breaking the power of the unions, focus on the individual and the creation of an 'enterprise culture'. 'Thatcherism' has had a profound and lasting economic and social impact on Britain, and still sharply divides opinion to this day. The first PM to serve three consecutive terms (including two 'landslide' victories) she was eventually toppled by her own party following the disastrous imposition of a 'poll tax'. Nonetheless, she is generally considered to be one of the best peace time prime ministers of the 20th Century. James Callaghan Labour, 1976 - 1979 Callaghan inherited the office of prime minister following the surprise resignation of Harold Wilson. With only a tiny parliamentary majority to support him, he faced an increasingly one-sided confrontation with organised labour in the form of rampant strike action. Things came to a head in the so-called 'Winter of Discontent', a phrase from Shakespeare borrowed by Callaghan himself to describe the events leading up to February 1979. Britain was 'strikebound', with public servants staging mass walk outs, leaving food and fuel supplies undelivered, rubbish uncollected and - most notoriously - bodies unburied. Things became so bad in Hull it was dubbed 'the second Stalingrad'. The tabloid press has since been accused of overstating the severity of the situation (and wrongly quoting him as saying 'Crisis? What Crisis?') but it was enough at the time to sound the death knell for Callaghan's government later in the same year. Harold Wilson Labour, 1974 - 1976 In March 1974, Wilson became prime minister for the third time at the head of a minority government, following the first hung parliament (one where no party holds a majority) for 45 years. Often described as a wily fixer and negotiator, it took all of his skills to hold on to power in the face of economic and industrial turmoil. His party was also sharply divided, with many Labour members of parliament (MPs) bitter about Wilson's manoeuvring against his colleagues. He called another general election in October 1974, thereby ending the shortest parliament since 1681, and was returned to office with a majority of just three seats. He presided over a referendum on Britain's membership of the European Economic Community (EEC), and a collapse in the value of the pound which prompted a humiliating 'rescue operation' by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Exhausted, Wilson resigned saying 'politicians should not go on and on'. Edward Heath Conservative, 1970 - 1974 Heath succeeded in taking Britain into the European Economic Community (EEC), the precursor to the European Union, despite two previous failed attempts by Britain to gain entry, in 1961 and 1967. But his government was dogged by torrid industrial relations and recurrent economic crises. Things came to a head in January 1974, when industry was put on a 'three-day week' to conserve fuel. Fuel was in dangerously short supply following a combination of domestic industrial action (coal miners on 'work-to-rule') and a quadrupling of prices by Middle Eastern oil exporting nations in the wake of Israel's victory in the Yom Kippur War. In March 1974, Heath called a general election on the question of 'who governs Britain?' - the unions, or the elected representatives of the people. To his surprise the result was a hung parliament (one where no party holds a majority) and he was ousted. Harold Wilson Labour, 1964 - 1970 In 1964, 'Good old Mr Wilson' - an avuncular, pipe-smoking figure - came to power amid much excitement and optimism. He had promised a 'new Britain' forged in 'the white heat of a second industrial revolution'. In reality, his administration never escaped from a cycle of economic crises, vainly battling against further devaluations of the pound. Wilson won a second general election in 1966 (the year England lifted the football World Cup) making him the first Labour PM to serve consecutive terms. In 1967, the government failed in its application for membership of the European Economic Community (EEC) and was also finally forced to devalue sterling. The electorate became disillusioned with Wilson, who lost narrowly to the Conservatives in the 1970 election. Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Conservative, 1963 - 1964 In 1963, a change in the law allowed hereditary peers to disclaim (or 'drop') their titles, which in turn meant they were able to become members of parliament (MPs). The only peer ever to do so and become prime minister was Douglas-Home, formerly the 14th Earl of Home, who assumed the office when Harold Macmillan retired due to ill health. He was the first prime minister in the post-war period not to win his own mandate (be elected or re-elected by popular vote). Harold Macmillan, Conservative, 1957 - 1963 Macmillan came to power at a time when Britain was confronting its loss of world-power status and facing mounting economic troubles. Nonetheless, he successfully associated the Conservatives with a new age of affluence and the burgeoning consumer revolution. But his oft-quoted assurance 'You've never had it so good' actually finishes 'What is beginning to worry some of us is, is it too good to be true?'. His government is principally remembered for the so-called 'Profumo Affair', a sex scandal that erupted in 1963 and contributed to the Conservatives' defeat at the general election the following year. Secretary of State for War John Profumo had been having an affair with a showgirl who was also seeing the Soviet naval attaché to London - a serious transgression at the height of the Cold War. After lying to the House of Commons, Profumo admitted the truth in June 1963 and resigned in disgrace. Macmillan resigned due to ill health in October the same year. Sir Anthony Eden, Conservative, 1955 - 1957 When Sir Winston Churchill retired due to ill health, Eden took over as prime minister. Many years before, Churchill had anointed Eden as his successor, but later acknowledged he had made 'a great mistake'. His opinion was born out as the new PM blundered into the Suez Crisis. Following Egypt's decision to nationalise the Suez canal, Britain (the principal shareholder), France and Israel invaded in October 1956 to near-universal condemnation and the threat of nuclear strikes by the Soviet Union. Within a week, Britain was forced into an embarrassing climb-down. Humiliated and in ill-health, Eden left the country for a holiday at the Jamaican home of James Bond author, Ian Fleming. He returned in mid-December to the sarcastic newspaper headline: 'Prime Minister Visits Britain'. He resigned on 9 January 1957. Sir Winston Churchill, Conservative, 1951 - 1955 Churchill's desire to return to power, despite his assured place in history, had much to do with his belligerent refusal to accept that the British public had rejected him in 1945. Now the electorate was seeking to put behind it the hardships and privations of the post-war years under Clement Atlee and return to a more traditional idea of society - so-called 'housing and red meat' issues. Churchill tried - and failed - to recreate the dynamism of his wartime administration, and he struggled to adjust to the political realities of the Cold War, preferring direct action and personal diplomacy to proxy wars and cabinet consensus. His refusal to retire, despite suffering a stroke, caused mounting frustrations among his colleagues. At the age of 80, he finally conceded to his failing health and stepped down, although he continued to serve as an MP. Clement Attlee, Labour, 1945 - 1951 World War Two had sharply exposed the imbalances in Britain's social, economic and political structures. For a population that had sacrificed so much, a return to the pre-war status quo was simply not an option. In 1942, a report by Sir William Beveridge, chairman of a Ministry of Health committee, had advocated a system of national insurance, comprehensive welfare for all and strategies to maintain full employment. The 'Beveridge Report' formed the basis of Labour pledges in the 1945 election and resulted in a landslide victory. Attlee's government successfully harnessed the wartime sense of unity to create the National Health Service, a national insurance scheme, a huge programme of nationalisation (including the Bank of England and most heavy industries) and a massive building programme. He also made Britain a nuclear-armed power. These sweeping reforms resulted in a parliamentary consensus on key social and economic policies that would last until 1979. But by 1951, a row over plans to charge for spectacles and false teeth had split the cabinet. Party disunity and a struggling economy contributed to Attlee - cruelly dubbed by Churchill 'a modest man with much to be modest about' - losing the next election. Winston Churchill, Conservative, 1940 - 1945 By the time Churchill was asked to lead the coalition government in 1940, he had already enjoyed colourful and controversial careers as a journalist, soldier and politician. He had twice 'crossed the floor' of the House of Commons, the first time defecting from Conservative to Liberal and serving as First Lord of the Admiralty during the early years of World War One. Demoted in the wake of the slaughter at Gallipoli, he preferred to resign and take up a commission fighting on the Western Front. Despite standing against the Conservatives in a 1924 by-election, Churchill was welcomed back into the party that same year and served as Chancellor of the Exchequer for five years under Stanley Baldwin. But personal disagreements and his vehement anti-Fascism would lead to nearly a decade in the political wilderness. Following Neville Chamberlain's resignation in 1940, Churchill finally realised his 'destiny' and accepted the office of prime minister. Promising nothing more than 'blood, toil, tears and sweat', he almost single-handedly restored Britain's desire to fight on in adversity. Despite Churchill's enormous personal popularity, by 1945 the electorate no longer wanted a war leader and the Conservatives lost by a landslide. Neville Chamberlain, Conservative, 1937 - 1940 Rarely has the hyperbole of politicians been as resoundingly exposed as when Neville Chamberlain returned from his 1938 negotiations with Adolf Hitler, brandishing his famous 'piece of paper' and declaring the agreement it represented to be 'peace for our time'. Within a year, Germany had invaded Poland and Britain was plunged into World War Two. With his policy of 'appeasement' towards Hitler utterly bankrupted, Chamberlain resigned in 1940. He was replaced by Winston Churchill. When the issue of honours was discussed, he stated that he wanted to die 'plain Mr Chamberlain, like my father'. His father, Joseph Chamberlain, was the politician who split the Conservatives in 1903 by pushing for tariffs on imported goods. It was this very issue that convinced Churchill to defect to the Liberals, with whom he first achieved high office. Chamberlain died six months after resigning. Stanley Baldwin, Conservative, 1935 - 1937 When Baldwin returned to power in 1935, the financial crisis sparked by the Wall Street Crash six years before appeared to be over. It was to be swiftly replaced by a constitutional crisis brought about by Edward VIII's desire to marry a twice-divorced American, Wallis Simpson. Baldwin advised Edward that Mrs Simpson would not be accepted as Queen by the public, and that the king could not condone divorce as head of the Church of England. The king proposed a 'morganatic' marriage, whereby Mrs Simpson would become his consort, but not Queen. The government rejected the idea and threatened to resign if the king forced the issue. The story then broke in the press, to general disapproval by the public. Rather than break the engagement, Edward abdicated on 11 December 1936. Credited with saving the monarchy, Baldwin is also condemned for failing to begin re-arming when it became clear that Nazi Germany was building up its armed forces. Ramsay MacDonald, Labour, 1929 - 1935 MacDonald began his second term at the head of a minority government (one that does not have an outright majority) and with the economy in deep crisis. Britain was still in the grip of the Great Depression and unemployment soon soared to two million. With fewer people able to pay tax, revenues had fallen as demand for unemployment benefits had soared. Unable to meet the deficit, by 1931 it was being proposed that benefits and salaries should be cut. Labour ministers rejected the plan as running counter to their core beliefs. MacDonald went to the king, George V, to proffer his resignation. George suggested MacDonald to try and form a 'national government' or coalition of all the parties. (This is the last recorded direct political intervention by a British monarch.) The National Government was formed, with MacDonald as prime minister, but Stanley Baldwin, leader of the Conservative Party, the de facto 'power behind the throne'. MacDonald is still considered by many in the Labour Party as their worst political traitor. Stanley Baldwin, Conservative, 1924 - 1929 In May 1926, the Trades Union Congress called for a general walkout in support of a coal miners' protest against threatened wage cuts. It was the first and, to date, only general strike in British history. The strike affected key industries, such as gas, electricity and the railways, but ended after just nine days due to lack of public backing and well-organised emergency measures by Baldwin's government. Far from succeeding in its aims, the General Strike actually led to a decline in trade union membership and the miners ended up accepting longer hours and less pay. It also gave impetus to the 1927 Trade Disputes Act, which curtailed workers' ability to take industrial action. Baldwin's government also extended the vote to women over 21 and passed the Pensions Act, but eventually fell as a result of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and the Depression that followed. Ramsay MacDonald, Labour, 1924 In 1924, MacDonald briefly became the first Labour prime minister, ending two centuries of Conservative - Liberal domination of British politics. It was the first party to gain power with the express purpose of representing the voice of the 'working class'. An MP since 1906, MacDonald was respected as a thinker, but criticised by many within his own party as insufficiently radical (despite appointing the first female cabinet minister, Margaret Bondfield, in 1929). His opposition to World War One had made him deeply unpopular and he continually suffered a torrid time at the hands of the press. The publication by two newspapers of the 'Zinoviev letter' did much to damage his chances in the run up to the 1924 election. The letter (which he had seen but decided to keep secret) purported to be from Soviet intelligence and urged British communists to commit acts of sedition. He lost by a wide margin. The letter is now widely accepted to be a fraud. Stanley Baldwin, Conservative, 1923 During his very brief first term as prime minister, Stanley Baldwin bumped into an old school friend on a train. Asked what he was doing these days, Baldwin replied: 'I am the prime minister.' Having come to power following Andrew Bonar Law's resignation, he called an election in the hope of gaining his own mandate (election by popular vote), but lost. Andrew Bonar Law, Conservative, 1922 - 1923 Branded the 'unknown prime minister' by his bitter political rival HH Asquith, Canadian-born Bonar Law is principally remembered for a single speech he made in 1922. The Conservatives had been part of a coalition under the Liberal prime minister, David Lloyd George, since 1916. Many were considering joining Lloyd George permanently, but Bonar Law's speech changed their minds. Instead, the Conservatives withdrew from the coalition and Lloyd George was forced to resign. The king, George V, asked Bonar Law to form a new government. Reluctantly he accepted, despite still grieving two sons killed in World War One and - as it turned out - dying of throat cancer. He held office for 209 days before resigning due to ill health. He died six months later and was buried at Westminster Abbey, upon which Asquith commented: 'It is fitting that we should have buried the Unknown Prime Minister by the side of the Unknown Warrior.' David Lloyd George, Liberal, 1916 - 1922 Lloyd George guided Britain to victory in World War One and presided over the legislation that gave women the vote in 1918, but he is remembered as much for his private life as his public achievements. Nicknamed the 'Welsh Wizard', he was also less kindly known as 'The Goat' - a reference to his countless affairs. (Scandalously, he lived with his mistress and illegitimate daughter in London while his wife and other children lived in Wales.) The first 'working class' prime minister, Lloyd George had risen to prominence by solving the shortage of munitions on the Western Front. It was his desire to get to grips with the requirements of 'total war' that led to his split with then Liberal Prime Minister HH Asquith. It also brought him closer to the Conservatives, with whom he formed a new coalition government when Asquith resigned. That coalition would disintegrate six years later in the midst of a scandal. Serious allegations were made that peerages had been sold for as much as £40,000. (One list even included John Drughorn, who had been convicted for trading with the enemy in 1915.) Lloyd George resigned in October 1922. HH Asquith, Liberal, 1908 - 1916 Asquith's government had shown great longevity, but disintegrated in the face of the unequalled disasters of the Somme and Gallipoli. With World War One going badly, fellow Liberal David Lloyd George had seized his chance and ousted Asquith. But in the preceding eight years, the two politicians had together overseen one of the greatest constitutional upheavals of the 20th Century and ushered in some of the predecessors of the Welfare State. Old Age Pensions were introduced and Unemployment Exchanges (job centres) were set up by then Liberal minister Winston Churchill. But when Lloyd George attempted to introduce a budget with land and income taxes disadvantageous to the 'propertied' classes, it was thrown out by the House of Lords. Lloyd George branded the Lords 'Mr Balfour's poodle' (a reference to Conservative leader AJ Balfour's supposed control over the peers). The stand-off resulted in two general elections during 1910, the second of which the Liberals won with a 'peers against the people' campaign slogan. The budget was passed and, in 1911, the Parliament Act became law. The Act stated that the Lords could only veto a Commons bill twice, and instituted five-yearly general elections. Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Liberal, 1905 - 1908 Arthur James Balfour, Conservative, 1902 - 1905 The nephew of the Marquess of Salisbury, Balfour had none of his uncle's political skills despite a long period of mentoring. He was instead something of a philosopher, publishing several weighty books, including 'A Defence of Philosophic Doubt', 'The Foundations of Belief', and 'Theism and Humanism'. Following a cabinet split Balfour resigned, gambling that the Liberals would be unable to form a government and that he would be returned to power. He was wrong. Marquess of Salisbury, 1895 - 1902, Conservative Salisbury came to power for the third and final time when the weak Liberal government of the Earl of Rosebery fell. The political climate was one of rising resentment among the lower and middle classes, who demanded better conditions, social reforms and proper political representation. Bitterly divided, the Liberals would nonetheless experience a revival as they sought reforms of the squalid, disease-ridden British 'concentration camps' used in the Boer War. But it was the founding of the Labour Representation Committee (LRC) on 27 February 1900 that signalled a quiet, yet highly significant sea-change in British politics. This coalition of socialist groups would win two seats in the 1900 general election and 29 seats in 1906. Later that same year, the LRC changed its name to the Labour Party. Despite failing health, Salisbury agreed to stay on to help Edward VII manage the transition following the death of his mother, Queen Victoria. He resigned in favour of his nephew, AJ Balfour, in the first months of the new King's reign. (Notably, he was the last serving prime minister to sit in the Lords.) Earl of Rosebery, Liberal, 1894 - 1895 Rosebury reluctantly became prime minister on the insistence of Queen Victoria, despite still mourning the loss of his wife. Desperate to have a minister she actually liked, Victoria had taken the unusual step of not consulting the outgoing PM, William Gladstone, about his successor. Rosebery, who always loved horseracing more than the 'evil smelling bog' of politics, was gratefully allowed to resign a year later. Notably, he is the only prime minister to have produced not one, but three Derby winners, in 1894, 1895 and 1905. (Despite his aversion to politics, Rosebery was no stranger to scandal. The Prince of Wales had reputedly once intervened to prevent him from being horsewhipped by the Marquess of Queensbury, with whose son Rosebery was believed to be having an affair. Queensbury's other son was Lord Alfred Douglas, Oscar Wilde's lover.) William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal, 1892 - 1894 Gladstone's fourth term as prime minister was completely overshadowed by his insistence on introducing a third bill on the subject of 'Home Rule' for Ireland. The Conservative-dominated House of Lords threw the bill out and generally obstructed Liberal attempts to pass legislation. With his cabinet split and his health failing, the 'Grand Old Man' stepped down for the last time. The public was, in any case, exhausted with Home Rule and instead wanted reforms to working conditions and electoral practices. (Meanwhile, out on the political fringe, the Independent Labour Party had been set up under Keir Hardie to represent the working class and 'secure the collective ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange'. Leading figures in the party included George Bernard Shaw and Ramsay MacDonald.) Marquess of Salisbury, Conservative, 1886 - 1892 William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal, 1886 Gladstone came to power for the third time with 'Home Rule' (devolution) for Ireland still the dominant issue. A bitter election battle had seen the Conservative government fall after Irish Nationalist members of parliament sided with the Liberals to defeat them. Instead, the Liberals formed a government in coalition with the Irish Nationalists and Gladstone tried to push through his second attempt at a Home Rule bill. The bill split the Liberals and Gladstone resigned. He lost the general election when the 'Liberal Unionists' - those who wanted Ireland to be ruled from Westminster - broke away from Gladstone's Liberals to fight the next election as a separate party. Most Liberal Unionists were of the 'Whig' or propertied faction of the party, which meant that when they went, they took most of the money with them. Marquess of Salisbury, Conservative, 1885 - 1886 William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal, 1880 - 1885 Having failed to force Gladstone to serve under Lord Hartington, Queen Victoria reluctantly accepted 'that half-mad firebrand' as prime minister for the second time. He had only lately returned to politics from retirement after his so-called 'Midlothian Campaign', in which he spoke to large crowds - a practice considered by polite Victorian society to be 'undignified'. His campaign did much to discredit Disraeli's government and had clearly struck a chord with a public eager for social and electoral reform. The Ballot Act in 1872 had instituted secret ballots for local and general elections. Now came the Corrupt Practices Act, which set maximum election expenses, and the Reform and Redistribution Act, which effectively extended voting qualifications to another six million men. There were other burning issues. The United States had just overtaken Britain as the world's largest industrialised economy, and 'Home Rule' (devolution) for Ireland continued to dominate. In seeking support for Home Rule, James Parnell's Irish Nationalists sided with the Conservatives to defeat a Liberal budget measure. Gladstone resigned and was replaced by the 'caretaker government' of the Marquess of Salisbury. Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative, 1874 - 1880 After a brief taste of power in 1868, it had taken Disraeli six years to become prime minister again. He wasted no time in bringing about the social reforms he had envisaged in the 1840s as a member of the radical Young England group. His Acts included measures to provide suitable housing and sewerage, to protect the quality of food, to improve workers rights (including the Climbing Boys Act which banned the use of juveniles as chimney sweeps) and to implement basic standards of education. In 1876, Disraeli was made the Earl of Beaconsfield, but continued to run the government from the Lords. He persuaded Queen Victoria to take the title 'Empress of India' in 1877 and scored a diplomatic success in limiting Russian influence in the Balkans at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. He retired in 1880, hoping to spend his remaining years adding more novels to his already impressive bibliography, but died just one year later. William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal, 1868 - 1874 Upon taking office for the first time Gladstone declared it his 'mission' to 'pacify Ireland' - a prize that was always to elude him. Nonetheless, Gladstone was to become the dominant Liberal politician of the late 19th Century, serving as prime minister four times despite earning Queen Victoria's antipathy early in his career. (She famously complained that 'he always addresses me as if I were a public meeting'.) He had started his career as an ultra-conservative Tory, but would end it as a dedicated political reformer who did much to establish the Liberal Party's association with issues of freedom and justice. But Gladstone also had his idiosyncrasies. He made a regular habit of going to brothels and often brought prostitutes back to 10 Downing Street. In an era when politicians' private lives were very private, his embarrassed colleagues nonetheless felt it necessary to explain his behaviour as 'rescue work' to save 'fallen women'. Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative, 1868 On being asked to become prime minister following the resignation of the Earl of Derby, Disraeli announced: 'I have reached the top of the greasy pole'. He immediately struck up an excellent rapport with Queen Victoria, who approved of his imperialist ambitions and his belief that Britain should be the most powerful nation in the world. Unhappily for the Queen, Disraeli's first term ended almost immediately with an election victory for the Liberals. Despite serving as an MP since 1837 and twice being Chancellor of the Exchequer, Disraeli's journey to the top was not without scandal. In 1835, he was forced to apologise in court after being accused of bribing voters in Maidstone. He also accrued enormous debts in his twenties through speculation on the stock exchange. Disraeli suffered a nervous breakdown as a result, but eventually paid off his creditors by marrying a rich widow, Mary Anne Wyndam Lewis, in 1839. Earl of Derby, Conservative, 1866 - 1868 The introduction of the 1867 Reform Act made Derby's third term as prime minister a major step in the true democratisation of Britain. The Act extended the vote to all adult male householders (and lodgers paying £10 rental or more, resident for a year or more) living in a borough constituency. Simply put, it created more than 1.5 million new voters. Versions of the Reform Act had been under serious discussion since 1860, but had always foundered on Conservative fears. Many considered it a 'revolutionary' move that would create a majority of 'working class' voters for the first time. In proposing the Reform Act, Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative Leader of the House of Commons, had warned his colleagues that they would be labelled the 'anti-reform' party if they continued to resist. The legislation was passed, and also received the backing of the Liberals under their new leader, William Gladstone. Earl Russell, Whig, 1865 - 1866 Viscount Palmerston, Liberal, 1859 - 1865 Earl of Derby, Conservative, 1858 - 1859 The property qualification - the requirement that a man must own property in order to stand as a member of parliament - was finally abolished during Derby's second term as prime minister. It meant that members of parliament (MPs) were no longer drawn exclusively from the 'propertied' classes and could realistically be 'working class'. This fulfilled one of the six conditions set out by the Chartists - supporters of the Third Chartist Petition, written in 1838. It demanded universal male suffrage (votes for all adult men), secret ballots (rather than traditional open ballots), annual parliamentary elections, equal electoral districts (some had less than 500 voters, while others had many thousands), the abolition of a property qualification for MPs, and payment for MPs (which would allow non-independently wealthy men to sit in parliament). Viscount Palmerston, Liberal , 1855 - 1858 Earl of Aberdeen, Tory, 1852 - 1855 It was something of a cruel irony that Aberdeen came to be blamed for blundering into the dreadful Crimean War. As plain George Hamilton Gordon he had made a successful career as a diplomat and had done much to normalise Britain's relationships with its powerful neighbours. Vivid reports from the front by WH Russel of the Times have since led to the Crimean being styled the first 'media war'. His reports publicised the squalor and disease that were claiming more soldiers' lives than the fighting, and inspired Florence Nightingale to volunteer and take the first 38 nurses out to treat the wounded. In 1855, Aberdeen conceded to his critics and resigned. Earl of Derby, Conservative, 1852 Earl Russell, Whig, 1846 - 1851 Confronted by the Irish Potato Famine, declining trade and rising unemployment, Russell still managed to push through trade liberalisation measures and limits on women's working hours. A dedicated reformer, he nonetheless presided over the rejection of the Third Chartist Petition. Set out 1838, it demanded universal male suffrage (votes for all adult men), secret ballots (rather than traditional open ballots), annual parliamentary elections, equal electoral districts (some had less than 500 voters, while others had many thousands), the abolition of a property qualification for members of parliament (MPs), and payment for MPs (which would allow non-independently wealthy men to sit in parliament). Already rejected once by parliament in 1839, the petition had gathered 5 million signatures by 1848. Presented to parliament a second time, it was again rejected. The Chartist movement slowly petered out, even as revolutions blazed across Europe, but many of its aims were eventually realised. Sir Robert Peel, Tory, 1841 - 1846 Peel's second term as prime minister was nothing short of tumultuous. Economic depression, rising deficits, Chartist agitation, famine in Ireland and Anti-Corn League protests crowded in. A raft of legislation was created to stabilise the economy and improve working conditions. The Factory Act regulated work hours (and banned children under eight from the workplace), the Railway Act provided for cheap, regular train services, the Bank Charter Act capped the number of notes the Bank of England could issue and the Mines Act prevented women and children from working underground. But a failed harvest in 1845 provided Peel with his greatest challenge. There was an increasing clamour for repeal of the Corn Laws, which forbade the import of cheap grain from overseas. Powerful vested interests in the Tory Party opposed such a move, but in the end Peel confronted them and called for repeal. After nearly six months of debate, and with the Tories split in two, the Corn Laws were finally repealed. Defeated on a separate issue, Peel resigned the same day, but was cheered by crowds as he left the Commons. (The 'Peelite' faction of the Tories is widely recognised as the foundation of the modern Conservative.) Viscount Melbourne, Whig, 1835 - 1841 Sir Robert Peel, Tory, 1834 - 1835 Invited by William IV to form a new government, Peel immediately called a general election to strengthen his party. Campaigning on his so-called 'Tamworth Manifesto', Peel promised a respectful approach to traditional politics, combined with measured, controlled reform. He thereby signalled a significant shift from staunch, reactionary 'Tory' to progressive 'Conservative' politics. Crucially, he pledged to accept the 1832 Reform Act, which had recently increased the number of people eligible to vote. Peel won the election, but only narrowly. He resigned the following year after several parliamentary defeats. (Peel is probably best remembered for creating the Metropolitan Police in 1829 while Home Secretary in the Duke of Wellington's first government. The nickname 'bobbies' for policemen is derived from his first name.) Duke of Wellington, Tory, 1834 Viscount Melbourne, Whig, 1834 In a bid to repress trade unions, Melbourne's government introduced legislation against 'illegal oaths'. As a result, the Grand National Consolidated Trades' Union failed. In March of the same year, six labourers were transported to Australia for seven years for attempting to provide a fund for workers in need. They became known as the 'Tolpuddle Martyrs'. Melbourne himself was notoriously laid back. When first asked to become prime minister he declared it 'a damned bore'. Having accepted, he would often refuse to allow his cabinet colleagues to leave the room, insisting 'I'm damned if I know what we agreed on. We must all say the same thing.' Earl Grey, Whig, 1830 - 1834 In June 1832, the Reform Act finally passed into law after 15 torrid months of debate. It extended the vote to just 7% of the adult male population, based on a series of lowered property qualifications. Introduced in March 1831, the bill scraped through the Commons by a single vote, but was thrown out at the committee stage (when the bill is debated in detail - sometimes called the 'second reading'). Parliament was dissolved and the general election was fought on the single issue of the Reform Act - an unprecedented event in British political history. The Whigs won the election and passed the bill, but the House of Lords (with a majority of Tories) threw it out, sparking riots and civil disobedience across the country. With the spectre of France's bloody revolution clearly in mind, William IV eventually agreed to create 50 Whig peers to redress the balance in the Lords if the bill was rejected again. The Lords conceded and the Act was finally passed into law. After all his efforts, Earl Grey is principally remembered for giving his name to a fragrant blend of tea. Duke of Wellington, Tory, 1828 - 1830 Wellington's first term in office was dominated by the thorny subject of Catholic emancipation. Catholics were permitted to vote, but were not allowed to sit as members of parliament (MPs) and had restrictions on the property they could own. Initially, the 'Iron Duke' was staunchly in favour of the status quo, but soon came to realise that emancipation might be the only way to end conflict arising from the Act of Union between Britain and Ireland in 1801. He became such an advocate that he even fought a duel with the 10th Earl of Winchilsea over the issue. The Earl had accused him of plotting the downfall of the 'Protestant constitution', but then backed down and apologised. They still had to go through the ritual of the duel at Battersea Fields, with both men deliberately firing high and wide. Wellington eventually drove the legislation through, opening the way for Catholic MPs. Viscount Goderich, Tory, 1827 - 1828 George Canning, Tory, 1827 Canning finally became prime minister after a long career in politics, only to die of pneumonia 119 days later. He had famously fought a duel in 1809 with his bitterest political rival, Lord Castlereagh, and was shot in the thigh. Castlereagh committed suicide with a penknife in 1822, after becoming depressed about his falling popularity. Earl of Liverpool, Tory, 1812 - 1827 Liverpool is the second longest serving prime minister in British history (after Robert Walpole), winning four general elections and clinging on to power despite a massive stroke that incapacitated him for his last two years in office. Liverpool became PM at a time when Britain was emerging from the Napoleonic Wars and the first rumblings of 'working class' unrest were just beginning to be felt. Staunchly undemocratic in his outlook, Liverpool suppressed efforts to give the wider populace a voice. He was unrepentant when, in 1819, troops fired on a pro-reform mass meeting at St Peter's Fields in Manchester, killing eleven - the so-called 'Peterloo Massacre'. Trade unions were legalised by the 1825 Combination Act, but were so narrowly defined that members were forced to bargain over wages and conditions amid a minefield of heavy penalties for transgressions. (Liverpool's one concession to popular sentiment was in the trial of Queen Caroline on trumped up adultery charges. The legal victimisation of George IV's estranged wife, who was tried in parliament in 1820, brought her mass sympathy. Mindful not to provoke the mob in the wake of Peterloo, the charges were eventually dropped.) Spencer Perceval, Tory, 1809 - 1812 Perceval bears a dubious distinction as the only British prime minister to be assassinated. As chancellor of the exchequer he moved in to 10 Downing Street in 1807, before rising to the office of prime minister two years later. His 12 young children - some born while he was in office - also lived in the PM's crowded residence. Against expectations, he had skilfully kept his government afloat for three years despite a severe economic downturn and continuing war with Napoleon. He was shot dead in the lobby of the House of Commons on 11 May 1812 by a merchant called John Bellingham who was seeking government compensation for his business debts. Perceval's body lay in 10 Downing Street for five days before burial. Bellingham gave himself up immediately. Tried for murder, he was found guilty and hanged a week later. Duke of Portland, Tory, 1807 - 1809 Lord Grenville, Whig, 1806 - 1807 William Pitt 'the Younger', Tory, 1804 - 1806 Faced by a fresh invasion threat from Napoleon, George III once again turned to Pitt. A shadow of his former self due to failing health and suspected alcoholism, Pitt nonetheless accepted. He made alliances with Napoleon's continental rivals - Russia, Austria and Sweden - then, in 1805, Admiral Lord Nelson shattered French invasion hopes at the Battle of Trafalgar. Pitt did not have long to savour victory before Napoleon defeated both Russia and Austria to stand astride the whole of Europe. Heartsick, utterly exhausted, penniless and unmarried, Pitt died on 23 January 1806 at the age of 46. Henry Addington, Tory, 1801 - 1804 Addington secured the Peace of Amiens with France in 1802, but would see Britain plunge into war with Napoleon again just two years later. He also passed the first Factory Act into law. The Act was the earliest attempt to reform working conditions in factories. It set a maximum 12 hour working day for children and addressed issues like proper ventilation, basic education and sleeping conditions. (Notably, his government also awarded Edward Jenner £10,000 to continue his pioneering work on a vaccine for smallpox.) But he was generally poorly regarded, prompting the satirical rhyme 'Pitt is to Addington, as London is to Paddington' - a reference to his distinguished predecessor as prime minister, William Pitt. William Pitt 'the Younger', Tory, 1783-1801 Pitt 'the Younger' was the youngest prime minister in British history, taking office at the tender age of just 24. But his youth did not seem to disadvantage him as he threw himself into the manifold problems of government, holding on to the top office for 17 years - fifteen years longer than his father, Pitt 'the Elder'. His first priority was to reduce the National Debt, which had doubled with the loss of the American colonies in 1783. George III's mental illness then threw up the spectre of a constitutional crisis, with the transfer of sovereignty to the erratic Prince of Wales only narrowly averted by the king's recovery. Further threats to the monarchy emanated from across the Channel, with the bloody French Revolution of 1789 and subsequent war with France in 1793. War increased taxes and caused food shortages, damaging Pitt's popularity to the extent that he employed bodyguards out of fear for his safety. In a bid to resolve at least one intractable conflict, he pushed through the Act of Union with Ireland in 1800, but the related Emancipation of Catholics Bill was rejected by the king a year later. Having lost George III's confidence, Pitt was left with no option but to resign. Duke of Portland, Tory, 1783 Earl Shelburne, Whig, 1782 - 1783 Marquess of Rockingham, Whig, 1782 Lord North, Tory, 1770 - 1782 North is chiefly somewhat unfairly remembered as the prime minister who lost the American colonies. Groomed by George III to lead his parliamentary supporters, North was fiercely loyal to his king, whose policy it had been to 'punish' the American colonials. The American War of Independence, reluctantly entered into by both sides, had been prosecuted at the king's behest in retaliation for their refusal to pay more towards their own defence. As hostilities progressed, North's blundering and indecision worsened an already difficult situation, and by 1782 it was clear that the outcome was likely to be a disaster. He begged George III to be allowed to resign, but the king refused to release him until the war was over. North has since become the yardstick for prime ministerial mediocrity, with later PMs being criticised as 'the worst since Lord North'. Duke of Grafton, Whig, 1768 - 1770 An unremarkable prime minister, Grafton had a quite remarkable appetite for extra-marital affairs and openly kept several mistresses. He scandalised polite society in 1764 by leaving his wife and going to live with his mistress, Anne Parsons, also known as 'Mrs Houghton'. (Horace Walpole referred to her derisively as 'everybody's Mrs Houghton'.) Popular opinion had disapproved of Grafton's behaviour, until his wife did something even more shocking. She eloped with the Earl of Upper Ossory and had a child by him. Grafton divorced her in 1769, then abandoned Mrs Houghton and married Elizabeth Wrottesley, with whom he had 13 children. The Mrs Houghton ended up marrying the king's brother. This unsuitable union gave impetus to the Royal Marriages Act of 1772, which decreed that the monarch had to give permission for all royal weddings. Earl of Chatham, Pitt 'The Elder', Whig, 1766 - 1768 Pitt 'the Elder' is widely credited as the man who built the British Empire, although much of this was done in the role of secretary of state under the governments of the Duke of Newcastle. He chose his fights carefully, conducting military campaigns where conditions were best suited to British merchants. Pitt added India, West Africa, the West Indies and the American colonies to Britain's overseas possessions, and was persistently belligerent towards colonial rivals like France and Spain. His relentless imperialism kept the merchants happy but infuriated men like Newcastle who counted the financial cost of his wars. Pitt was a superb public speaker and a master of the devastating put-down, but his career was dogged with recurrent mental illness and gout. Ironically, it was during his term as prime minister that he was at his least effective, often struggling to build support. He collapsed in the House of Lords in October 1768 and died four days later. (Pitt was the MP for a 'burgage borough' - an empty piece of land with no-one living on it. His constituency, Old Sarum, was a mound in Wiltshire. On polling day, seven voters met in a tent to cast their votes.) Marquess of Rockingham, Whig, 1765 - 1766 George Grenville, Whig, 1763 - 1765 Grenville is one of the few prime ministers to have been sacked by the monarch. He was fired after a row with George III over who should rule in his place if his mental health continued to deteriorate. Earl of Bute, Tory, 1762 - 1763 Bute was one of Britain's more unpopular prime ministers. Things came to a head when he failed to lower the taxes he had raised to fight France in the American colonies. Rioting erupted, his effigies were burnt and the windows in his house were smashed. Bute was generally disliked by colleagues and public, and was lampooned for his 'fine pair of legs', of which he was reputed to be extremely proud. His close relationship with the Prince of Wales's widow, the Dowager Princess Augusta, was also the subject of much scurrilous gossip. The nickname 'Sir Pertinax MacSycophant' was a contemptuous reference to the Roman Emperor Publius Helvius Pertinax, who was murdered three months after his meteoric assent by his own bodyguard. Unable to muster support in parliament, Bute resigned in 1763. Duke of Newcastle, Whig, 1757 - 1762 Newcastle healed his rift with Pitt 'the Elder' by inviting him to serve in his government as secretary of state. Effectively a power-sharing coalition of two powerful men, the relationship gave birth to the British Empire. Their government eventually fell as a result of the new king, George III's hostility to Pitt, who had sought to restrict the influence of the monarch in political matters. Duke of Devonshire, Whig, 1756-1757 Duke of Newcastle, Whig, 1754 - 1756 Newcastle became PM after his brother, Henry Pelham, died in office. It is the only instance of two brothers serving as prime minister. Newcastle enraged Pitt 'the Elder' by refusing to promote him in the new government, then compounded the insult by sacking him. Henry Pelham, Whig, 1743 - 1754 Earl of Wilmington, Whig, 1742 - 1743 Sir Robert Walpole, Whig, 1721 - 1742 Walpole is widely acknowledged as the first prime minister, although he never actually held the title. He was also the longest serving, lasting 21 years. But Walpole's first stint in government, as secretary of war, had ended inauspiciously with a six month spell in the Tower of London for receiving an illegal payment. Undeterred, he rose to power again on the back of a collapsed financial scheme in which many prominent individuals had invested. Walpole had the foresight (or luck) to get out early, and as a result was credited with great financial acumen. George I invited him to become chancellor and gave him the powers that came to be associated with the office of prime minister. His owed his longevity in office (and the incredible wealth he accumulated) to a combination of great personal charm, enduring popularity, sharp practice and startling sycophancy. The accession of George II saw him temporarily eclipsed, but he worked hard to win over the new monarch. He was rewarded with both the new King's trust and 10 Downing Street, which remains the official residence of the prime minister to this day. Walpole was eventually brought down by an election loss at Chippenham and died just three years later.	i don't know
Which planet in our soar system spins on its axis faster than any of the other planets?	Which planet spins the fastest? \| Cool Cosmos Which planet spins the fastest? Jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in our Solar System rotating on average once in just under 10 hours. That is very fast especially considering how large Jupiter is. This means that Jupiter has the shortest days of all the planets in the Solar System. Since Jupiter is a gas planet, it does not rotate as a solid sphere. Jupiter's equator rotates a bit faster than its polar regions at a speed of 28,273 miles/hour (about 43,000 kilometers/hour). Jupiter's day varies from 9 hours and 56 minutes around the poles to 9 hours and 50 minutes close to the equator. Continue the conversation on	Jupiter
By which name does the oil company, Esso, trade as in America?	Why and how do planets rotate? - Scientific American Scientific American Report Ad George Spagna, chair of the physics department at Randolph-Macon College, explains. Stars and planets form in the collapse of huge clouds of interstellar gas and dust. The material in these clouds is in constant motion, and the clouds themselves are in motion, orbiting in the aggregate gravity of the galaxy. As a result of this movement, the cloud will most likely have some slight rotation as seen from a point near its center. This rotation can be described as angular momentum, a conserved measure of its motion that cannot change. Conservation of angular momentum explains why an ice skater spins more rapidly as she pulls her arms in. As her arms come closer to her axis of rotation, her speed increases and her angular momentum remains the same. Similarly, her rotation slows when she extends her arms at the conclusion of the spin. As an interstellar cloud collapses, it fragments into smaller pieces, each collapsing independently and each carrying part of the original angular momentum. The rotating clouds flatten into protostellar disks, out of which individual stars and their planets form. By a mechanism not fully understood, but believed to be associated with the strong magnetic fields associated with a young star, most of the angular momentum is transferred into the remnant accretion disk. Planets form from material in this disk, through accretion of smaller particles. In our solar system, the giant gas planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) spin more rapidly on their axes than the inner planets do and possess most of the system's angular momentum. The sun itself rotates slowly, only once a month. The planets all revolve around the sun in the same direction and in virtually the same plane. In addition, they all rotate in the same general direction, with the exceptions of Venus and Uranus. These differences are believed to stem from collisions that occurred late in the planets' formation. (A similar collision is believed to have led to the formation of our moon.)	i don't know
On which ship did Price Andrew serve during the Falklands War?	Brave Prince Andrew: Action Man \| Royal \| News \| Daily Express ROYAL Brave Prince Andrew: Action Man THE Duke of York has always been a man of action who displays bravery, loyalty and nerves of steel in equal measure. 00:21, Sun, Sep 8, 2013 Prince Andrew was a brave co-pilot during the Falklands war Although he doesn’t drink or smoke, Andrew was highly popular with his fellow servicemen during a 20 year military career, and regarded as “one of the lads.” He inherited a “no nonsense” practical approach to life from his father Prince Philip, who served in the Royal Navy during World War Two, and would have kept cool even when the two armed policemen were pointing their guns directly at him. Andrew’s calmness under pressure was first displayed in 1978 when he was just 18 and making his first parachute jump. Just 48 seconds after jumping out of a Hercules aircraft over the Gloucestershire countryside, his lines became twisted, but he managed to gain control and land safely. Afterwards he said it was “A feeling I would never have wanted to miss.” Asked if he was nervous, he replied: “If you are not nervous you will do something stupid.” He was then driven back to RAF Brize Norton for a second jump. His teacher Wing Commander Jim Reynolds said: “Although his lines were twisted, he did exactly the drill he should have done and made a good landing.” Andrew’s courage became clear during the 1982 Falklands War when he co-piloted Sea King helicopters in treacherous conditions. Some members of Mrs Thatcher’s cabinet wanted him to have a safe desk job during the conflict, but Andrew – and the Queen – insisted he sailed aboard the aircraft carrier HMS Invincible. The Argentinians were desperate to sink the ship with Andrew on it, and after the war they even hatched an unsuccessful plot to murder him while he was on holiday. During the conflict he and his partner acted as decoys for French-made Exocet missiles, the Argentinians most deadly weapon, drawing them away from their targets. When the merchant ship SS Atlantic Conveyor was hit by two Exocets, with the loss of 12 lives, Andrew was one of the first on the scene, helping to pluck survivors to safety. Andrew’s courage became clear during the 1982 Falklands War when he co-piloted Sea King helicopters in treacherous conditions In 2007 he was the coolest person on board when an RAF HS 125 had to make an emergency landing at Edinburgh airport, coming in at high speed after it developed tail problems. A former Navy colleague said last night: “The Prince is a team player and a brave man, just like everyone else who serves in the armed forces. “He wouldn’t want to be singled out for special treatment because of who he was, and in the Falklands he faced as much danger as anyone else. “He is the sort of guy you want with you in difficult situations, courageous and selfless, and able to think under great stress. “It really annoys me when people who don’t know him call him a freeloader who plays golf all the time when he had such a distinguished military career.” The Queen was said to be “worried sick” when Andrew (said to be her favourite son) was in the Falklands, and still carries a photo of him returning safely from the war in her handbag. As she relaxed yesterday at the Braemar games while on her summer break, she would have been relieved that he survived last week’s police blunder too. Most read in Royal	HMS Invincible
What was the name of the horse that was made a Consul by Caligula when he was Emperor of Rome?	Historic Daily Express Prince Andrew Falklands war 1982 edition \| History \| News \| Daily Express 10:00, Mon, Sep 29, 2014 Prince Andrew as a helicopter pilot in the 1980s [GETTY] Many presumed that Prince Andrew would be given a role that kept him out of harm's way and it later emerged that some members of the Cabinet had pushed for him to be given a desk job during the conflict but Andrew - and the Queen - insisted he serve on the front line. The Daily Express front page of June 19 - five days after the Argentine surrender of the islands - revealed just how hair-raising that experience turned out to be. It described how the royal had risked his life by acting as a decoy to lure Exocet missiles away from the vessels of the British Task Force. "He flew a Navy helicopter close behind the carrier Invincible as Argentine jets screamed into the attack," reported the Daily Express's Robert McGowan from the Falklands capital Port Stanley. "His nerve-wracking job was to make the missiles swerve towards the helicopter instead of the ship." After landing on the Falklands following the end of hostilities, the prince described his role to journalists: "The helicopter is supposed to hover near the rear of the carrier presenting a large radar target. The idea is that the Exocet comes in low over the waves and is not supposed to go above a height of 27ft" The original page from the 1982 edition of the Express [DX] It is not much fun having one of those fellows pick you out as a target Prince Andrew "When the missile is coming at you, you rise quickly above 27ft and it flies harmlessly underneath - in theory. But on the day the Sheffield was hit, one Exocet was seen to fly over the mast of a ship - that's well over 27ft." Enemy planes were not the only danger. The prince confessed that his biggest worry was being hit by friendly fire from the Royal Navy's Sea Wolf defence missiles. He revealed that they had locked on to his helicopter three times, adding: "It really makes the hair stand up on the back of your neck. It is not much fun having one of those fellows pick you out as a target." Andrew was also co-pilot of a Sea King helicopter that helped save seamen from the requisitioned merchant navy ship SS Atlantic Conveyor after it was hit by two Exocets. He later described it as "probably the most frightening moment of my war". The Falklands War began on April 2 1982 when Argentine troops landed on the islands, a UK overseas territory in the south Atlantic over which the Buenos Aires government had long claimed sovereignty. Prince Andrew returns from the Falklands War on September 17, 1982, on board HMS Invincible [GETTY] It is widely believed that the invasion was motivated by a desire on the part of the military junta of General Galtieri to divert attention from human rights and economic issues at home and bolster national pride. If the Argentinians believed that Mrs Thatcher would not have the resolve to muster a task force to retake the islands, however, they soon realised their mistake. A hastily assembled fleet of 127 ships, including two aircraft carriers with 42 fighter bombers and two cruise liners requisitioned as troop carriers to carry 28,000 soldiers, set sail in mid-April to free the islands' 1,800 residents. The first British troops landed on the bridgehead created at Port San Carlos on May 21 and three weeks later, on June 14, they entered Port Stanley. The victory was not without cost. Six ships were sunk and 258 British servicemen were killed and 777 injured but the episode did much to restore the UK's standing in the world and Mrs Thatcher's government was returned with a landslide in the general election of 1983. Galtieri fared less well. He was removed three days after the fall of Port Stanley and civilian rule was restored in Argentina a year later. Related articles Winston Churchill's half-smoked cigar is set to fetch £3,000 at auction WHAT ELSE HAPPENED IN 1982? February 5: Laker Airways, the "no frills" airline launched by the maverick entrepreneur Sir Freddie Laker, goes into receivership owing £270 million to its creditors. The flamboyant tycoon was the first independent to attempt to take on the might of big players such as British Airways and PanAm and became something of a folk hero to the British public. He also inspired Sir Richard Branson to set up his airline. "If it hadn't been for Sir Freddie you wouldn't most likely have had Virgin Atlantic," Branson once said. "You wouldn't have had the Easyjets of this world." Branson later paid tribute to Laker by naming one of his planes Spirit Of Sir Freddie. May 19: The Italian actress Sophia Loren arrives at a jail in Caserta 20 miles north of Naples to serve a 30-day sentence for tax evasion dating back to 1974. The 47-year-old film star is cheered by a crowd of fans and her 26 fellow inmates as she is ushered to a small cell - painted pink with an unbarred window - in the prison run by a team of nuns and guards. Loren served 17 days of her sentence and once free appealed the court's decision, eventually winning her case last year - 39 years after she filed the tax return in question. May 28: Pope John Paul II becomes the first pontiff to visit the UK. During a hectic six-day trip he says mass at Westminster Cathedral and meets the Queen at Buckingham Palace. More than 25,000 people line the streets when he makes an historic visit to Canterbury Cathedral to meet the head of the Anglican Church Archbishop Robert Runcie but for many the highlight of the trip is a spectacular mass for 80,000 people, including 2,500 priests, at Wembley Stadium. June 19: The body of Milan-based Banco Ambrosiano chairman Roberto Calvi - known as "God's Banker" thanks to his close links to the Vatican - is found hanging beneath Blackfriars Bridge in London. June 21: Prince William is born. Most read in UK	i don't know
Which sport is played under the 'Harvard Rules'?	Penn Football in the 1800s, Varsity Team History: University of Pennsylvania University Archives PENN FOOTBALL: ORIGINS TO 1901 Varsity team history Context: Early Football In America When intercollegiate American football began on November 6, 1869, with a game played by Rutgers and Princeton in New Brunswick, New Jersey, football bore little resemblance to its modern-day descendent. Rules for the contest were adopted from those of the London Football Association, which themselves were similar to soccer -- players could neither throw the ball nor run with it, though they could bat it about with open hand or fist. It was not until 1876 that formal rules were codified for football as a distinct sport with its own rules. Earlier forms of football existed perhaps as early as the 1820's, though strictly as informal affairs between unorganized participants, played by whatever rules the players that day decided to use. In essence, these were games in which players were divided between two teams with the goal of advancing a ball past the opposing teams. These were the only rules in common with later football antecedents; in some cases, these were the only rules at all. Calling these games 'rough' would be an understatement; the preferred adjective at the time was 'brutal.' Within the college context, these ball games were usually a right of passage for newly enrolled freshmen. The teams were the classes, and the ball was only an excuse for a brawl. It was for this reason that, around 1860 or so, 'football' as it was then termed was banned outright at a number of colleges. Many students wanted the game brought back, and colleges sought to compromise by reintroducing football in a less violent form: in 1867, Princeton proposed formal rules modified from those of the London Football Association. These rules resulted in a game which more closely resembled modern soccer than modern football. Over the next two years these rules came into widespread usage. Although most schools made changes to suit their own needs, by 1869 football teams from different colleges were able to play each other with only small changes needed to bring each school's rules in line with the others. Even though we today trace the roots of football to 1869, those witnessing the Princeton-Rutgers game may not have thought they had seen the birth of anything of immediate importance. Princeton's rules did not become popular right away, with two games played in 1870, none in 1871, and a scarce handful in 1872. Since differences in rules between schools may have still hampered competition, representatives from Yale, Columbia, Princeton, and Rutgers met in October of 1873 to establish a unified set of intercollegiate rules under which any college could play. The colleges decided on twelve rules. Among other things, they required that a round ball be used for all games, that the ball could not be carried or thrown, and that the game should not end until either six goals were scored or until the game was called; that is, that the game had no set length. All in all, the conference settled on a set of rules which resembled soccer, much as Princeton's 1869 rules had. Harvard was invited to the conference but did not attend because of a difference of opinion over what form football should take. It had drawn up its own set of rules in 1872, which loosely resembled rugby, with the twist that any player could catch or pick up the ball, but could only run with it if chased by an opponent. No other college adopted the Harvard rules; most favored those of the 1873 conference. Because it did not agree to the rules adopted by the rules set up by the other colleges in 1873, Harvard was forced to leave the country to compete, engaging in a series of games with McGill college's rugby team that alternated between being played under Harvard's rules and the traditional rules of rugby, which Harvard's players had never tried. Once they did, however, the players decided they preferred traditional rugby to their own rules, and began trying to convince other colleges to try them as well. It was not until 1875 that Harvard succeeded in this, convincing Yale to play a game of rugby, with Princeton students in attendance. The game convinced the other schools of rugby's superiority, or at least novelty, and by 1876 both Yale and Princeton had abandoned their own rules in favor of modified rugby rules. On November 23, 1876, Representatives from Harvard, Columbia, Princeton, and Yale, met at Massasoit House in Massachusetts to decide on new universal rules, an event later termed the "Massasoit Convention." There, they adopted the Rugby Union rules in full, with slightly modified rules for scoring. These rules spread like wildfire among the colleges and athletic clubs of the country -- among them, in that same year, the University of Pennsylvania.	American football
What is the correct name for Birmingham's 'Spagheti Junction'?	HISTORY OF FOOTBALL Page 2 of 4 \| Court & Field Dimension Diagrams in 3D, History, Rules – SportsKnowHow.com HISTORY OF FOOTBALL Page 2 of 4 wpadminskhdev In 1874, Harvard challenged McGill University from Canada to a football match. Unlike Harvard, the rugby type of football McGill played allowed running the ball. When Harvard team members saw the McGill players running with the ball during warm ups, they called a quick conference. The teams agreed to play two games—one with running and one without. The Harvard team decided it liked running the ball and added the run to its game plan. In 1875, players in the very first Harvard-Yale football game were allowed to carry the ball. American football was truly off and running, so to speak. Pioneers of the Game In those early days of college football, the rules often changed from game to game depending on what the opposing teams agreed to. Some teams played with 15 men on the field; others with 11. In 1876, the Intercollegiate Football Association was created to establish standardized rules of play. Yale player Walter Camp attended that first Association meeting. In 1880, it was Camp who created the line of scrimmage and the quarterback position. Because of these and other game-shaping innovations, Camp is known as the Father of American Football. If Camp is the Father of American Football, then Amos Alonzo Stagg is the Father of Football Coaching. Like Camp, Stagg played football at Yale. In 1890 he started his 57-year head-coaching career at Springfield College. Stagg created a plethora of football firsts including the huddle, putting numbers on uniforms, the T formation, the punt formation and the end around. His is also credited with dreaming up famous “trick” plays like the hidden ball and the Statue of Liberty. Stagg invented several pieces of equipment still used in sports today including blocking sleds, tackling dummies and the batting cage for baseball. Famous Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne said it best: “All football comes from Stagg.” A Violent Game The King of England wasn’t the only one to express concern about the violence of football. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, the game was still very violent. Teams sometimes moved the ball up the field using “mass momentum plays.” A running wedge of lineman would lock arms or even hold handles that had been attached to their teammates jerseys. Numerous defensive players were injured trying to break through these “flying wedges” to get to the ball carrier. After 18 players died and 159 were critically injured in 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt gave football leagues a choice—make the game safer or have it outlawed. In 1906, rule changes required seven men to be on the line of scrimmage when the ball was snapped. This ended the flying wedge. The forward pass was also made legal, though it was not really used until 1913 when Knute Rockne and Notre Dame teammate Gus Dorais put the ball in the air to beat West Point. Injuries were also reduced after 1905 as more players chose to wear protective helmets and pads.	i don't know
Which organisation was founded by Reverend Chad Varah in 1953?	Rev Chad Varah - The Scotsman Rev Chad Varah 00:31 Wednesday 14 November 2007 Founder of the Samaritans Born: 12 November, 1911, on Humberside. Died: 8 November, 2007, in London, aged 95. HE WAS an unconventional cleric and his unorthodox personality led Chad Varah, CH, CBE to found the Samaritans. The movement set out to help the destitute and depressed and from small beginnings in London a worldwide organisation grew. His vision and humanity became a vital lifeline to many. Varah was already in his 40s and had been vicar of several charges in England before he came to St Stephen, Walbrook - one of the finest examples of Sir Christopher Wren's architecture in London. He was to grace its pulpit for virtually the rest of his life but he emblazoned its name internationally when he founded the Samaritans in 1953. He had conducted the funeral of a young girl who had died by suicide and he was told by a friend that they were both in fear of understanding their maturing bodies. "Little girl," Varah told the girl, "I shall tell you all about sex." That story, and Varah's discovery that there were three suicides a day in London, led him to start, in the crypt of his church, the Samaritans. He told his first - and all subsequent volunteers - that they had to listen and be non-judgmental. "Befriending is fundamental," he assured them. "We must go along beside someone's pain." Edward Chad Varah was the son of the vicar of St Chad's on Humberside and even in his youth he was something of a rebel. His faith was assured, but not the conventional faith of his father, and after Keble College, Oxford, he attended Lincoln Theological College and was ordained in 1935. In the 1950s Varah showed his unconventional streak when he also worked as a scriptwriter for the hugely successful comics of the era: Girl and Eagle. It was Varah who wrote the daredevil adventures of Dan Dare, who weekly saved the planet. After several charges in and around London, Varah was appointed to St Stephen and his experiences over the years led him to found the Good Samaritans in November 1953 - the name was shortened some years later. The original principle was simple: To befriend the suicidal and despairing. Varah had the knack of attracting press coverage and the famous Samaritan telephone number, MANsion House 9000, was soon well known throughout the country. From two distressed calls on November 1 the number grew to more than 100 within a fortnight. Varah was adamant that, although the movement was centred in a church, the volunteers did not have to be believers and the organisation was defiantly non-denominational. He stressed that people who rang or arrived at the crypt must be "listened to with absolute attention" and everything said must be in confidence. No-one would know people's full name and if a client used a pseudonym that was not a problem. In Scotland, there are 20 Samaritan offices from Orkney to the Borders and recently their Edinburgh office stated that the number of calls they received rose by 26,000 last year. A spokesman said: "Scotland's suicide rate is still very disturbing, but it is finally starting to come down while our calls have gone up. So something must be working." Varah widened the scope of the movement in 1974 when he set up Befrienders International (later Samaritans Worldwide) and then became its president in 1983. He ceased being involved in the day-to-day running of the organisation - believing that the volunteers themselves should make such decisions - but in 2003, at the 50th anniversary of its foundation, Varah expressed some disapproval of the way it was being run. Indeed there had been skirmishes before; back in 1974, Varah had been removed as a director of the London branch and simply styled "founder". Perhaps Varah was too large a personality to be involved with the organisation he had created. Its growth meant far greater controls and modern technology dramatically broadened its scope. Certainly he was much heartened when his son, Michael, was appointed a trustee of the Samaritans in 2005 which signalled a necessary rapprochement. In his autobiography, Before I Die Again (the title refers to Varah's belief in reincarnation), he wrote of his belief in speaking his mind. He agreed it often gained him respect but "often led to conflict". That certainly never worried him and although St Stephen was seldom used on a Sunday for services, the enterprising Varah held concerts for City workers at lunchtime and sung Evensongs. He commissioned a new altar from Henry Moore (causing much controversy) and performed many society weddings in the church. His unremitting zeal led him to contribute articles to many varied magazines (including Penthouse) and his final sermon (at the age of 92) in November 2003 was delivered with all the gusto of old. He was supported, as he entered the church, by Joanna Lumley and chose for his sermon to defend the openly gay Bishop-elect of Gloucester. His own personal lifestyle was equally unconventional. He had a long and happy marriage but that did not stop Varah enjoying the close friendship of other women, including the late Monica Dickens; indeed the novelist founded the American Samaritans. His fitting legacy is the Samaritans. The support, comfort and succour it has brought to many is a real achievement and Varah's creation of a hotline for those in despair has, undoubtedly, saved many. As Dickens wrote in her foreword for the American Samaritans, "the method of befriending is so simple, so direct, so purely human that it can work anywhere in the world". Varah himself never lost sight of the original principles of the organisation and once, defending his personal beliefs with a subtle humour, he reminded the managers that it was literally "impossible for him to resign as founder". Varah was made a CBE in 1995 and a CH in 2000. He was prebendary of St Paul's Cathedral. His wife predeceased him and he is survived by three of his four sons (Michael having died last year). ALASDAIR STEVEN	Samaritans (charity)
Which is the only remaining women's college in Oxford University?	The history of Samaritans \| Samaritans You are here Home > About us > Our organisation > The history of Samaritans The history of Samaritans Samaritans began in 1953 in London, founded by a vicar called Chad Varah. Throughout his career Chad had offered counselling to his parishioners, and wanted to do something more specific to help people struggling to cope and possibly contemplating suicide. How Samaritans started The initial idea for Samaritans came from the first funeral Chad conducted early on in his career: a girl aged 14 had started her period, but having no one to talk to believed that she had a sexually transmitted disease and took her own life. Chad was immensely moved by this senseless loss of life, "I might have dedicated myself to suicide prevention then and there, providing a network of people you could 'ask' about anything, however embarrassing, but I didn't come to that until later". Felicity Varah Harding, Chad's daughter, talks about her father: This interview was filmed by Central London Samaritans . Setting up the Samaritans service When Chad was offered charge of the parish of St Stephen in the summer of 1953 he knew that the time was right for him to launch what he called a "999 for the suicidal". He was, in his own words, "a man willing to listen, with a base and an emergency telephone". The first call to the new service was made on 2nd November 1953 and this date is recognised as Samaritans' official birthday. Publicising Samaritans Chad knew he would need to get word out about the service. Luckily he wrote and illustrated articles for children's comics, so he knew many of the journalists who worked on national newspapers. The service received lots of press coverage and on December 7th, 1953 the Daily Mirror coined the term "Telephone Good Samaritans" and although Samaritans is not a religious organisation, the name has stuck and become synonymous with the idea of people being there for others struggling to cope. The newspaper coverage worked and Chad received many callers wanting support both on the phone and face to face, as well as people wanting to help as volunteers. Initially the volunteers’ duties were to sit with the callers whilst they waited for their appointment, offering them someone to chat to, but it soon became clear that their role was much more central to the service. Often, the callers would pour out their problems to volunteers and many felt no need to speak to Chad afterwards. The simple act of listening and offering non-judgmental support was enough for most callers, and Chad realised the power of the service was in providing a safe space so people could talk and be listened to, without judgment. Growing into a nationwide service Publicity for the London-based service created a lot of interest elsewhere in the UK and as a consequence several more Samaritans centres were set up in the following years – the second being Samaritans in Edinburgh which took its first call on 1st June 1959. There are now 201 branches across the UK and Republic of Ireland. In February 1954, Chad officially handed over the task of supporting the callers to the volunteers, and Samaritans as we know it today was born. Samaritans service today still operates on Chad’s guiding principles of confidential, non-judgmental support.	i don't know
What is the bonus for placing a letter of a word on a red square in a game of 'Scrabble'?	Scrabble Rules - How to Play Scrabble - Official SCRABBLE Rules Scrabble Rules Links to Scrabble rules and Scrabble official game instructions. Two to four players play in any game of Scrabble. The object of Scrabble is to score more points than one's opponent. A player collects points by placing words on the game board. Each letter has a different point value, so the strategy becomes to play words with high scoring letter combinations. The Scrabble Board A Scrabble game board is made of up cells in a square grid. The Scrabble board is 15 cells wide by 15 cells high. The Scrabble tiles fit within these cells one to a cell. Scrabble Tiles Scrabble is played with exactly 100 tiles. 98 of these tiles contain letters on them, while there are 2 blank tiles. These blank tiles add a wildcard aspect to Scrabble. The blanks substitute for any letter in the alphabet. Once played, a blank tile remains for the remainder of the game the letter for which it was substituted when first played. Various letters have different point values, depending on the rarity of the letter and the difficulty in playing it. Blank tiles have no point value. Tile Values Here are the point values for each letter in Scrabble. 0 Points - Blank tile. 1 Point - A, E, I, L, N, O, R, S, T and U. 2 Points - D and G. 3 Points - B, C, M and P. 4 Points - F, H, V, W and Y. 5 Points - K. 8 Points - J and X. 10 Points - Q and Z. Extra Point Values Some squares on the Scrabble board represent multipliers. If a tile is placed on this square, then the tile's value is multiplied by a factor or either 2x or 3x. Certain tiles multiply the point value of an entire word and not simply the tile on that space. Double Letter Scores - Light blue cells are found isolated on the board. When a tile is placed on this space, that tile's point value is multiplied by two. Triple Letter Score - This is a dark blue cell on the Scrabble. The tile placed on this square has its points multiplied by three. Double Word Score - Light red cells are found running diagonally towards the four corners of the board. When a player plays a word on one of these squares, the point value of the entire word is multiplied by two. Triple Word Score - This is a dark red square on the Scrabble board. These are found on the four sides of the board equidistant from the four corners of the board. When a word is played using this square, then the points for the word are multiplied by three. One Single Use - Note that extra point squares are only usable once. If one player plays a word using this cells, then the next time that space is used to make a word, the point value is not multiplied. Starting the Game Without looking into the tile bag, each of the Scrabble players takes one tile out of the tile bag. Whichever player has the letter closest to the beginning of the alphabet goes first. A blank tile is considered better than an "A". These tiles are placed into the bag once more. Starting the game, each player begins their turn by drawing seven tiles apiece from the bag. The player can do one of three things on a turn. The player can place a word, exchange tiles or pass. Most of the time, the player will take the option of playing a word. Exchanging tiles allows a player to replace anywhere between one and all of the tiles on the player's rack. If this option is taken, the player cannot do anything else that hand. Therefore, a tile exchange cannot be performed on a turn when the player places a word on the board. A player may pass at any time. If all player's pass twice in a row, then the game ends. The First Word Score A player begins the game by placing a word on the star square at the center of the board. This star acts as a double word score. The star cell does not act as a double word score for subsequent players playing off the center square. Play continues in a clockwise direction around the Scrabble board. Replacing Scrabble Tiles When a player places tiles on the Scrabble board, that player draws new tiles from the tile bag, adding until that player's number of tiles equals seven. The player must not look at the tiles when choosing new ones. Tile selection is usually done by holding the bag above the eye line, then reaching into the bag to add tiles one by one. The Fifty Point Bonus When a player is able to place all seven tiles from the tile rack on the board at the same time, that player receives a 50 point bonus. In end game scenarios, when the players hold less than the standard seven tiles, a player does not get the 50 point bonus for using all the tiles on the rack. The End of a Scrabble Game When all of the tiles have been taken from the bag and one player has used all of the tiles on their rack, then the game ends. Tallying Scrabble Scores Once the game has ended, each player counts the points on the tiles left remaining in their rack. Each player has that number deducted from their final score. The player who ended the game and who therefore has no more tiles remaining is given an added bonus. Add the total of all points of all remaining players with tiles left on their racks. This number is added to the final score of the player who is "out" of tiles. The Scrabble player with the highest score after all final scores are tallied wins. Accepted Scrabble Words Players may place any word which can be found in a standard English language dictionary. Official Scrabble dictionaries also can be found in bookstores and online. Types of words which cannot be used are abbreviations, prefixes and suffixes. Words that require a hyphen or an apostrophe cannot be played. Words that are spelled with a capital letter cannot be used. Generally speaking in an English-language game of Scrabble, foreign words cannot be placed on the Scrabble board. If those words appear in a standard English dictionary, then the word is allowable. This is because the word is spoken often enough by native English-speakers that it has become a part of the English language. See also:	Scrabble
Who did Charles Darwin replace on the reverse of Bank of England £10 notes?	Welcome to SCRABBLE! Be the player with the highest final score. The Basic Rules of SCRABBLEï¿½ Game Players form interlocking words, crossword fashion, on the board using letter tiles of varying values. Each player competes for high score by taking advantage of the letter values, as well as the values of the ï¿½premiumï¿½ squares on the board. Player 1 always goes first. Each player starts with seven letter tiles in his or her letter rack. Player 1 combines two or more letter tiles to form a word and places it on the board to read either across or down. One of the letters must be placed on the center <star> square. On subsequent turns, each player adds one or more letters to those already played to form new words. All letters played in a turn must be placed in one row ï¿½ either across or down ï¿½ to form one complete word. All words must have at least two letters. If the letters played touch other letters in adjacent rows, they must form complete words, crosswise fashion, with these letters. The player gets full credit for all words formed or modified on their turn. A player completes a turn by adding together the letter values of all new words formed on that turn. The player then draws as many new letter tiles as those played, thereby always keeping seven letter tiles in his/her letter rack. Either of the two blank tiles may be used as any letter. Once a player states which letter the blank tile represents, it remains that letter for the rest of the game. A player may use a turn to exchange some or all of the tiles in his or her tile rack, provided there are at least seven tiles left to draw. The player draws as many new letter tiles as are returned to the pool. This ends the turn. All words, including those of foreign origin, as well as obsolete, colloquial, or slang words are permitted. Words that are not permitted include those that are always capitalized, abbreviations, prefixes and suffixes used alone, and those requiring a hyphen or an apostrophe. The game ends when all letters have been drawn and one player uses his or her last letter; or when all possible plays have been made, or when each player scores zero points (by passing, exchanging or losing challenges) on three consecutive turns. Scoring Scoring for the SCRABBLE computer game is done automatically. Hereï¿½s how scores are calculated: The score for each turn is the sum of the letter values in each word formed or modified on that turn, plus the additional points obtained from placing letters on premium squares. Premium letter squares: A light blue square doubles the score of a letter placed on it; a dark blue square triples the letter score. Premium word squares: The score for an entire word is doubled when one of its letters is placed on a pink square; it is tripled when one of its letters is placed on a red square. Premiums for double or triple letter values are included (if any) before doubling or tripling the word score. If a word is formed that covers two premium word squares, the score is doubled and then re-doubled (four times the letter count). Note: The center <star> square is pink, which always doubles the score for the first word. Letter and square premiums count only on the turn in which they are played. When a blank tile is played on a pink or red square, the value of the word is doubled or tripled, even though the blank itself has no score value. When two or more words are formed in the same play, each is scored. The common letter is counted (with full premium value, if any) for each word. Any player who plays all seven tiles on a turn scores a ï¿½Bingoï¿½ for a premium of 50 points after totaling his or her score for the turn. When the game ends, each playerï¿½s score is reduced by the sum of his or her unplayed letters. If a player has used all of his or her letters, the sum of the other playersï¿½ unplayed letters is added to that playerï¿½s score. How to Win The player with the highest final score wins the game.	i don't know
In which part of your body would you find the 'Pyramids of Malpighi'?	Malpighi \| Define Malpighi at Dictionary.com Malpighi [mahr-chel-law] /mɑrˈtʃɛl lɔ/ (Show IPA), 1628–94, Italian anatomist. Related forms [mal-pig-ee-uh n] /mælˈpɪg i ən/ (Show IPA), adjective Dictionary.com Unabridged Examples from the Web for Malpighi Expand Historical Examples The Insect Jules Michelet Malpighi could not satisfy himself as to the existence of seeds, which other botanists have pretended to discover. Disease in Plants H. Marshall Ward In the anatomical field the work of Malpighi and Swammerdam was at first continued most energetically by French students. British Dictionary definitions for Malpighi Expand noun 1. Marcello (marˈtʃɛllo). 1628–94, Italian physiologist. A pioneer in microscopic anatomy, he identified the capillary system (1661) Derived Forms Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Expand Malpighi Mal·pi·ghi (māl-pē'gē, mäl-), Marcello. 1628-1694. Italian anatomist who pioneered the use of a microscope in the study of anatomy and discovered the capillary system. The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. Malpighi (māl-pē'gē) Italian anatomist who was the first to use a microscope in the study of anatomy. He discovered the capillary system, extending the work of William Harvey. He is also noted for his studies of the structure of the lungs, spleen, liver, kidneys, skin, brain, and spinal cord. The American Heritage® Science Dictionary Copyright © 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.	Kidney
Who was the female actress that starred with Bob Hope and Bing Crosby in the famous 'Road To' films?	Inside Your Kidneys - How Your Kidneys Work \| HowStuffWorks How Your Kidneys Work Diagram showing the parts of the kidney and the nephron If you were to cut a kidney in half, you would see the following parts: Renal capsule - a thin, outer membrane that helps protect the kidney Cortex - a lightly colored outer region Medulla - a darker, reddish-brown, inner region Renal pelvis - a flat, funnel-shaped cavity that collects the urine into the ureters If you look closely at the cortex and medulla, you can see many tiny, tubular structures that stretch across both regions perpendicular to the surface of the kidney. In each kidney, there are one million of these structures, called nephrons. The nephron is the basic unit of the kidney. It's a long, thin tube that is closed at one end, has two twisted regions interspaced with a long hairpin loop, ends in a long straight portion and is surrounded by capillaries. Up Next The parts of the nephron are as follows: Bowman's capsule - This closed end at the beginning of the nephron is located in the cortex. Proximal convoluted tubule or proximal tubule - The first twisted region after the Bowman's capsule; it's in the cortex. Loop of Henle - A long, hairpin loop after the proximal tubule, it extends from the cortex down into the medulla and back. Distal convoluted tubule or distal tubule - This second twisted portion of the nephron after the loop of Henle is located in the cortex. Collecting duct - This long straight portion after the distal tubule that is the open end of the nephron extends from the cortex down through the medulla. Each part of the nephron has different types of cells with different properties -- this is important in understanding how the kidney regulates the composition of the blood. The nephron has a unique blood supply compared to other organs: Afferent arteriole - connects the renal artery with the glomerular capillaries Glomerular capillaries - coiled capillaries that are inside the Bowman's capsule Efferent arteriole - connects the glomerular capillaries with the peritubular capillaries Peritubular capillaries - located after the glomerular capillaries and surrounding the proximal tubule, loop of Henle, and distal tubule Interlobular veins - drain the peritubular capillaries into the renal vein The kidney is the only organ of the body in which two capillary beds, in series, connect arteries with veins. This arrangement is important for maintaining a constant blood flow through and around the nephron despite fluctuations in systemic blood pressure. Regulating the composition of the blood involves the following: Keeping the concentrations of various ions and other important substances constant Keeping the volume of water in your body constant Removing wastes from your body Keeping the acid/base concentration of your blood constant The kidney does this by a combination of three processes: It filters 20 percent of the plasma and non-cell elements from the blood into the inside of the nephron (the lumen). It reabsorbs the components that the body needs from the lumen back into the blood. It secretes some unwanted components from the blood into the lumen of the nephron. Anything (fluid, ions, small molecules) that has not been reabsorbed from the lumen gets swept away to form the urine, which ultimately leaves the body. Through these processes, the blood is maintained with the proper composition, and excess or unwanted substances are removed from the blood into the urine. Next, we'll look at how the kidneys regulate blood composition by three main processes: Filtration	i don't know
"When asked why he wanted to climb Everest, which famous mountaineer replied. ""Because it' there""?"	You can watch a man jump from Mount Everest \| HLNtv.com You can watch a man jump from Mount Everest By Wed February 5, 2014 AFP/Getty Images When asked why he wanted to climb Mount Everest, famous mountaineer George Mallory reportedly replied " Because it's there ." Mallory died on Everest in 1924. Now in 2014, Joby Ogwyn wants to climb up all 29,029 feet of Everest, and jump off, because it's there. Ogwyn is going to be part of a Discovery Channel live special , during which he will reach the summit of the mountain and jump off wearing a wingsuit and parachute. He'll fly down more than 10,000 feet before landing at the base of the mountain. This latest extreme stunt for Discovery follows the network's success broadcasting Nik Wallenda crossing the Grand Canyon on a tight rope and Felix Baumgartner's "space jump." Ogwyn has experience on Everest. At the age of 26, he reportedly became the youngest person to achieve the "seven summits," meaning he had climbed the highest peaks on all seven continents . He has also solo-climbed Everest, and he describes himself as a wingsuit pilot, as you can see below from a YouTube video on his channel. It will be a difficult undertaking just getting to the summit. According to AdventureStats , from 1922 to 2006, just 29% of those who set out to reach the summit of Everest have succeeded. The fatality rate of Everest climbers over that period was 1 out of 50.	George Mallory
What was the pseudonym of the Swiss born architect, Charles Edouard Jeanneret?	11 Greatest Mountains of the World – Touropia Travel Experts 11 Greatest Mountains of the World Last updated on November 10, 2016 in Landscapes 7 Comments The sport of mountain climbing was born in 1760, when a young Genevese scientist, Horace-Benedict de Saussure, offered prize money for the first person to reach the summit of Mount Blanc, Europe’s tallest peak. But long before that time humans have been climbing mountains for the challenge it poses. Or “because it’s there” as English mountaineer George Mallory famously replied when he was asked why he wanted to climb Mount Everest. A few months later he disappeared on the way to the summit. Some of the mountains on this list still provide a great challenge for the professional mountaineer. Others can be visited more easily by foot or cableway. But all of them can be appreciated from a safe distance providing magnificent vistas and spectacular scenery. Note: Volcanic mountains can be found in a separate list . 11Mount Kinabalu flickr/ Eric in SF With a summit height at 4,095 meters (13,435 ft), Mount Kinabalu is the highest mountain in Borneo. The mountain is known worldwide for its tremendous botanical and biological species biodiversity. Over 600 species of ferns, 326 species of birds, and 100 mammalian species have been identified at Mount Kinabalu and its surrounding. The main peak of the mountain can be climbed easily by a person with a good physical condition, and requires no mountaineering equipment although climbers must be accompanied by guides at all times. 10Amphitheatre, Drakensberg flickr/ laurieciao The Drakensberg is the highest mountain range in Southern Africa, rising to 3,482 metres (11,420 ft) in height. The name is derived from the dutch and means “dragons mountain”. The Amphitheatre is one of the geographical features of the Northern Drakensberg, and is widely regarded as one of the most impressive cliff faces on earth. The Amphitheatre is over 5 kilometers (3 miles) in length and has precipitous cliffs rising approximately 1200 meters (4000 ft) along its entire length. 9Mount Huang Mount Huang is a mountain range in eastern China also known as Huangshan (“Yellow Mountain”). The area is well known for its scenery, sunsets, peculiarly-shaped granite peaks and views of the clouds from above. Mount Huang is a frequent subject of traditional Chinese paintings and literature, as well as modern photography. The tallest peak in the Huangshan mountain range is the Lotus Peak at 1,864 meters (6,115 ft). In ancient times almost 60,000 stone steps were carved into the side of the mountain. Today there are also cable cars that tourists can use to ride directly from the base to one of the summits. 8Aoraki Mount Cook flickr/ Valley_Guy Aoraki Mount Cook is the highest mountain in New Zealand , reaching a height of 3,754 metres (12,316 ft). Aoraki means “Cloud Piercer” in the Ngai Tahu dialect of the Maori language. The mountain lies in a national park of the same name which contains 27 other mountains which peak at over 3000 meters. A popular tourist destination, it is also a favorite destination for mountain climbers. It is is a challenging ascent, with frequent storms and very steep snow and ice climbing to reach the peak. The mountain was first climbed successfully in 1894 by three New Zealanders who reached the summit via the north ridge. 7Monte Fitz Roy Monte Fitz Roy is a 3,375 meter (11,073 ft) high mountain on the border between Argentina and Chile. Despite its average height the mountain has a reputation of being extremely difficult to climb because the sheer granite faces present long stretches of arduous technical climbing. In addition, the weather in the area is exceptionally severe and treacherous. The mountain also attracts many tourists and photographers thanks to its otherworldly shape. It was first climbed in 1952 by French alpinists Lionel Terray and Guido Magnone. 6Mount Kailash Located in Tibet, Mount Kailash is considered as a sacred place in five religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Ayyavazhi and the Bön faith. In Hinduism, it is considered to be the abode of Lord Shiva. Every year, thousands make a pilgrimage to Kailash, following a tradition going back thousands of years. It is believed that moving around Mount Kailash on foot will bring good fortune. Because of these beliefs the mountain is considered off limits to climbers and there have been no recorded attempts to climb the 6,638 meter (21,778 ft) high Mount Kailash. It is the most significant peak in the world that has not seen any known climbing attempts. 5Mountains of Banff flickr/ satoru_kikuchi Banff National Park is Canada’s oldest national park, established in 1885 in the Rocky Mountains and one North America’s most visited parks. Banff’s mountains exhibit several different shapes that have been influenced by the composition of rock deposits, layers, and their structure. The 3,618 meter (11,870 ft) high Mount Assiniboine has been shaped by glacial erosion that has left a sharp peak. It has been unofficially named the “Matterhorn” of North America. The mountains of the Valley of the Ten Peaks near the crystal clear Moraine Lake are also known for providing scenic vistas. 4K2 With a peak elevation of 8,611 meters (28,251 ft), K2 is the second-highest mountain on Earth, after Mount Everest. The mountain is part of the Karakoram range, located on the border between China and Pakistan. K2 is also known as the Savage Mountain due to the difficulty of ascent and one of the highest fatality rate for those who climb it. K2 is notable for its local relief as well as its total height. It stands over 3,000 meters (9,843 ft) above much of the glacial valley bottoms at its base. More extraordinary is the fact that it is a consistently steep pyramid, dropping quickly in almost all directions. An Italian expedition succeeded in ascending to the summit of K2 on July 31, 1954. 3Table Mountain Table Mountain is a flat-topped mountain overlooking the city of Cape Town in South Africa. It’s main feature is a level plateau approximately 3 kilometers (2 mi) from side to side, surrounded by steep cliffs. The highest point on Table Mountain is 1,086 meters (3,563 ft) above sea level. There is a cableway that takes passengers to the top of the mountain with views overlooking Cape Town, Table Bay and Robben Island to the north, and the Atlantic seaboard to the west and south. António de Saldanha was the first European to land in Table Bay. He climbed the mighty mountain in 1503 and named it ‘Table Mountain’. 2Matterhorn The Matterhorn is a famous mountain and an iconic emblem of the Swiss Alps. The mountain derives its name from the German words Matte, meaning meadow, and Horn, which means peak. With its 4,478 metres (14,692 ft) high summit, lying on the border between Switzerland and Italy, it is one of the highest peaks in the Alps. It is also one of the deadliest peaks in the Alps. From the first time it was climbed in 1865 to 1995, 500 alpinists have died on it. The Matterhorn’s faces are steep, and only small patches of snow and ice cling to them while regular avalanches send the snow down to accumulate on the glaciers at the base of each face. 1Mount Everest At 8,848 meters (29,029 ft), Mount Everest is the highest mountain on Earth. It is located on the border between Nepal and Tibet. The highest mountain in the world attracts climbers of all levels, from well experienced mountaineers to novice climbers willing to pay substantial sums to professional mountain guides to complete a successful climb. Although other eight-thousanders such as K2 are much more difficult to climb, Mount Everest still has many inherent dangers such as altitude sickness, weather and wind. People who die during the climb are typically left behind and it is not uncommon to find corpses near the standard climbing routes. On May 29, 1953, Sherpa Tenzing Norgay Sherpa and New Zealander Edmund Percival Hillary were the first to climb to the summit of Everest. Related Travel Lists	i don't know
What was the name of the Los Angeles nightclub that is recognised as being the world's first 'discotheque'?	The World's First Disc Jockey Is... German?! - ABC News ABC News Meet Heinrich, the World's First Disc Jockey By DAVID CROSSLAND Email The quiet western city of Aachen, which last made news when Charlemagne lived there 1,200 years ago, has a credible claim to being the birthplace of the discotheque -- meaning that the world's first disc jockey was called Heinrich. Up until the late 1950s, dancing establishments around the world would rely exclusively on live bands. Records were shunned because they were regarded as "dead music." Then, in October 1959, Austrian businessman Franzkarl Schwendinger broke new ground. He opened an exclusive restaurant, the Scotch Club, in Aachen, and hired someone to play a series of records for entertainment. He got the idea from listening to Radio Luxembourg, a radio station that was rapidly reaching cult status by playing pop music, something unheard of in the conservative world of German broadcasting at the time. Stay Up to Date on the Latest Travel Trends from ABC News on Twitter Heinrich, whose real name is Klaus Quirini, was a 19-year-old cub reporter for the local newspaper and had been sent to write a story about the strange new phenomenon of public record-playing. The man on stage, an opera singer from Cologne, would change records without saying anything, and the audience wasn't impressed. Miracle Stuns Audience "The place was full but the entertainment wasn't going down very well, so we started complaining," Quirini told SPIEGEL ONLINE. "I was drinking whisky for the first time in my life and I may have been a little loud so the manager came over and said why don't you give it a try." Fuelled by liquid courage , he jumped on stage. "I said: Ladies and gentlemen, we're going to roll up our trouser legs and flood this place because A Ship Will Come with Lale Andersen!" 'A Ship Will Come' by the German singer Lale Andersen was a hit at the time and the audience was stunned at the witty introduction to the song, says Quirini. "People started applauding, they thought a miracle had happened." A new trend was born that night in Aachen. Some might argue that the Scotch Club with its sentimental German ballads and strict dress code -- jackets and ties for the men and definitely no trousers for women -- paved the way for the discos of the 1970s and the modern techno nightclubs with laser shows and dancers gyrating from suspended cages. Aachen Triggered Disco Revolution The discotheque swept Europe throughout the 1960s and didn't reach the US until the 1970s, says Quirini. In fact, he recalls not being impressed by the venues he saw in New York during a trip in the mid- 1980s. "I didn't see a single smart discotheque there. We were 10 to 15 years ahead of them." "Rivals in the business poked fun at us at first but history proved us right," says Quirini, now 68. Schwendinger, the owner of the Scotch Club, knew he was on to a good thing and immediately offered Quirini a full-time job, for 800 marks a month, a huge salary at the time. But his father, a prominent judge who was conducting a major political trial at the time, insisted that he change his name if he took the job. "At first I wanted to call myself Egon, because there was a hit at the time called 'Oh Egon, I Only Drank a Glass too Many Out of Love for You.' But we didn't have that record," says Quirini. "But we had a record that went 'Heinrich, I've Only Got You.' So I changed my name to Heinrich. When I walk through Aachen people in their 70s and 80s still say Heinrich to me." DJ Heinrich worked at the Scotch Club for eight years, adding Rock and Roll to his repertoire of German ballads, Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin. He moved to Switzerland and setting up the Alpine country's first discotheque in 1968. He then worked on pirate radio from a ship moored in the port of Hamburg for three months, until the city threatened to prosecute him and he had to leave. "You've Either Got it or You Haven't" The word discotheque was coined a few years after Quirini first jumped on stage -- the Scotch Club called itself a Jockey Dance Bar, a description that didn't catch on, unsurprisingly. What makes a good DJ? Heinrich certainly seemed to have the knack. "You should take a look at the lyrics and work that into your announcement, it's not something you can learn. You've either got it or you haven't. I remember dancing on a table in a kilt teaching people how to do the twist." He had a stock of hundreds of funny phrases and jokes to amuse audiences in between songs. Quirini stopped being a DJ decades ago but he has kept track of the trends -- how clubs had to make way for the gigantic techno temples in the 1990s, and how the scene is moving back towards smaller venues now. In the 1960s, many young men wanted to become DJs because the job sounded like an easy way to make money and attract women. Quirini fought to have the occupation recognized as a proper job and formed the German Organization of Disc Jockeys in 1963. Some might say the way German DJs organised themselves was typical of this heavily regulated, well-organized country. "Every DJ who wanted to become a member had to show an official police certificate of good conduct," he said. In the 1970s, he successfully campaigned for DJs to gain access to statutory health and pension insurance -- not very Rock n' Roll, perhaps but useful for long-term stability. Ageing Audiences Still Kicking The word disco has gone out of fashion and now stands for the 1970s style forever enshrined in the 1977 movie Saturday Night Fever -- mirror balls, flares and John Travolta swinging his hips. For Quirini, the traditional discotheque is very different from what he calls "discos", or modern nightclubs. His type of discotheque is alive and kicking, although its audience is aging, he says. "In a discotheque a DJ moderates and brings the music to life with his intros. In the modern disco, the tracks are brought to life by light effects, fog or blowing bubbles. The heyday of the discotheque isn't over. In Cologne for example, in the Wiener Steffie (editor's note -- a large dance hall with long wooden benches which often stages theme parties), the audience is 35 to 80 and if the DJ dares to put on Britney Spears, they'll send him packing." "I still go to discotheques but only to places where people my age go," says Quirini. "To the Tanzpalast in Aachen, for example, where you definitely won't find people dancing in cages." 0 Shares	Whisky a Go Go
The first five books of the Bible, the Five Books of Moses, are known by which name in the Jewish religion?	The Whisky Turns 50: When Dancing Girls in Cages Conquered the Sunset Strip The Whisky Turns 50: When Dancing Girls in Cages Conquered the Sunset Strip Chris Willman Pin it Share When Smokey Robinson & the Miracles had a hit with "Going to a Go-Go" in 1966, much of America had exactly one nightclub come to mind, even if they'd never ventured that far west themselves: the Whisky-a-Go-Go on the Sunset Strip, which gave a name — and a cage! — to a style of nightclub dancing that took off in the mid-'60s. You can still go to a go-go, even though dancers no longer hover like frugging, fringed parakeets above the stage. The venerable club turns 50 this week, commemorated with performances by some of the landmark acts who played there over the decades, including Johnny Rivers, who opened the place in 1964; John Densmore of the Doors, who became the house band in 1966 before getting unceremoniously fired; and representatives of the punk, new wave, and even hair-metal eras like X, the Motels, the Bangles, and Great White. In later years, the place would become better known for pogoing and punk-style slamming than anything that would have appealed to Austin Powers. But opening night in January 1964 brought about the invention of go-go dancing (or cage dancing), at least as it quickly came to be popularly recognized in films and on television. Club owner Elmer Valentine, a former cop who admitted he'd been in bed with the mob in Chicago before coming to L.A. to run nightclubs, had come across a discotheque in France called the Whisky-a-Go-Go while on vacation in 1963, and he decided to make that the name of his new West Hollywood nightspot, which was to favor bands over dancing. He held a contest to enlist a comely female DJ who would spin records between sets, but when the winner's mother refused to let her come the night of the grand opening, Valentine told a cigarette girl to get up in the glass booth instead. And.. she couldn't hold still. "She had on a slit skirt, and we put her up there," Valentine (who died in 2008) recalled in a 2000 Vanity Fair profile. "So she's up there playing the records. She's a young girl, so while playing 'em, all of a sudden she starts dancing to 'em. It was a dream. It worked." The crowd came to expect it as the club's trademark, and soon the turntable was being kicked out to make room for two full-time "girl dancers." Johnny Rivers, of "Secret Agent Man" fame, was the house act during those initial months, and he was not pleased at having to compete with the leggy wonders. "I said, ʻWhen Iʼm playing, I want people to listen to my music. I donʼt want any sideshows',” Rivers remembered, and the club agreed to have the miniskirted attractions tone it down while he sang. Quickly, the Whisky became a deeply embedded part of pop culture. In a 1965 episode of The Beverly Hillbillies, Jane and Jethro, of all people, visit the club. Jack Paar hosted a show from the nightspot. Life magazine ran a photo feature on the place. Dustin Hoffman was seen exiting the Whisky in The Graduate. Celebrities made a point of stopping by and grabbing one of the coveted private booths — even seeming squares like Cary Grant. "I remember the Beatles coming, and the Stones, and Bob Dylan playing pool upstairs," Rivers told the Los Angeles Times. "And I didn't recognize half the celebrities. People'd say, 'That was Gina Lollabrigida dancing out there and Steve McQueen.'" This was a fairly new development in the history of rock & roll, which before then had been dismissed as strictly teen culture: fully fledged adults, both recognizable and not, wanting to cut a rug to the current sounds. “Part of what interested me was the audience that I saw,” Lou Adler, Valentine's later-to-be partner, told Vanity Fair. “Because they were adults dancing to rock & roll—people in sport coats and ties. That showed the audience was getting really broad.” "The Whisky was Mecca," Ray Manzarek told the Times. "It was the place in Los Angeles. It was probably the place in the entire country." In 1966, the L.A. music scene began to take on a darker and/or more overtly countercultural vibe, thanks in part to Manzarek's own group, which was playing a dingier club down the block before getting hired by Valentine as the Whisky's house band for seven months. Cary Grant and Gina Lollabrigida surely would have been horrified if they'd been there the night Jim Morrison spontaneously introduced the legendary Oedipal sex-and-murder climax of "The End," which got the band fired (although they were allowed to finish out the week). After the show ended, Manzarek related, one of the club operators charged into the dressing room, saying, "You guys have the dirtiest [bleeping] mouths Iʼve ever heard in my life! Morrison, you canʼt say that about your mother... What kind of pervert are you?" Read More Thankfully for the owners, the next house band of note, the then-fledgling Buffalo Springfield, kept the obscenities and forbidden mother-love to a minimum, and established a pretty substantial legacy in their own right. By this point, the go-go girls were undulating less wildly at the shows, as trippy slide shows put together by Roger McGuinn were projected alongside them. Eventually the gals were gone altogether as the music got heavier, resulting in double-bills like a five-night stand of Led Zeppelin and Alice Cooper in early 1969. (According to Cooper, the two acts flipped a coin to see who'd go on first, since they were both so unknown that Zeppelin had to be advertised as "featuring Jimmy Page of the Yardbirds.") Acts who went on to do multi-night stands at the Whisky in the early '70s included Steely Dan, Van Morrison, Linda Ronstadt, Iggy and the Stooges, Chicago, the Beach Boys, Black Sabbath, Weather Report, Bob Seger, Yes, Aerosmith, the Allman Brothers, and Roxy Music, to name just a sampling. After the club briefly turned to theatrical revues in the mid-'670s, it came back primarily as a punk and new wave venue favoring locals like X and Oingo Boingo, followed by the hair-metal explosion of the '80s and '90s. Now, anniversary events excepted, it exists mainly as a pay-to-play venue that rarely books big-name acts. But the true go-go era survives, if only in clips from the Hullabaloo and Shindig! TV shows that popularized on the dancing fad, or in revivals like Elvis Costello's occasional "Spinning Songbook" tours that include a go-go cage on stage for both professional and audience dancers. And if you visit the Whisky and look above the stage long enough, you might just see the ghost of some white fringe and boots, ready to kick the heinies of today's navel-gazing rockers. Reblog	i don't know
Which computer programming language was named after Charles Babbadge's assistant, Lady Lovelace?	Ada Lovelace \| Babbage Engine \| Computer History Museum The Analytical Engine weaves algebraic patterns just as the Jacquard loom weaves flowers and leaves. 1843 Ada Lovelace (1815-1852) was born Augusta Ada Byron, the only legitimate child of Annabella Milbanke and the poet Lord Byron. Her mother, Lady Byron, had mathematical training (Byron called her his 'Princess of Parallelograms') and insisted that Ada, who was tutored privately, study mathematics too - an unusual education for a woman. Ada met Babbage at a party in 1833 when she was seventeen and was entranced when Babbage demonstrated the small working section of the Engine to her. She intermitted her mathematical studies for marriage and motherhood but resumed when domestic duties allowed. In 1843 she published a translation from the French of an article on the Analytical Engine by an Italian engineer, Luigi Menabrea, to which Ada added extensive notes of her own. The Notes included the first published description of a stepwise sequence of operations for solving certain mathematical problems and Ada is often referred to as 'the first programmer'. The collaboration with Babbage was close and biographers debate the extent and originality of Ada's contribution. Perhaps more importantly, the article contained statements by Ada that from a modern perspective are visionary. She speculated that the Engine 'might act upon other things besides number... the Engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent'. The idea of a machine that could manipulate symbols in accordance with rules and that number could represent entities other than quantity mark the fundamental transition from calculation to computation. Ada was the first to explicitly articulate this notion and in this she appears to have seen further than Babbage. She has been referred to as 'prophet of the computer age'. Certainly she was the first to express the potential for computers outside mathematics. In this the tribute is well-founded. © Computer History Museum \| Credits	ADA
Who became the First Minister of Scotland when the Scottish Parliament was established in 1999?	Ada Lovelace: Founder of Scientific Computing Born: London, England, December 10, 1815 Died: London, England, November 27, 1852 Analyst, Metaphysician, and Founder of Scientific Computing Ada Byron was the daughter of a brief marriage between the Romantic poet Lord Byron and Anne Isabelle Milbanke, who separated from Byron just a month after Ada was born. Four months later, Byron left England forever. Ada never met her father (who died in Greece in 1823) and was raised by her mother, Lady Byron. Her life was an apotheosis of struggle between emotion and reason, subjectivism and objectivism, poetics and mathematics, ill health and bursts of energy. Lady Byron wished her daughter to be unlike her poetical father, and she saw to it that Ada received tutoring in mathematics and music, as disciplines to counter dangerous poetic tendencies. But Ada's complex inheritance became apparent as early as 1828, when she produced the design for a flying machine. It was mathematics that gave her life its wings. Lady Byron and Ada moved in an elite London society, one in which gentlemen not members of the clergy or occupied with politics or the affairs of a regiment were quite likely to spend their time and fortunes pursuing botany, geology, or astronomy. In the early nineteenth century there were no "professional" scientists (indeed, the word "scientist" was only coined by William Whewell in 1836)--but the participation of noblewomen in intellectual pursuits was not widely encouraged. One of the gentlemanly scientists of the era was to become Ada's lifelong friend. Charles Babbage, Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, was known as the inventor of the Difference Engine, an elaborate calculating machine that operated by the method of finite differences. Ada met Babbage in 1833, when she was just 17, and they began a voluminous correspondence on the topics of mathematics, logic, and ultimately all subjects. In 1835, Ada married William King, ten years her senior, and when King inherited a noble title in 1838, they became the Earl and Countess of Lovelace. Ada had three children. The family and its fortunes were very much directed by Lady Byron, whose domineering was rarely opposed by King. Babbage had made plans in 1834 for a new kind of calculating machine (although the Difference Engine was not finished), an Analytical Engine. His Parliamentary sponsors refused to support a second machine with the first unfinished, but Babbage found sympathy for his new project abroad. In 1842, an Italian mathematician, Louis Menebrea, published a memoir in French on the subject of the Analytical Engine. Babbage enlisted Ada as translator for the memoir, and during a nine-month period in 1842-43, she worked feverishly on the article and a set of Notes she appended to it. These are the source of her enduring fame. Ada called herself "an Analyst (& Metaphysician)," and the combination was put to use in the Notes. She understood the plans for the device as well as Babbage but was better at articulating its promise. She rightly saw it as what we would call a general-purpose computer. It was suited for "developping [sic] and tabulating any function whatever. . . the engine [is] the material expression of any indefinite function of any degree of generality and complexity." Her Notes anticipate future developments, including computer-generated music. Ada died of cancer in 1852, at the age of 37, and was buried beside the father she never knew. Her contributions to science were resurrected only recently, but many new biographies * attest to the fascination of Babbage's "Enchantress of Numbers." * Doris Langley Moore, 1977: Ada: Countess of Lovelace (London: John Murray); Joan Baum, 1986: The Calculating Passion of Ada Byron (Archon Books); Betty A. Toole, 1992: Ada, the Enchantress of Numbers (Mill Valley, CA: Strawberry Press).	i don't know
Who was the founder of Harrow Public School?	Schools: Harrow School \| British History Online Schools: Harrow School Schools: Harrow School Pages 299-302 This free content was digitised by double rekeying . All rights reserved. Citation: HARROW SCHOOL Harrow School Azure a lion rampant in dexter chief two arrows in saltire points downward tied in the centre with a bow and enfiled with a wreath laurel all argent[Granted 1929] In February 1572 John Lyon, a yeoman of Preston in Harrow, secured from Elizabeth I a charter to re-found a free grammar school for the boys of the parish of Harrow, to send two scholars to Cambridge and two to Oxford, and to improve the highways between Edgware and London. (fn. 1) These intentions were amplified by Lyon's 'Orders, Statutes and Rules' (often called his will) drawn up in 1591. The schoolmaster was to be at least an M.A. and the usher a B.A., with salaries of £20 and £10 respectively, which were to be increased to 40 marks and 20 marks if Lyon left no heir. The schoolmaster might also teach fee-paying 'foreigners' provided that this did not adversely affect the children of the parish. Texts were prescribed for each of the five forms. There was to be no playtime except sometimes on fine Thursdays; church attendance was compulsory, but punishment with the rod was permitted only 'moderately' on pain of dismissal. No English was to be spoken above the First Form; two monitors were to be appointed to report (but not to punish) these and other faults, and a third was secretly to watch the other two. Parents were to provided paper, ink, pens, books, candles, and bows and arrows. (fn. 2) On the death of Lyon's widow in 1608 the Governors elected Anthony Rate to be master, although he does not appear to have been a university graduate and did not draw the full salary. In 1615 a new school building (the west wing of the present Old Schools) was ready; the Revd. William Lance, was appointed master with his brother Thomas as usher, the son of the vicar became the first recorded pupil, and the school settled down to follow the pattern provided in the Statutes. (fn. 3) The first notable Harrovian was William Baxter (1650-1723), a nephew of Richard Baxter the nonconformist divine, and a Welsh speaker at the time of his admission. (fn. 4) William Horne, headmaster 1669-85, the first of several Etonians to hold office, appears to have been successful. A letter written by a boy's mother in 1682 reveals that there were then about 120 boys and many boarding houses; in the master's house the fee for board and schooling was £22, but in a dame's boarding house only £14. During Horne's time a playing field was purchased, the school yard levelled, and the Silver Arrow archery competition instituted. (fn. 5) Under Thomas Brian (1691-1730), another Etonian, the school continued to flourish, although there was a period of depression towards the end of Anne's reign. With the accession of George I in 1714 Harrow became popular with the Whig aristocracy, since Tory Eton was suspected of Jacobitism. Harrow also enjoyed the patronage of James Brydges, later Duke of Chandos, a man of outstanding business capacity and a governor from 1713 to 1740, but the same period saw the number of free scholars decline to 14, while the Lyon exhibitions at the universities were often held by non-Harrovians or not at all. (fn. 6) The Revd. Dr. James Cox, usher under Brian, was appointed to succeed him, but according to the governors' minute he led a disorderly, drunken, idle life, and by 1746, when his debts forced him to abscond, numbers were down to 46. (fn. 7) In this crisis the governors appointed Dr. Thomas Thackeray, an Etonian and former Eton master whose strong Whig sympathies had made him unwelcome there. Numbers rose, additional masters were appointed, a further playing field was secured, and there was some reform of the curriculum, although this last improvement was only made possible by allowing assistant masters and even independent tutors to charge fees for private lessons in nonclassical subjects. Naturally this widened the breach between the foreigners (boarders, who were not local boys) and the foundationers, since few of the latter could afford the fees. Moreover, Thackeray fostered his connexions with the Whig nobility by granting special privileges to aristocratic pupils, an indulgence which led to slack discipline and later to a decline in numbers. (fn. 8) Robert Sumner (1760-71), Thackeray's successor, incurred the wrath of some influential parents by curtailing these privileges, but discipline improved, the staff was increased to seven, some recognition was given to the private tutors, and numbers rose to over 230, partly as a result of the Eton rebellion of 1768. (fn. 9) In 1755 a boy paid £7 for half a year's board, or £12 8s. 7d. including all outgoings, and the total cost of his seven and a half years at Harrow was £206; but in 1770 another boy paid £21 and £40 six months later. (fn. 10) On Sumner's early death in 1771 Benjamin Heath, another Eton master, was appointed. The governors passed over the claims of Samuel Parr, an Harrovian, Sumner's assistant and expected successor. Parr was young, without a degree, a supporter of Wilkes, and-perhaps worst of all-poor; but he had the enthusiastic support of the boys who, resenting the continued dependence on Eton, petitioned the governors in Parr's favour and destroyed one governor's carriage. The petitioners claimed that 'as we are most of us independent of the foundation we presume that our inclinations ought to have some weight in the determination of your choice'. Heath quickly restored order and in the following year instituted speech days to replace the archery contests which had attracted unruly crowds from London and disorganized the school. In 1775 the VI Form appeared in the school lists for the first time, but the number of free scholars fell to seven or eight. (fn. 11) Heath was succeeded by his assistant and brotherin-law Joseph Drury (1785-1805), whose pupils momentarily outnumbered those of Eton and included five future prime ministers, the poet Byron, and many other aristocrats and men of letters. (fn. 12) The appointment of George Butler (1805-29) to succeed Drury provoked another rebellion of which Byron, now a monitor, was a leader. It is said that a proposal to blow up the new headmaster was abandoned because it would have involved the destruction of panelling on which the boys' predecessors had carved their names. (fn. 13) In 1808 there was a third rebellion when Butler resisted the claims of the monitors to beat offenders with as much severity as they thought fit, confiscated their canes, and declared their claim to inflict corporal punishment a usurpation. (fn. 14) The rebels held the Fourth Form Room against the authorities and barricaded the London Road. Butler acted vigorously: he expelled the ringleaders, stopped blanket tossing and other ill-treatment, and restricted abuses of the fagging system. (fn. 15) He promoted scholarship, encouraged the writing and public speaking of Greek, Latin, and English verse, and introduced some science, French, and Italian as extras. He also extended the buildings, added the east wing to the Old Schools, erected the clock, enlarged the yard, and made a pool called Ducker the official bathing-place. Nevertheless he allowed the school routine to be repeatedly interrupted by holidays to celebrate victories in the Peninsula, saints' days, and political events. The boys seem to have spent this free time exploding gunpowder, firing cannon, and rambling in the surrounding countryside. (fn. 16) At this period a cricket match against Eton became a more or less annual event. (fn. 17) In 1806 the parishioners attempted to reassert the rights of local boys against the foreigners; they complained of bullying and ill-treatment, of the expense of books and clothing, of the corrupting influence of the wealthy non-foundationers, and of the limited value of the classical education offered, but in 1810 judgement was delivered in Chancery in favour of the governors. (fn. 18) Anthony Trollope, a foundationer 1823-6 and 1831-4, suffered many humiliations, and Charles Merivale, later to become Dean of Ely, said he felt for years the 'social inferiority' impressed on him at Harrow. (fn. 19) Dr. Longley (later Archbishop of Canterbury), the next headmaster, failed to stem the decline in both discipline and numbers which had begun under Butler and which continued under Dr. Christopher Wordsworth (1836-44), nephew of the poet. Wordsworth attempted to bring about reforms, but his impatience and tactlessness aroused widespread opposition. He legalized fagging by reducing its rules to writing, appointed J. W. Colenso to teach a widened mathematical curriculum, (fn. 20) and built the first school chapel, but his high church leanings offended the Evangelicals, including Peel, who sent his younger sons to Eton. Wordsworth's good intentions failed to restrain brutal practices; according to C. S. Roundell, head of the school 1845-6, 'we were extremely expert at stone-throwing; no dog could live in the street'. (fn. 21) Dr. C. J. Vaughan (1845-59), a pupil of Arnold at Rugby, was appointed headmaster at the age of 28 and was welcomed by Robert Grimston, the embodiment of the Harrow tradition, as 'one who is able and willing to carry out the Arnold system of education'. (fn. 22) A scholar and administrator, he enforced discipline without friction, attracted a strong and able staff, and increased the number of boys from under 70 to over 460. He rebuilt the chapel, founded the rifle corps, improved Ducker, and extended the playing fields; (fn. 23) nevertheless, Augustus Hare, the artist and writer and a pupil in 1847-8, although denying that he himself was ill-treated, speaks of bullying, excessive fagging, and repeated beatings. The Platt-Stewart case, arising from an incident in a football match after which Stewart received 31 strokes from Platt, a prefect, resulted in a public controversy involving Palmerston, the Home Secretary and an Old Harrovian. (fn. 24) In 1849 the governors rejected an appeal by the parishioners for the foundation of a commercial school, but Vaughan established one at his own expense 'to meet the wants of a class of residents who may not desire for their sons a high classical education and who are reasonably unwilling to confound the mutual division of ranks by sending them to the National School'. This 'English Form', as it was called, was established in an old coach-house well away from the main school. Latin was both compulsory and free, but for other subjects parents had to pay a fee of £5 a year, provide books, and relinquish their sons' privileges as Lyon scholars; on no account were the boys to mix with those of the 'higher schools'. (fn. 25) At the same time well-to-do parents moved into the Harrow district to enable their sons to enjoy these same privileges-an attraction sometimes referred to in estate agents' advertisements. (fn. 26) Vaughan thought it a mistake to stay too long and in 1859 he resigned, having in fifteen years restored the fortunes of Harrow. (fn. 27) The Vaughan Library, opened in 1863, is a permanent memorial of his headmastership. His successor was the Revd. Montagu Butler (1860-85), son of the former headmaster. At this period the public schools were subjected to a good deal of criticism and a Royal Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Lord Clarendon. The evidence given by Butler and other members gives a detailed account of the school's organization, curriculum, and discipline. The governors apparently left the headmaster in complete control, paying him only his official salary of £50 a year, but capitation fees, the profits from his boarding-house, and other sources made his income up to about £10,000 gross or £6,000 net; from this he was expected to contribute to the maintenance and improvement of the school buildings. All the foundationers were sons of the 'higher classes', but there were 24 tradesmen's sons in the English Form. Mathematics and modern languages were compulsory, but the marks gained in these subjects counted for much less than those gained in the classics. History consisted mainly of holiday reading and physical science formed no part of the regular course. All compositions were looked over by the tutor before being shown to the form-master, and only classical masters could be tutors. One witness G. F. Harris, the Under Master, was unaware how or in whose presence punishments were inflicted in his own house, but he considered the accommodation 'infamous'-ventilation was bad and his house had no bathroom for the boys. No witnesses represented the parishioners of Harrow. (fn. 28) The Commission proposed that class distinction should be eliminated by abolishing the privilege of free education and the preference given to Harrowborn boys in the award of university scholarships; for local boys an entirely separate school was to be provided to accommodate the English Form. Despite the objections of the parishioners (fn. 29) the Public Schools Act became law in 1868. An enlarged and more authoritative governing body was set up, the old constitution was abrogated, new statutes were drawn up, and the Lower School of John Lyon, opened in June 1876, replaced the English Form. (fn. 30) Butler encouraged higher standards of learning by introducing entrance scholarships, offering an increased number of prizes, and superannuating dullards. He also allowed E. E. Bowen to establish the Modern Side, but the abler boys were still persuaded to keep to the classics; Bowen himself resented the increasing regimentation of later Victorian public school education, and did not consider that the house, any more than the school, was a fitting altar on which the individual should be sacrificed. Bowen is best remembered for his songs which, set to music by John Farmer, the school organist, enshrined Harrow life and tradition. 'Willow the King' (1867), 'Forty Years On' (1872), and many others, to which later authors and composers have added, form a unique collection of school songs. (fn. 31) One of the changes of this period was the gradual transfer of the responsibilities for house and school government from boys who excelled in study to those who excelled in sport, especially cricket. This was partly the result of the enthusiasm of Robert Grimston and Frederick Ponsonby, Earl of Bessborough, who from 1829 to 1884 spent much of their spare time in summer coaching the Sixth Form Game. (fn. 32) The Revd. J. E. C. Welldon (headmaster 1885-98, and later Bishop of Calcutta and Dean of Durham), a powerful preacher and stern disciplinarian, had a personal and individual interest in the boys, all of whom he knew by name. He reorganized the timetable to allow more specialization, made Greek optional, encouraged Sixth Formers to enter for Civil Service and other competitive examinations, and increased the amount of class teaching. These changes aroused some opposition among both boys and masters, and in 1893 Bowen resigned his position as head of the Modern Side. In 1885 the governors initiated an important change of policy when they began to acquire the boarding-houses which had hitherto been run as private ventures by their housemasters. (fn. 33) Dr. Joseph Wood (headmaster 1899-1910) introduced no great educational changes, but successfully maintained and developed a high standard of scholarship, although latterly discipline slackened and numbers fell. The periods of Welldon and Wood are contrasted in two novels by Old Harrovians-H. A. Vachell's The Hill (1905), which gives an idealized picture of school life, and Sir Arnold Lunn's The Harrovians, said to be based on his diary, in which the atmosphere is one of submission to the tyranny of athletes and bloods. (fn. 34) Wood's most enduring memorial is the 250 acres around the school which he preserved from the speculative builder, partly by generous contributions from his own salary. (fn. 35) Lionel Ford (1910-25) insisted on hard work; after the innovation of a Board of Education inspection he reorganized the timetable and abandoned the traditional pupil-room system. He introduced Spanish and Economics, and in 1917 abolished the distinction between the Classical and Modern Sides, introducing a number of specialized sixth forms. He erected the War Memorial Building and began the demolition of the shops on the west side of the High Street to the south of the School Yard, completely transforming the central area of the school and creating the present vista. (fn. 36) His successor, Dr. (afterwards Sir) Cyril Norwood (1926-34), already a leading educationalist, strengthened the classical teaching, but at the same time widened the curriculum. He also completed the gradual process by which houses and their housemasters came under the direct control of the school. Another innovation was the introduction of rugby football as the official game for the Christmas term and the relegation of Harrow football to the Easter term, a change confirmed by the majority in a ballot of the whole school. Norwood was succeeded by P. C. Vellacott (1934-9), afterwards Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge. During the difficult period 1940-2 A. P. Boissier, an assistant master, was appointed head. Numbers declined because of the dangers of air attack and four houses were closed; these were occupied from 1942 to 1945 by Malvern College, whose own building had been requisitioned. A clock on the school stores commemorates this association. Dr. R. W. Moore was headmaster from 1942 until his death in 1953, and was succeeded by Dr. R. L. James. (fn. 37) In 1962 there were about 660 boys in the school, of whom about half were pursuing post-Ordinary-Level G.C.E. courses; in the Sixth Form the classicists and historians still outnumbered the scientists and mathematicians. Seven Old Harrovians have become prime ministers, the most famous of them Sir Winston Churchill. (fn. 38) Nineteen have been awarded the Victoria Cross, and six the Order of Merit. (fn. 39) Footnotes 1 . The phrase de novo erigere is ambiguous, but there is evidence for the existence of an earlier school. The foundation date of 1571 arose from a misunderstanding in the early 19th cent.: E. D. Laborde, Harrow School Yesterday and Today, 20-24, 216-25.	John Lyon
Spurn Point Lighthouse is situated at the mouth of which river estuary?	Harrow School Harrow School [ Victorian Web Home —> Social History —> Education —> Harrow —> Next ] Harrow School at Harrow on the Hill, Middlesex (now a part of London), is one of the oldest and most respected public schools in England. It was founded in 1572 by the yeoman-farmer John Lyon, who is buried nearby at the parish church of St Mary . There is a fine memorial to him there by John Flaxman ; like many other Flaxman memorials, this tells the story of a life well spent. One of the three pupils in the sculptured relief looks up at the still youthful Lyon in wide-eyed reverence, while the two boys beside him are preoccupied with (probably) construing their Greek or Latin text. Inside the original Harrow School building, known as "Old Schools," is the old Fourth Form. Here, like Lyon in the memorial, the headmaster would have been enthroned at one end of the form while the usher would have sat in an armchair at the other. The most interesting part of this room now is the black panelling, on which many famous Old Harrovians, including Sheridan and Byron, etched their names (Stevenson 70). On an outside wall is a plaque to the future Lord Shaftesbury , commemorating the time in his schooldays when he encountered a pauper's drunken funeral and burned with "shame and indignation" at the sight. His biographer G. F. A. Best is somewhat sceptical (114), but apparently Shaftesbury himself felt that this incident "helped to waken his life-long devotion to the service of the poor and the oppressed," as the inscription says. Harrow School is most famous, though, for having produced seven British prime ministers, including Lord Palmerston , who was there from 1795-1800, and Churchill, who was there from 1888-1893. Early in the Edwardian period, the first Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was educated there as well. A number of the most impressive school buildings date from the Victorian era. These include the School Chapel and the Vaughan Library, both the work of George Gilbert Scott , who had only recently (1846-49) drastically restored St Mary's Church (Gardner 7). The School Chapel was completed in 1855, and the Vaughan Library in 1863. Amongst the many memorial plaques in the chapel are two to Matthew Arnold 's sons, who both died while they were at Harrow. The library was named after Dr Charles John Vaughan, the reforming headmaster of 1845-59, who had been one of Thomas Arnold 's leading pupils at Rugby, and who had "raised pupil numbers from 69 to 469 and reformed a school of whose violent pupils the local inhabitants had been in considerable fear" (Copley 178). Vaughan had been forced to resign when a pupil alleged that he had written inappropriate letters to another pupil. The allegations were not widely credited; perhaps naming the library after him was a way of restoring Vaughan's reputation. Another important Victorian building is the school's New Speech Room, designed for its tercentenary in an unusual and space-saving D shape by William Burges , and opened in 1877. Not surprisingly, in view of its state before 1845, some accounts of Harrow School in Victorian times are worse than bleak. Shaftesbury may have "quite enjoyed" it there (Best 18), but Anthony Trollope , who started as a day-boy when he was only seven, was famously miserable there: "I was never spared," he recalled bitterly in his autobiography, "and was not even allowed to run to and fro between our house and the school without a daily purgatory." He adds that he was targeted not only by the boys but also by the headmaster of the time, who flogged him "constantly." Returning later after periods at a smaller private school in Sunbury, and at Winchester, the teenage Trollope fared even worse. His father's fortunes having suffered a further decline, he was treated as an outcast: "I had not only no friends, but was despised by all my companions.... I was allowed to join in no plays. Nor did I learn anything, — for I was taught nothing" (Ch. I). The fictional Clarence in Charlotte Yonge's Chantry House (1886), who is weak by nature and given to lying and sneaking, is also a pariah and target for bullying whilst at Harrow (see "The Public School Experience in Victorian Literature." ) Clarence's more prepossessing brother, Griff, is unsympathetic: "[I]t is only what all fellows have to bear if there's no pluck in them," he says off-handedly. Note that, despite the date of this novel's publication, Yonge is still talking about "pre-Arnoldian times" (Ch. III). The atmosphere of the school is utterly different now, but the distinctive Victorian buildings, chimneypots, post-box and so on still give the flavour of bygone days. So too do the sight of Harrow boys wearing their often battered straw boaters, and glimpses of masters striding past in billowing academic gowns — the latter rarely seen on English streets now. Sources Best, G. F. A. Shaftesbury. London: Batsford, 1964. Copley, Terence. Black Tom: Arnold of Rugby, The Myth and the Man. London and New York: Continuum, 2002. Gardner, Samuel. A Detailed Guide to St Mary's: The Parish and Borough Church of St Mary, Harrow-on-the-Hill (available in the church). Stevenson, Bruce. Middlesex. London: Batsford, 1972. (NB Stevenson finds the chapel "hideous," 70. A matter of taste/debate?) Trollope, Anthony. An Autobiography(1883). Text available here , at Project Gutenberg. Weinreb, Ben and Christopher Hibbert, eds. The London Encyclopaedia. London: Macmillan, rev. ed. 1992. Yonge, Charlotte. Chantry House (1886). Text available here , at Project Gutenberg.	i don't know
Which was the first British postage stamp to be issued with perforations?	Your Guide to Collecting Queen Victoria Stamps \| eBay Your Guide to Collecting Queen Victoria Stamps Share 29 June 2016 Stamp collecting as a hobby began around the same time the first stamp was issued, in the mid-19th Century. Collectors take up the hobby for several reasons, including philatelic investment. Queen Victoria stamps hold a special place in philately, because Great Britain issued the first postage stamps during the reign of Queen Victoria. In fact, the very first postage stamp ever issued, the Penny Black, displayed the profile of a young Queen Victoria. Several Queen Victoria stamps are included in lists of the rarest and most valuable stamps from Great Britain. Collectors of Queen Victoria stamps can find stamps at auctions, through stamp dealers, and at stamp markets called "bourses". Collecting stamps, especially old, rare, and valuable ones, requires a great deal of knowledge. Collectors should be familiar with the different types of Queen Victoria stamps, how they are graded, and how to determine a particular stamp's value. Collectors must also know how to use proper equipment to handle and store stamps safely. Classifications of Queen Victoria Stamps The major classifications of Queen Victoria stamps are based on changes in the way the stamps were printed, and changes to the design of the stamps. Some of the most common classifications are discussed in detail below. Imperforate Line Engraved Imperforate stamps printed using line engraving technology are called imperforate line engraved stamps.. The first stamps produced did not have the perforations that are now a feature of every postage stamp around the world. They had to be cut out of a sheet using scissors. Such stamps are called "imperforate". Line engraving is a time consuming printing process that results in very sharp and crisp designs. In this method, recesses are cut into a metal die, line-by-line, and dot-by-dot. Ink is then applied to the engraved plate, and the plate is wiped clean, leaving ink only in the engraved recesses. Paper, sometimes moistened, is then applied to the die under great pressure. The paper is forced into the recesses, and the ink prints the stamp's design. Line engraved stamps feature extremely fine and intricate details that are usually absent in later stamps. Imperforate line engraved Queen Victoria stamps were issued from 1840 to 1853. Perforated Line Engraved Soon after postage stamps were first issued, perforations were introduced to simplify the process of removing individual stamps from a sheet. Perforated line engraved stamps are simply stamps that are printed (using line engraved dies) onto a sheet, and then perforated. Line Engraved with Plate Numbers Line engraving used numbered plates made from the original die. Plates would wear out after some time, and would have to be replaced. The Penny Black and the Penny Red Brown stamps, both Queen Victoria stamps, were printed in sheets of 240 stamps. Starting with the 71st plate of Die II of the Penny Black, plate numbers were engraved on stamps. This practice began in 1858. Embossed Stamps Embossed stamps were developed to prevent stamp forgery. Embossed Queen Victoria stamps bear the head of Queen Victoria in cameo relief. Embossing successfully foiled forgery, but greatly slowed the printing process. Line engraving required only one movement of the machine, but each embossed stamp needed an additional pressing. A sheet of 24 stamps required 24 pressings, instead of one. Embossed stamps were not very popular, and were only printed for ten years. Surface Printed Issues Queen Victoria stamps printed using the surface printing method are called surface printed issues.. These are some of the most sought after stamps from this period. Surface printed issues are further divided into four so called "families": No corner letters Large, white corner letters Large, coloured corner letters Surface printing is also called "relief printing". The die or plate used features raised areas on its surface, which receive ink, and print the design onto the paper of the stamp. This method is quicker and uses less ink compared to line engraving. Surface printing was the next logical step to meet the increased demand for postage stamps. It was introduced in 1855. Lilac and Green Issues Lilac and Green Queen Victoria issues were printed using the surface printing method. These stamps are named for the colours of ink used to print them. They were printed for just two years: 1883 and 1884. Jubilee Issue Queen Victoria Jubilee issues were also printed using surface printing. They are called Jubilee issues because they were issued in 1887, the year of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne. These stamps include the first British stamps to be printed in two colours. Jubilee stamps were issued until the beginning of the 20th Century. Lower values of this issue are commonly available today. Due to the wide availability of Jubilee issues, they are not as valuable as some other Queen Victoria stamps. Understanding How Stamps are Graded Stamps are appraised and graded based on several physical characteristics. Collectors should know what these grades mean in order to better estimate a stamp's value and condition. Stamps are first categorised as either sound, faulty, or defective. Sound stamps have no faults or defects. Faulty stamps have minor faults, like a light corner crease or a short perforation. Defective stamps have major imperfections: missing perforations, heavy creases, stains, or holes, to name a few. After a stamp has been described in this way, other physical characteristics are used to further describe it. The Condition of a Stamp The condition of a stamp refers to how well-centred the stamp is, and how wide the margins of the stamp are. The various stamp conditions are listed in the table below, along with a description and the abbreviation of each. Condition of Stamp	Penny Red
Which amendment to the American Constitution abolished slavery?	Your Guide to Collecting Queen Victoria Stamps \| eBay Your Guide to Collecting Queen Victoria Stamps Share 29 June 2016 Stamp collecting as a hobby began around the same time the first stamp was issued, in the mid-19th Century. Collectors take up the hobby for several reasons, including philatelic investment. Queen Victoria stamps hold a special place in philately, because Great Britain issued the first postage stamps during the reign of Queen Victoria. In fact, the very first postage stamp ever issued, the Penny Black, displayed the profile of a young Queen Victoria. Several Queen Victoria stamps are included in lists of the rarest and most valuable stamps from Great Britain. Collectors of Queen Victoria stamps can find stamps at auctions, through stamp dealers, and at stamp markets called "bourses". Collecting stamps, especially old, rare, and valuable ones, requires a great deal of knowledge. Collectors should be familiar with the different types of Queen Victoria stamps, how they are graded, and how to determine a particular stamp's value. Collectors must also know how to use proper equipment to handle and store stamps safely. Classifications of Queen Victoria Stamps The major classifications of Queen Victoria stamps are based on changes in the way the stamps were printed, and changes to the design of the stamps. Some of the most common classifications are discussed in detail below. Imperforate Line Engraved Imperforate stamps printed using line engraving technology are called imperforate line engraved stamps.. The first stamps produced did not have the perforations that are now a feature of every postage stamp around the world. They had to be cut out of a sheet using scissors. Such stamps are called "imperforate". Line engraving is a time consuming printing process that results in very sharp and crisp designs. In this method, recesses are cut into a metal die, line-by-line, and dot-by-dot. Ink is then applied to the engraved plate, and the plate is wiped clean, leaving ink only in the engraved recesses. Paper, sometimes moistened, is then applied to the die under great pressure. The paper is forced into the recesses, and the ink prints the stamp's design. Line engraved stamps feature extremely fine and intricate details that are usually absent in later stamps. Imperforate line engraved Queen Victoria stamps were issued from 1840 to 1853. Perforated Line Engraved Soon after postage stamps were first issued, perforations were introduced to simplify the process of removing individual stamps from a sheet. Perforated line engraved stamps are simply stamps that are printed (using line engraved dies) onto a sheet, and then perforated. Line Engraved with Plate Numbers Line engraving used numbered plates made from the original die. Plates would wear out after some time, and would have to be replaced. The Penny Black and the Penny Red Brown stamps, both Queen Victoria stamps, were printed in sheets of 240 stamps. Starting with the 71st plate of Die II of the Penny Black, plate numbers were engraved on stamps. This practice began in 1858. Embossed Stamps Embossed stamps were developed to prevent stamp forgery. Embossed Queen Victoria stamps bear the head of Queen Victoria in cameo relief. Embossing successfully foiled forgery, but greatly slowed the printing process. Line engraving required only one movement of the machine, but each embossed stamp needed an additional pressing. A sheet of 24 stamps required 24 pressings, instead of one. Embossed stamps were not very popular, and were only printed for ten years. Surface Printed Issues Queen Victoria stamps printed using the surface printing method are called surface printed issues.. These are some of the most sought after stamps from this period. Surface printed issues are further divided into four so called "families": No corner letters Large, white corner letters Large, coloured corner letters Surface printing is also called "relief printing". The die or plate used features raised areas on its surface, which receive ink, and print the design onto the paper of the stamp. This method is quicker and uses less ink compared to line engraving. Surface printing was the next logical step to meet the increased demand for postage stamps. It was introduced in 1855. Lilac and Green Issues Lilac and Green Queen Victoria issues were printed using the surface printing method. These stamps are named for the colours of ink used to print them. They were printed for just two years: 1883 and 1884. Jubilee Issue Queen Victoria Jubilee issues were also printed using surface printing. They are called Jubilee issues because they were issued in 1887, the year of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne. These stamps include the first British stamps to be printed in two colours. Jubilee stamps were issued until the beginning of the 20th Century. Lower values of this issue are commonly available today. Due to the wide availability of Jubilee issues, they are not as valuable as some other Queen Victoria stamps. Understanding How Stamps are Graded Stamps are appraised and graded based on several physical characteristics. Collectors should know what these grades mean in order to better estimate a stamp's value and condition. Stamps are first categorised as either sound, faulty, or defective. Sound stamps have no faults or defects. Faulty stamps have minor faults, like a light corner crease or a short perforation. Defective stamps have major imperfections: missing perforations, heavy creases, stains, or holes, to name a few. After a stamp has been described in this way, other physical characteristics are used to further describe it. The Condition of a Stamp The condition of a stamp refers to how well-centred the stamp is, and how wide the margins of the stamp are. The various stamp conditions are listed in the table below, along with a description and the abbreviation of each. Condition of Stamp	i don't know
Which Japanese mountaineer was the first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest?	The first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest, The First Female to scale Mount Everest Home > China Travel Guide > Mount Everest The First Woman to Reach the Summit of Mount Everest Junko Tabei, a Japanese mountaineer, is the first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest. She climbed to the top on May 16, 1975. Early Expeditions When Tabei studied in Showa Women's University, she had already been a member of the Mountain Climbing Club. After she got the English literature degree and graduated from University, she formed the "Ladies Climbing Club: Japan (LCC)" in 1969. Before climbing Mount Everest, she climbed Mount Fuji, Matterhorn in Swiss Alps and other mountains. Tabei was recognized as a mountain climber in Japan in 1972. Climbing Mount Everest Nihon Television and Yomiuri newspaper joint to sent an all-woman team to attempt an Everest expedition. They selected 15 women from hundreds of applicants, Tabei was one of them. They had trained for a long period, and began to climb in 1975. There are 9 Sherpa guide with them. The route they used was the same one Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay took in 1953. It was in early May. With the help of the nine Sherpa guide, they began the expedition. Unfortunately, only a few days later, they came across and avalanche, and the 9 guides and all the climbers were buried under the snow. A guide dug Tabei out when she was unconscious for several minutes. But the avalanche did not beat her down. 12 days later, Tabei became the first woman set on the summit of Mount Everest. “The mountain teaches me a lot of things. It makes me realize how trivial my personal problems are,” she said. “It also teaches me that life should not be taken for granted.” The Seven Summits Tabei had scaled Junko Tabei is also known as the first female to scale the “Seven Summits”, which are the highest mountains separating on seven continents. Mount Everest, world’s highest mountain, 8848m (29,029 ft), on the border of China’s Tibet and Nepal Denali, or Mount Mckinley, highest mountain in North America, 6193m (20,320ft), in night the temperature go down to -40℃ Elbrus, an inactive volcano in Russia, 5642m (18,442 ft) above the sea level Aconcagua, a part of Andes in South America, 6959m (22,841ft) above the sea level Carstensz Pyramid, in Indonesia, 4883.4m (16,023ft) above the sea level Kilimanjaro, located in Tanzania of Africa, with a height of 5963m (15,092 ft) Vinson Massif, in Antarctica, with a height of 4892m (16,050 ft)	Junko Tabei
Britain's first credit card was issued by which bank?	American woman climbs Everest - Sep 29, 1988 - HISTORY.com American woman climbs Everest Publisher A+E Networks Stacy Allison of Portland, Oregon, becomes the first American woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest, which at 29,035 feet above sea level is the highest point on earth. Allison, a member of the Northwest American Everest Expedition, climbed the Himalayan peak using the southeast ridge route. Mount Everest sits on the crest of the Great Himalayas in Asia, lying on the border between Nepal and Tibet. Called Chomo-Lungma, or “Mother Goddess of the Land,” by the Tibetans, the English named the mountain after Sir George Everest, a 19th-century British surveyor of South Asia. The summit of Everest reaches two-thirds of the way through the air of the earth’s atmosphere–at about the cruising altitude of jet airliners–and oxygen levels there are very low, temperatures are extremely cold, and weather is unpredictable and dangerous. In May 1953, climber and explorer Edmund Hillary of New Zealand and Tenzing Norgay of Nepal made the first successful climb of the peak. Ten years later, James Whittaker of Redmond, Washington, became the first American to top the peak, reaching Everest’s summit with his Sherpa climbing partner Nawang Gombu. In 1975, Japanese mountaineer Junko Tabei became the first woman to conquer the mountain. Three years later, Reinhold Messner of Italy and Peter Habeler of Austria achieved what had been previously thought impossible: climbing to the Everest summit without oxygen. In 1988, American Stacy Allison successfully scaled Everest. About two dozen climbers died in attempts to reach the top of Everest in the 20th century. Fact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, contact us ! Get This Day In History every morning in your inbox!	i don't know
Who is the only U.S. President to have held a patent?	Abraham Lincoln's Patent © Abraham Lincoln Online Lincoln's Patent On May 22, 1849, Abraham Lincoln received Patent No. 6469 for a device to lift boats over shoals, an invention which was never manufactured. However, it eventually made him the only U.S. president to hold a patent. Shown here is a replica of his scale model at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Lincoln's Love of Inventions Lincoln displayed a lifelong fascination with mechanical things. William H. Herndon, his last law partner, attributed this to his father, saying, "he evinced a decided bent toward machinery or mechanical appliances, a trait he doubtless inherited from his father who was himself something of a mechanic and therefore skilled in the use of tools." Henry Whitney, another lawyer friend of Lincoln's, recalled "While we were traveling in ante-railway days, on the circuit, and would stop at a farm-house for dinner, Lincoln would improve the leisure in hunting up some farming implement, machine or tool, and he would carefully examine it all over, first generally and then critically;" Lincoln also delivered lectures on discoveries and inventions before he became president. "Man is not the only animal who labors; but he is the only one who improves his workmanship," he noted in 1858. In 1859 he praised the patent laws for having "secured to the inventor, for a limited time, the exclusive use of his invention; and thereby added the fuel of interest to the fire of genius, in the discovery and production of new and useful things." Lincoln and River Navigation Lincoln learned river navigation early in life and took a flatboat down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers as a teenager. As he explained in his 1860 autobiography, "When he was nineteen, still residing in Indiana, he made his first trip upon a flatboat to New Orleans. He was a hired hand merely, and he and a son of the owner, without other assistance, made the trip." A few years later, Lincoln moved to Illinois and made a second flatboat trip to New Orleans. He recalled, "Abraham, together with his stepmother's son, John D. Johnston, and John Hanks, yet residing in Macon County, hired themselves to Denton Offutt to take a flatboat from Beardstown, Illinois, to New Orleans; and for that purpose were to join him -- Offutt -- at Springfield, Illinois, so soon as the snow should go off. When it did go off, which was about the first of March, 1831, the county was so flooded as to make traveling by land impracticable; to obviate which difficulty they purchased a large canoe, and came down the Sangamon River in it. This is the time and the manner of Abraham's first entrance into Sangamon County. They found Offutt at Springfield, but learned from him that he had failed in getting a boat at Beardstown. This led to their hiring themselves to him for twelve dollars per month each, and getting the timber out of the trees and building a boat at Old Sangamon town on the Sangamon River, seven miles northwest of Springfield, which boat they took to New Orleans, substantially upon the old contract." What Lincoln omitted from this account was a story of his ingenuity. Before the flatboat could get to the Illinois River, it became stranded on a milldam at New Salem , a small pioneer settlement along the Sangamon. As the boat took on water, Lincoln sprang to action. He had part of the cargo unloaded to right the boat, then secured an auger from the village cooper shop. After drilling a hole in the bow, he let the water run out. Then he plugged the hole, helped move the boat over the dam, and proceeded to New Orleans. In 1832, as a candidate for the Illinois General Assembly from Sangamon County, Lincoln published his first political announcement , in which he stressed, not surprisingly, the improvement of navigation on the Sangamon River. © Abraham Lincoln Online Lincoln's Patent Idea Lincoln started work on his invention between sessions of Congress in 1848. On his way home to Illinois his boat became stranded on a sandbar. As Herndon told the story, "The captain ordered the hands to collect all the loose planks, empty barrels and boxes and force them under the sides of the boat. These empty casks were used to buoy it up. After forcing enough of them under the vessel she lifted gradually and at last swung clear of the opposing sand bar." Herndon observed, "Lincoln had watched this operation very intently. It no doubt carried him back to the days of his navigation on the turbulent Sangamon, when he and John Hanks had rendered similar service at New Salem dam to their employer the volatile Offut. Continual thinking on the subject of lifting vessels over sand bars and other obstructions in the water suggested to him the idea of inventing an apparatus for this purpose." Lincoln created a scale model of his invention with the help of Walter Davis, a Springfield mechanic, who provided tools and advice. Herndon recalled, "Occasionally he would bring the model in the office, and while whittling on it would descant on its merits and the revolution it was destined to work in steamboat navigation. Although I regarded the thing as impracticable I said nothing, probably out of respect for Lincoln's well-known reputation as a boatman." With some relief Herndon said, "the invention was never applied to any vessel, so far as I ever learned, and the threatened revolution in steamboat architecture and navigation never came to pass." Lincoln took the scale model with him to Washington and hired attorney Z. C. Robbins to apply for the patent. Part of his application read, "Be it known that I, Abraham Lincoln, of Springfield, in the county of Sangamon, in the state of Illinois, have invented a new and improved manner of combining adjustable buoyant air chambers with a steam boat or other vessel for the purpose of enabling their draught of water to be readily lessened to enable them to pass over bars, or through shallow water, without discharging their cargoes..."	Abraham Lincoln
What is the correct verbal title used when addressing a Baron?	What did Abraham Lincoln invent? \| HowStuffWorks What did Abraham Lincoln invent? Matthew Steigbigel/The Image Bank/ Getty Images Well before becoming the 16th president of the United States, the young Abraham Lincoln was known for his interest in engineering and mechanics. A childhood centered on agriculture suited Lincoln's curiosity well; he loved the culture of designing and inventing new objects, especially anything that had the potential to improve or refine the efficiency of labor. Later in life, he expressed a belief that an inventor should have exclusive rights to his design for a period of time after completion. This, he said, might inspire more people to invent solutions to their problems. It's fitting, then, that Abraham Lincoln became the first -- and so far, only -- U.S. president to gain official recognition as an inventor by being granted a patent. His invention, a device intended to help boats navigate shallows, was the result of an adolescence spent boating along the rivers of the Midwest. Up Next Abraham Lincoln Quiz As a teen, Lincoln used his river navigation skills to explore the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. As a young adult, he worked on the crew of several cargo ships, moving goods to New Orleans down the Mississippi River. His skills and intuition were essential on one such trip, when the boat was damaged after it ran aground on a shallow. Lincoln quickly led the effort to shift cargo, drain water and move the boat along without capsizing. This experience, and others, led to Lincoln's interest in improving the technologies and resources available to the shipping and boating industries. Entering adulthood, Lincoln decided to pursue a career in politics, but even after years of political experience and achievements, he couldn't shake the adventures of his youth. Still motivated by rivers, boats and all things mechanical, his future forays down United States waterways would prove fateful. In 1848, then-Congressman Abraham Lincoln was inspired by a riverboat that ran aground on a sandbar. In an attempt to get back afloat, the captain ordered his crew to place supplies -- anything that could float and support weight, like empty cargo containers -- underneath the ship in an effort to lift it off its shallow spot. Accounts vary as to whether or not Lincoln was actually aboard this boat or merely a witness to the incident, but historians agree that it was a catalyst to Lincoln's imminent brainstorm. He spent about a year in between sessions of Congress developing a solution to this common river navigation scenario. Patent 6469 was awarded to Abraham Lincoln on May 22, 1849. Called "Buoying Vessels Over Shoals," Lincoln envisioned a system of waterproof fabric bladders that could be inflated when necessary to help ease a stuck ship over such obstacles. When crew members knew their ship was stuck, or at risk of hitting a shallow, Lincoln's invention could be activated, which would inflate the air chambers along the bottom of the watercraft to lift it above the water's surface, providing enough clearance to avoid a disaster. As part of the research process, Lincoln designed a scale model of a ship outfitted with the device. This model (built and assembled with the assistance of a Springfield, Ill., mechanic named Walter Davis) is on display at the Smithsonian Institution . Lincoln was convinced he'd made a great contribution to the boating and shipping industries. During his frequent travels as a politician and public speaker, he even made reference to his invention on a few occasions. To his disappointment, though, there is no record of "Buoying Vessels Over Shoals" being fitted to a watercraft (even for testing or development purposes), and the system was never manufactured. Though "Buoying Vessels Over Shoals" was never built, and no profit was ever made, Lincoln made history as the only president to hold a patent for an invention. On the next page, we have links to lots more information on inventors and the process of inventing. 1	i don't know
Which member of the 'The Spice Girls' released the 2001 single, 'Lullaby'?	Melanie Brown - Biography - IMDb Melanie Brown Biography Showing all 58 items Jump to: Overview (4) \| Mini Bio (2) \| Spouse (2) \| Trade Mark (2) \| Trivia (31) \| Personal Quotes (17) Overview (4) 5' 5" (1.65 m) Mini Bio (2) Born on the 29th May 1975 in Leeds, England, Melanie Brown became a member of Spice Girls in 1994. Their three albums sold than 40 million copies worldwide and they had nine singles at number 1 in the UK. "Hot" was her first solo album, released on 9th October 2000. It entered the UK charts at #28. Despite producing 2 Top 5 singles (3, if you include the hit "I Want You Back"), the album only ever re-entered the chart once after dropping out of the Top 100 - peaking at #95 when "Feels So Good" was being promoted in February 2001. To date, the album has sold about 50,000 copies in the UK. The album sold 8,000 copies in its first week. After she parted with Virgin Records, she started a new successful career as TV presenter and actress. In 2001, her own show This Is My Moment (2001) was a great success and, after the second series, she made a documentary about Africans voodoos. In 2002, she was one of the protagonists of the BBC3's sit-com Burn It (2003) and made her theater debut with "The Vagina Monologues" in London. She has a lead role in two upcoming movies: the horror LD 50 Lethal Dose (2003) and the comedy The Seat Filler (2004) (with Kelly Rowland of Destiny's Child ). From April to September 2004, she played the role of "Mimi" in the famous musical "Rent" on Broadway. In 2005, Melanie released her second solo album, "L.A. State Of Mind", featuring the single "Today". Both the single and the album flopped... - IMDb Mini Biography By: me Melanie Brown, aka "Mel B", best known as "Scary Spice" of the worldwide sensation singing group "The Spice Girls", is a chart-topping musical artist, actress, author, television personality and groundbreaking entrepreneur who is set to launch her own fashion line. Few artists have moved so effortlessly from one artistic medium to another as Mel B. As a recording artist, Mel B's achievements with the Spice Girls are legendary: 55 million records sold worldwide, nine number one singles in the UK, 11 gold records as well as a total of 24 platinum and multi-platinum records. The Spice Girls reunion World Tour was a critical and popular triumph and the group was recently named Best Band by the U.K. Glamour Awards. Mel B has continued the same successful ways as a solo artist. Her 1998 single "I Want You" with Missy Elliott sold 80,000 copies in its first week, and gave Mel B her first solo #1. Her debut solo album, "Hot" released in 2000, produced three top five singles. She followed up with the release "LA State of Mind" in 2005 and is currently at work with top producers on a new album she expects to be ready for release in late 2008. Mel B has also shone brightly as both an actress and television personality. She starred as "Mimi" in the smash hit Broadway musical "Rent", performed in the Vagina Monologues in London, had key roles in the feature films "LD 50 Lethal Dose", the Will Smith co-production "The Seat Filler", and appeared as a comedic performer in the British show "Burn It". Mel B has made a significant impact in the world of television, hosting "This Is My Moment", "The MOBO Awards", "Pure Naughty", "Voodoo Princess", "Top of the Pops", "Party in the Park for the Prince's Trust", and "The All Star Animal Awards" in addition to her role as a correspondent on the highly-rated "Access Hollywood." Mel B's most recent triumph was taking America by storm by on ABC's smash hit "Dancing with the Stars". Mel B and her partner Maksim Chmerkovskiy were the highest scoring couple during the 2007 season and made it to the finals, earning a perfect score on their final dance. Recently Mel B announced the launch of her own reality show for TLC, "The Singing Office." The show, executive produced by Mel B and her husband Stephen Belafonte, pits Mel B and Joey Fatone against each other to find the best workplace singers in America. Mel B and Stephen are also developing a reality series for Shannon Elizabeth and her boyfriend Derek Hough, a reality skein for her dance partner Chmerkovskiy as well as a sitcom in which Mel B will star. Not content with these achievements, Mel B will soon introduce her signature Catty Couture fashion line. Featuring sheer tops, jackets and skirts, Catty Couture will emphasize the body-hugging designs and signature animal prints for which she is so well-known. She has recently agreed to be the face of the sizzling Ultimo Underwear line in the UK. Mel B is also a best-selling author by virtue of the 2002 release of her hit autobiography, "Catch A Fire". The book features her compelling personal insights and experiences both as a Spice Girl and in her own life. "Catch a Fire" reached #7 in book sales charts. Born in Leeds, England, Mel B has two daughters and currently resides in Los Angeles with her husband and their children. - IMDb Mini Biography By: management Spouse (2) Frequently appears wearing halfshirts or corsets during her times with the Spice Girls. Yorkshire accent Winner of the 1997 MTV Video Music Award for Best Dance Video, "Wannabe". Winner of the 1997 MTV Europe Music Award for Best Group. After a struggling solo career, Virgin Records and Melanie B parted company in July 2001. The Spice Girl says she wants to concentrate on her television career Made her London West End theatre debut in Eve Ensler 's "The Vagina Monologues" in February 2002. Her younger sister is Danielle Brown Has had 9 UK number one singles as part of Spice Girls . Has had a solo number one single: "I Want You Back" featuring 'Missy "Misdemeanor' Elliott'. Also had four other solo UK top 20 hits: "Tell Me" (#4), "Feels So Good" (#5), "Lullaby" (#13) & "Word Up" (#14). Has a bestselling autobiography called "Catch A Fire". She was born to an English mother and a Nevisian father. Former pupil of Intake High School (Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, UK). Winner of two awards at the Billboard Awards in 1997 with the Spice Girls. Winner of three American Music Awards in 1998 with the Spice Girls. Chosen by "People" magazine as one of the 50 Most Beautiful People in the World in 1997, along with the four other Spice Girls. Winner of a special award at Brit Awards in 1998. Daughter of Andrea Brown . Following the low-key release of her second album "L.A. State Of Mind" in June 2005, Melanie returned to the US where she continued her acting career, famously turning down Live 8 for "acting commitments". Melanie has been busy writing a sitcom based on her life in LA, of which the scripts have now been delivered to the BBC, and is also planning a return to the music scene, following recent meetings with an A-list urban producer [August 2006] Signed on for the 5th season of Dancing with the Stars (2004). [June 2007] On 16th April 2004, she will officially join the cast of "Rent" at Broadway in New York. She will play the main role Mimi, until September 2004. [April 2004] She's enjoying her succesful debut on Broadway with the lead role of Mimi in the world famous musical, "Rent". [June 2004] Made a return to the music scene with the release of her first single in four years, "Today", released on 13th June, followed by the release of her second album, "L.A. State Of Mind", on 27th June. [June 2005] Replaces fellow Brit and girl band-member Sarah Harding as the face and body of underwear label Ultimo. The contract earns her £100,000. [April 2008] Gave birth to her 1st child at age 23, a daughter named Phoenix Chi Gulzar on February 19, 1999. Child's father is her now ex-1st husband, Jimmy Gulzar . Dated Eddie Murphy in 2006. They have a daughter together. Gave birth to her 3rd child at age 36, a daughter Madison Brown-Belafonte on September 1, 2011. Child's father is her now estranged 2nd husband, Stephen Belafonte . Shortly dated Eddie Murphy in 2006. They have a daughter together. (June 6, 2007) Married for the 2nd time her boyfriend of 4 months Stephen Belafonte in Las Vegas, Nevada. Gave birth to her 3rd child at age 36, a daughter named Madison Brown-Belafonte on September 1, 2011. Child's father is her 2nd husband, Stephen Belafonte . Gave birth to her 2nd child at age 31, a daughter named Angel Iris Murphy-Brown on April 3, 2007. Child's father is her ex-boyfriend, Eddie Murphy . In 2016 Mel B, Emma Bunton, and Geri Halliwell reunited as The Spice Girls for the 20th anniversary of "Wannabe". They are recording new music. A new album and tour are expected in 2017. Former Spice Girls members Victoria Beckham and Mel C opted to not take part in the reunion to focus on their own careers. Personal Quotes (17) I would love to have twins. I think there's something nice about having two babies, and they're there for each other their whole entire life. Love me or hate me, Scary Spice is back. I'm overly excited to finally announce this amazing global partnership deal back home with EMI Music. I know I have mentioned doing music in the past but for legal reasons I was not in a position to release any new music. I'm always down for a Spice Girls reunion. I love the Scary hair and platforms. Any time of day or night I'll be there. Sometimes I can be tactful and sometimes not. It all depends on the mood I'm in. The way that I live my life is on spontaneity. I'm well-travelled so I can see places coming up. I went to St. Croix in the West Indies at Christmas and it had been hit by a really bad tornado. Values there have gone down but I guarantee they will be up again in eight years. So I'll get in now while it's cheap as chips. Hopefully, next year if we can get everything sorted out and together. I've always said that kids should enhance your life, not hinder your life, so I just try to make the most out of being with my kids. You have to have a life for yourself somewhere in the mix of being a wife and mum. Look, everything that you experience as a kid is the foundation of how you are today. I was brought up in a working class family in Leeds and when it comes to money both my parents worked hard and instilled the same attitude into me. I know about investment. It's really obvious - you buy property, let it sit for a couple of years and then sell it and reinvest. I collect art. I just recently bought two gorgeous photographs of Marilyn Monroe by international photographer Eve Arnold and I know it sounds horrible but when she dies all her pictures are going to be worth triple. But I won't tell you how much I got them for - let's just say it was a lot. Whether I was dancing around the house with headphones on or on stage with the Spice Girls... I learned firsthand that dancing was the key to shedding off the pounds and keeping them off. I live my life on self-belief and I live it partly on going with the flow. If my senses don't feel right then I don't do it. I live on my gut instinct. [About being bi sexual] "I had a great five year relationship with a lovely lady who I still talk to to this day, and that's that. I mean, if it happened yesterday I would probably be saying something different. But I've been happily married to my husband for seven years." See also	Mel B
Which actress plays 'Lynn Bracken' in the 1997 film, 'L.A. Confidential'?	Emma Bunton - Music on Google Play Emma Bunton About the artist Emma Lee Bunton is an English singer-songwriter, actress, and radio and television presenter. She is best known as a member of the girl group the Spice Girls formed in the 1990s. Bunton is known as Baby Spice as she was the youngest member of the group and also due to her youthful appearance. In 2009 she began as a radio presenter on the Heart Breakfast show in London with Jamie Theakston and presenting her own show on Saturday between 5 and 7 p.m. Bunton's debut solo album, A Girl Like Me, was released in the United Kingdom on 16 April 2001 by Virgin Records. The album debuted and peaked at No. 4 on the UK Albums Chart. It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for sales in excess of 100,000 copies, ultimately becoming the 147th best-selling album in the UK for 2001. The album brought the UK and New Zealand No. 1 single "What Took You So Long?" as well as top five hits "What I Am" and "Take My Breath Away" and the top 20 hit "We're Not Gonna Sleep Tonight". Bunton's second album, Free Me, was released in 2004 through 19 Entertainment/Universal Records. Four singles were taken from it: "Free Me", "Maybe", "I'll Be There" and "Crickets Sing for Anamaria". 1 $7.99 A Girl Like Me is the debut solo album by English recording artist Emma Bunton It was released by Virgin Records in the United Kingdom on 16 April 2001. Following the release of the Spice Girls' th... 1 Geri Halliwell 0 Geraldine Estelle "Geri" Horner is an English pop singer-songwriter, clothes designer, author and actress. Halliwell came to international prominence in the 1990s as Ginger Spice, a member of the s... 0 Melanie C 0 Melanie Jayne Chisholm, better known as Melanie C or Mel C, is an English singer, songwriter, actress and television personality. She is one of the five members of the Spice Girls, in which she was... 0 Victoria Beckham 0 Victoria Caroline Beckham, OBE is an English businesswoman, fashion designer, model, and singer. In the late 1990s, Beckham rose to fame with the all-female pop group Spice Girls, and was dubbed Po... 0 Spice Girls 0 The Spice Girls are an English pop girl group formed in 1994. The group originally consisted of Melanie Brown, Melanie Chisholm, Emma Bunton, Geri Halliwell, and Victoria Beckham, née Adams. They w... 0 Rachel Stevens 0 Rachel Lauren Stevens is an English singer, songwriter, actress, television presenter, model and businesswoman. She was a member of the pop group S Club 7 between 1999 and 2003. She released her so... 0 Holly Valance 0 Holly Rachel Candy, known professionally as Holly Valance, is an Australian actress, singer, songwriter and model. Valance began her career as Felicity "Flick" Scully on the Australian soap opera N... 0 Billie Piper 0 Billie Paul Piper is an English singer, dancer and actress. She made her debut in Scratchy & Co., and at the age of 15, she signed a recording contract and released her debut single "Because We Wan... 0 Sugababes 0 The Sugababes are an English girl group, formed in 1998 with founding members Siobhán Donaghy, Mutya Buena and Keisha Buchanan. Their debut album, One Touch, was released in the UK through London R... 0 Girls Aloud 0 Girls Aloud are an English-Irish pop girl group, which was created through the ITV talent show Popstars: The Rivals in 2002. The group comprised singers Cheryl Cole, Nadine Coyle, Sarah Harding, Ni... 0 Atomic Kitten 0 Atomic Kitten are an English pop girl group formed in Liverpool in 1998 whose current members are Natasha Hamilton, Kerry Katona and Liz McClarnon. The band was founded by Orchestral Manoeuvres in ... 0 Kylie Minogue 0 Kylie Ann Minogue, OBE, often known simply as Kylie, is an Australian singer, songwriter, dancer and actress. She achieved recognition starring in the Australian soap opera Neighbours, where she pl... 0 Samantha Mumba 0 Samantha Tamania Anne Cecilia Mumba is an Irish singer and actress. She shot to fame in 2000 with the release of her debut single "Gotta Tell You", which reached the Top 10 in Ireland, United Kingd... 0 Sophie Ellis-Bextor 0 Sophie Michelle Ellis-Bextor is an English singer, songwriter and model perhaps best known for her worldwide top 10 hit Murder on the Dancefloor. She first came to prominence in the late 1990s, as ... 0 Steps 0 Steps are a British dance-pop group consisting of Claire Richards, Faye Tozer, Lisa Scott-Lee, Ian "H" Watkins and Lee Latchford-Evans. Steps formed in May 1997 by Barry Upton and Steve Crosby and ... 0 Dannii Minogue 0 Dannii Jane Minogue is an Australian singer, dancer, songwriter, actress and fashion designer. She rose to prominence in the early 1980s for her roles in the Australian television talent show Young... 0	i don't know
Which female singer was once in a band called 'Spit and Snot'?	The Bjork Picture Pages Dancer in the Dark Background: "Gling-Glï¿½ (1990) was a bigger seller in Iceland than Debut (1993) and all the Sugarcubes' albums put together! That tells you a lot about Iceland." Bjork Icelandic musician Bjork first gained popularity as the lead singer of the Icelandic rock-pop band Sugarcubes (1988 to 1992). She later launched a solo career with her first solo album, Debut (1993), which spawned the dance single hits "Human Behavior," "Violently Happy" and "Big Time Sensuality." Other albums include Post (1995, spawned the nightclub hits "Hyper-Ballad" and "I Miss You"), Homogenic (1997, spawned the dance single hit "All is Full of Love"), Vespertine (2001) and Medulla (2004). The singer-songwriter also branched out to acting, gathering critical acclaim for starring as immigrant dancer Selma Yeskova in the musical Dancer in the Dark (2000, Bjork won Cannes Film Festival's Best Actress). She also sang the film's soundtrack "I've Seen It All" and earned an Academy Award Best Song nomination. "I find it very difficult to draw a line between what's sex and what isn't. It can be very, very sexy to drive a car, and completely unsexy to flirt with someone at a bar." Bjork 5' 4" tall Bjork, whose trademarks are her hair, accent and unusual sense of fashion, was one of VH1's "100 Greatest Women of Rock N Roll." Her private life has been linked to artists Tricky (one of the originators of the musical genre Trip-Hop; born on January 27, 1968) and Goldie (born on December 28, 1965), as well as photographer Stephane Sednaoui (directed some of her music videos and live performances). The mother of two children, Bjork was once married to Sugarcubes' guitarist ï¿½ï¿½r Eldon and is currently the wife of contemporary media artist Matthew Barney. A good friend of artists Madonna, P.J. Harvey and Tori Amos, Bjork co-wrote the Madonna song "Bedtime Stories." The eccentric artist, who drew attention while wearing the "swan dress" (reportedly will be auctioned off for charity in September of 2005) at the 73rd Annual Academy Awards, recently mentioned that she would never make another movie due to the difficulties she experienced while making Dancer in The Dark (2000). She headlined the Opening Ceremony of the 2004 Olympic games in Athens and recently released a double album of remixes to raise money for charity. Birch Tree Childhood and Family: "People are always asking me about Eskimos, but there are no Eskimos in Iceland." Bjork In Reykjavik, Iceland, Bjï¿½rk Gudmundsdï¿½ttir (Bjï¿½rk means "a birch tree" and Gudmundsdï¿½ttir means "Gudmund's daughter" in Icelandic) was born on November 21, 1965. Her parents, Gudmundur Gunnarsson (was an electrician) and Hildur Hauksdï¿½ttir (went on three-week political hunger strike in 2002) divorced before she reached two years old. Bjork subsequently spent her childhood in a hippie community with her mother and her six siblings (three sisters and three brothers). She also has a stepfather, Sï¿½var ï¿½rnason, a former member of a rock band in Iceland. "When I was growing up, I always had the feeling I was dropped from somewhere else. That's how I was treated at school in Iceland where the kids used to call me "china girl" and everybody thought I was unusual because I looked Chinese." Bjork Bjork attended Reykjaviks music school and married Sugarcubes guitarist ï¿½ï¿½r Eldon. After their divorce, Bjork married (2000) contemporary media artist Matthew Barney and has one daughter with him, Isadora (born on October 3, 2002). Bjork also has a son with ï¿½ï¿½r Eldon named Sindri Eldon ï¿½ï¿½rson (born on June 8, 1986). In recognition of her contribution to promoting Iceland overseas, the government presented her the island of Ellidaey, off the coast of Iceland. Celebration of Oxygen Career: "All people have their own way of dealing with everyday problems. Some go for walks, others get drunk and some get laid. I write songs." Bjork 5-year-old Bjork began studying classical piano at age 5 and had been a professional child vocalist. A path toward success opened up when her teachers delivered a record of her singing Tina Charles' "I Love to Love" to Iceland's Radio One. A representative of a record label listened to Bjork's voice on air and subsequently signed her to a record deal. In 1977, when she was 11 years old, Bjork released her self-titled debut album consisting of traditional Icelandic folk songs and international hits translated to Icelandic. It also consisted of several popular song covers, including the Beatles' "Fool on the Hill" and a tribute to Iceland's greatest landscape artist, Johannes S. Kjarval. The album became a hit. Punk music began influencing the music scene in the late 1970s. During that time, Bjork set up the brief-lived all-girl punk band called Spit and Snot, in which she was the drummer. Shortly after, she joined jazz-fusion band Exodus and appeared on Icelandic television. After graduating music school, Bjork and Exodus bassist Jakob Magnï¿½sson established another band called Tappi Tï¿½karrass in 1981. They released an extended single, " Bitiï¿½ fast ï¿½ vitiï¿½," that same year, featuring songs of Icelandic New Wave music and launched an album titled Miranda in 1983. In 1984, Bjork joined Einar ï¿½rn Benediktsson and Einar Melax (from the band Purrkur Pillnikk) and Guï¿½laugur ï¿½ttarsson, Sigtryggur Baldursson and Birgir Mogensen (from the band ï¿½eyr) in the Goth music band KUKL (Icelandic for "witch"). Under Crass Records, the band produced two albums, The Eye (1984) and Holidays in Europe (1986). They also toured Iceland with UK anarchist band Crass and performed in the UK with Flux of Pink Indians. Additionally, Bjork made her acting debut starring as one of the witch's daughters in an Icelandic tale of witchcraft and mysticism, adopted from a Brothers Grimm story, the independent film The Juniper Tree (filmed in 1986, screened at the 1991 Sundance Film Festival). She also played a troubled teen in the Icelandic TV-movie "Glerbrot" in 1987. Bjork, her husband ï¿½ï¿½r Eldon, and some of her KUKL band mates formed a rock-pop band called Pukl in the summer of 1986, but soon changed the name to Sugarcubes. After releasing their first single "Birthday" (1987), Sugarcubes launched their debut album, the US and Europe hit Life's Too Good (1988, spawned the hit single "Motorcrash") and later, Here Today, Tomorrow, Next Week (1989, produced the hit song "Regina"), Stick Around for Joy (1992, with the modern rock smash hit "Hit") and It's-It (1992), all under USA's Elektra Records. The band later performed on NBC's "Saturday Night Live" in October of 1988. Bjork and the group Trio Guï¿½mundar Ingï¿½lfssonar recorded a collection of popular jazz and original work titled Gling-Glï¿½ (1990, nationally released). She also featured 808 State's "Ooops." Following the split of Sugarcubes in 1992, Bjork moved to London to begin her solo career. Along with producer Nellee Hooper (produced Massive Attack and others), in June of 1993, Bjork released her first international solo album titled Debut. The album, which was influenced by the British dance scene, climbed the UK album charts to No 3 and was a huge commercial hit. It spawned the US dance single hits "Human Behaviour" (1993, charted at No. 2), "Violently Happy" (1993, poled at No. 4) and "Big Time Sensuality" (1994, topped at No. 1). Other singles include "Venus as a Boy" (1993, went to No. 29 on UK charts) and "Play Dead" (1993, with David Arnold, spotted at No. 12 on UK charts). Debut became New Musical Express' album of the year and finally received platinum status in the United States. Bjork also wrote Madonna's single "Bedtime Story" (1995) for the 1994 album Bedtime Stories. Bjork also appeared on the silver screen with a cameo role in Robert Altman's star-studded acclaimed comedy Prï¿½t-ï¿½-Porter (1994, a.k.a. Ready to Wear), alongside Sophia Loren, Jean-Pierre Cassel, Marcello Mastroianni and Kim Basinger. With the assistance of Nellee Hooper, Tricky, Graham Massey of 808 State, and electronic music producer Howie B, Bjork recorded her sophomore album Post in 1994. It was released in June of 1995 and spawned the US No. 1 hit singles "Hyperballad" (1996) and "I Miss You" (1997). It also produced such popular songs as 1995's "Army of Me," "Isobel" and "It's Oh So Quiet." Post hit the UK album charts at No. 2 and eventually went platinum in the US. In January of 1997, the third album, Telegram, was released. It consisted of several atypical remixes of songs from Post. In October that year, Bjork performed on the widely seen show "Saturday Night Live." Bjork then flew to Spain to record her next album, Homogenic, which was released in late 1997. Collaborating with producers Mark Bell of LFO and Howie B, Bjork's album produced the hit "All is Full of Love" (1999). The album also created the memorable songs "Jï¿½ga," "Bachelorette" (both in 1997), "Hunter" and "Alarm Call" (both in 1998). Homogenic eventually certified gold in the States in 2001. Film director Lars von Trier spotted Bjork in her music video "It's Oh So Quiet." The Danish filmmaker offered Bjork the lead role, and chance to compose the music, for his new musical drama Dancer in the Dark (2000). Bjork eventually took the starring role of Selma, a Czechoslovakian immigrant and a single mother, and shared the screen with Catherine Deneuve and David Morse. Her acting performance garnered critical reviews and won her a Cannes Film Festival award for Best Actress. Bjork also composed "I've Seen it All" (later released in her 2000 album titled Selmasongs), for the soundtrack, which earned a nomination for Best Song at the Academy Awards. "I knew when I said yes that this would be not only my first role but also my last one. I'm very happy that it's to be this one." Asked whether she might one day reconsider, Bjork responded: "I have to do records now. I only have 50 years left and I've got a lot of records to make." Bjork (after winning the Best Actress award at Cannes). Following the release of her average-success 2000 album Selmasongs, Bjork launched her next album, Vespertine, in 2001. With the help of experimental sound manipulators Matmos, a DJ from Denmark named Thomas Knak, and the experimental harpist Zeena Parkins, Vespertine featured chamber orchestras, Icelandic choirs, soft vocals, and personal, susceptible themes. It spawned the 2001 songs "Hidden Place" and "Pagan Poetry" as well as 2002's "Cocoon." Vespertine spotted the US album charts at No. 19 and reached No. 8 on the UK charts. "The album's very much about being alone in your house, in a very quiet sort of introverted mood and you whisper, you sort of improvise. Which is between me and myself." Bjork (on album Vespertine) In 2002, Bjork launched the CD box set Family Tree and the album Greatest Hits, which produced the new single "It's in Our Hands" (charted the UK at No. 37). The following year saw Bjork releasing a series of low-cost DVDs and CD box sets titled Live Box. "After doing the research with all the vocals on Medï¿½lla (2004), I was very curious to take that further to a place that was not narrative. Then, when Matthew explained that the film happens on the ocean, I was curious to make vocal patterns that were sort of oceanic. My music is very much about structure, whereas Matthew is much more abstract. I have to have a map and a compass to see the nal point before I start the journey, and then I can meet 10 lions or whatever." Bjork Medï¿½lla, Bjork's next album, hit the music stores in August of 2004. In the album she used the vocal skills of Hip Hop Beatboxer Rahzel, avant-rocker Mike Patton, Soft Machine drummer/singer Robert Wyatt and several choirs. She also applied text from poet E. E. Cummings for the song "Sonnets/Unrealities XI." Medï¿½lla spawned four singles, the 2004 "Oceania" and "Who is It" (charted UK at No. 26) as well as 2005's "Triumph of a Heart" (charted the UK at No.31) and "Where is the Line" (was filmed in collaboration with the Icelandic artist Gabrï¿½ela Fridriksdï¿½ttir in late 2004). As for "Oceania," Bjork composed the song and performed it at the Opening Ceremony of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. "I am incredibly honored to have been asked to write a song and sing it at the Olympics. The song is written from the point of view of the ocean that surrounds all the land and watches over the humans to see how they are doing after millions of years of evolution. It sees no borders, different races or religion, which has always been at the core of these games." Bjork Army of Me-Xes, the covering and remixing of the 1995 hit "Army of Me," was released in April in the UK and in late May 2005 in the US. It topped at No.14 on the dance album charts in the UK. The project was geared toward raising money for tsunami victims in Asia. "Trying to even start to explain the film is kind of challenging, but with my little alcohol-pickled brain, it's really tough. I guess that's the point with the way Matthew sets it up, because there is no story. You just have to sit there and enjoy it, a bit like nature. The film has a narrative, but a really abstract one. It's not your average Hollywood movie, let's put it that way." Bjork (about Drawing Restraint 9, 2005). Drawing Restraint 9, an album consisting of a soundtrack for husband Matthew Barney's new movie of the same title, was released on July 25, 2005, in the UK and on August 23 in the US. Bjork reportedly is working on her newest album and will soon embark on an extensive tour. "Singing is like a celebration of oxygen." Bjork Awards: Bodil Awards: Best Actress, Dancer in The Dark, 2001 Golden Satellite Awards: Best Original Song for "I've Seen It All" in Dancer in The Dark, 2001 Robert Festival: Best Original Score, Dancer in The Dark, 2001 Cannes Film Festival: Best Actress, Dancer in The Dark, 2000	Björk
What is the correct verbal title used when addressing a Cardinal?	Bjork And Konono No. 1 in Concert : NPR Bjork And Konono No. 1 in Concert Bjork And Konono No. 1 in Concert Bjork in Concert on All Songs Considered - 05/05/2007 Toggle more options Embed Embed May 5, 200710:31 AM ET Björk's latest CD is Volta hide caption toggle caption Hear an interview with the United Palace's Neil Feltz Toggle more options Embed Embed <iframe src="https://www.npr.org/player/embed/9872952/10057924" width="100%" height="290" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" title="NPR embedded audio player"> Hear an interview with Bjork collaborator and electronic musician Damien Taylor Toggle more options Embed Embed <iframe src="https://www.npr.org/player/embed/9872952/10057926" width="100%" height="290" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" title="NPR embedded audio player"> Hear an interview with two members of Bjork's all-female, all-Icelandic brass band Toggle more options Embed Embed Björk Inez and Vinoodh Matin hide caption toggle caption Björk Inez and Vinoodh Matin Konono No. 1 performs live at the United Palace in New York City. Stephanie Berger hide caption toggle caption "I See Who You Are" "Pleasure is All Mine" Konono No. 1 in Concert on All Songs Considered - 05/05/2007 Toggle more options Embed Embed All Songs Concerts Podcast Wildly imaginative, exuberant and always unpredictable, Bjork has built an iconic career by consistently breaking new creative ground. Her latest CD, Volta, is a high-energy, tribal romp across cultures, with rhythms from Africa, horns from Iceland and strings from China. Bjork performed live on NPR.org, in a full concert from New York's United Palace . The May 5 concert is a co-production from NPR Music and WNYC . Bjork performs live at the United Palace in New York City. Stephanie Berger hide caption toggle caption Stephanie Berger Volta is more political and international than her previous albums, though not overtly. It's a sonic essay on the state of the world, particularly war and the human impact on the environment, both of which can be heard in the opening track and first single, "Earth Intruders." Though Volta is driven by strong, polyrhythmic beats, Bjork says it was the last thing she thought of for the album. "We had done a lot of experiments with rhythms, but I just threw them all away because it was like every time we did something really clever with drum programming beats, it was just too pretentious for this album. It just didn't stick. For me, it was maybe a little bit nostalgic going back to 1992, where you had really simple 808 and 909 really lo-fi drum machines, not doing anything fancy but really basic ... I had recorded all the brass, I'd recorded everything else, and everything was actually starting to mix ... And I said, what I need is an acoustic drummer, and who sort of has that almost pagan, trance-like wildness." Bjork got help on the rhythms from the African collective Konono No. 1 and hip-hop producer Timbaland. She also collaborated with Malian kora player Toumani Diabate, Chinese pipa player Min Xiao-Fen, and a 10-piece, all female, all Icelandic brass section. Article continues after sponsorship Bjork says she hopes Volta inspires listeners to reexamine their place in the world. "It's about being exhausted with the self-importance of religion and thinking, 'Okay, wait a minute, maybe we are one tribe, and we're actually part of nature,' and trying to suggest some kind of patent for that." Bjork has been turning heads with an unimaginable mix of sounds since the mid-'70s, when she released her first album: an eponymous collection of children's songs that went platinum in Iceland. At 14, she played drums in an all-girl punk band called Spit and Snot. She first achieved international success in the late '80s as the lead singer for the band the Sugarcubes, with the hit song "Birthday." When the Sugarcubes disbanded in 1992, Bjork launched a solo career. In 1993, she released the appropriately titled Debut to vast critical acclaim, and she's since released a total of six solo albums. In 2000, she won a Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival for her lead role in the film Dancer in the Dark. This live concert webcast is co-hosted by All Songs Considered's Bob Boilen and Jad Abumrad of WNYC 's Radio Lab, and is a co-production of NPR Music and WNYC in New York, as part of NPR Music's live online concert series. Previous shows are listed above right. Related NPR Stories	i don't know
What wasthe 'Prisoners Temporary Discharge For Ill- Health Act of 1913' better known as?	1913 Cat and Mouse Act - UK Parliament 1913 Cat and Mouse Act Title: 1913 Cat and Mouse Act Date : 1913 Catalogue number : Parliamentary Archives, HL/PO/PU/1/1913/3&4G5c4 Description : The government sought to deal with the problem of hunger striking suffragettes with the 1913 Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill-Health) Act, commonly known as the Cat and Mouse Act. This Act allowed for the early release of prisoners who were so weakened by hunger striking that they were at risk of death. They were to be recalled to prison once their health was recovered, where the process would begin again.	Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill Health) Act 1913
October 4th 1910, which European monarch was deposed and fled on the Royal Yacht 'Amelia' to Gibraltar?	The Martial Chronicles: Fighting Like a Girl 2 - Bloody Elbow Bloody Elbow Click here to read the previous Martial Chronicles: Fighting Like a Girl. With the Octagon hosting its first ever women's fight, it is worth noting that despite all the UFC's promotional talk of resistance to women's mixed martial arts, there has been a remarkable lack of controversy regarding this match, outside of its perceived uncompetiveness. That two women should be able to compete in the sport and in the UFC if they so wish is apparently the overwhelmingly prevalent view. It would seem that the bigger story is not that women are breaking down another barrier but that society has moved so far ahead that it really isn't that big of story after all. Such tolerant views haven't always been the case. A century ago women fought on the streets London, some using the very discipline that have brought Ronda Rousey wealth and fame, not for sport, but as part of a literally battle for their rights. This year marks the 100th anniversary of the passage of one of the most infamous acts of British Parliament, the Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill Health) Act 1913 , better known as the Cat and Mouse Act. It was enacted as suffragist (supporters of women's suffrage, or right to vote), particularly the more militant members who were often referred to as "suffragettes", grew increasingly violent following the withdrawal of the Franchise Bill in January 1913 . Earlier attempts at giving women the right to vote had come close to passing, but each frustrating failure had led to violent confrontations. (Most famously in a November 22, 1910 riot that become known as "Black Friday".) For the suffragettes this last "betrayal' by Parliament was the final straw. The suffragettes were mostly part of the Women's Social and Political Union ( or WSPU), a splinter group of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (or NUWSS), which had split off disappointed by the lack of results produced by their more peaceful tactics. Leadership was centered on Emmeline Pankhurst, the "Dear Leader", and her daughter, Christabel. Other key members included Mrs. Panhurst's two other daughters, Sylvia and Adela Pankhurst (although these two would leave the WSPU in 1913), Norah Docre Fox, and "The General" Flora Drummond. Their motto was to be "Deeds Not Words." They would soon live up to their motto. The group began with protests and publishing flyers, growing more militant as their single demand, the right to vote (or more specifically the right for propertied women to vote) was not met. By 1913 suffragette "commando corps crept out at night to commit spectacular acts of vandalism." These included burning houses, churches, theatres, and railway stations, wrecking train and stoning the houses and carriage of cabinet ministers. But attacks weren't limited to property, as Nell Hall-Humphrey's recalled years later. "We burned houses, but we never attacked anyone physically. Except for the men we horsewhipped." The governments response to these attacks had been arrest and imprisonment. The suffragettes in turn went on hunger strikes, which the officials tried countering with forced feeding, a particularly dehumanizing experience. Five wardresses held [Nell Hall-Humrphrey] by the face and arms while the prison doctor inserted a tube down her throat and poured in liquids that she could identify as soup, lemon juice, and brandy - and another taste she suspected as was bromide to make her amenable. In the next cell, Mary Richardson, fed through the nostrils, screamed that her eyes were coming out of the top of her head. The forced feeding backfired as the general (male) public began to sympathize with the suffragettes. In response, Parliament passed the previously mentioned Prisoners (Temporary Discharge for Ill Health) Act 1913 on April 25th. The act allowed for the release of prisoners who had become too ill from a hunger strikes, and then permitted their re-arrested after they'd regained their strength. It almost immediately became known as the Cat and Mouse Act, for how it allowed the government to play with the suffragettes as a cat played with a mouse. The primary targets of the Cat and Mouse Act was the suffragettes leadership. Perpetually between jail and recovering from a hunger strike, the policy had the intended affect of beheading the movement. The suffragettes response was to make sure Pankhurst and others wouldn't be arrested. For that they would need a force of "bodyguards." We have not yet made ourselves a match for the police, and we have got to do it. The police know jiu-jitsu. I advise you to learn jiu-jitsu. Women should practice it as well as men. ... It is no use pretending. We have got to fight. - Sylvia Pankhurst, New York Times, August 12th, 1913 . Enter Edith Garrud. Mrs. Garrud had been born Edith Margaret Williams in 1872, becoming Edith Margaret Garrud in 1893 when she married physical culture instructor William Garrud of Wales. The two relocated to London where they joined Edward William Barton-Wrights's Bartitsu club (probably in 1899). It was there that they were introduced to jiu-jitsu. (For more on Barton-Wright and Bartitsu, see The Forgotten Golden Age of Mixed Martial Arts - Part III .) The two studied under the school's jiu-jitsu instructors, Yukio Tani and Sadakazu Uyenishi, the premiere exponents of the Japanese martial art in all of England, and probably Europe. After the Bartitsu Club closed in 1903, they followed Uyenishi to his new dojo in Golden Square. In addition to Mr. Wright, Tani, and Uyenishi, she also studied under "(Tarro) Myaki, (Akitano) Ono, (Mitsuyo) Maida (also known as Conde Koma), Chiba San, and others," a veritable who's who of the best jiu-jitsu masters of the Edwardian era. When Uyenishi eventually returned to Japan it was William who took over the Golden Square School, with Edith becoming the instructor for women and children. Soon after Mrs. Garrud also opened her own dojo in the East End, for the express purpose of teaching suffragist jiu-jitsu. The latest move of the militant suffragettes is to learn the art of jiu-jitsu with the object of resisting the police. Twenty-five of them are studying under an instructress, who mantains that some of her pupils have already punished rude males. New York Times, April 11, 1909 During this time Garrud also wrote essays , choreographed plays , and gave demonstrations , in which a "large, muscular man was literally twisted round a woman's little finger". Once for the benefit of the Daily Mail , she asked the paper's male representative to try to repeatedly attack her, both unarmed and armed. "I rose convinced of the efficacy of jiu-jitsu,and, aching in every limb, crawled painfully away, pitying the constable whose ill-fortune it should be to lay hands on Mrs. Garrud." Many of these exhibitions were of an overt political nature, often involving an assistant playing the part of a police officer , whom she'd toss around and submit to the pleasure of her suffragist audience. The newspaper had a field day with Mrs.. Garrud and her pupils, and played up the story of "jujitsuffragettes", as one reporter coined them, confronting policemen. The Policemen of London are feeling rather uneasy just at present.... The Suffragette have taken up the study of ju-jutsu; they will very soon emerge as expert practitioners in the art, and then, Oh, Robert! Meanwhile. Mrs. Garrud is at present, perhaps, the most important of all members of the Woman's Freedom League. I am not aware that she worries much about the vote or anything like that; she does not take a leading part in their meeting, but - and it's a very big but - it is she who is teaching the other members the art of ju-jutsu. - "Jujutsuffagettes: A New Terror for the London Police" Health & Strength, April 24, 1909 In truth, Mrs. Garrud was an ardent suffragette, but was supposedly not "allowed by the organisers of raids on the House of Commons to take a prominent part in them, she might carelessly hurt a policeman if he were rough with her." This didn't stop her from occasionally getting a chance to use her skills. During a meeting of the Women's Freedom League , a policeman expressed doubt that the 4'11" Mrs. Garrud's jiu-jitsu would enable her to throw him. Smiling she replied "I'm glad you're not more than thirteen stone.". Up shot one ot her feet to meet his diapuragm. Her little arms strained, and as he pulled against himself the man lost his balance, swirled over her head, turned a somersault in mid-air, and tell heavily on the back of his head. In less than ten seconds the Suffragette had thrown the policeman. Fortunately the Daily Mirror managed to capture the image of what happened to the second policeman that gave her a try. These policemen had been gentlemen, according to Garrud. But there are other men who are not a bit nice, men who are merely silly and a nuisance to others besides themselves. I have already had the pleasure of ejecting one youth from a woman's franchise meeting Her school too, served as a redoubt for the suffragettes. Martin Williams, her great-nephew, told the Islington Tribune how She didn't want people to know Golden Square was a dojo, so she was very pleased to have it in the posh end of town because people were less likely to suspect. The suffragettes would create a disturbance in Oxford Street, but then they'd run back to the dojo and hide their clubs and bats under the floor. By the time the police arrived they'd be pretending they were in the middle of their exercise class. Mrs. Garrud was therefore the perfect choice to train a special new that, according to the New York Times , was being organized in November of 1914 to protect Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst. A band of amazons whose mission it will be to defend the leader whom the police will try to arrest, is being formed. These women were to be known as the Bodyguard and made up by 25 women, mostly from members of the suffragettes "Athletic Society." Led by a young Canadian named Gertrude Harding, these women carried concealed Indian clubs and were trained in jiu-jistu by Edith Garrud in the East End . From then on Mrs. Pankhurst never appeared in public without these Bodyguards, who would resort to both ruses as much as physical means to protect their leader. "Although they couldn't out-muscle the policemen, they could outwit them. On several occasions they staged exciting rescues. Twice a decoy maneuver led the detectives to carry off the wrong Mrs. Pankhurst. But the sad truth is that, more often than not, the women suffered dislocated joints, broken bones & concussions." - With All Her Might by Gretchen Wilson The Bodyguards made it extremely difficult for the police to carry out what had previously been easy arrests. In one case when Mrs. Pankhurst was returning from the United States, the police boarded and apprehended her at sea on a ocean liner, instead of risking a confrontation with her suffragette protectors. According to Pankhurst, the reasons why they went to such lengths was ...the fear on the part of the police of the body guard of women, just then organised for the expressed purpose of resisting attempts to arrest me. That the police, as well as the Government were afraid to risk encountering women who were not afraid to fight we had had abundant testimony. We certainly had it on this occasion... Following that incident "General" Drummond "swore that the government should never again 'take our beloved leader." [The Grape Belt Dec 9 1913] Under threat of arrest, Pankhurst couldn't risk going out into the public, but instead addressed crowds from the balcony of wherever she was taking currently taking refuge. Even then, the police would mingle with the crowds and then attempt to arrest her, but she was able to escape each time thanks to "the valiant efforts of the bodyguard." The ingenuity of the Bodyguard was particularly demonstrated when Parkhurt found herself besieged at Mr. Hertha Ayrton's house, which was surrounded by both the police and crowds of women sympathizers. During their vigilance outside, waiting for Mrs. Pankhurst to show, the police noticed a cab drive up to the front door where a veiled woman,surrounded by Suffragettes, exited. The police quickly blocked her way into the cab and, when they attempted to lay their hands on her, someone shouted that "They were arresting Mrs. Pankhurst!" A scuffle ensured and during it the police were able to tear the veiled woman away from her companions. They piled their captive and themselves into the cab and ordered to chauffeur to drive away. After driving off with their prisoner, however, they raised her veil and found, to their disbelief, that it was not Mrs. Pankhurst, but a decoy. During the confusion the real Emmeline Pankhurst had slipped away in another cab and was now speeding off in a different direction. That was followed by an even more terrible clash on May 9, 1914 in Glasgow, Scotland, that became known as "The Battle of Glasgow." That evening, as Tony Wolf described it in "The Suffragette Who Knew Jiu-Jitsu," St Andrew's Hall was packed to capacity with a crowd largely sympathetic to the Suffragettes' cause. The Bodyguard carefully surveyed the crowd from their vantage point, a semi-circle of chairs set up on the stage directly behind the speaker's podium. Garlands of white and purple flowers decorated the edge of the stage and banners bearing the Suffragette mottoes, "Deeds Not Words" and "Votes for Women" were strung high above them. The Glasgow police had taken no chances, surrounding the entire hall with a cordon and also stationing 50 constables in the basement. The atmosphere was tense, even more so when the appointed hour of 8.00 came and went with no sign of Mrs. Pankhurst. Many members of the audience doubted that she could possibly break through the cordon, no matter how many Bodyguards she might have to help her. Thus, when she suddenly appeared on the stage, the effect was like magic; though, as with the most apparently sophisticated illusions, the principle was simple misdirection. After spreading a rumour that she would attempt to breach the cordon, she had in fact arrived at the hall early and in disguise, paid for her ticket like any other member of the public, and taken a seat close to the platform. Mrs. Pankhurst managed to say only a couple lines before a large force of police stormed into the hall, but the bodyguards was waiting and ready. As the authorities attempted to get to the speaker up on the platform they were met by resistance. Flower-pots, tables, chairs and other objects were hurled at them, and, to their surprise, barbwire had been concealed beneath the garlands and wrapped around the platform rail, blocking their progress. The fighting grew even more fierce as Mrs. Pankhurst described what happened next in "My Own Story" . Meanwhile, more of the invading host came from other directions. The bodyguard and members of the audience vigorously repelled the attack, wielding clubs, batons, poles, planks, or anything they could seize, while the police laid about right and left with their batons, their violence being far the greater. Men and women were seen on all sideswith blood streaming down their faces, and there were cries for a doctor. In the middle of the struggle, several revolver shots rang out, and the woman who was firing the revolver--which I should explain was loaded with blank cartridges only--was able to terrorise and keep at bay a whole body of police.I had been surrounded by members of the bodyguard, who hurried me towards the stairs from the platform. The police, however, overtook us, and in spite of the resistance of the bodyguard, they seized me and dragged me down the narrow stair at the back of the hall. There a cab was waiting. I was pushed violently into it, and thrown on the floor, the seats being occupied by as many constables as could crowd inside. Mrs. Pankhurst had actually planned on being captured, counting on the inevitable press coverage and the resulting public blowback from such a show of force for the capture of one lady at a legal meeting. It was a propaganda "coup". The battle between the suffragettes and police came to a halt shortly thereafter with the start of the Great War. The WSPU called a truce and turned their attention to patriotic support of the war effort. Their support would be rewarded as women, although some were excluded on property grounds, gained the right to vote in 1918. Special thanks to Thomas Nash ADDITION SOURCES The Bartitsu Compendiums Vo. I & Vol. 2 Edited by Tony Wolf Jujitsu Suffragettes, by Godfrey Winn (pay site, but here's links to part 1 and part 2 .) "With All Her Might; the Life of Gertrude Harding, Militant Suffragette" by Gretchen Wilson. I should also note that Tony Wolf has a book out entitled "Edith Garrud: the Suffragette Who Knew Jujutsu," which I haven't read yet, but based on his other work, is probably worth recommending. IMAGES "The Arest." by Arthul Wallis Miles, Punch Magazine, 1910 via wikimedia.org "Black Friday" via martialhistory.com WOMENS SOCIAL AND POLITICAL UNION Banner via wikimedia.org "LADIES CRAZE FOR JIU-JITSU" from Daily Mirror Jan 3 1906 "Mrs. Garrud, a well known suffragette..." From the Sketch, December 191, 1913 "SUFFRAGISTS AND JIU-JITSU" via paperspast.natlib.govt.nz In this Storystream	i don't know
On which holiday island are the peaks of 'Ruivo' and 'Arieiro', and the airport of 'Santa Cruz'?	Pico Ruivo Pico Ruivo At 1862 metres, Pico Ruivo is the tallest peak of Madeira Island and the third-tallest in Portugal and with temperatures a lot lower that those at sea level. It’s located in the centre of the Island with stunning views and walks. The only access to Pico Ruivo is through Achada do Teixeira in Santana and Pico do Arieiro. There are three pathways connecting to different points on the Island such as Pico do Arieiro, Ilha Village and Encumeada all picturesque expanses and the vastness of nature. An unforgettable place; if you arrive early before the clouds appear this is a perfect location to capture the sunrise and sunsets the closest place to heaven.	Madeira
On June 11th 1903, King Alexander and Queen Draga were murdered in their bedroom. Of which European country were they the reigning monarchs?	madeira island Archives - Madeira Airport Transfer Funchal Airport Transfers When you’re planning a trip to Madeira you’re most likely to be landing at the Funchal Airport, unless you’re getting there by boat, and this means that once you’re there you’ll also need our Funchal Airport Transfers to take you from the airport to your accommodation. Private Funchal Airport Transfers anywhere in Madeira Island The island of Madeira is a great holiday destination for anyone interested in visiting a warm island. Whether you’re interested in lounging on a beach and sipping cocktails or you wish to engage in a variety of outdoorsy activities, but you’ll need some form of transportation while you’re there, even if it’s only for the reasons of getting to and from the airport when you arrive and leave. This is where our Funchal Airport transfers come into play to provide you with a safe and comfortable transfer once you land as well as afterwards if you require it. There are lots of advantages to employing our transfer services but possibly one of the biggest is the fact that once you book with us, you won’t have to worry about what you’ll have to do once you land. Our transfer drivers will be waiting for you at the airport arrivals gate to guide you to your transfer vehicles and also to give a hand with your luggage if you require it. Then you’ll be driven in our transfer vehicles – which are never older than two years, well-maintained and also air-conditioned – to your destination. Madeira airport transfers http://www.madeiraairporttransfer.net/ – Madeira airport transfers Private Madeira airport transfers offers private airport transfer services at the best price and highest quality. Our drivers will me… About Funchal Portugal As far as the city itself goes, Funchal is the largest city on the island as well as the municipal seat and the capital of Madeira. It has been the island’s capital for more than five centuries and now boasts a population of about 110,000 people. A relatively small size by most European standards but for the size of the island overall it is rather large. This is where you’ll find most hotels and a lot of tourist destinations can be found nearby, including places like Ribeira Brava, Curral das Freiras, Porto Moniz, Santana, the Luarisilva forest and many more.	i don't know
On which Mediterranean island is the World Heritage Site of 'Dalt Vila'?	Ibiza UNESCO World Heritage Site - Ibiza Tourism \| don Quijote Read the Spanish version Ibiza, the third largest of the Balearic Islands, is located in the Mediterranean Sea only 79 km (49 mi) off of the coast of the Northeastern Spanish city of Valencia . With 40 km (24 mi) of sandy beaches, crystal clear water, and an amiable temperature all year round, Ibiza is a popular tourist destination. The unique environment and varied cultures in Ibiza make the island known all over the world for its vitality and diversified night life. However, the island also boasts a long and significant history as well as a crucial environmental role in the Mediterranean ecosystem. In 1999, UNESCO proclaimed Ibiza as: “Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture”, a World Heritage City or Patrimony of Humanity, recognizing the island as having special cultural or natural significance to the common heritage of humanity. The World Heritage Sites of Ibiza officially recognized by UNESCO include: the fields of Posidonia of Ses Salines Natural Park, the Phoenician settlement of sa Caleta, the fortifications of the Ibiza City and the cemetery of Puig des Molins. Posidonia is an endemic plant with leaves, stalk, leaves and fruit that forms dense prairies of Posidonia, or seagrass. The Posidonia is found in the Mediterranean Sea and is extremely important for the ecosystem because it supports a great diversity of marine life. In most parts of the Mediterranean the Posidonia is threatened, but remains well preserved in Ibiza. In this way the Balearic Island provides a remarkable example of interaction between marine and coastal ecosystems and greatly contributes to the biodiversity of marine life in the Mediterranean . Additionally, Ibiza is recognized culturally because it preserves evidence of its long history. The island played an important role in the Mediterranean economy during the Phoenician-Carthaginian period as exemplified by the archaeological site of Sa Caleta. Sa Caleta is a Phoenician settlement that was founded at the end of VIII century BC and is the most important example of early Phoenician colonization. Sometime in late VII early VI Century BC the settlers moved to high hill dominating the bay where they founded the city of “Ibosim”, the origin of the present day city of Ibiza. Ibosim became the first city of the Balearic archipelago and the most important in the Mediterranean due to maritime commerce of the Carthaginian Empire. In order to protect themselves from the Greeks and the Romans the settlers fortified the acropolis with walls known traditionally as Dalt Vila (literally “Upper Town”). The walls preserve imprints of history from the earliest Phoenician settlements through to the Renaissance Age because, throughout the history of construction, the earlier phases of the fortification were ultimately incorporated rather than destroyed. The 16th century Italian-Spanish engineering and military architecture mixed with the aesthetics of the Renaissance Age of Dalt Vila greatly influenced the creation of Spanish fortifications in the New World Approximately 500 m from the fortified walls of Dalt Vila Ibiza is the archeological site of Puig des Molins. Puig des Molins is the best and most well conserved necropolis of Phoenician culture. Occupying over 50.000 m², the cemetery contains over 3,000 Punic tombs. The most spectacular tombs found in Puig des Molins are called “hypogea”, large subterranean chambers dug into rock which feature a well and an entrance door. Tourists can visit a group of hypogea equipped with lights and stairs. Ibiza is much more than just beaches and sunshine. The island is full of historic sites dedicated to its vibrant past and incredible natural parks representing its grand biodiversity. To truly discover Ibiza, be sure to venture inland to the UNESCO World Heritage sites of Sa Caleta, Dalt Vila, and Puig de Molins. Contact us	Ibiza
The 'Balfour Declaration' of December 1917 set out the British government's full support fora permanent homeland, for who?	Bicycle tour of Ibiza, visit Ibiza with the Balearic Bicycle Tour More info Cyclist paradise Like Mallorca, Ibiza is part of the Balearic Islands in the western Mediterranean, off the east coast of Spain. Though known for its party scene, Ibiza has many places registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, examples are the Islet in the Benirràs bay or the historic old town, Dalt Vila History Because of its rustic beauty, companies and artists frequently come for photographic and film shoots. Beautiful scenery, breathtaking views and beaches of turquoise waters will not miss in your tour of Ibiza. Scenery Our bike tour of Ibiza will take you to the island’s unspoilt, wild scenery, places of rich history where Ibicenco is the spoken language, to explore places inaccessible by car or bus and have an adventure off the beaten track. A magical combination of nature and culture Climate Ibiza has a remarkably mild climate even in winter. From November to April the average daytime temperature is 15 º C and it doesn’t use to rain, most of the times the sun shines and the sky is clear blue, making it a fantastic time to ride our bicycle tour of Ibiza Balearic Bike Bicycle tour of the Balearic Islands, inspiring journeys and unforgettable experiences in the beautiful Islands of the Mediterranean, Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza and Formentera. Romantic countryside, ancient villages, spectacular sea views, beautiful turquoise water beaches and lovely winding roads Instagram 24 feb > 7 mar - 2017 17 mar > 28 mar - 2017 7 apr > 18 apr - 2017 Contacts	i don't know
In which television 'soap' would you once have found the character 'Darcy Tyler'?	Darcy Tyler \| Neighbours Soap Opera Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Neighbours Soap Opera Wiki Share Darcy Tyler. Darcy Tyler was a character in Neighbours from 2000 to 2003 and again in 2005. He was the nephew of Susan Kennedy . He first appeared in Episode 3663 - 15 November 2000 and last appeared in Episode 4762 - 12 Jul 2005 . Darcy was played by Mark Rafferty . Contents Darcy Tyler was born in 1972 to Robert Tyler and Carmel Tyler , nee Smith. Darcy's aunty was Susan Kennedy , (Nee Smith), wife of doctor Karl Kennedy . They had married in 1978 when Darcy was 6. Darcy followed his uncle Karl into the medical profession. 2000-2003 Edit In November 2000, Darcy came to Erinsborough and decided to stay. He is soon attracted to Dee Bliss and they even attend a medical ball together. Darcy's girlfriend Alice arrives and tells Dee to keep away Darcy decides to leave Erinsborough with Alice. He returnes a few months later. He works as a locum for Karl and overcharges patients. 2005	Neighbours
Of what is 'Ekistics' the study?	30 Years of Neighbours: 12 characters who made memorable returns 30 Years of Neighbours: 12 characters who made memorable returns As Neighbours turns 30, relive the comebacks that shook Ramsay Street. Don't Miss Share January 02 2017 12:00 PM Share December 05 2016 5:03 PM Share November 21 2016 12:01 AM Share November 21 2016 12:01 AM November 14 2016 12:01 AM Latest News Share 2 hours ago 5:00 PM Share 5 hours ago 1:19 PM Share 7 hours ago 12:04 PM Share 7 hours ago 11:29 AM 9 hours ago 9:53 AM Must Read Share 10 hours ago 8:58 AM Share January 18 2017 5:00 PM 18 March 2015 12:01 AM Shares Neighbours turns 30 today (March 18) and is marking the occasion with a special celebratory episode on Channel 5 , which features several nods to the past and the shock return of the late Madge Bishop. Madge is one of the most surprising returnees from Neighbours' long history, but it's certainly not the first time that the show's bosses have shaken up Erinsborough by delving into the past. Here are 12 other characters who made memorable returns to Ramsay Street: Advertisement - Continue Reading Below 1. Harold Bishop (1996) Neighbours bosses made a daring move in 1996 by bringing back Harold Bishop, five years after he had seemingly met a watery demise by being swept out to sea while on holiday with his wife Madge. Harold's return was far from simple as he had amnesia and believed himself to be a man named Ted, but a subsequent reunion with Madge later sparked a touching journey to him regaining his memories. Although slightly audacious at the time, bringing back Harold proved to be one of the show's most successful decisions, as it was his second stint which cemented the character as a true Aussie soap legend. 2. Sky Mangel (2003) Advertisement - Continue Reading Below Sky Mangel appeared on our screens as a child character between 1989 and 1991, but producers recast Stephanie McIntosh (Jason Donovan's half sister) into the role in 2003 when they decided to bring Harold's granddaughter back to Erinsborough. Sky's return saw her initially mistaken for a burglar when she sneaked into Harold's house and started rooting through his kitchen, but he was clearly pleased to see her once she revealed her true identity and they forged a strong bond afterwards. With Stephanie playing the feisty schoolgirl, Sky became part of one of the show's most successful teen groups alongside Boyd, Stingray, Dylan and Serena. As well as her various romantic dramas, Sky's memorable storylines included her feud with Izzy Hoyland and the shock moment she tracked down the duck hunter who had killed her mother years earlier. 3. David Bishop (2003) Harold Bishop's son David first appeared in Neighbours for a brief stint in 1988, but it was in 2003 that fans really had a chance to get to know him when he moved to Erinsborough with his wife Liljana and daughter Serena. Once back on Ramsay Street, David's early storylines revolved around the struggles that he and Harold faced to repair their relationship after years of distance between them. Amusingly, David was much like the strict fuddy-duddy that Harold himself had been in his earlier years, but he mellowed over time and many fans were disappointed when producers eventually killed him off alongside his family in the 2005 plane crash storyline. 4. Paul Robinson (2004) Advertisement - Continue Reading Below It's hard to imagine Erinsborough without its resident bad boy these days, but original character Paul Robinson had been absent for a long period of 11 years when he reappeared in the closing moments of 2004's dramatic season finale. Paul's return storyline had a huge impact on the show as he set fire to the Lassiters complex, destroying Lou's Place and the Coffee Shop. He also killed Gus Cleary when the troubled character found himself in the wrong place at the wrong time. This set the tone for a more sensationalised direction for Neighbours in 2005 and 2006, with Paul at the centre of several dastardly schemes and literally explosive moments. While his villainy is more contained these days, the storyliners can still always rely on Paul to cause a stir in the neighbourhood whenever things need to be livened up! 5. Darcy Tyler (2004) Before Paul Robinson reclaimed his title as Erinsborough's biggest bad boy in 2004, the show's producers often used the scheming character of Darcy Tyler to push the boundaries just a little bit further than the laid-back locals. Fans may have thought they'd seen the last of Darcy when he was imprisoned for theft in 2003, but the roguish character returned to our screens the following year as Lou Carpenter's cellmate, after Lou was jailed for his part in a betting scam. Advertisement - Continue Reading Below The former neighbours being reunited paved the way for Susan Kennedy to sponsor Darcy for day release. Once out from behind bars, Darcy made an enemy of Izzy Hoyland and eventually went from zero to hero by helping to expose her true colours in time for Neighbours' 20th anniversary in 2005. 6. Annalise Hartman (2005) Annalise was a show regular between 1993 and 1996, but she had a second chance to take the spotlight in 2005 when she returned to Erinsborough with a surprising new career as a filmmaker, wanting to shoot a video documentary about life on Ramsay Street. The storyline helped to celebrate Neighbours' 20th anniversary as a number of popular cast members made cameo appearances in Annalise's video. Whether Annalise won any BAFTAs for her efforts has never been revealed, but the plot helped the 20th birthday episode to become a hit with fans and it remains one of the most re-watchable episodes. 7. Marlene Kratz (2005) While it wasn't a storyline as such, Marlene stole the show for obsessive fans in the 20th anniversary episode as she appeared in Annalise's celebratory video - eight years after leaving for a 'three-month cruise' that never ended. Poor Marlene clearly wasn't missed much by her neighbours as she had never been mentioned since, so it was a real treat for dedicated viewers when one of the show's most baffling mysteries was finally resolved - Marlene was safe, well and still sailing the seas! 8. Izzy Hoyland (2007) Izzy Hoyland's antics helped Neighbours to enjoy another golden era after her arrival in 2003, with fans gripped by her successful attempts to undermine Karl and Susan Kennedy's marriage. An older and wiser Izzy departed Erinsborough to move to London in 2006, and while she'd already had more than her fair share of dramatic storylines, there was still some unfinished business as she was pregnant when she left. The inevitable happened when Karl and Susan took a trip to London in 2007, bumping into a heavily-pregnant Izzy and discovering that Karl was the father of her unborn child. Karl was then forced to deliver the baby as Izzy went into labour at his latest wedding to Susan. Fortunately the dramatic events gave the Kennedys a chance to make their peace with Izzy, and they still remain in contact to this day so that Karl can play a role in the life of his daughter Holly. 9. Sarah Beaumont (2013) Advertisement - Continue Reading Below Long before the days of Izzy Hoyland, it was Sarah Beaumont who caused huge problems for the Kennedys' marriage in the '90s. While working as a receptionist at Karl's GP surgery, Sarah fell in love with her boss and they shared an illicit kiss. Sarah left Erinsborough in 1999, but when she returned to the area in 2013, show producers revisited the Karl storyline by retrospectively revealing that their infidelity actually went much further than a kiss all those years ago. Karl and Susan were separated when Sarah returned - but rather than put the final nail in the coffin for their relationship, Sarah's comeback actually helped to bring the much-loved couple back together as she gave Susan the wake-up call she needed to forget the past and reunite with Karl. 10. Mark Brennan (2013) An off-screen death is always a clear sign that soap producers are keeping their options open, so when Mark Brennan was 'killed' in witness protection in 2011, there was always speculation among fans that he could possibly return in the future regardless. Less than two years later, Mark did indeed arrive back as part of Neighbours' dramatic eclipse episodes - appearing before his ex-lover Kate Ramsay from a distance just as Erinsborough went into darkness. Mark's initial return was only brief as Kate eventually opted not to reunite with Mark, but he has since returned as a regular character. 11 and 12. Lauren Turner and Brad Willis (2013) With new producers in charge of Neighbours in 2013, their main aims were to restore a focus on families while celebrating the show's past. The bosses were able to kill two birds with one stone with the reintroduction of old flames Lauren Turner and Brad Willis, who moved back to Ramsay Street with their respective families within weeks of each other. Kate Kendall and Kip Gamblin took over the roles of Lauren and Brad from previous actors Sarah Vandenbergh and Scott Michaelson. While the recasts did take a little while to get used to, the returns of Lauren and Brad certainly sparked plenty of drama for fans to enjoy afterwards. 2014 saw Lauren and Brad embark on a long search to find their long-lost daughter Paige, rocking both of their families in the process. With Paige now settled on Ramsay Street, things have been a little quieter for the Willises and Turners recently - but that won't stay the case for long...	i don't know
By what more familiar name are Leucocytes known?	What Are White Blood Cells? - Health Encyclopedia - University of Rochester Medical Center URMC / Encyclopedia / Content What Are White Blood Cells? White blood cells are an important component of your blood system, which is also made up of red blood cells, platelets, and plasma. Click to Enlarge Although your white blood cells account for only about 1% of your blood, their impact is significant. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are essential for good health and protection against illness and disease. Think of white blood cells as your immunity cells. In a sense, they are continually at war. They flow through your bloodstream to battle viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders that threaten your health. When your body is in distress and a particular area is under attack, white blood cells rush in to help destroy the harmful substance and prevent illness. White blood cells are made inside the bone marrow and stored in your blood and lymphatic tissues. Because some white blood cells have a short lifespan of one to three days, your bone marrow is constantly making them. Click to Enlarge Types of white blood cells Among your white blood cells are: Monocytes. They have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells and help to break down bacteria. Lymphocytes. They create antibodies to defend against bacteria, viruses, and other potentially harmful invaders. Neutrophils. They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are the most numerous type of white blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes. Basophils. These small cells appear to sound an alarm when infectious agents invade your blood. They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that help control the body's immune response. Eosinophils. They attack and kill parasites, destroy cancer cells, and help with allergic responses. Problems affecting white blood cells Your white blood cell count can be low for a number of reasons—when something is destroying the cells more quickly than the body can replenish them or when the bone marrow stops making enough white blood cells to keep you healthy. When your white blood cell count is low, you are extremely susceptible to any illness or infection, which can spiral into a serious health threat. Your healthcare provider can see whether your white blood cell count is normal through a blood test known as the complete blood count. If your count is too low or too high, you may have a white blood cell disorder. A number of diseases and conditions may influence white blood cell levels: Weakened immune system. This is often caused by illnesses such as HIV/AIDS or by treatments related to cancer. Cancer treatments such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy can destroy white blood cells and leave you vulnerable to infection. Infection. A higher-than-normal white blood cell count usually indicates some type of infection—white blood cells are multiplying to destroy an enemy, such as bacteria or a virus. Myelodysplastic syndrome. This condition causes abnormal production of blood cells. This includes white blood cells in the bone marrow. Cancer of the blood. Cancers including leukemia and lymphoma can cause uncontrolled growth of an abnormal type of blood cell in the bone marrow. This results in a greatly increased risk for infection and or serious bleeding. Myeloproliferative disorder. This disorder refers to various conditions that trigger the excessive production of immature blood cells. This can result in an unhealthy balance of all types of blood cells in the bone marrow and too many or too few white blood cells in the blood. Medicines. Some medicines can raise or lower the body's white blood cell count. Other conditions, such as extreme physical stress caused by an injury or emotional stress, can trigger high white blood cell levels. So can inflammation, labor or the end of pregnancy, smoking, or even extreme exercise. Medical Reviewers:	White blood cell
Which town and moor in Yorkshire was known to the Romans as Olicana?	White Blood Cell Count: The Test \| White Blood Cell Count Test: WBC Count; Leukocyte Count; White Count \| Lab Tests Online Is there anything else I should know? How is it used? The white blood cell count (WBC) is used as part of a full complete blood count (CBC) to: Screen for a wide range of diseases and conditions Help diagnose an infection or inflammatory process ; it also may be used to determine the presence of other diseases that affect WBCs such as allergies , leukemia or immune disorders, to name a few. Monitor the progression of conditions such as those named above; monitor the body's response to various treatments and/or to monitor bone marrow function; some treatments, such as radiation and chemotherapy, are known to affect white cells and may be monitored using WBC counts. White blood cells exist in the blood, the lymphatic system, and tissues and are an important part of the body's defense system. (See the "What is being tested?" section for more.) Some diseases trigger a response by the immune system and cause an increase in the number of WBCs. Other conditions affect the production of WBCs by the bone marrow or the survival of WBCs in the circulation, resulting in either an increase or decrease in the number of circulating WBCs. A WBC count can indicate that there is a disease or condition affecting white blood cells, but it cannot determine the underlying cause. Several other tests may be performed at the same time or in follow up to an abnormal result to help make a diagnosis. Some of these additional tests may include a WBC differential , a blood smear review , or in severe conditions, a bone marrow examination . A differential may indicate which type of WBC is low or high while a blood smear and/or bone marrow biopsy can reveal the presence of abnormal and/or immature WBCs. ^ Back to top When is it ordered? A WBC count is normally ordered as part of the complete blood count (CBC) , which may be performed when an individual undergoes a routine health examination. The test may be done when someone has general signs and symptoms of an infection and/or inflammation such as: Fever, chills ^ Back to top Is there anything else I should know? If you have had your spleen removed, you may have a persistent mild to moderate increase in WBC count. Intense exercise or severe emotional or physical stress can increase a WBC count, but the test is not used to evaluate these conditions. Pregnancy in the final month and labor may also be associated with increased WBC levels. In the U.S. population, WBC counts are related to one's age, sex, ethnicity, and smoking status. It is not uncommon for the elderly to fail to develop high WBC count ( leukocytosis ) as a response to infection. There are many drugs that cause both increased and decreased WBC counts.	i don't know
In which opera by Rimsky-Korsakov does 'King Dodon' appear?	Rimsky-Korsakov: The Golden Cockerel - Brilliant Classics Home > Catalogue > Rimsky-Korsakov: The Golden Cockerel Rimsky-Korsakov: The Golden Cockerel Readings: State Library of Victoria Cnr La Trobe & Swanston Str Melbourne VIC Music Store at the Opera Centre Leonardo da Vinci 28 Tel Aviv 03-6927888 www.arkivmusic.com About this release Nikolay Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov showed musical promise as a child, but the pursuit of a Naval career meant that much of his grounding in musical theory was gained in between various tours of duty. Although best known in the Western world for his nationalist orchestral works, Rimsky-Korsakov brought Russian opera to the fore, so that by the end of his life, the genre was flourishing. The Golden Cockerel, written between 15 October 1906 and 29 August 1907, was inspired by Alexander Pushkin’s tale and caused concern among the Russian authorities, with the story detailing the murder of a Tsar and providing a critique of the power associated with Tsarism. This predictably led to trouble with the censor, which demanded that the prologue, epilogue and fourteen lines of the libretto should be cut; Rimsky-Korsakov refused and the work was permitted to only appear in print. At the centre of the opera is the juxtaposition of two of the characters and their respective musical language: that of the rigid marches demonstrating the power of King Dodon and the delicate, ethereal chromaticism of the Queen of Shemaka, designed to sound other-worldly. This recording includes the opera in full, containing none of the cuts demanded by the censor. Of this 1985 recording by the Sofia National Opera, conducted by Dimiter Manolov, BBC Music Magazine wrote that ‘the famous 19-minute coloratura show-piece … is beautifully encompassed’ by Elena Stoyanova, who sings the role of the Queen of Shemakha. The role of King Dodon is sung by Hungarian bass Nikolai Stoilov. Other information: - Recorded in 1985. - Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov is one of the most important Russian composers of romantic opera. His operas, often on themes taken from Russian folklore and fairy tales, abound in colourful and atmospheric scenes, with just the right tinge of spicy Russian melodic flavours. - The Golden Cockerel, based on a tale by Pushkin, was censored by the Russian authorities, accused of hidden political motives. This performance offers the complete, uncut version of the opera, one of Rimsky’s finest and best known. Excellent performance by great Bulgarian voices and forces, a superb recording from the Balkanton catalogue. - The Booklet includes the synopsis of the opera, as well as notes on the composer and the work. The Golden Cockerel: Prologue: Introduction: I am the master magician (Astrologer) 2 The Golden Cockerel: Act 1: The King’s monologue: I have summoned you here (King Dodon) The Golden Cockerel: Act 1: Guidon’s plan: Great father (Guidon/King Dodon/Chorus of Boyars) The Golden Cockerel: Act 1: Afron’s plan (King Dodon/Boyars/Afron/Polkan/Guidon) 5 The Golden Cockerel: Act 1: Hail, Majesty! Sire! (Astrologer) – Oh, that’s a fairy tale (King Dodon/The Golden Cockerel) 6 The Golden Cockerel: Act 1: Cock-a-doodle-do! The coast is clear – The Parrot Scene (The Golden Cockerel/King Dodon/Amelfa) 7 The Dodon’s siesta – Cock-a-doodle-do! Beware! (Chorus of the People/Amelfa/The Golden Cockerel) – Our King! Father of the people! (Polkan/King Dodon/Afron/Chorus of Boyars/Guidon) The Golden Cockerel: Act 1: King Dodon’s dream (The Golden Cockerel/King Dodon/Amelfa/Chorus) 9 The Golden Cockerel: Act 1: The Cockerel’s scene: Cock-a-doodle-do!... Oh! What misfortune! (The Golden Cockerel/Chorus of the People/Polkan/King Dodon) Disk 2 1 The Golden Cockerel: Act 2: Soldiers’ chorus: The silent night is ehispering fearful things (Chorus of Soldiers) – What terrible sight is this? – Behold, a tent! (King of Dodon/Polkan/Chrous of Soldiers) 2 The Golden Cockerel: Act 2: The Queen of Shemakha’s entrance: Hail, O ray of morning sun (Queen of Shemakha/King of Dodon/Polkan) The Golden Cockerel: Act 2: Whose heart rich in love (Queen of Shemakha/King Dodon) 4 The Golden Cockerel: Act 2: Dance of the Queen of Shemakha: At first I shall dance with a lowered veil (Queen of Shemakha/King of Dodon) 5 The Golden Cockerel: Act 2: Sisters, who limps beside the resplendent beauty? (Chorus of Slaves) – Ho! Polkan! Sound the trumpers in victory (King Dodon/Chorus of Soldiers) The Golden Cockerel: Act 2: It is terrible, brothers (Chorus of the People/Amelfa) 7 The Golden Cockerel: Act 2: Who is that stranger standing there? (Queen of Shemakha/King Dodon) – Great King, it is I (Astrologer) 8 The Golden Cockerel: Act 2: King Dodon’s death: Ha, ha, ha! (Queen of Shemakha) – I’ve beaten him to death (King Dodon/The Golden Cockerel/Chorus of the People)	Golden Cockerel
Who rode the 1978 Derby winner 'Shirley Heights'?	Rimsky-Korsakov: Le Coq d’Or [Theatre Musical de Paris-Chatelet/Nagano] Blu-ray Review Rimsky-Korsakov: Le Coq d’Or [Theatre Musical de Paris-Chatelet/Nagano] Blu-ray Review April 4, 2012 Audio Codec: PCM 2.0, DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 Subtitles: Italian, English, French, German, Spanish, Chinese Region: ABC (Region-Free) Blu-ray Release Date: March 27, 2012 List Price: $39.99 [Rating:0/5] Click thumbnails for high-resolution 1920X1080p screen captures (All Blu-rayDefinition.com screen captures are lightly compressed with lossy JPEG at 100% quality setting and are meant as a general representation of the content. They do not fully reveal the capabilities of the Blu-ray format) – The Performance [Rating:4.5/5] Le Coq d’Or (The Golden Cockerel) was Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov’s last opera and one that he did not live to see performed. Based on a Pushkin poem, it was intended to reflect poorly on the Czarist regime that had oppressed its population and recently come a cropper in a war with Japan. An Astrologer (Barry Banks) introduces this opera as a “fairy tale,” although it has an important message for the audience. King Dodon (bass Albert Shagidullin) is convinced that Shemakha, a neighboring country, threatens his sovereignty. The Astrologer gives the King a Golden Cockerel (Yuri Maria Saenz) for his protection, but Dodon decides to launch a preemptive strike on Shemakha, led by his sons, Princes Guidon (Ilya Levinsky) and Afron (Andre Breus). After the princes accidentally kill each other, the king takes over his forces. The Cockerel manages to get Dodon infatuated with the Queen of Shemakha (Olga Trifonova). The Queen arranges a marriage proposal so that she can take over Dodon’s country without a battle. As the wedding ceremony progresses, the Astrologer returns for his reward from Dodon: he wants the Queen of Shemakha for himself. Dodon kills the Astrologer but is pecked to death by the Golden Cockerel. The Astrologer returns to inform the audience that everything they saw was imaginary except for himself and the Queen. This is a 2002 Theatre Musical de Paris-Chatelet production, staged as a Japanese Kabuki drama by famed actor Ennosuke Ichikawa. The kabuki concept is realized in its magnificent costumes and sets. The the exotic Rimsky-Korsakov score is well handled by conductor Kent Nagano and his forces, the Orchestre de Paris and the Marinsky Chorus of St Petersburg. The soloists are simply superb as are the audio and video recordings. Video Quality [Rating:4/5] The large cast receives lavish and colorful costumes. While the stage has minimal props, it really does not matter here since everything else is so pleasing to the eye. This is a ten-year old video so there is a little softness around the edges. The close-ups, and there are plenty, are often eye-popping in their color and detail. The camera work is also outstanding giving a continuing sense of the dramatic action. Audio Quality [Rating:4/5] The DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 presents a well-balanced account of the singers and orchestra. This is a huge score and yet the details are well managed in the audio recording. The music is gorgeous and you will want to go the with multi-channel version which conveys its character far better than the PCM 2.0 track. Supplemental Materials Arthaus Musik misses an opportunity to enlighten us about this production by not providing supplements. The Definitive Word Overall: [Rating:4.5/5] As far as Le Coq d’Or goes this is the only currently available video entry. Fortunately, it is a winner in just about every respect: sight, sound, concept, and stage realization. This opera is truly a feast for the eyes and ears; thankfully, director Ichikawa and conductor Nagano make this point time and time again. If you want to get a quick idea about what makes this opera so evocative, go directly to track 11 and crank up the “Queen’s Hymn to the Sun”. In spite of a couple of wayward high notes, it is riveting. As romantic Russian operas usually tend toward the long side, I was pleasantly surprised to get one that clocks in at less than two hours. I can assure you that the time spent watching this Blu-ray will go by very quickly tempting you, like I was tempted, to hit the replay button and watch it all over again. Highly recommended. Additional Screen Captures	i don't know
On which holiday island will you find the towns of Maliaand Sitia?	Visit East Crete with white sandy beaches and bustling towns Car Hire Why do people from all over the world choose to holiday on the eastern side of Crete in Greece. Crete is the largest of all Greek islands surrounded by the Aegean and Libyan Seas and the East is one of the most interesting Visit East Crete When people pick Crete as a vacation destination they either go for the east or the west side of the island. The West is more laid back and perfect for those who want to relax and get away from the hustle and bustle of daily life, but East Crete has so much to offer and a side of many contrasts. Firstly the main airport for the eastern side of Crete is Heraklion, and it accepts flights internationally and domestic, although the main influx of flights comes during the high or peak season of May till October. Heraklion is the capital of Crete and is an excellent city with plenty of history. With the Greek naval Museum and fortress on the port of Heraklion, moving into the city you can find local markets, and stunning architecture. Another big draw for history lovers has to be the Archaeological Museum where the finds from Knossos Palace are held. Knossos Palace is the main draw for tourists visiting Crete, the start of modern civilization as we know it with the Minoan Empire and the seat of King Minos. The palace of Knossos was excavated by Sir Arthur Evans and is now open to the public daily. Getting off the plane and heading straight for the coast you come across Kokkini Hani, Gouves and Gournes. These small villages have a varied amount to do in them but all hug the beautiful Cretan coastline with nice white sandy beaches. The nightlife in Kokkini Hani and Gournes is fairly limited, with a few small touristy bars and local Tavernas. Gouves has quite a large amount of bars but is never to overwhelming and it’s a friendly and enjoyable place to take your family. Moving onto Hersonissos, Stalis and Malia this is where it becomes livelier and where you will find the bulk of European holidaymaker’s who come here mainly for the clubs, bars and pubs and generally anyone wanting a fun filled holiday should visit this area. Don’t discount this area for just clubbing and pubs, it’s also has points of interest like Malia Palace, Lassithi Plateau for you to explore and this area is very popular with hikers, walkers and mountain bikers. Moving on further to the eastern tip of the island you will find Agios Nikolaos or Ag Nik for short with its famous bottomless lake, where it’s believed the Germans dumped all the munitions and tanks to evade capture by the British and locals in WWII. Near Ag Nik you will find the buzzing cosmopolitan town of Elounda, which itself is a vacation haven for A list Hollywood stars and has some beautiful blue star beaches. The island of Spinalonga is the main draw for holidaymaker’s visiting this area which was once a leper colony for all of Greece, where the lepers were held in isolation before much was known about the disease of leprosy. Move around the coast to find the area of Sitia and Ierapetra, quieter by comparison to their south eastern neighbours. Smaller fishing ports filled with lots of history, ruined fortresses and Byzantine churches. This area doesn’t cater for tourists as much as Heraklion, Gouves, Elounda and the likes but depends more on the economy of farming and fishing so hotels are slightly harder to come by. The east of Crete can be lively and packed with tourists during the summer, but escape into the smaller villages or Old Towns of the main areas of Hersonissos and Malia and you will find the real Cretan way of life. But one thing you must do when visiting is to visit Spinalonga and Knossos palace.	Crete
Which author wrote 'A Town Like Alice'?	lasithi guides - CreteTravel Elounda Village Lasithi Elounda Village is located in east Crete, north of Agios Nikolaos and south of the seaside resort of Plaka in Crete. Elounda was once a picturesque fishing village in the lovely Mirabello Bay. The inhabitants lived from farming, fishing, salt extraction but now is a great place for holiday in Crete. Mochlos Village Lasithi Mochlos is visually a picturesque fishing village. Easily within reach of Agios Nikolaos, Ierapetra and Sitia (all an easy one hour drive), the possibilities for exploration and sightseeing are numerous. Crete ChaniaHeraklionLasithiRethimno Crete’s mystery is extremely deep. Whoever sets foot on this island senses a mysterious force branching warmly and beneficiently through his veins, senses his soul begin to grow. - Nikos Kazantzakis, Report to Greco Makrigialos Lasithi Makrigialos is a find and has one of the best beaches at this end of Crete, with tavernas and sand which shelves to gently that you begin to think you are going to walk the 320km to Africa. Kato Zakros Lasithi Small and personal, simply awesome, quiet and well - it is somewhere you feel a sense of ownership about the moment you arrive. At the end of a dazzling, exciting winding road, descending from the plain around Zakros itself. Xerokambos Lasithi Xerokambos, if you prefer isolation from the rest of the world, and a multitude of tiny coves lined with gold sand along the cool waters of the Mediterannean then you are at the right place. Sitia Lasithi Sitia is very much a living town, which happens to have tourism, rather than the other way around. Sitia has the most cheerful and friendly Cretans you could hope to meet, people who love their town and keep it clean and tidy. Agios Nikolaos Lasithi Different to all other towns in Crete, Agios Nikolaos manages to mix - upon the three hills which support its girth - an arty, leisurely, sleepy and yet also bustling place. Built partly atop ancient remains of bygone residents’ homes.	i don't know
Which classic horserace, run annually at Epsom, was won by 'Love Divine' in 2000?	Epsom Oaks \| Epsom Racecourse \| Betting St Leger Epsom Oaks History The Oaks at Epsom is the fillies equivalent of the Epsom Derby , it is open to three-year-old thoroughbred fillies and run over the 1 mile 4 furlongs trip of the more famous Derby for the colts. What many don’t know is that the Oaks was actually first run a year before the Derby at Epsom in 1779, when it was won by a filly called Bridget who was owned by the 12th Earl Of Derby who was the man behind the race in the first place. The Oaks is of course one of the British Classic races and is one just of two reserved for the fillies with the 1000 Guineas being the other, so it is sure to attract a stellar list of entries each flat season. Epsom is a very demanding race course for the fillies and any horse wanting to feature in the Oaks will need to cope with the undulations and stamina test on offer, it is not just a question of the quickest but the runner who acts at Epsom the best as well as showing the turn of foot needed. The horse that on paper has doubt with those conditions best of all was Intrepidity who won in 1993 in record time of 2:34:19, it is a time that many have come close to but none have so far have surpassed and the Andre Fabre trained horse remains top of the tree. There are a number of trainers with great record in the Oaks but perhaps the most famous in the modern era is the great Henry Cecil, he is one of the most trainers still in the game and he has saddled the winner of no less than eight Oaks from Oh So Sharp in 1985 to Light Shift in 2007. A Cecil horse is always worth following in the betting and no one would be surprised to see him add to his tally in the Oaks over the coming few years. He knows what type of horse runs well at Epsom and he always has them in top shape for the big race so he really can be called at Oaks legend. Over the past few years we have seen a number of the Oaks winners go on to bigger and better things with huge wins around the world, trainer Ed Dunlop has done it twice since the turn of the century with Ouija Board in 2004 and most recently with the excellent Snow Fairy in 2010. Ouija Board went on to become a Breeders Cup winner while Snow Fairy has won prestigious races in both Japan and Hong Kong following her success in the Oaks, this highlights that the Epsom Oaks really can be the start of a glittering season for a three-year-old filly. Recent Winners of the Epsom Oaks �� 2000 - Love Divine	Khost Airfield
Lake Balaton is the largest lake in central Europe, in which country is it?	BBC News \| SPORT \| Epsom set for Derby 2000 Saturday, 10 June, 2000, 09:36 GMT 10:36 UK Epsom set for Derby 2000 Epsom Derby 2000 Saturday 10 June 1550 BST Click here for Epsom runners and riders With the exception of the injured King's Best, all the big name colts prepare to race in the most prestigious Classic of the race season - the Epsom Derby . The 2000 Guineas winner, King's Best, was a hot favourite to claim the Derby crown but was pulled out on the eve of the race because of a muscle problem. The Henry Cecil trained Beat Hollow has now been made the top-tip to win the event and jockey Richard Quinn is optimistic about his chances. "Beat Hollow has done it on firm ground and soft ground so there shouldn't be a problem whatever the ground is like. I'm looking forward to it immensely." Strongly tipped Quinn rode to victory on Love Divine in the Epsom Oaks on Friday to record his first Classic win at Epsom. Beat Hollow and stablemate Wellbeing, will try to give Cecil a second successive Oaks-Derby double, having won with Ramruma and Oath last year. Top Irish trainer Aidan O'Brien has included Ciro, Shakespeare and leading fancy Aristotle in the Epsom classic. Ciro, who was sixth in Sunday's French Derby, will be running alongside Broche from the Godolphin stables. Saeed Bin Suroor has also added Hatha Anna, Inchlonaig and the strongly tipped Best Of The Bests to the list of three-year-olds who will line up on Saturday. American rider Chris McCarron replaces the injured Frankie Dettori on Best Of The Bests, while four-time champion Pat Eddery will ride Inchlonaig. Going good The going has been described as good to soft for the premier Classic, although Barathea Guest's trainer George Margarson is not too concerned about the conditions. Henry Cecil is going for a brilliant double "The Irish race has been a good trial and he's in good form," said Margarson. "The track at Epsom won't bother him and neither will the ground. "Don't let anybody tell you different, it was good-to-firm in Ireland and provided it's good there won't be a problem." Margarson has been coy about whether to include the horse in the final 20 and will not make a decision until as late as possible. Four-time winner "The horse is as brave as a lion, he always gives 100%, but I don't want him to give 100% unless he is fine, but I think he will be." Aidan O'Brien: Hoping Ciro can go five better Sheikh Hamdam Al Maktoum will be hoping that either Hataab or Sakhee can repeat the successes of 1989 champion Nashwan and Erhaab in 1994. Hamdan's racing manager, Angus Gold, said: "Hataab didn't scope clean last week, but he seems to be better now. "And as far as I know all seems well with Sakhee." Derby trial winner Saddler's Quest will miss Saturday's race because it is lame. "We are shattered here and I feel very sorry for the owners - the Derby has always been the aim, but this isn't a game for lads in short pants," said Sadller's Quest trainer Gerard Butler. "We'll just ride it out at the moment before we make any plans, but it won't be long before he's back." Runners and riders for the English Derby, a group one race for three-year-olds, to be run over one and a half miles (2.4 kms) at Epsom on Saturday (tabulate under latest form, horse, trainer, jockey): 1-D1 Aristotle Aidan O'Brien Michael Kinane 134 Barathea Guest George Margarson Philip Robinson 1-1 Beat Hollow Henry Cecil Richard Quinn 12-3 Best of the Bests Saeed Bin Suroor Chris McCarron 015 Broche Saeed Bin Suroor Christophe Soumillon 431 Cracow John Hills Michael Hills 132 Going Global Sean Woods John Reid 5 Hatha Anna Saeed Bin Suroor Kevin Darley 1-4 Inchlonaig Saeed Bin Suroor Pat Eddery 5-21 King's Best Michael Stoute Kieren Fallon 3-15 Kingsclere Ian Balding 0livier Peslier 1-11 Sahkee John Dunlop Richard Hills 1-21 Sinndar John Oxx John Murtagh 012 St Expedit Geoff Wragg Richard Hughes 3-11 Wellbeing Henry Cecil Willie Ryan 233 ZYZ Barry Hills Jimmy Fortune Non-runner: King's Best Value to winner: �580,000 pounds sterling (click here to return)	i don't know
Whose stories include 'The Legend Of Sleepy Hollow'?	The Legend of Sleepy Hollow Summary - eNotes.com The Legend of Sleepy Hollow Summary Trivia The Legend of Sleepy Hollow Summary The Headless Horseman has been haunting Sleepy Hollow. An itinerant teacher named Ichabod Crane moves to Tarry Town in Sleepy Hollow. A Yankee, Crane is unfamiliar with the ways and superstitions of his new home. He starts flirting with Katrina Van Tassel, the daughter of the richest man in town. The townsfolk are displease with this, because it appears he only wants her for her family's money. After a party given by Katrina's father, the Headless Horseman drives Ichabod out of town. link Link “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” represents Irving’s second comic masterpiece, a ghostly tale about things that go bump in the night. The specter in question here is the mysterious Headless Horseman, said to be a Hessian trooper who lost his head in a nearby battle. Each night he roams the countryside in search of it. The unlikely hero in this tale is Ichabod Crane, an itinerant schoolmaster, whose name suits him perfectly: “He was tall, but exceedingly lank, with narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves, feet that might have served for shovels, and his whole frame most loosely hung together.” Irving opens his tale with a marvelous and evocative description of the lush, charming Hudson Valley region of Sleepy Hollow near Tarry Town, the delightful and dreamy atmosphere pervading the place, and the tale of the Hessian trooper’s ghost that supposedly roams near the churchyard. He then introduces the reader to Ichabod, a poor Connecticut Yankee who is very interested in marrying the wealthy, lovely, and flirtatious Katrina Van Tassel, daughter of the richest man in the area. Ichabod’s plan is to ingratiate himself into her life, winning her hand in marriage. He arranges to teach her psalmody and is therefore permitted to visit Katrina on a regular basis at her family’s prosperous farm. His interest in Katrina, however, is less than honorable. Ichabod wants to acquire her hereditary wealth and sell it off. His chief rival is a brawny local named Brom Bones, who loves Katrina for herself. The two men despise each other; Irving adroitly contrasts Yankee opportunism with Dutch diligence. Ichabod attends a party given by Katrina’s father one night and later, on his way home, meets the terrifying Headless Horseman (Brom Bones in disguise), who drives the superstitious victim out of Sleepy Hollow forever. Unlike “Rip Van Winkle,” which appears among the first pieces in The Sketch Book, Irving placed “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” last and followed it in a brief piece summarizing his final thoughts on the book. It, too, is set in the Hudson Valley, but Irving’s point in this tale is markedly different. In “Rip Van Winkle” the old order gives way to the new, but the reverse is true here. The hypocritical Yankee Ichabod is defeated by the stalwart Dutch Brom, who represents the old order. The contrast between both men could not be greater. Ichabod is a skinny, shrewd, calculating, sterile (and comic) individual, devoid of human affections, who relies on wit in his attempt to defeat his erstwhile rival. He is also a very gullible individual who believes in the supernatural, thus providing his opponent with the weapon that will destroy him. Brom, on the other hand, is a swaggering, athletic type inclined to mischievous pranks, but he does have deep romantic feelings for the beauteous Katrina. Brom is desperate to win her love, but he realizes that he cannot physically challenge his rival to a fight; hence, he devises a stratagem to prey on the schoolmaster’s fear and drive him away from Sleepy Hollow. Although “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” is as familiar a tale as “Rip Van Winkle” to generations of schoolchildren, it has not had much success on the stage because of the difficulty of staging the thrilling chase scene at the end between Ichabod and the Headless Horseman. It has, however, been turned into at least three motion pictures. In 1922 the great cowboy humorist Will Rogers starred in a silent-screen version retitled The Headless Horseman. For the second, in 1949, Walt Disney created a full-length animated feature with Bing Crosby as narrator. In 1999 Tim Burton’s version, Sleepy Hollow, made Ichabod Crane into a constable sent to investigate a number of murders attributed to the Headless Horseman. The tale was also made into a television film in 1980. “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” is an endearing and charming tale full of good humor, yet it has serious social implications. It questions whether change and progress are better than stability and order. The old virtues of the settlers are more important than those of the destroyers. Irving sides with Katrina, who has rejected Ichabod’s advances, and Brom Bones, who defeats his rival by playing on the hero’s irrational fears. Irving implies that the practical man always will defeat the dreamer. With the creation of “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” even if Irving had written nothing else, he would be elevated to literary greatness, because he fashioned two great American myths that perfectly symbolized American ideals and aspirations. More Content: Summary (hide) link Link Ichabod Crane is a newcomer to the Hudson Valley; unlike the generations of Dutch settlers that have preceded him, he has neither the strength nor the means to become a farmer and landowner. His single marketable skill is teaching, and in the isolated hamlet of Sleepy Hollow this pays meager rewards. His schoolhouse is decrepit, one large room constructed of logs; its broken windows have been patched with the leaves of old copybooks. Ichabod’s quarters are whatever rooms the neighboring Dutch farmers who board him for a week at a time are willing to provide. Ichabod thus makes the rounds of the neighborhood, and his small salary, combined with his constantly changing address, allows him to store all of his personal possessions in a cotton handkerchief. Because he comes from Connecticut, a state whose major product is country schoolmasters, Ichabod feels both superior to the old Dutch stock of the valley and frustrated by his perpetual state of poverty. He compensates for the former by regularly caning the more obstinate of his little charges and for the latter by doing light work on the neighboring farms. He further supplements his income by serving as the local singing master, instructing the farm children in the singing of psalms. Never missing a chance to curry favor with the local mothers, Ichabod always pets the youngest children “like the lion bold” holding the lamb. In short, his single goal is self-advancement, and though he has merely “tarried” in Sleepy Hollow, he clearly will remain if his prospects improve. Ichabod cannot rely on his looks or strength to advance him, so he cultivates a circle of farmers’ daughters, particularly those from the more prosperous families, and impresses them with his erudition and vastly superior tastes. He has, indeed, “read several books quite through,” among them Cotton Mather’s account of witchcraft in New England. He believes even the strangest of these tales; indeed, he frightens himself so much when he reads them that he is startled when he hears a bird or sees a firefly. He is, in other words, completely naïve and suggestible. The local tale of the Galloping Hessian who rides headless through the woods of Sleepy Hollow particularly alarms him. A snow-covered bush in the half-light is enough to convince Ichabod that he has seen the headless horseman. One of Ichabod’s music students is Katrina Van Tassel, the eighteen-year-old daughter of a prosperous Dutch farmer. She is “plump as a partridge; ripe and melting and rosy-cheeked as one of her father’s peaches.” She also, as her father’s only daughter, has “vast expectations.” Though she is also something of a coquette, the prospect of her inheritance makes her seem to Ichabod a desirable bride, and he determines to win her. Ichabod’s mouth waters when he contemplates the fruits of old Baltus Van Tassel’s land. He dreams of the fat meadowlands, the rich wheatfields, and the rye, buckwheat, fruit, and Indian corn that will be his if he can win Katrina’s hand. Once married to Katrina, he could invest in large tracts of land. He can even imagine Katrina with a whole family of children, setting out with him for promising new territories in Kentucky or Tennessee. It is, however, the sumptuous comfort of the Van Tassel home that makes him realize that he must have Katrina. Winning Katrina, however, presents a problem in the person of her rugged, rough-edged Dutch boyfriend, Abraham Brunt, nicknamed “Brom Bones” because of his Herculean size and strength. Brom, who has long considered Katrina his, immediately recognizes Ichabod as his rival, and with his gang of roughriders plays a series of practical jokes on the Yankee schoolmaster. However, his pranks—stopping up the singing-school chimney, upsetting the schoolhouse, even training his dog to whine whenever Ichabod sings—do little to thwart the progress that Ichabod believes he is making in his campaign to win Katrina’s hand. Indeed, Ichabod is encouraged when he receives an invitation to a “quilting frolic” at the Van Tassel home. Ichabod spends extra time dressing and even borrows a horse so that he can arrive in style. The horse, somewhat inappropriately named Gunpowder, is as gaunt and shabby as Ichabod, but this does not prevent him from thinking that Katrina will be impressed. Ichabod continues to imagine the Van Tassel wealth that he will have if he can make Katrina his, and he quickly becomes the center of attention when Katrina dances with him. Brom, meanwhile, looks on with helpless jealousy. Brom enjoys himself only when telling of his close encounter with the headless horseman. Ichabod counters with extracts from Cotton Mather and stories of his own close calls with Connecticut and local ghosts. An interview between Ichabod and Katrina follows the party, and Ichabod leaves, crestfallen. Could Katrina merely have been trying to make Brom jealous? Ichabod’s anger, frustration, and sudden obliviousness to the rich Van Tassel lands seem to answer this question. The midnight quiet of the countryside, the gathering clouds, and the ghost stories that Ichabod has heard do not improve Ichabod’s mood. Indeed, he becomes increasingly uneasy as he approaches the tree from which Major Andre had been hanged. Ichabod knows that he will be safe if only he can cross the church bridge, but just then the goblin rider appears on his black horse, closing in fast behind him. Instead of disappearing in a burst of fire and brimstone as he has always been said to do, the rider throws his head at Ichabod. It strikes Ichabod’s own cranium, and the rider passes on like a whirlwind. Though Ichabod’s borrowed horse reappears the next morning, Ichabod does not. The executor of his estate, Hans Van Ripper, burns Ichabod’s copy of Cotton Mather and the scrawled fragments of a few love poems to Katrina. Ichabod himself becomes part of Sleepy Hollow’s folklore. Some say that he was snatched by the Galloping Hessian, but others say that Ichabod is still alive, that he was afraid to return from fear of the goblin and Hans Van Ripper (from whom he had borrowed the horse) and was mortified by Katrina’s refusal. Brom Bones appears soon after such discussions, always wearing a knowing smile whenever the goblin’s pumpkin head is mentioned. link Link Near Tarrytown on the Hudson River is a little valley populated by Dutch folk that seems to be the quietest place in the world. A drowsy influence hangs over the place and people so that the region is known as Sleepy Hollow, and the lads who live there are called Sleepy Hollow boys. Some say that the valley is bewitched. A schoolteacher named Ichabod Crane arrives in the valley, looking like a scarecrow because of his long, skinny frame and his snipelike nose. As is customary, Crane circulates among the homes in Sleepy Hollow, boarding with the parents of each of his pupils for one week at a time. Fortunately for him, the valley’s larders are full and the tables groan with food, for the schoolmaster has a wonderful appetite. He is always welcome in the country homes because in small ways he has contrived to make himself useful to the farmers. He takes care to appear to be patient with the children, and he loves to spend the long winter nights with the families of his pupils, exchanging tales of ghosts and haunted places, while ruddy apples roast on the hearths. The main figure said to haunt Sleepy Hollow is a man on horseback without a head. The villagers speculate that the specter is the apparition of a Hessian horseman who lost his head to a cannonball; whatever it may be, the figure is often seen in the countryside during the gloomy winter nights. The specter is known to all as the Headless Horseman of Sleepy Hollow. A fan of the writings of Salem Witch Trial chronicler Cotton Mather and a believer in ghosts, haunts, and spirits of all description, Ichabod is often filled with fear as he walks home after an evening of storytelling. His only source of courage at those times is his loud and nasal voice, which makes the night resound with many a sung psalm. The schoolteacher picks up a little extra money by holding singing classes. One student who captures his fancy is the plump and rosy-cheeked Katrina Van Tassel. She is the only child of a very substantial farmer, a fact that contributes to her charms for the ever-hungry Ichabod. Since she is not only beautiful but also lively, she is a great favorite among the lads in the neighborhood. Abraham Van Brunt—Brom for short—is Katrina’s favorite squire. Known for his tall and powerful frame, the locals have taken to calling him Brom Bones. A lively lad with a fine sense of humor and a tremendous amount of energy, Brom scares away Katrina’s other suitors. Brom Bones is a formidable rival for the gaunt and shaggy Ichabod. Brom would like to carry their battle over Katrina into the open, but the schoolteacher knows better than to tangle with him physically. Brom can do little more than play practical jokes on the lanky Ichabod. One fall evening, the whole countryside is invited to a quilting frolic at Mynheer Van Tassel’s farm. Ichabod borrows a horse for the occasion from his current host. The horse, called Gunpowder, is as gaunt as Ichabod himself but still possesses a spark of spirit. The two of them are a sight as they trot happily to the party. Everything Ichabod sees on the Van Tassel farm pleases him. He revels in the pretty picture painted by fields full of shocks of corn and pumpkins, granaries stuffed with grain, and meadows and barn lots filled with sleek cattle and plump fowl. The farm is clearly the most prosperous holding for miles around. Ichabod thinks that, upon winning the hand of Katrina, he could perhaps sell the farm and, with the proceeds, move farther west. The party is merry and exciting, punctuated by grand feasts and lively dances. Ichabod is enraptured by the cakes, pies, meats, and tea. He joins in the dancing, feeling himself to be at his best when he dances with Katrina. Later, he listens to the men exchange Sleepy Hollow ghost stories on the porch. As the evening wanes and the others leave, he tarries in an attempt to pay court to Katrina. Before long, however, he leaves the Van Tassels crestfallen at his lack of success and starts home on the gaunt Gunpowder. As he rides along in the darkness, all the evening’s stories of ghosts return to haunt Ichabod, and he becomes even more dismal. In the darkness, he thinks he sees dim shapes and hears soft moans. When Ichabod finally approaches the bridge over Wiley’s Swamp, his horse Gunpowder balks and will not respond to Ichabod’s urgent commands; then, across the marsh, through the dark evening, Ichabod sees something huge and misshapen. He calls out to the figure, which refuses to answer him. Ichabod’s hair stands straight on end, and he keeps to the road, thinking it must be too late to turn back. The strange figure keeps pace with him, whether he goes fast or slow, and before long Ichabod believes the dark shape to be a headless horseman holding his head on the pommel of his saddle. Ichabod soon loses his nerve and whips Gunpowder to a gallop; as they rush down the dark road, his saddle loosens and he nearly loses his grip, but he hugs the horse around the neck. He is so scared that he cannot even muster the courage to sing a psalm. When Ichabod reaches the church bridge, where by tradition the headless specter should disappear in a flash of fire and brimstone, he hears the horseman close upon him. As he turns to look, the spirit seems to throw his head at the schoolmaster. Ichabod tries to dodge, but the head bursts against his skull and tumbles him from his mount. In the morning, a shattered pumpkin is found near the bridge. Gunpowder is found grazing at the farmer’s gate nearby. Ichabod, however, is never seen in Sleepy Hollow again, although later reports are heard that he has relocated. In the valley, they say that Brom Bones, long after marrying Katrina, laughs heartily whenever the story is told of the Headless Horseman.	Washington Irving
What is the title of the opera by Wagner, that makes up the third part of the 'Ring Cycle'?	The Real Sleepy Hollow - The Origin of the Headless Horseman The Origin of the Headless Horseman - Merritt Hill and the Battle of White Plains - This is where the Headless Horseman lost his head - somewhere near this field on the slope of Merrit Hill in White Plains, New York, about nine miles from Sleepy Hollow. During the last week of October, 1776, this property was the site of hostilities between American and British forces during the American War for Independence. Today, a small monument topped with an antique cannon marks the site of these events, and a sign nearby describes the historic significance of the location: The historic sign above details a brief skirmish between American and British forces on October 28th. But that's not the whole story - other conflicts occurred near this site in the following days, and not only with the British. To assist in the difficult task of suppressing their rebellious American colonies, the British brought along reinforcements in the form of Hessian mercenaries from Germany, and it was one of these unlucky fellows who found himself in the path of an American cannonball that relieved him of his head. Washington Irving refers to this incident only briefly in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," without identifying the precise location of the horseman's demise: "It is said by some to be the ghost of a Hessian trooper, whose head had been carried away by a cannon-ball, in some nameless battle during the Revolutionary War..." It's entirely possible that Irving simply invented the entire incident for the sake of drama, without any knowledge of real-life events that occurred nearby. But it seems more likely that Irving had read the journal of the American general William Heath, who described his defense of Merritt Hill on, of all possible days, Halloween: October 31st of 1776. Jonathan Kruk can be credited for noticing a revealing passage in Heath's journal, which he quotes in his book "Legends and Lore of Sleepy Hollow and the Hudson Valley." Heath recorded the following as his cannons opened fire at the approach of Hessian artillery: "A shot from the American cannon at this place took off the head of a Hessian artillery-man. They also left one of the artillery horses dead on the field. What other loss they sustained was not known." This is almost certainly the event that inspired Irving to weave a legend revolving around a headless Hessian on a ghostly horse. This is especially plausible since the battlefield was close enough to have been within riding distance from Sleepy Hollow, a detail that fits the demands of the Legend, as described by Irving: "...having been buried in the churchyard, the ghost rides forth to the scene of battle in nightly quest of his head..." But how did the unfortunate Hessian end up getting buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard at Sleepy Hollow, nine miles away? At the time, the Old Dutch Church was the only church to be found for many miles around, so it was the only churchyard available. But the honor of such a formal burial was rarely extended to British and Hessian soldiers, so how could one of them have been granted an exception? Assuming that there could be any truth to the burial legend at all - which is highly questionable - Jonathan Kruk offers an intriguing backstory which, though entirely speculative, is at least an entertaining addition to the legendary heritage of Sleepy Hollow. I wouldn't dream of giving the whole thing away, though - you can find it all in Kruk's book, "Legends and Lore of Sleepy Hollow and the Hudson Valley."	i don't know
Which symbol denotes a 'battlefield' on an Ordnance Survey Map?	BBC NEWS \| UK \| Magazine \| Five old-school map symbols Printable version Five old-school map symbols The president of the British Cartographic Society has attacked a new generation of online and satnav maps for blanking out British heritage. So here are five classic map symbols for those who know nothing but the bland route-finding of the Google Maps generation. BATTLEFIELD Ordnance Survey symbol for a battle site Imagine pootling down the B3046 out of New Alresford, looking to your left across a bit of English scenery. Those navigating using one of the more functional modern online maps will see nothing marked except blank grey space. But those using an Ordnance Survey map will see the crossed swords that reveal this to be the site of 1644's Battle of Cheriton. Without which you're missing one of the key strategic shifts in the English Civil War. You're missing the chance to investigate Lord Hopton's Royalist army being soundly beaten by Sir William Waller's Parliamentarian army. CHURCH WITH TOWER Ordnance Survey symbol for a religious building with tower Perhaps familiar from school geography lessons - the different symbols for churches with spires and churches with towers. As those who were paying attention will remember a filled square with a cross is a church with a tower. A good example of one that might be missed without help from an old school map is St Peter's Church in Wellesbourne, Warwickshire, an imposing Victorian rebuilding of a Norman church. In multicultural Britain, the meaning of the symbols has shifted slightly. A filled circle with a cross is now a place of worship with spire, minaret or dome. ENGLISH HERITAGE Ordnance Survey symbol for English Heritage site A first-timer to Wiltshire steaming down the A303 is going to want to plenty of advance notice to alert the passengers to the presence of Stonehenge by the side of the road. The symbol that does this on Ordnance Survey maps is the lattice-work emblem of English Heritage, while sites administered by Historic Scotland are indicated by a stylised depiction of a church and those by Welsh Historic Monuments by a Celtic cross. HISTORIC SHIP Philips maps symbol for historic ship No trip to Dundee would be complete without a visit to HMS Unicorn, a 46-gun frigate launched in 1824. On a Philips map it's indicated by a stylised purple depiction of a yawl two-masted sailing boat. On your common or garden online map, you would just get a blank piece of dockland. And you would miss out on a maritime treasure. AQUARIUM Collins map of Lake Windermere Nothing to do with heritage and history, but a vital ingredient for pacifying more disgruntled and youthful car passengers, aquariums are marked on Collins Road Atlases with a delightful seahorse motif. Pictured right is an example from the southern end of Lake Windermere, accompanied by a star icon which indicates a site of interest, in this case a mill, and a train icon that shows a tourist railway. "You don't get as much sense of the area on an online map as you do on a road atlas," notes Iain MacDonald, of Collins Road Atlases. IN DEFENCE OF MODERN MAPS The online map service Multimap points out that it does feature items that can't really be accommodated in old-fashioned maps. Icons indicating cash machines, petrol stations and click-throughs to Wikipedia entries are among the innovations, the company says.	Crossed swords
Who was the faithful wife of Odysseus in Homer's 'Odyssey'?	BBC NEWS \| UK \| Magazine \| Five old-school map symbols Printable version Five old-school map symbols The president of the British Cartographic Society has attacked a new generation of online and satnav maps for blanking out British heritage. So here are five classic map symbols for those who know nothing but the bland route-finding of the Google Maps generation. BATTLEFIELD Ordnance Survey symbol for a battle site Imagine pootling down the B3046 out of New Alresford, looking to your left across a bit of English scenery. Those navigating using one of the more functional modern online maps will see nothing marked except blank grey space. But those using an Ordnance Survey map will see the crossed swords that reveal this to be the site of 1644's Battle of Cheriton. Without which you're missing one of the key strategic shifts in the English Civil War. You're missing the chance to investigate Lord Hopton's Royalist army being soundly beaten by Sir William Waller's Parliamentarian army. CHURCH WITH TOWER Ordnance Survey symbol for a religious building with tower Perhaps familiar from school geography lessons - the different symbols for churches with spires and churches with towers. As those who were paying attention will remember a filled square with a cross is a church with a tower. A good example of one that might be missed without help from an old school map is St Peter's Church in Wellesbourne, Warwickshire, an imposing Victorian rebuilding of a Norman church. In multicultural Britain, the meaning of the symbols has shifted slightly. A filled circle with a cross is now a place of worship with spire, minaret or dome. ENGLISH HERITAGE Ordnance Survey symbol for English Heritage site A first-timer to Wiltshire steaming down the A303 is going to want to plenty of advance notice to alert the passengers to the presence of Stonehenge by the side of the road. The symbol that does this on Ordnance Survey maps is the lattice-work emblem of English Heritage, while sites administered by Historic Scotland are indicated by a stylised depiction of a church and those by Welsh Historic Monuments by a Celtic cross. HISTORIC SHIP Philips maps symbol for historic ship No trip to Dundee would be complete without a visit to HMS Unicorn, a 46-gun frigate launched in 1824. On a Philips map it's indicated by a stylised purple depiction of a yawl two-masted sailing boat. On your common or garden online map, you would just get a blank piece of dockland. And you would miss out on a maritime treasure. AQUARIUM Collins map of Lake Windermere Nothing to do with heritage and history, but a vital ingredient for pacifying more disgruntled and youthful car passengers, aquariums are marked on Collins Road Atlases with a delightful seahorse motif. Pictured right is an example from the southern end of Lake Windermere, accompanied by a star icon which indicates a site of interest, in this case a mill, and a train icon that shows a tourist railway. "You don't get as much sense of the area on an online map as you do on a road atlas," notes Iain MacDonald, of Collins Road Atlases. IN DEFENCE OF MODERN MAPS The online map service Multimap points out that it does feature items that can't really be accommodated in old-fashioned maps. Icons indicating cash machines, petrol stations and click-throughs to Wikipedia entries are among the innovations, the company says.	i don't know
On a standard typewriter keyboard, which is the only vowel that does not appear on the top row?	Why aren''t the letters on a computer keyboard in alphabetical order? \| Notes and Queries \| guardian.co.uk Why aren't the letters on a computer keyboard in alphabetical order? Richard Hearty, Newcastle Upon Tyne UK The 'computer' keyboard is directly derived from the old typewriter keyboard. As the original typewriters were mechanically slower than a reasonably quick typist the keys were arranged to slow the typist down. Hence the common letters, a, s and e are used by the third and fourth finger of the left hand. Columb Healy, Staining Lancs Because typists have been trained on Qwerty keyboards since the 1860s and noone can be bothered retraining them. Ian, London They used to be - in the 1870's See http://home.earthlink.net/~dcrehr/whyqwert.html The inventor of the "standard" typewriter keyboard, C. L. Sholes, came up with a layout that suoted the unwieldy mechanical instrument of the type. There is also a rumour that the word "typewriter" coule be typed quickly since all the letters were on one row. Eoin C. BairÂ¿, Dublin Ireland Because they use the qwerty pattern originally developed for mechanical type-writers. The logic of the qwerty layout was based on letter usage in English rather than letter postion in the alphabet. Peter Brooke, Kinmuck Scotland The "qwerty" keyboard arrangement stems from mechanical typewriters. The keys are arranged to make fast typing difficult as old typewriters would easily jam. Of course humans being adaptable sorts have learned to overcome this obstructionist system and now (some folks) type faster than they talk, or even think. R Kenig, London UK Because when typing in English (don't know about other languages) you use some characters (such as vowels) far more frequently than others (such as Z or X), and the keyboard is designed to help you reach the most frequently used keys most easily. However, to truly benefit from this you need to learn to touch type and stop looking at the keys and prodding away with one finger. Once you learn to touch type you will wonder how you managed before. Mary, Glasgow Scotland They are arranged randomly because manual typewriters tended to jam if the user typed too fast - therefore the arrangement was intended to slow early typists down. Now, of course, we want to be able to typer faster faster faster, so why change what we're all used to? Julie F, London because fingers do not read from left to right miche, scotland The keys on a qwerty board were designed when typewriters were mechanically driven, secretaries at the time were apparently so efficient that the arms carrying the characters and attached to the keys often got entangled, requiring the ministrations of an expensive engineer. The answer, put them where you least expect them! Fiona Bell, Nuneaton Warwickshire This is an easy one. The qwerty typewriter keyboard was designed to keep letters commonly used together away from each other to prevent jamming. Computer keyboards followed this because people are used to it and don't want to relearn typing, whether for a keyboard in alphabetical order or on one of those ones with all the commonly used letters in the easy to reach places. Richard Smeltzer, Hamilton Canada This is a relic from the distant days of typewriters. The most frequently used letters were evenly spaced across the keyboard in order to reduce the amount of times the printing hammers jammed. Due to the fact that the eras of typewriters and computers overlapped considerably it was probably thought best not to alter the layout of the more modern keyboard, despite the jamming problem no longer existing. Richard, London England Those of you who have used an old mechanical typewriter will remember how typing too fast caused all the keys to stack on top of one another, effectively jamming the machine. Early typewriters did have the keys in alphabetical order, but it was found that the keys jammed very easily with this arrangement. To prevent it keys were moved around so that the weaker fingers were needed more frequently. This meant that people typed at a speed which the maching could handle; giving rise to the 'querty' keyboard we find today; or at least if you're English - my keyboard is French and thus 'azerty'. Even without the mechanical difficulties, there would be no logic today in putting the keys in alphabetical order. It would make more sense to have the most commonly used keys next to the strongest fingers. Experimental keyboards have been produced using this logic and shown to be much faster than 'querty' but the market seems stuck in its ways and not ready to innovate. Terence Hollingworth, Blagnac France A crude typewriter was invented in 1660 by Wm. Petty.At some stage in it's evolution, somebody came up with the QWERTY keyboard we are all familiar with. This was designed deliberately to make typing a slow process, so that the hammers would'nt foul one another. There is no reason nowadays why the keys should not be in alphabetical order, except that we would all have to relearn the skill. Brian Clayton, Glasgow U.K. The arrangement is to seperate letters which frequently occur consecutively in words, to eliminate jamming of manual typewriters. sue bailey, London UK The 'qwerty' keyboard was designed for use on typewriters so that frequently used letters were spread apart, avoiding clashing or jamming of the most used 'hammers'. It is, of course, completly un-ergonomic, outdated and pretty useless. Roll on the new standard! Clive, Bristol UK The keys can be in any order you like if you reprogramme them and stick new labels on. Normally they are in typewriter order because million so people have been trained to touch type in that system. Typewriter keys were laid out to minimise the clash of keystrokes when two adjacent letters are struck in quick succession. There have been many attempts to design a more ergonomic layout - such as Dvorak. Doug Gowan, Hornsey I understand that on the prototype typewriters (prototypewriters, if you will!) the levers that hit the ribbon were rather prone to jam or get tangled up with one another if the keys were depressed too quickly - if the typist did her job too well, in other words. The QWERTY keyboard was therefore specifically designed to slow down the process of typing as much as possible. This would seem to explain why the keys aren't in an intuitive order, such as alphabetically, and why three of the vowels are annoyingly squashed up in the top line. By the time typewriters that could cope with higher speeds, and indeed desktop computers, had been invented, the QWERTY set-up had become the convention, and secretarial schools were making a lot of money out of its inherent difficulty. Although, of course, the alphabet itself is merely a convention... Louise, Sheffield UK I found the following answer by simply typing your question into google. It seems to cover most bases. So why you didn't try that is anyones guess . . . "The name "QWERTY" for our typewriter keyboard comes from the first six letters in the top alphabet row (the one just below the numbers). It is also called the "Universal" keyboard for rather obvious reasons. It was the work of inventor C. L. Sholes, who put together the prototypes of the first commercial typewriter in a Milwaukee machine shop back in the 1860's. For years, popular writers have accused Sholes of deliberately arranging his keyboard to slow down fast typists who would otherwise jam up his sluggish machine. In fact, his motives were just the opposite. When Sholes built his first model in 1868, the keys were arranged alphabetically in two rows. At the time, Milwaukee was a backwoods town. The crude machine shop tools available there could hardly produce a finely-honed instrument that worked with precision. Yes, the first typewriter was sluggish. Yes, it did clash and jam when someone tried to type with it. But Sholes was able to figure out a way around the problem simply by rearranging the letters. Looking inside his early machine, we can see how he did it. The first typewriter had its letters on the end of rods called "typebars." The typebars hung in a circle. The roller which held the paper sat over this circle, and when a key was pressed, a typebar would swing up to hit the paper from underneath. If two typebars were near each other in the circle, they would tend to clash into each other when typed in succession. So, Sholes figured he had to take the most common letter pairs such as "TH" and make sure their typebars hung at safe distances. He did this using a study of letter-pair frequency prepared by educator Amos Densmore, brother of James Densmore, who was Sholes' chief financial backer. The QWERTY keyboard itself was determined by the existing mechanical linkages of the typebars inside the machine to the keys on the outside. Sholes' solution did not eliminate the problem completely, but it was greatly reduced. The keyboard arrangement was considered important enough to be included on Sholes' patent granted in 1878 (see drawing), some years after the machine was into production. QWERTY's effect, by reducing those annoying clashes, was to speed up typing rather than slow it down. Sholes and Densmore went to Remington, the arms manufacturer, to have their machines mass-produced. In 1874, the first Type-Writer appeared on the market. No contemporary account complains about the illogical keyboard. In fact, few contemporary accounts even mention the machine at all. At its debut, it was largely ignored. Sales of the typewriter did not take off until after Remington's second model was introduced in 1878, offering the only major modification to the keyboard as we know it today. The first machines typed only capital letters. The new Remington No. 2 offered both upper and lower case by adding the familiar shift key. It is called a shift because it actually caused the carriage to shift in position for printing either of two letters on each typebar. Modern electronic machines no longer shift mechanically when the shift key is pressed, but its name remains the same. In the decades following the original Remington, many alternative keyboards came and went. Then, in 1932, with funds from the Carnegie Foundation, Professor August Dvorak, of Washington State University, set out to develop the ultimate typewriter keyboard once and for all. Dvorak went beyond Blickensderfer in arranging his letters according to frequency. Dvorak's home row uses all five vowels and the five most common consonants: AOEUIDHTNS. With the vowels on one side and consonants on the other, a rough typing rhythm would be established as each hand would tend to alternate. With the Dvorak keyboard, a typist can type about 400 of the English language's most common words without ever leaving the home row. The comparable figure on QWERTY is 100 The home row letters on Dvorak do a total of 70% of the work. On QWERTY they do only 32%. The Dvorak keyboard sounds very good. However, a keyboard need to do more than just "sound" good, and unfortunately, Dvorak has failed to prove itself superior to QWERTY. It appears that many of the studies used to test the effectiveness of Dvorak were flawed. Many were conducted by the good professor himself, creating a conflict of interest question, since he had a financial interest in the venture. A U.S. General Services Administration study of 1953 appears to have been more objective. It found that it really didn't matter what keyboard you used. Good typists type fast, bad typists don't. It's not surprising, then, that Dvorak has failed to take hold. No one wants to take the time and trouble to learn a new keyboard, especially if it isn't convincingly superior to the old. A few computer programs and special-order daisy wheels are available to transform modern typewriters or word processors to the Dvorak keyboard, but the demand for these products is small. After all, expert typists can can do nearly 100 words a minute with QWERTY . Word processors increase that speed significantly. The gains that Dvorak claims to offer aren't really needed." Tim, London England Keyboards with other layouts are available; usually designed for people who have motor difficulties. One design has large buttons with the common letters grouped around the space button in the centre. 'Concept keyboards' are flat touchpads which allow a keyboard layout to be completely customised with as many or few areas as desired. Microwriters have just a few keys and rely on the pattern in which they are pressed to produce letters. James Buller, London UK You are all wrong. The computer keyboard is a direct copy of the typewriter keyboard, so why is the typewriter keyboard arranged in a non-alphebetical order? The answer is so when they (typewriters) were first introduced they could easily be demonstrated to show how timesaving the device would be by having sales representatives quickly type out the word "typewriter" as all of these letters are found to be on the top row. Brian C. Amore, Hawthorne, NJ USA So, basically to sum things up, the modern computer keyboard is based off of the qwerty design. And that was designed to inhibit typing so that the typewriter would not overheat. Because these typewriter people got to design the format of the keys, they put the letters to 'typewriter' all on one line to make it easier for typewriter salesmen to demonstrate. But your fingers don't read left to write anyways, so who cares? Amanda, Greenville United States Ian of London (second reply) is wrong to suggest that no-one can be 'bothered' to redesign the computer keyboard. Given the sheer number of QWERTY keyboards that must exist world-wide, it would be quite impractical, if not uneconomical, to change them now. Pete Wigens, Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK They did this to put U and I together. ;) Jacki , Boston, US	A
What sort of guides were published by George Bradshaw?	Accents, Diacriticals and Special Language Characters for Foreign Languages Accents, Diacriticals and Special Language Characters for Foreign Languages Special characters are often needed for DOS and MACs in three areas: for word processing, for writing within a internet page (i.e., an on-line student journal), and for html. This page, compiled from several sources and numerous LLTI messages, offers several options and hopefully solutions. A list of reference sites is included. Please, send a note with any corrections and improvements you can offer to [email protected]. Macintosh For Macs, in most cases, first hold down the "Option" key on the keyboard and then strike a regular character key as indicated below. Nothing will appear on your screen at this point. Release both keys, and then type the letter which should carry the diacritical. For some special characters press "Option" and one key together. See the following table to get the character that you want. To find characters others than those listed above, choose Key Caps from the Apple menu for a diagram of your particular keyboard. Vary the font that is displayed by selecting other fonts from the new menu "Key Caps" which will have appeared at the right of your menu bar. The Apple Language Kits offer additional foreign language fonts and Zapf Dingbats consist of nothing but special characters. acute Option + u, the letter "a" or Option + u, Shift and the letter for capital "A" umlaut Option + u, the letter"o" or Option + u, Shift and the letter for capital "O" umlaut Option + u, the letter "u" or Shift and the letter "U" cedilla Option plus g HTML Tags for Special Characters HTML uses four characters of the ASCII character set - the left angle bracket (<), the right angle bracket (>), the ampersand (&) and the double quote (") to represent certain aspects of markup tags. Because of this, they cannot be used as part of a text document without a little bit of assistance. Additionally, accent marks and other less common characters can not appear without special help-- codes known as escape sequences, which must be included in the usual brackets for them to be recognized as html code by DOS or MAC machines. Some of the more common codes (spaced out for clarity only) are in the table below and other letter codes can be created by following the examples: & c o p y ; is the sequence for a lowercase o with an umlaut = ö & O u m l ; is the sequence for an uppercase O with an umlaut = Ö & E u m l ; is the sequence for an uppercase E with an umlaut = Ë & e u m l ; is the sequence for a lowercase e with umlaut = ë & n t i l d e ; is the sequence for a lowercase n with a tilde = ñ & N t i l d e; is the sequence for an uppercase N with a tilde = Ñ & E g r a v e ; is the sequence for an uppercase E with a grave accent = È & e g r a v e ; is the sequence for an lowercase e with a grave accent = è & E a c u t e ; is the escape sequence for a lowercase e with acute accent = É & e a c u t e; is the sequence for a uppercase e with a acute accent = é & A a c u t e ; is the sequence for an uppercase A with acute accent = Á & a a c u t e ; is the sequence for a lowercase a with acute accent = á How To Type Accented Characters on a PC US-International Keyboard uses the ', `, ~, ^, " as dead keys (highlighted in blue below), and uses Right-ALT plus !, ?, and a number of other keys to produce characters not normally available. The accents are intuitive. Tap the accent dead key, then tap the vowel for which you want the accent. The ' dead key also works for the cedilla. ' + e = é 1. Go to Control Panel / Keyboard / Language 2. Choose English-United States-International (through PROPERTIES, not "Add") With that option, the keyboard operation is slightly modified but the keyboard does not change for every language (it is useful for German, Spanish, French and Portuguese, among other European languages, including English, of course) and it does not interfere with the regular use of the actual, physical keyboard that you see. when you type the ~ character (left-hand corner of keyboard), nothing shows until you type another key. So, if you type ~ and then the letter n, you get a nice n+tilde output. If you type ~ and then any vowel, you get that vowel with the tilde on top of it (which is used in Portuguese to represent nasal vowels). If you type ~ and then the space bar, you get the ~ character(for example to produce a sting like ~eyepes). If you type ~ and then any other consonant, you get ~ followed by that consonant: ~p, for example. when you type the ' character (center right-hand key of keyboard), nothing appears until you type another key. Again, if you type any vowel immediately after typing ' , you get that vowel with an acute accent (the one used in Spanish and in some French words). If you type the space bar or any other key, you get the usual simple quotation mark followed by the consonant or key that was hit afterwards. For example: 'f , or 'g , and so on. same rules apply for the ` , ^ and " characters: they don't show until you type another key--they will be combined with vowels and followed by consonants. The Windows Character Map, usually found in the Windows 95 (Office 97) Accessories Program Group, provides a combination of keystrokes needed for foreign language applications. Instructions: Go to START, click on FIND and type CHARMAP. Find the character map in Windows, select the font "Times Roman," and use the numeric key pad on the right side of the keyboard to create special characters. The system will occasionally fail if a particular combination of keystrokes has been reserved by another application. Depress the ALT key and hold it down while typing in the three-digit number. To type the numbers, use the numeric keypad, not the number keys on the top row. 128 Ç 165 Ñ 168 ¿ PC Variations: Hitting the spacebar or a non-accented letter after a dead key produces the key's normal value, i.e. ', `, ~, ^, or ". Other special characters can be entered by using the Right-Alt key in combination with other keys (esp. useful for ¿, ¡ «, » ß). For Spanish, it might be easier to use the Right-Alt key for accents too: Alt-? = ¿ Alt-! = ¡ Alt-s = ß Alt-n = ñ Alt-N = Ñ Alt-, = ç Alt-a = á Alt-e = é Alt-i = í Alt-o = ó Alt-u = ú This two hundred number combination in the Character Map, set to "Times New Roman," is useful within an internet document (e.g., an on-line student response journal) in the latest versions of browers. ALT + 0224 yields á ALT + 0241 yields ñ Other Windows Options Here are several options for MS Word. First, in MS Word, go to the Help Menu and search "Diacritic Marks." Second, in MS Word, choose INSERT, SYMBOL, and then select the accented character needed. Third, in newer versions of MS Word 1. Press CTRL and the key that most closely resembles the accent needed. 2. Release the two keys pressed in Step 1. 3. Press the character, and voila--the accented character will appear. à, è, ì, ò, ù - À, È, Ì, Ò, Ù CTRL+` (ACCENT GRAVE), the letter á, é, í, ó, ú, ý - Á, É, Í, Ó, Ú, Ý CTRL+' (APOSTROPHE), the letter	i don't know
In mythology, who was poisoned by the blood from Nessus tainted with toxin from Hydra?	Lernaean Hydra Lernaean Hydra Archaic Ivory Plaque, Hercules and Hydra , Laconia. Lerna (Region of the Lernaean Hydra) from Space In Greek mythology , the Lernaean Hydra was an ancient nameless serpent-like chthonic water beast that possessed numerous heads—the poets mention more heads than the vase-painters could paint—and poisonous breath (Hyginus, 30). The Hydra of Lerna was killed by Heracles as one of his Twelve Labours. Its lair was the lake of Lerna in the Argolid, though archaeology has borne out the myth that the sacred site was older even than the Mycenaean city of Argos, for Lerna was the site of the myth of the Danaids. Beneath the waters was an entrance to the Underworld, and the Hydra was its guardian (Kerenyi 1959, p. 143...) In Greek mythology , The Lernaean Hydra was a snake-like beast that possessed nine (usually nine, it ranged from five to one hundred) heads and poisonous breath, killed by Heracles as one of his Twelve Labours. The Hydra was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna , noisome creatures of the Goddess who became Hera . It was said to be the sibling of the Nemean Lion , the Chimaera and Cerberus . As such, it was said to have been chosen as a task for Heracles so that Heracles would probably die. The Second Labour of Hercules: The Lernaean Hydra Upon reaching the swamp near Lake Lerna , where the Hydra dwelt, Heracles covered his mouth and nose with a cloth to protect himself from the poisonous fumes and fired flaming arrows into its lair, the spring of Amymone, to draw it out. He then confronted it, wielding a harvesting sickle in some early vase-paintings; Ruck and Staples (p. 170) have pointed out that the chthonic creature's reaction was botanical: upon cutting off each of its heads he found that two grew back, an expression of the hopelessness of such a struggle for any but the hero, Heracles. Hercules and Iolaus The details of the confrontation are explicit in Apollodorus (2.5.2): realising that he could not defeat the Hydra in this way, Heracles called on his nephew Iolaus for help. His nephew then came upon the idea (possibly inspired by Athena ) of using a burning firebrand to scorch the neck stumps after decapitation, and handed him the blazing brand. Heracles cut off each head and Iolaus burned the open stump leaving the hydra dead; its one immortal head Heracles placed under a great rock on the sacred way between Lerna and Elaius (Kerenyi1959 p 144), and dipped his arrows in the Hydra's poisonous blood, and so his second task was complete. In an alternative version, Hera's crab was at the site to bite his feet and bother him, hoping to cause his death. Hera set it in the Zodiac to follow the Lion (Eratosthenes, Catasterismi) When Eurystheus, the agent of ancient Hera who was assigning to Heracles The Twelve Labours, found out that it was Heracles' nephew who had handed him the firebrand, he declared that the labour had not been completed alone and as a result did not count towards the ten labours set for him. The mythic element is an equivocating attempt to resolve the submerged conflict between an ancient ten Labours and a more recent twelve. Aegina, Stater, Heracles and the Hydra, Bull, Text : "Phaistion" Heracles fighting the Lernaean Hydra After the Hydra In another version , Heracles defeated the Hydra by remembering the words of his wise teacher, Chiron , who had said, "We rise by kneeling; we conquer by surrendering; we gain by giving up." All his other weapons having failed, Heracles remembered his mentor's words and knelt down in the swamp and lifted up the monster by one of her heads into the light of day, where she began to wilt. Heracles then cut off each of her heads, dipping his arrows in the Hydra's poisonous blood at the same time. However, none re-grew. After he had severed all nine heads, a tenth one appeared; Heracles recognised this as a jewel and buried it under a rock. Heracles later used an arrow dipped in the Hydra's poison blood to kill the centaur Nessus; and Nessus's tainted blood applied to the Tunic of Nessus eventually killed Heracles himself. Today "Hydra-like problem" or "hydra" refers to a multifaceted problem that seems incapable of step-by-step solution, or to one that worsens upon conventional attempts to solve it, for example, attempts to suppress a particular piece of information resulting in it being disseminated even more widely. Lernaean Hydra , Albrecht Dürer Origin When the sun is in the sign of Cancer, the constellation Hydra has its head nearby. Also close by, beneath the sun, is the constellation of Cancer, the crab. Mythographers relate that the Lernaean Hydra and the crab were put into the sky after Heracles slew them. It is uncertain as to what the cauterising of the snake heads means, but it may derive from tales concerning a battle connected to Lerna, possibly indicative of setting fire to parts of the enemy (possibly the corpses) so as to disperse them. Lerna features in another myth as a fountain from Poseidon created in memorial of the daughter of Danaos (who represents the Danae, who appear in earlier works, such as the Illiad, as a seafaring group from elsewhere), which may be a myth of a failed attack on the native population by Danae, which the Danae later repeated successfully. The Greek word for arrow, which is toxon, is closely related to the Greek word for poison, which is toxis, thus the poison arrows that Heracles created from the Hydra's blood. Associations with the Nemaean lion may derive from recreating the surrounding narrative to suit an order in which the tale of the Hydra follows that of the lion.	Acronicta hercules
Which actor starred with Sigorney Weaver and Melanie Griffithsin 'Working Girl'?	Lernaean Hydra \| Myths of the World Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Myths of the World Wiki File:Henry IV en Herculeus terrassant l Hydre de Lerne cad La ligue Catholique Atelier Toussaint Dubreuil circa 1600.jpg In Greek mythology , the Lernaean Hydra ( Greek : Template:Audio ) was an ancient nameless serpent -like chthonic water beast (as its name evinces) that possessed nine heads — and for each head cut off it grew two more — and poisonous breath so virulent even her tracks were deadly. [1] The Hydra of Lerna was killed by Heracles as one of his Twelve Labours . Its lair was the lake of Lerna in the Argolid , though archaeology has borne out the myth that the sacred site was older even than the Mycenaean city of Argos since Lerna was the site of the myth of the Danaids . Beneath the waters was an entrance to the Underworld , and the Hydra was its guardian. [2] The Hydra was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna ( Theogony , 313), both of whom were noisome offspring of the earth goddess Gaia . [3] Contents Edit After slaying the Nemean lion , Eurystheus sent Heracles to slay the Hydra, which Hera had raised just to slay Heracles. Upon reaching the swamp near Lake Lerna , where the Hydra dwelt, Heracles covered his mouth and nose with a cloth to protect himself from the poisonous fumes. He fired flaming arrows into its lair, the spring of Amymone , a deep cave that it only came out of to terrorize neighboring villages. [4] He then confronted it, wielding a harvesting sickle (according to some early vase-paintings), a sword or his famed club. Ruck and Staples (1994: 170) have pointed out that the chthonic creature's reaction was botanical: upon cutting off each of its heads he found that two grew back, an expression of the hopelessness of such a struggle for any but the hero , Hercules. The weakness of the Hydra was that only one of its heads was immortal. File:Antonio Pollaiuolo 002.jpg The details of the struggle are explicit in Apollodorus (2.5.2): realizing that he could not defeat the Hydra in this way, Heracles called on his nephew Iolaus for help. His nephew then came upon the idea (possibly inspired by Athena ) of using a blazing firebrand to scorch the neck stumps after each decapitation. Heracles cut off each head and Iolaus cauterized the open stumps. Seeing that Heracles was winning the struggle, Hera sent a large crab to distract him. He crushed it under his mighty foot. Its one immortal head was cut off with a golden sword given to him by Athena. Heracles placed under a great rock on the sacred way between Lerna and Elaius (Kerenyi 1959:144), and dipped his arrows in the Hydra's poisonous blood, and so his second task was complete. The alternative version of this myth is that after cutting off one head he then dipped his sword in it and used its venom to burn each head so it couldn't grow back. Hera, upset that Heracles slew the beast she raised to kill him, placed it in the dark blue vault of the sky as the Constellation Hydra . She then turned the crab into the Constellation Cancer . After Heracles sent word that the creature was dead, Eurystheus said that the Labour did not count, as he had Iolaus help him by using a firebrand against the creature. After declaring that Heracles still had to do nine more Labours, Eurystheus sent him to capture the Ceryneian Hind alive. Heracles later used an arrow dipped in the Hydra's poisonous blood to kill the centaur Nessus ; and Nessus's tainted blood was applied to the Tunic of Nessus , by which the centaur had his posthumous revenge. Both Strabo and Pausanias report that the stench of the river Anigrus in Elis, making all the fish of the river inedible, was reputed to be due to the Hydra's poison, washed from the arrows Hercules used on the centaur. [5]	i don't know
Give a year in the life of French military leader and saint,Joan-of-Arc?	Joan of Arc Biography -Biography Online About Joan of Arc Biography Joan of Arc (1412-1431) is considered a French heroine and Roman Catholic saint. Born in obscurity to a peasant family, she travelled to the uncrowned Dauphin of France, advising him to reclaim his French throne and defeat the English. Joan of Arc was sent alongside French troops at the siege of Orleans and rose to prominence after the siege was lifted after nine days. She was later captured and burned at the stake for heresy. However, as she predicted, seven years after her death, France was reunited with the English defeated and Charles crowned King. Early Life Joan of Arc was born in 1412 Domremy, France. Legend says that she was born to auspicious signs held to be a forecast of national triumph. However, what is more certain is that her family were poor and her region had suffered from the long conflict between England and France. “One life is all we have and we live it as we believe in living it. But to sacrifice what you are and to live without belief, that is a fate more terrible than dying.” – Joan of Arc From an early age Joan of Arc displayed a sensitive and religious temperament. It is said by friends that: “She was greatly committed to the service of God and the Blessed Mary.” (1) From the age of 12 she began to have mystical visions. In these visions she said she felt the voice of God commanding her to renew the French nation. At her later trial Joan of Arc said she felt these visions were as real seeing another person. The visions were often accompanied by light and the presence of saints such as St Michael and St Catherine. “I was thirteen when I had a Voice from God for my help and guidance. The first time that I heard this Voice, I was very much frightened; it was mid-day, in the summer, in my father’s garden. – Joan of Arc from her trial transcript. (2) These visions made Joan of Arc even more religiously inclined. She would frequently go to confession and, it is said that, whenever she heard the bells for Mass she would immediately drop her work and run to church. Initially Joan did not tell others about her visions and inner commandments but in May 1428 the divine messages urged her to seek an audience with Charles de Ponthieu currently an ineffective and relatively weak leader of the French. At the time of Joan’s childhood, France was seriously divided with a lack of national unity. In 1415 King Henry V of England had invaded France and defeated the French army at Agincourt. This famous victory over the French nobility left the country weak and divided. The main divisions were between the Dauphins and English supporting Burgundians. Under Charles de Ponthieu the French were without direction and without a real leader. When Joan of Arc came to the court she overwhelmed Charles with her passion and conviction. It is quite remarkable that this 17 year old peasant girl was, as a consequence, given control over an army and allowed to lead them into battle. Within a year Joan of Arc had led the French army to victories at Orleans, Patay and Troyes. Many other towns were also liberated from English control and it allowed a triumphal entry into Dauphin for the coronation of King Charles VII on 17 July 1429. For her exploits and leadership Joan of Arc and her family were granted noble status. She has also won the hearts of the French soldiers who looked up to Joan as an almost mythical leader. However a year later Joan was captured by the Burgundian forces at Compiegne and sold to the English. Her trial is well documented and provides a revealing insight into her character and destiny. The English and members of the French clergy decided to put her on trial for witchcraft. In many ways it was a show trial with the result cleverly orchestrated. The leading clergy member was Pierre Cauchon was a staunch supporter of the British and hated Joan of Arc for her miraculous revival of French national pride. However, another interpretation is that he genuinely felt obliged to save Joan’s Immortal soul from damnation for the claims she was making. The trial was a very testing experience for Joan. Initially the trial was held in public, but, her responses were much sharper than her prosecutors expected. She held her own and produced some strong rebuts, which gained her public sympathy. For example, the prosecution tried very hard to get her to blaspheme. She was asked: Question at Trial: “Do you know if you are in the grace of God?” “If I am not, may God place me there; if I am, may God so keep me. I should be the saddest in all the world if I knew that I were not in the grace of God. But if I were in a state of sin, do you think the Voice would come to me? ” – Joan of Arc (2) Eventually, the trial was continued behind closed doors. It appears Joan was threatened with torture, but, she wasn’t actually tortured. As expected, Joan was found guilty and condemned to death by burning at the stake. Faced with such an overwhelming ordeal Joan broke down and confessed. However a week later she regained her strength and recanted her confession. She was able to face her ordeal with dignity. It is said that over 10,000 people came to see her execution by burning. Her ashes were scattered in the Seine. One legend tells how her heart remained unaffected by the fire. 26 years later the English were finally driven from Rouen and in a later inquest she was declared to be officially innocent and was officially designated to be a martyr. She was canonized a saint in 1920 and remains the patron saint of France. Joan of Arc achieved a remarkable achievement in her short life of 19 years. In particular she embodied religious devotion with great bravery and humility, her life helped change the course of French history. Citation : Pettinger, Tejvan . “Biography of Joan of Arc”, Oxford, www.biographyonline.net , 21st Oct. 2013 Related Pages	1412 1431
Who won the Booker Prize for 'The Old Devils'?	Joan of Arc Biography -Biography Online About Joan of Arc Biography Joan of Arc (1412-1431) is considered a French heroine and Roman Catholic saint. Born in obscurity to a peasant family, she travelled to the uncrowned Dauphin of France, advising him to reclaim his French throne and defeat the English. Joan of Arc was sent alongside French troops at the siege of Orleans and rose to prominence after the siege was lifted after nine days. She was later captured and burned at the stake for heresy. However, as she predicted, seven years after her death, France was reunited with the English defeated and Charles crowned King. Early Life Joan of Arc was born in 1412 Domremy, France. Legend says that she was born to auspicious signs held to be a forecast of national triumph. However, what is more certain is that her family were poor and her region had suffered from the long conflict between England and France. “One life is all we have and we live it as we believe in living it. But to sacrifice what you are and to live without belief, that is a fate more terrible than dying.” – Joan of Arc From an early age Joan of Arc displayed a sensitive and religious temperament. It is said by friends that: “She was greatly committed to the service of God and the Blessed Mary.” (1) From the age of 12 she began to have mystical visions. In these visions she said she felt the voice of God commanding her to renew the French nation. At her later trial Joan of Arc said she felt these visions were as real seeing another person. The visions were often accompanied by light and the presence of saints such as St Michael and St Catherine. “I was thirteen when I had a Voice from God for my help and guidance. The first time that I heard this Voice, I was very much frightened; it was mid-day, in the summer, in my father’s garden. – Joan of Arc from her trial transcript. (2) These visions made Joan of Arc even more religiously inclined. She would frequently go to confession and, it is said that, whenever she heard the bells for Mass she would immediately drop her work and run to church. Initially Joan did not tell others about her visions and inner commandments but in May 1428 the divine messages urged her to seek an audience with Charles de Ponthieu currently an ineffective and relatively weak leader of the French. At the time of Joan’s childhood, France was seriously divided with a lack of national unity. In 1415 King Henry V of England had invaded France and defeated the French army at Agincourt. This famous victory over the French nobility left the country weak and divided. The main divisions were between the Dauphins and English supporting Burgundians. Under Charles de Ponthieu the French were without direction and without a real leader. When Joan of Arc came to the court she overwhelmed Charles with her passion and conviction. It is quite remarkable that this 17 year old peasant girl was, as a consequence, given control over an army and allowed to lead them into battle. Within a year Joan of Arc had led the French army to victories at Orleans, Patay and Troyes. Many other towns were also liberated from English control and it allowed a triumphal entry into Dauphin for the coronation of King Charles VII on 17 July 1429. For her exploits and leadership Joan of Arc and her family were granted noble status. She has also won the hearts of the French soldiers who looked up to Joan as an almost mythical leader. However a year later Joan was captured by the Burgundian forces at Compiegne and sold to the English. Her trial is well documented and provides a revealing insight into her character and destiny. The English and members of the French clergy decided to put her on trial for witchcraft. In many ways it was a show trial with the result cleverly orchestrated. The leading clergy member was Pierre Cauchon was a staunch supporter of the British and hated Joan of Arc for her miraculous revival of French national pride. However, another interpretation is that he genuinely felt obliged to save Joan’s Immortal soul from damnation for the claims she was making. The trial was a very testing experience for Joan. Initially the trial was held in public, but, her responses were much sharper than her prosecutors expected. She held her own and produced some strong rebuts, which gained her public sympathy. For example, the prosecution tried very hard to get her to blaspheme. She was asked: Question at Trial: “Do you know if you are in the grace of God?” “If I am not, may God place me there; if I am, may God so keep me. I should be the saddest in all the world if I knew that I were not in the grace of God. But if I were in a state of sin, do you think the Voice would come to me? ” – Joan of Arc (2) Eventually, the trial was continued behind closed doors. It appears Joan was threatened with torture, but, she wasn’t actually tortured. As expected, Joan was found guilty and condemned to death by burning at the stake. Faced with such an overwhelming ordeal Joan broke down and confessed. However a week later she regained her strength and recanted her confession. She was able to face her ordeal with dignity. It is said that over 10,000 people came to see her execution by burning. Her ashes were scattered in the Seine. One legend tells how her heart remained unaffected by the fire. 26 years later the English were finally driven from Rouen and in a later inquest she was declared to be officially innocent and was officially designated to be a martyr. She was canonized a saint in 1920 and remains the patron saint of France. Joan of Arc achieved a remarkable achievement in her short life of 19 years. In particular she embodied religious devotion with great bravery and humility, her life helped change the course of French history. Citation : Pettinger, Tejvan . “Biography of Joan of Arc”, Oxford, www.biographyonline.net , 21st Oct. 2013 Related Pages	i don't know
In which English county is the Isle of Purbeck?	Isle of Purbeck, Corfe Castle, Swanage, Dorset England, ( 6 ) - YouTube Isle of Purbeck, Corfe Castle, Swanage, Dorset England, ( 6 ) Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Feb 23, 2013 Corfe Castle, Isle of Purbeck, Dorset. I love this small Dorset village, and the Castle dating from the 11th Century. Every person that visits Dorset should not miss this traditional stone built village. It is beautiful. The name Corfe means a pass in Old English. Corfe Castle was built on a steep chalk hill created by two streams eroding the rock either side. The construction of the medieval castle means that little is known about previous activity on the hill. However, there are postholes belonging to a Saxon hall on the site. The dramatic ruins of Corfe Castle stand on a natural hill guarding the principal route through the Purbeck Hills. As you can see it guards the gap between the south of Purbeck, where Purbeck marble was once quarried, and the rest of England. Nothing could pass in or out without going past the Castle. Corfe Castle is a fortification standing above the village of the same name in the English county of Dorset. Built by William the Conqueror, the castle dates back to the 11th century and commands a gap in the Purbeck Hills on the route between Wareham and Swanage. The first phase was one of the earliest castles in England to be built using stone when the majority were built with earth and timber. Corfe Castle underwent major structural changes in the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1572, Corfe Castle left the Crown's control when Elizabeth I sold it to Sir Christopher Hatton. Sir John Bankes bought the castle in 1635, and was the owner during the English Civil War. His wife, Lady Mary Bankes, led the defence of the castle when it was twice besieged by Parliamentarian forces. The first siege, in 1643, was unsuccessful, but by 1645 Corfe was one of the last remaining royalist strongholds in southern England and fell to a siege ending in an assault. In March that year Corfe Castle was demolished on Parliament's orders. Owned by the National Trust, the castle is open to the public and in 2010 received around 190,000 visitors. It is protected as a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument. A castle was founded at Corfe near England's south coast soon after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. The royal forest of Purbeck, where William the Conqueror enjoyed hunting, was established in the area. Between 1066 and 1087 William established 36 castles such in England. Sitting as it does on a hill top, Corfe Castle is one of the classic images of a medieval castle, however despite popular imagination occupying the highest point in the landscape was not the typical position of a medieval castle. In England, a minority are located on hilltops while most are in valleys; many were near important transport routes such as river crossings. Unusually for castles built in the 11th century, Corfe was partially constructed from stone indicating it was of particularly high status. A stone wall was built around the hill top, creating an inner ward or enclosure. There were two further enclosures: one to the west, and one that extended south ( the outer bailey ) in contrast to the inner bailey, these were surrounded by palisades made from timber. At the time the vast majority of castles in England were built using earth and timber, and it was not until the 12th century that many began to be rebuilt in stone. The Domesday Book records one castle in Dorset; the entry, which reads "Of the manor of Kingston the King has one hide on which he built Wareham castle", is thought to refer to Corfe rather than the timber castle at Wareham. There are 48 castles directly mentioned in the Domesday Book, although not all those in existence at the time were recorded. Assuming that Corfe is the castle in question, it is one of four the Domesday Book attributes to William the Conqueror; the survey explicitly mentions seven people as having built castles, of which William was the most prolific. In the 1980's, Ralph Bankes bequeathed the entire Bankes estate to the National Trust, including Corfe Castle, much of the village of Corfe, the family home at Kingston Lacy, and substantial property and land holdings elsewhere in the area. In the summer 2006, the dangerous condition of the keep caused it to be closed to visitors, who could only visit the walls and inner bailey. The National Trust undertook an extensive conservation project on the castle, and the keep was re-opened to visitors in 2008, and the work completed the following year. During the restoration work, an appearance door was found in the keep, designed for Henry I. Category	Dorset
Who wrote 'Sexus', 'Nexus'and 'Plexus' that collectively make up 'The Rosy Crucifixion'?	Category:Kingston, Purbeck, Dorset - Wikimedia Commons Category:Kingston, Purbeck, Dorset English: Kingston is a village in the English county of Dorset , situated about one mile south of Corfe Castle on the Isle of Purbeck . Français : Kingston est un village sur l' île de Purbeck dans le district de Purbeck dans le Dorset dans la région de l'Angleterre du Sud-Ouest, en Angleterre au Royaue Uni. Subcategories	i don't know
What was the name ofthe character played by Richard Griffiths in the TV series 'Pie In The Sky'?	Withnail & I Actor Richard Griffiths Dies Weather Withnail & I Actor Richard Griffiths Dies Tributes are paid to Richard Griffiths, star of Withnail & I, The History Boys and the Harry Potter films, who has died aged 65. 09:58, UK, Friday 29 March 2013 Video: Potter Actor Richard Griffiths Dies Mail Actor Richard Griffiths, best known for his roles in The History Boys, Withnail & I and Pie In The Sky, has died. He died of complications following heart surgery at the University Hospital of Coventry and Warwickshire. He was 65. Born in Thornaby-on-Tees in North Yorkshire in 1947, Griffiths established himself as a much-loved character actor in dozens of films and television series over five decades. His best-known roles included his turn as the lascivious Uncle Monty in the cult 1987 movie Withnail & I, and as Hector in the stage and film version of Alan Bennett's The History Boys. He had recently been introduced to a new generation of fans with his performances as Vernon Dursley in the Harry Potter films. Image Caption: Receiving his OBE from the Queen Griffiths worked with big-name Hollywood directors - featuring in Martin Scorsese's Hugo and Tim Burton's Sleepy Hollow - as well as appearing in TV comedies like The Vicar Of Dibley, Ted And Ralph and Lovejoy. Between 1994 and 1997 he starred in the BBC series Pie In The Sky as detective-turned-restaurateur Henry Crabbe. Video: Director's Tribute To 'Great Actor' Having originally made his name on stage with Shakespearean roles including Falstaff and Bottom, he appeared last year as the Duke of Burgundy in Henry V as part of the BBC's celebrated Hollow Crown series. He had recently been appearing in Neil Simon's The Sunshine Boys with Danny DeVito in the West End and had been due to reprise his role in the production in Los Angeles in September. He was awarded an OBE in 2008 for services to drama. Griffiths was famously said to have had little patience for people who allowed their mobile phones to ring in the theatre, reportedly stopping during a performance of The History Boys and telling the offending audience member: "I am asking you to stand up, leave this auditorium and never, ever come back." Born to deaf parents he learned sign language at an early age. He is survived by his wife, Heather Gibson. Richard E Grant, who played Withnail in Withnail & I, wrote on Twitter: "My beloved 'Uncle Monty' Richard Griffiths died last night. Chin-Chin my dear friend." Co-star Paul McGann wrote: "A brilliant, funny, principled man, and a true gent. Led the way on Withnail & I. Wore his great skill lightly and his great heart out. RIP." Daniel Radcliffe, who starred as Harry Potter and also appeared alongside Griffiths in the play Equus, led tributes to the actor. He said: "In August 2000, before official production had even begun on Potter, we filmed a shot outside the Dursleys', which was my first ever shot as Harry. "I was nervous and he made me feel at ease. "Seven years later, we embarked on Equus together. It was my first time doing a play but, terrified as I was, his encouragement, tutelage and humour made it a joy. "In fact, any room he walked into was made twice as funny and twice as clever just by his presence. I am proud to say I knew him." National Theatre director Sir Nicholas Hytner, who directed Griffiths in The History Boys and The Habit Of Art, said: "Richard Griffiths wasn't only one of the most loved and recognisable British actors - he was also one of the very greatest. "His performance in The History Boys was quite overwhelming: a masterpiece of wit, delicacy, mischief and desolation, often simultaneously. "But that was just one small part of a career that spanned Shakespeare, cutting-edge new plays and major work in film and television." His agent Simon Beresford said: "Richard brightened my days and enriched the life of anyone he came into contact with. "On stage he allowed us to share in our own humanity and constantly question our differences. Richard gave acting a good name. He was a remarkable man and one of our greatest and best-loved actors. He will be greatly missed. "Our thoughts and deepest sympathy go to his devoted wife Heather and his family at this sad time." Top Stories	henry crabbe
Give a year in the life of French philosopher and satirist Voltaire?	Pie In The Sky Classic TV Show Home Programmes Genres Tributes Games Downloads Store Newsletter Contact Us Pie In The Sky Classic TV Show 'Pie in the Sky' is the name of a country restaurant run by part-time Detective Inspector Henry Crabbe and his accountant wife, Margaret. Henry makes the world's greatest steak and kidney pies and would cheerfully retire from the police force. Henry, an intelligent, sensible, mild-mannered man, desperately wants to retire from the police force and devote his time and energy to his beloved restaurant. However, Assistant Chief Constable Fisher won't allow this to happen as this would only expose his own ineptitude to the unwelcome attention of his superiors. So, until Henry can solve this dilemma, he must continue to solve the crimes thrust upon him. Pie In The Sky Fan Tributes 106 Ronald Abercrombie from Rainham Essex: Richard Griffiths a very unique individual a gifted actor the like of which we will not see again thank you for giving us the pleasure of your talents in so many films,tyv,and of course on the stage rest in peace from us all. 105 Tony Woodward from Canada: Pie in the Sky is one of a trio of all time favourites I have on DVD and watch over and over. I even had to buy special equipment to play it because it was available only in PAL format when I bought it and we use NTSC format over here in Canada. But all that was worth it for this show and a host of British TV shows and older films that I can't get over here. The other two in my classic trio are Morse and Lovejoy. Foyle's War and New Tricks also deserve my special mention, and it is interesting that Michael Kitchen in evil guise appears in the video snippet at the top of this page. Most TV crime shows, especially in North America, take themselves far too seriously and of course are too violent. I love the odd elements of humour and the bizarre in Pie and similar shows. I recently watched again the Foyle's War episode "A Lesson in Murder". When I saw Carlo's Ristorante I immediately said "But that's Pie in the Sky!". Now that restaurant is definitely Hemel Hempstead because the Foyle's War website says so on its Locations page. It also mentions that Pie in the Sky was filmed there. Carlo's Ristorante was torched by an anti-Italian mob at the end of that episode. A terrific conjuring trick by the SFX crew and it was very convincing! So why is there no Pie in the Sky webpage too? After a break, Foyle's War has three new episodes planned for release in 2013. What a good idea! - more Pie in the Sky too please, and I think the idea was nowhere near mined out when it was cancelled by bean-counting TV top executives. But meanwhile I can still love the old episodes. 104 P. Bashor from Ohio, USA: We stumbled across "Pie in the Sky" when looking for movies to rent from Netflix, fell in love with it, and bought the entire series. Although I love every episode, I think one of my favorites is the one involving Hilary Smallwood, one of Henry's cooking idols. At the end, Seymour (her would-be lover for the past fifty years), sprinkles her ashes on the Thames from Albert Bridge and then attempts to read the introduction from one of her books as a fitting epitaph. But he breaks up and cannot go through with it. As Margaret places her arm around his shoulders, Henry reads it beautifully. And then Margaret lovingly tells Henry that what Hilary wrote about him when she signed his copy of her book (that Henry had the gift) was true. I can't watch that episode without tearing up every time. My husband and I love BBC TV and have many different series, but "Pie in the Sky" is certainly one of our favorites. 103 Barrie Wass from Yorkshire: Have watched all the series and still enjoy every episode every time. This must be one of the alltime best British detective series ever with a superb cast list. Wish todays TV had series as good as this. 102 Brian J from Hertfordshire UK: Nice to see that P the S is being repeated (yet again) on ITV3. But why oh why can't it be shown in the correct order of transmission? Nonetheless a better choice than the eternal repeating of Heartbeat and it's crew of up and coming actors and the invisible 'Nick' being outacted by the furniture. 101 Jo from South London: Love this series! The humour is well balanced with the serious bits. I rather like the waiter John in the first two series! 100 Suzie Keld from Woodford, Cornwall: Brilliant series, I agree with #77 Dave Gardner from Durham: It should still be running! With Henry as a private detective and Margaret working out his expenses! 99 rocky neal from sydney australia: pie in the sky was and is a delight to watch henry and margret are just great the other cast members some who stayed on till the series finished in 97 or some who left mid term all gelled to make this programme real loved it what a about a one off return to pie in the sky 2011 or 2012 with all the original cast members where possible. Rocky 98 Barbara Towers from Bournemouth: Please please can we have some more. Henry and Margaret characters are so good and down to earth. The stories are brilliant and the rest of the characters are also brilliant. so refreshing!!! 97 Dave Gardner from Durham: For those who have posted wondering as to the whereabouts of Bella Enahoro who played WPC/DS Sophia Cambridge. She left the programme in 1996 to have a baby and returned to acting some 2 years later, she has however not acted on stage or screen since 2002. Last year (2010) she founded a company specialising in selling motivational products (self help, personal growth etc). A recent and much changed photograph of her can be seen on the website www.livewellaudio.com 96 June McAuliffe from Croydon, Surrey: We too missed it first time round, now we are soooo enjoying the reruns, - wonderful telly! Great that Richard Griffiths is still in such high demand as an actor (not that I'm surprised, he is brilliant) and Malcolm Sinclair must be a great actor because I want to throttle him as Fisher! :-) 95 John Ledbury from Bournemouth: I missed it first time around, but now it's being repeated on ITV3 each day. Never miss it. If television programmes were cars, this one would be a Rolls-Royce. 94 Graeme T Mc Lennan from Stonehaven,Scotland: Still as good as it was in the ninetys addicted to watching it 93 ken pell from stansted: what a great series i never watch it in the nineties but now wow, great i said to my wife the restuarant looks like its old hemel, as a rep i called at a bed shop opposite 92 Lewis from Henley-onThames: In response to question 81, I cannot remember which hotel you are mean but the hotel that looks like an Austrian hotel is outside Bracknell just off the M329 at the Coppice Beech Roundabout. The other hotel seen from the outside is off of junction 6 of the M4 heading into Slough on the left-hand side (Could be a Merriot Hotel). Canbridge - what can one say about her, we just do not see enough of her on the box, certainly would be an improvement to the X-Factor to see her back !! 91 Phil Platts from Ashbourne: In response to Eddy (comment 84) Crabbe gives the ingredients of his steak and kidney pie right at the end (maybe the last episode but I'm not sure). He doesn't give the method but lists steak and kidney (obviously!) and onions, mushrooms, red wine, worcester sauce, bay leaves and thyme. 90 Rick from edmonton canada: a very enjoyable watch. puzzled as to why they never made more than five seasons. 89 John Feehan from Bracknell: What happened to the very classy Bella Enahoro who played Cambridge love to see her in The Bill she'd have to be the boss she be great in mi5 type films too John of Bracknell 88 Brian from Lancashire: Just great. Good stories, superb acting and comfortable to watch. Am enjoying the re-runs on ITV3. 87 Andy Turner from Coventry: Pie in the sky, what a quintessential englishlighthearted drama. What more can you say about it apart from it was in its time the best of its type by far. Whilst I type this I am watching the latest re run, and it does not diminish with time. Just as good now as it was back then. 86 Kevin Schofield from Manchester: An immensely appealing and enjoyable series made with care and sensitivity. My enduring memory of the series is the breathtakingly beautiful and elegant Cambridge, played by Bella Enahoro. Cambridge is a paragon of poise and refinement, with an aristocratic hint of the supercilious. Very well-played, Bella. 85 Nigel from London: For some reason I didn't 'get it' when the series was first on in the '90's. However I am now completely addicted and am loving the re-runs! 84 Eddy Wainwright from Aldershot: I once had the recipe for the lovely steak&kidney pie but alas it's lost - any clues on where to get it again? 83 mel cherry from essex: I enjoy Pie in the sky so much and pc Cambridge is just about the best looking woman on TV how can she have dissapeared from our screens, just a great feel good series remake please and dont forget Bella Enahoro 82 Trev from OXON: Bella Enahoro -- last seen, according to Internet Movie Data-base, in an episode of 'murder in mind' in 2002. Maybe she married and has children ?? 81 Alistair from Gosford Australia: Three fabulous characters: Henry and Margaret of course and also .... wait for it ... Freddie Fisher! All the British crime shows have the inept top cop, most of them get shown up by 'our' detective. Most have their good points though, but not Freddie Fisher, he's a complete bastard through and through. Great acting required to create such a character. 80 Alwyn from Scarborough: I watch Pie in the Sky every time it's on. Never tire of it. 1 Question, Whats the name of the hotel in episode 2 where he does the omelettes? 79 neil potts from wolverhampton: pie in the sky was one of the best series ever recorded and should definately be brought back soon......... 78 grace from stroud: I LOVE Pie in the Sky - have just finally bought the box set. Given the grim and also boring nature of so much on TV, a new series of Pie in the Sky would be SO GOOD> Couldn`t it be arranged?ctw 77 Dave Gardner from Durham: Saw the re runs on ITV3 and loved it so much I went out and bought the DVD box set of all 5 series. Firmly believe that this could be brought up to date with Henry still running the restaurant and perhaps a private detective agency. With so many new programmes being dark/sinister this certainly has the feel good factor about it. I also agree that Cambridge ( Bella Enahoro ) is a big miss from our TV screens...what is she doing now has she given up acting ?? It really needs to be made again, there are a lot of remakes of classic TV programmes at present and this could be another. 76 JP from USA: Pie In The Sky is a great series! I'm excited that the DVDs will finally be available here in the US in May! I have had the opportunity to see a handful of the episodes and was instantly a fan. I'd seen Richard Griffiths in the Harry Potter series as Uncle Vernon, that's why I was interested. How ironic that Griffiths looks more mature (with the beard and hair color) in this series than he did in Harry Potter which was a few years after the series ended. I'd like to know why Ashley Russell and Joe Duttine left the series. I don't know who to thank for releasing the DVDs in the US, but I hope that they will do the same for Oh Doctor Beeching, The Royal (not the new Royal), and everything Ronnie Barker has been in (Open All Hours coming soon!). ITV's got some great stuff, I can only hope they'll continue to share with the US. 75 Ronald Abercrombie from Rainham Essex: I appeared in some of the episodes of Pie In the Sky more often than not playing a uniformed police officer but the final episode where the queen is due to visit the Barstock police headquarters and inspector crabbe tells them what to do with there job i played an empolyee of Mr Watson an associate who was involved in a scam removing tyres that were schedulled to be exported in a container i was the one that met Mr watson at his house and was driving the forklift truck in the warehouse when it was raided by barstock police in one of the final scenes.The outside shots were shot in old Hemel Hempstead ( the building is still there a lovely place to visit ),i beleive at the time it was being used as a flower shop not quite sure what its use is now,the inside shots were recorded at a studio near Windsor,and a very realistic set it was as well built to be put away when not in use the kitchen restaurant were so realistic.Richard Griffths was a gentleman very polite man the crew which consisted of Matthew the 2nd assistant director were great fun to work with as were all of the crew from people that i spoke to it was like a family and of course when the series came to an end it was sad to see it end i understand that what it all came down to was ratings at the time it was going head to head with heartbeat starring Nick Berry and the powers to be decided not to commision another series and that it had run its course. its doubtful we will ever see the likes of pie in the sky except in repeats there are not many shows these days that you could sit down with the whole family regardless of age and tune in to good clean family entertainment where ther is no swearing its sad to say that there are a lot of things and times i wish we could go back to. I have enjoyed watching the re run on itv 3 recently jan 2009 through to feb 2009 i think they may decide to re run it again later in the year lets hope they do. 74 Glen Jacks from London: A lovely, heartwarming series. I attribute this programme with me finding that I love cooking. 73 Paul Bourne from Kidderminster, Worcestershire: This series is compulsive viewing for me, I also wish it would come back. The city used when Henry went off with Freddy (message 59) in the one episode is Bath. Most of the locations used are very near the Roman Baths. 72 Paul Bourne from Worcestershire: The City where they filmed when Henry Crabbe was away is Bath, where he visits his friend (message 59) a lot of the filming was done by the Roman Baths. The series is one of my guilty pleasures too. 71 chris hardy from birmingham: wow, what a show it is ,love love love it, bring it back and up to date,its a feel good thing when you watch it 70 John from Yorkshire: Actually, I couldn't stand it when it first appeared on TV - but now its re-running on Sky, I'm recording it every day. It's brilliant! 69 Billy from Manchester: Wonderful wonderful series! ITV2 is showing the series daily and I have the Sky+ box set to 'series link'. The day's recording is the last thing I watch before going to bed each night. Everything about this show is so endearing; the characters, performances, writing, acting. I'm going to be gutted when this current ITV run finishes. 68 Phil Platts from Ashbourne: Just found this site. I also love the show. Jeanne at 45 asks for the bread pudding recipe. I wrote it down today so if she doesn't have it yet let me know. 67 John M Cooper from Derby: Bella Enahora is with out doubt the most beautiful women I have seen on television. (except Sophia Loren of course) Oh ! and the rest of the cast are very good. 66 Eelke from Amsterdam: Great series, I am watching every day and record it for many friends as it is never broadcasted on Dutch television yet. 65 Tom McNamara from Southampton: A really great and fantastically warm programme, excellent characters, excellent plots and excellent pies and bread and butter pud, I want to eat that damn pie - big time - yum, yum. Best Tom Mc 64 Issy from Swindon: I love Pie in the Sky. One question - what happened to Sgt Cambridge? I have never seen her in anything else. She is lovely. Pleae make another series - I've seen all the repeats (several times). 63 Wendy Crooks from Swindon, Wiltshire: I can't pick out any particular moments from the shows, they were all absolutely brilliant. The scenery was wonderful, always seeming to be sunny and hot!! I am watching them all over again and still getting the enjoyment out of them. 62 from: love the show - would love to see more episodes. Where can I get the recipes? 61 Casper from France: To Sarah from Norfolk, that episode was filmed in Bath. A beautiful city that I hope to be relocating to soon. 60 Baxter,David from France: The moment he switched Fisher's paper for his & the subsequent review by the "expert' in Lemon Twist. 59 sarah from norfolk: I would like to know which city was actually used when Henry Crabbe stayed away from home and went to a city on the river Avon. The river was in a lot of the background shots, with lovely old buildings. He went to undercover to investigate a police murder, he also met his old friend who runs a restuarant. Crabbe made his famous steak and kindney pie. We would like to visit this city as it looked so pictureque. 58 Mike from Ash,Surrey: Did anyone else notice that in one of the episodes "Harry Krabbe" was written on one of his Chefs Aprons? Am I going mad....! 57 sharon chiverton from spalding,lincolnshire.: i agree with claire steed, the series did end to soon, they should bring it back, as i think a lot of people would watch it. 56 Michael Hooker from Surrey UK: In answer to Alix (comment 54) the Wikipaedia says "The exterior of the restaurant, Pie in the Sky, was filmed in the High Street of the Old Town in Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire." 55 Alix from Brixham Devon: What a gem. Such a gentle series. Does any one know where the lovely street is where Henry has his restaraunt ? 54 dave bailey from wolverhampton: pie definitely finished way too early for me absolutely love the show and watch all of them on itv3 at moment richard griffiths was superb as henry crabbe why dont they do a one off special to see what they are all up to now 53 Michael Hooker from Surrey, UK: As of January 2009 this series is being repeated daily on ITV3 in the UK. For me the series was mainly memorable for the beautiful Bella Enahoro ("Cambridge", oh so elegant in her uniform) and it's great to see her again. I may even be tempted to buy some DVDs now they are available. 52 Paul from Australia: Trying to impress the bank manager, Henry produced Potato Pancakes. The very desirable Samantha Janus described the constituents. Can anyone give me the details. We get the programme repeated here many times but I can't watch all of the episodes. I love Margaret(her character of course). 51 Mal from Roma, Queensland: The highlight of the series is the presence of Richard Griffiths (Harry Potter, King Ralph and thousands of other roles). I especially like it when he takes the piss out of Freddie. It only backfired when he swapped those exam papers as a joke. Great series. 50 Richard Jeffreys from Brisbane Australia: Pie in the Sky was a a great series. Please consider producing further series of this great British TV hit. 49 charles from seattle: love brit comedy, see if cbc will send it two our 2 cbc stations. would love to see it 48 Terry Carroll from Stockport: One of my favourite moments is in the episode "Hard Cheese". During a conversation between Crabbe and Fisher in a restaurant's gents toilet, Fisher asks what the sweets are like here. Crabbe suggests he tries the cheese board instead and Fisher says he'll have some with port. Crabbe suggests he has a sweet white wine, say a sauterrne instead. Then after Fisher has returned to the restaurant, Crabbe says to his reflection in the mirror - "Why did you say that? Now he'll probably enjoy it, you idiot!" 47 Hazel from Erith, Kent: I remember one particular episode where heavy metal was played to the hens in their coop, the result being that they laid more eggs but of lower quality as the couldn't get the whites to make merigue. This was rectified by playing the hens' prefered classical music to them. 46 Karen from Essex: I just LOVE Pie !! - I'm so glad they are showing it again - it gives me such a nice feeling !! I love the fact that Maragaret is so oblivious to the great food Henry makes :o) Even the music is SMOOOOOTH 45 Jeanne McDermott from Edmonton,AB,CAN: I love this show. Great Sleuthing, and interesting food ideas. I want Henry Crabbe's recipie for Bread Pudding. Have you published a book of his recipes? Have you a site where the recipies of the day is posted? Ta 44 AJ from Bucks: Good news folks - series 1 is due to be released on DVD on 7 Feb 2005 (on 2 separate DVDs). Just found info on Amazon where you can pre-order. 43 AJ from Bucks: Further to my previous entry about where Pie was set, last week I went into Old Hemel Hempstead with my kids. Pie is still a Dolls House shop, but has a sideline in afternoon teas and homemade cakes - all very nice and very good value if you get the chance to go. Having been inside, I now wonder if the internal restaurant scenes were filmed elsewhere as the actual inside is just too small when compared to TV footage. I think they also used a different garden as there is a very old cottage directly behind the shop right where Henry's chicken house would have been! 42 hlklk from: Crabbe and his wife are sitting in a local wood eating a pic-nic and enjoying the surrounds when Mrs C pulls out a bag of 'Prawn cocktail' crisps. "oh " says Crabbe, explaining that a bag of Prawn cocktail crisps is the absolute hieght in bad taste. Classic! 41 Martin Copass from Grimsby - Lincolnshire: Pie in the Sky was an excellent TV series if there is any way possible it can be brought back for a NEW series, it should be. 40 Mario Nocita from 78 Farnham Rd. Ashford 5035 Australia: My wife and I love the whole series and keep watching the reruns whenever they are replayed. I am curious to know if any of the recipes from the show have been published. I would like to know the recipe of the pastry of the meat pie in one of the episodes. Thankyou -great show, hope they will make another series.M.Nocita 39 Alan Bishop from London: Pie... was a wonderful series. The characters were well crafted, the plots intriguing and the whole was a refreshing change from the "gritty" police series around. Also, I'm a keen cook and the various recipies, hints and tips have helped immensely! 38 Ron Coward from Folkestone, Kent: Richard, please, please come back as Henry Crabbe and bring the gang with you too. Pie in the Sky is the most relaxing/fascinating program I've always looked forward to. 37 Michael Cornfoot from Liverpool: Who played young Alex in the episode 'Cutting the Mustard' that was just aired in Pie In The Sky , as I missed the credits. Does anyone know? 36 Alan Davies from Merthyr Tydfil, South Wales: The best moment in 'Pork Pies' was when Henry was supposed to be taking part in a covert surveillance of protestors outside a sausage-making factory, but as he got into the van he gave them all a big wave - and they waved back! 35 Elizabeth from Rural Northumberland: I would like to know more about the actress that plays Cambridge. I've not seen her in anything else and apart from Henry, she's my favourite. Can anyone help? 34 mrs rosemary london from norwich: I have been so thrilled to see "Pie In The Sky" again. What a shame the series wasn't continued - everyone loved it!! 33 Stuart from Lowton: I just did a quick search and Cambridge was played by Bella Enahoro. I don't know if it's a typo by the show or the tributees but it looks like she's had a few other small parts too. 32 Janice Scott from Whitehaven, Cumbria: Pie In The Sky is without a doubt my favourite all time programme. I love the feel of it as well as all the characters which are both likable and believable. It would be brilliant if the series came back even if Henry was retired, he could help solve crimes as a hobby. 31 Mel from Essex: What happenened to the actress Bella Enahora who played Cambridge his partner? 30 Ken Baxter from SWINDON, Wiltshire: I would like to know what happened to Bella Enahoru who played Sergeant Cambridge. Also what happened to the actor who played Crabbe's boss? Can anyone help? 29 Chris from Gloucestershire: The location, which is as stated by Alistair, above, is now a dolls house shop called Enchanted Castles and is number 64 The High Street. I think the town hall, just up the road, may be the location used for the town hall in Midsommer Murders. 28 Sandra from Cyprus: Hi, I went to school with someone who looks just like Richard Griffith. Can you tell me if he went to school in Nelson, Lancashire? 27 Bib Flamingo from Fife: I love Maggie Steed's stylish clothes and fantastic jewellery. 26 R. Tuck from Halstead: Great to see the series again,especially the early ones I missed. 'Cambridge' is a delight but, rare for an actress, her name reveals no web mentions - has she worked since and if not, why not? 25 Alistair Napier from Bucks: In response to Lynsay Pomford's (Liverpool) question on where Pie was filmed, the restaurant is in old Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire - since Pie, it has been a flower shop and a restaurant called "Pie in the Sky", although I believe it is now an antiques shop. Much of the surrounding area of the Chiltern Hills was also used in filming. 24 Cybele Vlamis from Ottawa, Canada: I don't have a favourite memory of "Pie in the Sky", I just love the entire series. 23 Lynsay Pomford from Liverpool: One of the best programmes on the box!! But can anyone tell me where is was filmed? Where is "Barstock"? 22 Lyn Evans from Derbyshire: As recent converts to Pie in the Sky. We would love to see repeats of all the episodes as the recent ones have been so entertaining. 21 kaz from bromley: loved the episode "new leaf", i love the programme, but this had the added bonus of the lovely paul darrow in it.!!!!! 20 Michael Cornfoot from Liverpool, Merseyside: I also hope that Pie in the Sky is brought out on DVD as I am dying to watch all of the episodes over and over again. Anyone know when they are being released? 19 from: Dear Sirs Do you sell videos of Pie in the Sky episodes? Or do you know where I could get them? Thank you Agustin Rodriguez-Bachiller 18 Michael Cornfoot from Liverpool, Merseyside: Jessica Drum is a brilliant young actress. Has she starred in any other TV series or other episodes of Pie In The Sky? Does she have a website profile? 17 Steve Payne from Leicester, UK: What a deeply lovely series, and such a delight to see it all over again. I hate to come across as a blue-rinsed Daily Mail reader here, but it really is a refreshing change to see a beautifully-crafted, well-paced, interestingly plotted and of course wonderfully-acted series with a great cast without the now seemingly obligatory bed scenes, car chases, graphic murders or whatever. I'm not the type to complain about these things usually, except that in the few years since 'Pie' was first aired such things have become staples of lazy drama. We need more like Pie in the Sky on our screens these days---what is Andrew Payne (no relation!) doing these days? 16 lee ryder from hemel hempstead: Why didn't they do a Pie in the sky cookbook? great to see Samantha janus again, a lovely lady and great actress. 15 Rachel Edmonds from Milton Keynes: Pie in the Sky A great program. I am really enjoying it. In your guide, under ever episode you say the same thing. Now come on., Give us a real note on what each one is about. Saying 'Pie in the Sky' is the name of a country restaurant run by part-time Detective Inspector Henry Crabbe and his accountant wife, Margaret. Henry makes the world's greatest steak and kidney pies and would cheerfully retire from the police force. Henry, an intelligent, sensible, mild-mannered man, desperately wants to retire from the police force and devote his time and energy to his beloved restaurant. However, Assistant Chief Constable Fisher won't allow this to happen as this would only expose his own ineptitude to the unwelcome attention of his superiors. So, until Henry can solve this dilemma, he must continue to solve the crimes thrust upon him. for every episode will just not do ! 14 Michael Cornfoot from Liverpool: I do not get time to watch every episode but I love to watch Pie in the Shy. Brilliant cast and brilliant story lines. Is the series ever going to be braught back?? 13 Mary Palmer from Perton, Staffordshire: I enjoy all the eposides of Pie in the Sky, partly because it is not violent, but most of all because of the food element! The recipes always sound so tempting. Are any of them available please? 12 Mike Raymond from Chandlers Ford, Hants,UK: Is the steak and kidney pie recipe available? 11 Marc Ryan from Tenby, West Wales: A Lovely , easy going Drama , that is Quintesentialy British, with honest values, I do hope that its bought out on DVD. 10 J.Marble from Toronto, Canada: (Favorite moment)When I discovered it was being broadcast again on Showcase. I love every episode and find all of the characters, (Henry and Margaret especially) so likeable and authentic. Seldom does one find such consistency of personality. But please put it on CD, because I don't have DVD. 9 Rowland Helliwell from Sheffield: would like the recipe for bread pudding which was on an episode of Pie in the sky,I keep watching the repeats but I have not come across it again.Hope you can help. 8 Alan from Cornforth: Yes Derren Litten but think of all the money you made from Perfect World instead ;-) 7 Philip from Woking: Can anyone tell me exactly where the series are filmed - it looks a lovely place to visit but there are quite a few Middletons in the atlas and no Barstocks 6 Alan from Australia: Pie in the Sky is a show that draws you in and keeps you interested. It's comfortable to be part of Henry and Margaret's lives. We need the entire series to be put on DVD for all us out here who have ideas of our own Pie in the Sky. 5 rob from guildfors: "lemon twist" is super! Show the whole lot again! 4 Hefin Williams from Australia: My fondest memories from the series are when it starred "Cambridge", although all the other actors who came along fitted in so well. I hope they bring the series out on DVD; I think it all finished too early, but it makes the repeats all the more precious. 3 Joe Pajak from Cambs: Great Series! 2 Derren Litten from London: I agree with Claire Steed from Kent. Pie in The Sky DID end too early... I say this mainly because I played PC Ed Guthrie in the 5th (and final) series - it would have been very nice to squeeze some more money out of them... 1 Claire Steed from Kent: This was a lovely series to watch, well written and superbly observed and acted. A real credit to everyone concerned. It would be so nice if this series could be preserved onto DVD as it is one of those truly classic English shows which throughly deserves it. It ended far too soon in my opinion and that is the only critcism I have of it. I am not related to Maggie Steed (Margaret Crabbe) as far as I am aware, I became a Steed by marriage - and on that note I shall end this note, but thank you so much once again for reviving the show. Post Your Tribute Here: If you have a favourite moment or memory from Pie In The Sky then please tell us about it. (note: All comments are moderated before being added to site. No ads, no spam, no questions please! Want to plug your site - see the webmaster info on home page): Your Name: Richard Griffiths as Henry Crabbe Maggie Steed as Margaret Crabbe Derren Litten as PC Ed Guthrie Bella Enahoro as Sophia Cambridge Malcolm Sinclair as Asst Chief Const Freddy Fisher Mary Woodvine as WPC Jane Morton EVENTS 1946-12-01: Maggie Steed (Margaret Crabbe) was born in Plymouth. 1947-07-31: Richard Griffths (played Henry Crabbe) was born. 1950-06-05: Malcolm Sinclair (ACC Freddy Fisher) was born. 1966-03-17: Nick Raggett (Leon Henderson) was born in Chelmsford. 1994-03-13: The first episode of Pie in the Sky was aired, on BBC1. WEB LINKS If you know of a web site for Pie In The Sky, or run a fan site, tell us about it here . MERCHANDISE SERIES 1 DVD Click here for more Pie In The Sky Memorabilia at Amazon. NEWSLETTER Sign up to receive our monthly newsletter filled with the latest classic television news. Sign up here.	i don't know
In Greek mythology, which mountain nymph fell in love with Narcissus?	Echo Echo See More Echo Pictures > Echo was an Oread in Greek mythology, a mountain nymph that lived on Mount Kithairon. Zeus was quite attracted to nymphs and often visited them. Hera , his wife, jealous of his various affairs, followed him trying to catch him. However, Echo would engage Hera in long-winded conversations, giving the time to Zeus to evade her. At some point, Hera realised the plot of Echo and cursed her to only be able to repeat the last words that another person just said. After being cursed, Echo came across a beautiful young man named Narcissus , but was unable to talk to him because of the curse. She simply followed him in the woods. Narcissus , having lost his companions with whom he had gone hunting, started shouting "Is anyone there?" Echo , given the opportunity, repeated the words. He shouted again "Let's come together" to which Echo rushed onto him repeating his words. However, Narcissus rejected Echo , and she was left in despair. Narcissus came across a lake and there, he fell in love with his own image, causing his death, unable to move. Echo mourned for him and eventually died away herself, leaving only her voice behind. Echo Is also called Ekho.	ECHO
Which Tennis player beat Serena and Venus Williams inconsecutive matches at the 2001 Australian Open?	Echo \| Greek mythology \| Britannica.com Greek mythology Zeus Echo, in Greek mythology , a mountain nymph , or oread. Ovid’s Metamorphoses , Book III, relates that Echo offended the goddess Hera by keeping her in conversation, thus preventing her from spying on one of Zeus’ amours. To punish Echo, Hera deprived her of speech, except for the ability to repeat the last words of another. Echo’s hopeless love for Narcissus , who fell in love with his own image, made her fade away until all that was left of her was her voice. According to the Greek writer Longus , Echo rejected the advances of the god Pan ; he thereupon drove the shepherds mad, and they tore her to pieces. Gaea (Earth) buried her limbs but allowed her to retain the power of song. Learn More in these related articles: Metamorphoses poem in 15 books, written in Latin about 8 ce by Ovid. It is written in hexameter verse. The work is a collection of mythological and legendary stories, many taken from Greek sources, in which transformation (metamorphosis) plays a role, however minor. The stories, which are unrelated, are told in... Hera in Greek religion, a daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, sister-wife of Zeus, and queen of the Olympian gods. The Romans identified her with their own Juno. Hera was worshipped throughout the Greek world and played an important part in Greek literature, appearing most frequently as the jealous... Narcissus (Greek mythology) in Greek mythology, the son of the river god Cephissus and the nymph Liriope. He was distinguished for his beauty. According to Ovid ’s Metamorphoses, Book III, Narcissus’s mother was told by the blind seer Tiresias that he would have a long life, provided he never recognized himself.... 1 Reference found in Britannica Articles Assorted Reference devotion to Narcissus (in Narcissus (Greek mythology) ) External Links Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: November 08, 2007 URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Echo-Greek-mythology Access Date: January 19, 2017 Share	i don't know
Which carbohydrate is also called 'milk sugar'?	What is Milk Sugar? (with pictures) What is Milk Sugar? Last Modified Date: 02 December 2016 Copyright Protected: 10 hilariously insightful foreign words Milk sugar is a single molecule of glucose linked to a single molecule of galactose to form a carbohydrate. It is also commonly known as lactose , which is a special form of carbohydrate called a disaccharide. Lactose is the first and only form of carbohydrates consumed by humans and other newborn mammals in significant quantities. Although all mammals' milk naturally contains lactose, it is produced industrially from cows' milk. Research has shown that nearly 70% of the world's population is intolerant to milk sugar, a condition called lactose intolerance. It may cause digestive problems ranging from gas and bloating to gastrointestinal discomfort and diarrhea. Lactose intolerance may be caused by a deficiency of the enzyme lactase , which is present on the surface of cells lining the small intestine. The function of lactase is to break down this complex sugar into simpler forms of sugar, glucose and galactose, that can be more easily absorbed by the bloodstream. Some dairy products are marketed to people who have lactose intolerance. These food items include everything from milk to ice cream and cheese that have had all the lactose removed. Dietary supplements are also available that enable people who have an intolerance to the substance to digest it. Ad For people who don't have trouble digesting lactose, dietary supplements containing milk sugar are commonly used as part of a high-calorie diet or to gain weight. It is sometimes used as a sweetener in fermented alcoholic beverages like beer as well. Lactose may also be used as a stabilizing ingredient in the production of aromas and fragrances. Lactose is also commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry as an excipient — an inert substance used as a vehicle for a drug's active ingredients. Lactose tends to be inert, meaning it does not commonly react with other ingredients, and it is also non-toxic and inexpensive. This makes it ideal for use in pharmaceuticals such as tablets, capsules, and dry powder inhalers. Pharmaceutical lactose is isolated from milk whey through the processes of concentration , crystallization, and purification. Fabricio Bartoletti was a doctor of philosophy and medicine who discovered the presence of lactose in milk in 1619. A professor of surgery and anatomy, Fabricio Bartoletti was also the first person to isolate the milk sugar from the whey. Lactose wasn't identified as a sugar until 1780 by a pharmaceutical chemist named Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Ad anon351292 Post 9 Most lactose intolerance is due to pasteurizing milk. My son and nephew both had stomach pain after drinking milk. Once we all switched to raw milk, the pain ceased. The more I talk to people using raw milk, the more I hear this story. serenesurface Post 8 @MikeMason-- I'm no expert but I think that lactose intolerance develops at a later age. Infants don't have lactose intolerance. Some infants have trouble digesting cow's milk so they need to switch to goat's milk. I think that genetically, we are all supposed to become lactose intolerant after childhood. But because some cultures consume a lot more milk and continue to have it into adulthood, some of our genes have adapted to tolerate milk after childhood. stoneMason Post 7 How can 70% of all people be lactose intolerant when we all have breast milk as babies? If so many people were lactose intolerant, they wouldn't be able to have milk from the beginning right? And I have never heard of lactose intolerant babies. bear78 Post 6 I think people are confused about lactose. Lactose is a sugar molecule but don't think of this as something like table sugar that is sweet. When we're talking about sugar molecules, we are talking about different types of carbohydrates. All carbohydrates turn into glucose, a type of sugar in our body. This is what we use for energy. So the fact that a food has a type of sugar in it like lactose, glucose or fructose doesn't necessarily mean that it is sweet. Vegetables also have carbohydrates in them which turn into glucose when we eat them. This is why milk doesn't taste sweet, but it does have lactose, a type of sugar molecule. Does this make sense? OeKc05 Post 5 I would never have imagined that beer would be sweetened with milk sugar! Picturing milk and beer together makes me a little nauseous. I know it's not the actual milk that is used in the beer, but it's still a weird thought. I wonder if adding milk sugar to beer makes it more fattening. Since lactose is used to help people bulk up, you would think that it would have a high-calorie content. lighth0se33 Post 4 @Perdido – I am lactose intolerant, and I drink soy milk that's sugar free. It's flavored with vanilla and coconut, so it's very tasty, even though it doesn't contain lactose. I found out I was lactose intolerant when I started having painful abdominal cramps after drinking milk. The first time it happened, I didn't make the connection, but I started to notice that every time I consumed dairy products, my symptoms would worsen. It got to the point where I was very nauseated and even had diarrhea after drinking a milkshake. A friend told me that I should try avoiding dairy for awhile and see if I felt better. I did, so I switched to soy milk, and I haven't had any issues with it. Perdido Post 3 I have heard of some milk being sugar free. Is this made for people who are lactose intolerant? What happens when someone who is lactose intolerant drinks regular milk? I have always heard people say that they have this issue, but I've never heard anyone describe what happens to them when they consume lactose. Are the reactions really severe, or do they just have mild discomfort? seag47 Post 2 @turquoise – It does seem kind of strange to think of milk containing sugar. To me, it doesn't taste sweet at all. I suppose that if milk had no sugar, it might not go as well with cereal. Most cereals have been at least slightly sweetened, and the milk helps bring that out a little more, even though it does this subtly. I think that naturally occurring sugars are better for you than added sugars, though. Your diet probably won't be negatively affected by the consumption of milk sugar. turquoise Post 1 I was wondering about this the other day because I bought some plain yogurt from the grocery store. I'm on a no-sugar diet so I've made it a habit to check sugar content on foods. When I looked at the sugar content of the plain yogurt, it said four grams. But then I checked the ingredients list, there was no sugar listed. I wondered about this for a while and then realized that there is sugar in milk. So I guess they put the amount of lactose in the yogurt on the label. I was confused about this at first but now I get it. I guess there is sugar in almost everything naturally. Post your comments	Lactose
Who was the Greek goddess of the Moon?	Does Milk Contain Carbohydrates? / Nutrition / Carbs Carbs Whether it is whole or skim, from a cow or a goat, all milk contains carbohydrates. The number of carbohydrates in the milk we drink ranges from about 11.3 to 11.9 grams per cup. Since half and half and heavy cream have a much larger percentage of fat by weight, the number of carbohydrates in each is actually less than for an equivalent amount of regular or skim milk. This makes those two products popular with those on a low-carb diet. Lactose Lactose, or milk sugar, is present in all milk. Lactose is a simple carbohydrate that makes up from 2% to 8% of milk by weight. Thanks to their uncomplicated construction, simple carbohydrates are those most easily broken down by the body. Simple carbohydrates typically give the body a burst of energy, but are not associated with much in the way of nutritional value -- at least not as much as the complex carbohydrates are. As we shall see, this view is something of an oversimplification. Along with lactose, sucrose, or table sugar, is a simple carbohydrate, as is fructose, found in fruits like grapes or pears, and glucose, the sugar your body breaks down all the other carbohydrates into prior to use. Bad Carbohydrates Simple carbohydrates like the lactose found in milk are often lumped together as "bad" carbohydrates with the refined simple carbohydrates found in table sugar or white flour. However, on the whole, the unrefined simple carbohydrates are healthy and deliver more nutritive value than the refined simple carbohydrates found in processed foods, and should not be avoided by default unless you're specifically following a low-carb diet.	i don't know
Who won the Men's Singles at the 2001 Australian OpenTennis Championships?	U.S. Open \| tennis \| Britannica.com U.S. Open Alternative Title: United States Open Tennis Championships Related Topics Fed Cup U.S. Open, formally the United States Open Tennis Championships, international tennis tournament, the fourth and final of the major events that make up the annual Grand Slam of tennis (the other tournaments are the Australian Open , the French Open , and the Wimbledon Championships ). Arthur Ashe Stadium at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, Queens, N.Y. © Ffooter/Shutterstock.com The U.S. Open is held each year over a two-week period in late August and early September. Since 1978 all the U.S. Open championships have been played on the acrylic hard courts of the U.S. Tennis Association (USTA) National Tennis Center (renamed the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in 2006) in Flushing Meadows, Queens , N.Y. The U.S. Open consists of championships in five main categories: men’s singles and doubles, women’s singles and doubles, and mixed doubles. The tournament is unique among the Grand Slam events in that tiebreakers are played in the deciding sets (the fifth set for men and the third set for women), instead of continuing play in the final set until a player has won by two games. Mariya Sharapova serving during the 2006 U.S. Open women’s final; she defeated Justine … Stan Honda—AFP/Getty Images The U.S. Open developed from one of the oldest tennis championships in the world: the U.S. National Championship, which was established in 1881 as a national men’s singles and doubles competition. The tournament was open only to clubs that were members of the U.S. National Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA; now the USTA). The event expanded to include women’s singles in 1887, women’s doubles in 1889, and mixed doubles in 1892. The five championships were contested at different locales until 1968, when all five tournaments were finally hosted at a common site (the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills , Queens, N.Y.), whereupon the championships became known as the U.S. Open. The tournament moved to Flushing Meadows in 1978. As a unique result of this decentralized history, the tournament has been played on a variety of surfaces: from 1881 to 1974, it was played on grass; from 1975 to 1977, on clay; and since 1978, on DecoTurf, a fast hard-court surface comprising an acrylic layer over an asphalt or concrete base. Andre Agassi returning the ball during a match at the 1999 U.S. Open. Clive Brunskill—Allsport/Getty Images French Open The main court at the U.S. Open (and the National Tennis Center’s largest venue) is the 22,000-seat Arthur Ashe Stadium, which is followed in capacity by the 10,000-seat Louis Armstrong Stadium, the 6,000-seat Grandstand Stadium, and smaller side courts. All courts are lit and therefore conducive to night play, and the inner courts are painted blue to facilitate the tracking of the ball. Like most major championships tied to professional sports , the U.S. Open is as much a media extravaganza and tourist attraction as a sporting event, with special musical acts and family activities scheduled throughout the two-week period. Justine Henin returning a shot during the 2007 U.S. Open. Xinhua/Landov One of the most notable moments in U.S. Open history took place in the 1992 semifinal match between American Michael Chang and Stefan Edberg of Sweden. Edberg emerged victorious, but only after a grueling five hours and 26 minutes, defeating Chang 6–7, 7–5, 7–6, 5–7, 6–4. That is believed to be the longest match in U.S. Open history. The longest women’s match in the competition’s history—in terms of number of games—occurred in 1898 (before the institution of tiebreakers), when the five-set match between Juliette Atkinson (the winner) and Marion Jones extended to 51 games. Arthur Ashe won the U.S. Open in 1968, but because of his amateur status (he was a lieutenant in the U.S. Army at the time) he was unable to accept the prize money. Another interesting side note in U.S. Open history is that Jimmy Connors is the only male to have won Open singles titles on all three of the Open’s surfaces, while Chris Evert (this author) is the only woman to have won on two surfaces, winning a record six U.S. Open titles in all (1975–78, 1980, 1982). Juan Martin Del Potro of Argentina returning a shot against Roger Federer of Switzerland during the … Clive Brunskill/Getty Images	Andre Agassi
Which British philosopher's books include, 'Principles Of Mathematics'?	U.S. Open \| tennis \| Britannica.com U.S. Open Alternative Title: United States Open Tennis Championships Related Topics Fed Cup U.S. Open, formally the United States Open Tennis Championships, international tennis tournament, the fourth and final of the major events that make up the annual Grand Slam of tennis (the other tournaments are the Australian Open , the French Open , and the Wimbledon Championships ). Arthur Ashe Stadium at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center, Queens, N.Y. © Ffooter/Shutterstock.com The U.S. Open is held each year over a two-week period in late August and early September. Since 1978 all the U.S. Open championships have been played on the acrylic hard courts of the U.S. Tennis Association (USTA) National Tennis Center (renamed the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in 2006) in Flushing Meadows, Queens , N.Y. The U.S. Open consists of championships in five main categories: men’s singles and doubles, women’s singles and doubles, and mixed doubles. The tournament is unique among the Grand Slam events in that tiebreakers are played in the deciding sets (the fifth set for men and the third set for women), instead of continuing play in the final set until a player has won by two games. Mariya Sharapova serving during the 2006 U.S. Open women’s final; she defeated Justine … Stan Honda—AFP/Getty Images The U.S. Open developed from one of the oldest tennis championships in the world: the U.S. National Championship, which was established in 1881 as a national men’s singles and doubles competition. The tournament was open only to clubs that were members of the U.S. National Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA; now the USTA). The event expanded to include women’s singles in 1887, women’s doubles in 1889, and mixed doubles in 1892. The five championships were contested at different locales until 1968, when all five tournaments were finally hosted at a common site (the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills , Queens, N.Y.), whereupon the championships became known as the U.S. Open. The tournament moved to Flushing Meadows in 1978. As a unique result of this decentralized history, the tournament has been played on a variety of surfaces: from 1881 to 1974, it was played on grass; from 1975 to 1977, on clay; and since 1978, on DecoTurf, a fast hard-court surface comprising an acrylic layer over an asphalt or concrete base. Andre Agassi returning the ball during a match at the 1999 U.S. Open. Clive Brunskill—Allsport/Getty Images French Open The main court at the U.S. Open (and the National Tennis Center’s largest venue) is the 22,000-seat Arthur Ashe Stadium, which is followed in capacity by the 10,000-seat Louis Armstrong Stadium, the 6,000-seat Grandstand Stadium, and smaller side courts. All courts are lit and therefore conducive to night play, and the inner courts are painted blue to facilitate the tracking of the ball. Like most major championships tied to professional sports , the U.S. Open is as much a media extravaganza and tourist attraction as a sporting event, with special musical acts and family activities scheduled throughout the two-week period. Justine Henin returning a shot during the 2007 U.S. Open. Xinhua/Landov One of the most notable moments in U.S. Open history took place in the 1992 semifinal match between American Michael Chang and Stefan Edberg of Sweden. Edberg emerged victorious, but only after a grueling five hours and 26 minutes, defeating Chang 6–7, 7–5, 7–6, 5–7, 6–4. That is believed to be the longest match in U.S. Open history. The longest women’s match in the competition’s history—in terms of number of games—occurred in 1898 (before the institution of tiebreakers), when the five-set match between Juliette Atkinson (the winner) and Marion Jones extended to 51 games. Arthur Ashe won the U.S. Open in 1968, but because of his amateur status (he was a lieutenant in the U.S. Army at the time) he was unable to accept the prize money. Another interesting side note in U.S. Open history is that Jimmy Connors is the only male to have won Open singles titles on all three of the Open’s surfaces, while Chris Evert (this author) is the only woman to have won on two surfaces, winning a record six U.S. Open titles in all (1975–78, 1980, 1982). Juan Martin Del Potro of Argentina returning a shot against Roger Federer of Switzerland during the … Clive Brunskill/Getty Images	i don't know
What was the name of the underground movement in rural France that fought against the Germans in WW II?	French Resistance World War II Knowledge Base > History > History French Resistance World War II The French Resistance is the name used to denote the collection of French resistance movements that fought against the Nazi German occupation of France and against the collaborationist Vichy régime during World War II. Studying to receive a BA in History from Columbia University. I love NY sports from Red Bulls to Yankees. Don't mind spending cold Friday nights with a movie and cup of hot chocolate. Curated Facts The role of the French Resistance in the success of Operation Overlord must never be underestimated. In existence since the early days of the German Occupation of France, originally the resistance was a movement which comprised of many separate units, each working independently, without co-ordination with one another. Bravely causing as many problems as possible to the occupying German troops. Many allied airmen owe their lives to these Frenchmen, who, through their web of contacts and safe houses, were able to help them back home to England. Article: Page Title During the late war, about 45,000 Allied aviators were shot down over occupied Europe, and their capture became a matter of immediate and furious concern for the Nazis. At least seventy-five per cent of these airmen attempting to evade capture were given assistance by heroic Resistance people of western Europe...The French "Underground Railroad"--twentieth century version--antedated the appearance of Allied bombming missions over Europe. Hundreds of British soldiers stranded on the Continent by the fall of France in the summer of 1940 had escaped by this means. × Amazon Results The Maquis des Manises was involved in resistance activities and the hiding and repatriation of allied aircrew shot down over France. When Operation Overlord was launched on the 6 June 1944, the various resistance movements all over France were mobilized to cause maximum disruption to German communications and troop movements. Playing their part, 250 maquisards of the Maquis des Manises engaged 3000 SS and French Vichy troops in combat in the forest area. This action no doubt delayed the mobilization of these German troops to Normandy, which in turn may have facilitated the consolidation of Allied positions on the Normandy beachheads. Article: French Resistance: The M... (ON DDAY) The German command could not determine where the Americans were concentrated (they in fact weren't) and what their objectives were to be. The French resistance had cut so many telephone lines that German HQ could not determine the full extent of the invasion. More importantly, the Germans could not determine whether or not if this airborne invasion was the real invasion or just a diversionary tactic. Article: Military History Online -... In France, toward the end of the war, the resistance movement assassinated Germans, collaborators and others they deemed unworthy of living, such as black marketers. According to rough estimates, the French Resistance killed 2500 people between the autumn of 1943 and June 6, 1945. Article: Victors against the Defea... "During the summer of 1941 the civilian population's resistance to our occupation forces intensified perceptibly in every theater of war, with sabotage incidents and attacks on Germany security troops and installations", German Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel recalled the reports that came to his desk during the war. "[A]cts of sabotage became horrifying frequent in France and even in Belgium." The counter the resistance movement, German forces employed a policy to rule by iron fist, including later retribution operations against innocent civilians. Article: World War II Database The French Resistance movement is an umbrella term which covered numerous anti-German resistance movements that were based within France. There were resistance movements that took direct orders from the Special Operations Executive, there was the communist resistance, groups loyal to de Gaulle, regional resistance movements that wanted independence etc. In the north, the target was simply the Germans while in the south, the Vichy government was a target as well as the Germans. The first resistance movements were in the north, such as the OCM (Organisation Civile et Militaire) and by the end of 1940, six underground newspapers were being regularly printed in the north. In May 1941, the first SOE agent was dropped into northern France to assist the work of the resistance. Article: The French Resistance	The Maquis
What colour is the cheek-patch of the European Goldfinch?	French Underground During World War II, Communication and Codes - Espionage Encyclopedia » Fo-Gs » French Underground During World War II, Communication and Codes French Underground during World War II, Communication and Codes █ ADRIENNE WILMOTH LERNER By 1940, Nazi Germany had invaded several Eastern European nations and turned its attention to gaining control of Western Europe. With strategic planning reminiscent of World War I, the Nazis planned to forcefully invade France, Belgium, and Holland. However, when Marshal Henri-Philippe Petain rose to power in France, he negotiated an armistice with the Germans. On June 22, France was divided into two parts: the northern three-fifths and the Atlantic coast to be directly controlled by Nazi Germany, and the remaining parts of the south to be ruled by a French puppet government. The southern region was known as Vichy. The armistice also disbanded the French army, sending many French soldiers who could escape into exile in England. The settlement angered many French citizens, many of whom wished to continue the war against Germany. As soon the occupation began, partisan groups arose to sabotage the Nazi government. These groups called themselves by many names (maquis, partisans, resistance, and freedom fighters) and the individual groups remained separate entities until the Allied invasion of France in 1944. These underground bands of French and foreign men and women who fought against the German occupation government became known collectively as the French Resistance. The German secret police, the Gestapo, and intelligence agency, Abwehr, were powerful opponents to the resistance. In the early war period, German agents easily infiltrated resistance groups. In response, resistance groups developed codes, complex communications networks, and security structures to protect members and information. Many of the earliest resistance groups were formed by political parties that the Nazi government had earlier banned. Communists and Socialists were persecuted under the Nazi regime. Partisan groups with political ties, such as the Socialist Comité d'Action Socialiste and the Communist Front National used their extensive media and member network to produce and distribute anti-Nazi propaganda. As resistance groups began to arm themselves and carry out acts of sabotage, the papers published coded messages that communicated instructions to members. During the course of the war, underground newspapers supplied information to over a million readers. The resistance relied on coded messages to communicate with members and plan operations. Members were called by code names, and operational units had their own cryptonym or symbols. Underground newspaper published coded articles and drawings. Poetry was even used as a means of sending coded messages or identifying oneself as a member of a resistance group to other members. The most famous, and perhaps ingenious security device of resistance groups was the use of a pyramid command structure. The pyramid structure ensured that no member of a partisan group even interacted or conducted operations with more than two other members of the organization. No records of membership were kept, and messages were sent only by word-of-mouth. Each resistance member knew one commanding member and one other partner member. Members kept strict confidentiality, and rarely met in groups larger than their operational units. This structure insured that enemy infiltrators and captured partisans could positively identify no more than two resistance operatives, leaving the rest of the organization unscathed. The strategy worked with some success, until Gestapo agents began to infiltrate the command echelons of various partisan groups. The pyramid structure also added an operational advantage as well as security. Ambushes and assassinations of German officers were carried out by a group of three men. One man served as a decoy, the other carried the weapon and shot the victim at close range, while the third member took the weapon after the shooting and walked away from the scene. Often the actual assailants would remain at or near the scene until authorities arrived. As they possessed no weapons, they were cleared of suspicion. Because resistance members in most urban areas did not keep their own weapons as a security measure, weapons used in attacks were returned to their stockpile via courier, often a child, who would seldom arouse the suspicion of Gestapo agents. French Resistance groups also developed an "under-ground railroad" system to smuggle downed Allied airmen back to Britain or the front lines. Using standardized coded messages, Allied servicemen were shuttled to various safe houses on route to their destination. Toward the end of the war, these same networks were used by Allied forces to send messages to various resistance groups throughout the countryside. Allied "Jedburg" teams, soldiers trained to aid the resistance, sabotage German supply lines, and unify the command of partisan groups, parachuted into France behind German lines. Individual Jedburg soldiers used the underground network to reach the towns or groups in which they were to operate. The two-way traffic of Allied servicemen in the "underground railroad" system facilitated communication not only with diverse resistance groups, but also with Allied command. Jedburg groups also coordinated the procurement and allocation of radios to facilitate communication. While radios carried an increased risk of detection by occupation forces, they made mass communication over longer distance possible. Coded messages were transmitted nightly, both to Allied command and to various area partisans. Messages identified their recipients with a cryptonym and gave necessary instructions in coded messages. The codes were agreed upon in person, and then used in broadcasts to activate plans. When intercepted, the messages were easily identifiable as partisan transmissions, but their meanings were indecipherable. British radio, and the European underground radio, often rebroadcast Jedburg and other resistance messages. While this coding method was primitive, it required German forces to use spies instead of technology as primary means of breaking resistance group communications. Such missions were a costly drain on human intelligence resources, and carried a high level of risk. In 1944, many of the largest French underground groups united to form the Conseil National de la resistance . The organization stockpiled weapons and worked with Allied intelligence operatives to prepare for the Allied invasion of France. During the D-Day invasion in June, 1944, the resistance cut German supply lines and aided Allied forces as they marched through France. Urban partisan members in Paris took to the streets in open warfare against the Germans, engaging forces until the liberation of Paris. With the Allied invasion, exiled members of the French Army, under the command of Charles de Gaulle, returned to France. Many resistance members then joined the army, fighting enemy forces throughout Europe. Over the course of the war, the French Resistance scored key victories against the German occupations forces. Resistance members tracked and ferreted-out French collaborators, assassinated many ranking Nazi officials, tapped the phones of the Abwehr's Paris headquarters, and destroyed trains, convoys, and ships used by the German army. The resistance provided Allied forces with invaluable human intelligence resources and aided Allied troops who fell behind enemy lines. Resistance groups shielded political dissidents, refugees, and Jews escaping the Holocaust. These numerous accomplishments carried a heavy price. German agents often infiltrated partisan groups, despite security precautions. When they captured a maquis, Gestapo agents employed torture as means of extracting the names of other resistance members. The Gestapo occasionally carried out bloody reprisals on innocent civilians after partisan sabotage operations. As many as 25,000 French men and women, members of the resistance and those suspected of aiding their cause, were sent to German concentration camps. Another 25,000 were executed in France by Gestapo agents, including the population of an entire Northern French village. █ FURTHER READING: BOOKS: Aubrac, Lucie. Konrad Bieber and Betsy Wing (trans.). Outwitting the Gestapo. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994. Aubrac, Raymond, and Lucie Aubrac. The French Resistance: 1940–1944. Paris: Hazan Editeur, 1997. Ottis, Sherri Greene. Silent Heroes: Downed Airmen and the French Underground. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 2001. Ousby, Ian. Occupation. Lanham, MD: Cooper Square Press, 2000. Weitz, Margaret Collins. Sisters in the Resistance : How Women Fought to Free France, 1940–1945. New York: John Wiley & Sons., 1998. SEE ALSO	i don't know
A 'Knab' or 'Knot' is the collective noun for which amphibious creatures?	Animal Group Names - Documents Documents Share Animal Group Names Embed <iframe src="http://documents.mx/embed/animal-group-names.html" width="750" height="600" frameborder="0" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" style="border:1px solid #CCC; border-width:1px; margin-bottom:5px; max-width: 100%;" allowfullscreen> </iframe> <div style="margin-bottom:5px"> <strong> <a href="http://documents.mx/documents/animal-group-names.html" title="Animal Group Names" target="_blank">Animal Group Names</a></div> size(px) Animals Group name Text Animal Group Names (Collective Nouns) Animal Albatross Antelopes Ants Apes Asses Auks Baboons Badgers Bats Bears Beavers Bees Rookery Herd, cluster, herd Nest, army, colony, state, swarm, bike Shrewdness, troop Pace, drove, herd, coffle Colony, flock, raft Troop, flange Cete, colony, set, company Colony, cloud Sloth, sleuth, slought Family, lodge, colony Swarm, cluster, nest, hive, erst, bike, cast, college, drift, game, fry, peck, rabble, stand, range, butt, spindle, grist Birds Bison Bitterns Battery, cast, congregation, covert, covey, drift, flight, fleet, flock, flush, nest, aviary Herd Flock, sedge, siege Group Name Bloodhounds Sute Boars Buffaloes Bullfinches Bullocks Butterflies Camels Caribou Caterpillars Cats Sounder, singular, herd Troop, herd, gang, obstinacy Bellowing Drove Rabble, flight Flock, train, caravan, herd Herd Army, nest Clowder, clutter, cluster, colony, glorying, kindle, litter, dout, parliament, seraglio, glaring, destruction (wild cats) Cattle Chicken Chinchilla Clams Cockroaches Cod Colts Cormorants Drove, herd, bow, bunch, draft, drift, flote, head, diary Brood, clutch, hatching, nest, parcel, peep, battery, flock Colony Bed Intrusion Lap Rake, rage Colony, flight Cows Crabs Cranes Crocodiles Crows Deer Dogs Dolphins Doves Ducks Eagles Eels Elephants Elks Ferrets Finches Fish Flies Flamingoes Foxes Frogs Geese Giraffes Gnats Goats Goldfish Gorillas Dairy, drove, pack, team Cast Flock, herd, sedge, siege, sege Bask, nest Murder, parcel, hover Herd, leash, bevy, game, quarry, bunch, mob Gang, legion, kennel, pack, stud Team, school Duet, dule, dole, flight, troop, pitying (of turtle doves) Bunch, brood, knob, raft, skein, string, mob, paddling, plump, sord, sore, team, waddling Aerie, brood, convocation, cargo Swarm, bed, bind, draft, fry, wisp Herd, flock, parade Gang, herd Business Chirm, charm School, shoal, haul, draught, run, catch, cran, flote, flutter, cast, throw, warp Business, hatch, grist, swarm, community, fare, rabble, cloud Stand Cloud, skulk, brace, leash, troop, earth Army, colony, froggery Gaggle, clutch, flock, line, skein, nide, wedge Herd, corps, troop, tower Swarm, cloud, horde, plague, rabble Flock, trip, herd, tribe Troubling Band Grasshoppers Cloud Hares Hawks Hedgehogs Hens Hippopotami Hornets Horses Insects Down, flick, huske, kindle, tripp, drove, warren, dun Aerie, brood, cast, leash, mews, staff Nest, array Battery, brood, parcel, roost, mews, concatenation Bloat, school, pod, herd Nest, bike, swarm Haras, stud, herd, string, field, set, team, stable, mews, mob, parcel, rag, slate Horde, nest, swarm, rabble, plague Jackrabbits Jellyfish Kangaroos Larks Leopards Lice Lions Locusts Magpies Mallard Mice Midges Minnows Moles Monkeys Moose Mosquitoes Mules Nightingales Otters Owls Oxen Oysters Parrots Peacocks Pekingese Penguins Pigeons Pigs Porpoises Quail Rabbits Racoons Ravens Reindeer Rhinoceros Husk Smuck, fluther, smack, stuck, smuth, brood Troop, mob, herd Bevy, exaltation, flight, wisp Leap Flock Pride, troop, flock, sawt, souse Swarm, cloud, plague Tiding, tittering Flush, lute, puddling, sord, sute Nest, colony, harvest Bite Shoal, steam, or swarm Company, labour, citadel (of mole burrows) Troop, cartload, tribe Herd Scourge Barren, span, mulada, rake Watch, flock, route Bevy, lodge, family Parliament, stare Team, yoke, drove, or herd Bed, cast, clam, hive, set Company, flock, pandemonium Pride, muster, ostentation Pomp Parcel, rookery Flight, flock, loft Drove, fare, litter, flock, hoggery, sounder, nest of trotters School, crowd, herd, shoal, gam, pod, turmoil Bevy, covey, jug Bevy, bury (of conies), flick, kindle, nest, game, warren, colony Nursery Unkindness Herd Crash, stubbornness, herd Rooks Salmon Sardines Scorpions Seals Sharks Sheep Snails Snakes Spiders Squirrels Starlings Stoats Storks Swallows Swans Swine Tigers Toads Trout Turkeys Turtles Vipers Vultures Walruses Wasps Weasels Whales Wildfowl Wolves Building, clamour, congregation, council, pack, shoal, wing Run, bind Family Bed, nest Pod, herd, trip, rookery, flock, plump, harem School or shoal Flock, hirsel, drove trip, drift, fold, hurtle, parcel, mob, down, pack Escargatoire, rout, walk Bed, knot, den, pit Cluster, clutter Drey, colony Cloud, chattering, murmuration, clattering Pack, trip Flight, mustering, phalanx Flight, gulp, rush Flock, bevy, bank, eyrar, drift, game, herd, sownder, team, wedge Sounder, drift, herd, trip, drone, singular (of boars) Ambush Knot, nest, knob Hover, leash, troup Duet, crop, posse, rafter, gang Bale, dole, turn, dule nest Carpets, cast, drove, flock, herd Pod, herd, huddle Nest, knot, knab, bike, swarm Pack School, gam, mob, pod, herd, plump, run, flote, shoal Lute, plump, scry, skein, sord, trip Rout, route, pack, head, horde Woodpeckers Descent Worms Zebras Bed, clew, bunch, clat Herd, zeal, cohorts 1. 2. 3. 4. shrewdness of apes army/column/state/swarm of ants herd/pace of asses troop of baboons 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. cete/colony of badgers sloth of bears cluster/swarm/drift/hive/erst of bees flock/flight/pod of birds chatter of budgerigars herd/gang/obstinancy of buffalo bellowing of bullfinches drove of bullocks caravan/flock of camels army of caterpillars chowder/clowder/cluster/glaring of cats herd/drove of cattle brood/clutch/peep of chickens chattering of choughs rag/rake of colts covert of coots herd of cranes bask of crocodiles clan/hover/murder of crows litter of cubs herd of curlew herd/mob of deer cowardice/pack/kennel of dogs pod/school of dolphins trip of dotterel flight/dole/piteousness/prettying of doves paddling of ducks (on water) safe of ducks (on land) fling of dunlins convocation of eagles swarm of eels herd/parade of elephants herd/gang of elk cast of falcons busyness/cast/fesynes of ferrets charm of finches shoal/run of fish flurry/regiment/skein of flamingoes business/cloud/scraw/swarm of flies earth/lead/skulk of foxes gaggle of geese (on land) skein/team/wedge of geese (in flight) corps/herd/troop/kalaedescope of giraffes cloud of gnats flock/herd/trip of goats charm/chattering/chirp/drum of goldfinch troubling of goldfish band of gorillas cloud of grasshoppers brace/leash/pack of greyhounds brood/pack/covey of grouse down/drove/husk/lie/trip/mute/husk of hares cast of hawks array of hedgehogs scattering/sedge/siege of herons army/gleam/shoal of herring bloat/pod of hippopotami drove/string/stud/team of horses pack/cry/kennel of hounds crowd of ibis flight/swarm of insects brood/fluther/smuck of jellyfish 67. herd/mob/troop of kangaroos 68. kindle/litter of kittens 69. deceit/desert of lapwings 70. bevy/exaltation of larks 71. leap/lepe of leopards 72. flock/pride/sawt/souse/troop of lions 73. tiding/tittering of magpies 74. sord/suit of mallard 75. stud of mares 76. richesse of martens 77. nest of mice 78. company/labour/movement/mumble of moles 79. troop of monkeys 80. cartload/pack/span/barren of mules 81. match/puddling/watch of nightingales 82. flock of ostrich 83. bevy/family of otters 84. parliament/stare of owls 85. yoke of oxen 86. pandemonium of parrots 87. covey of partridges 88. muster of peacocks 89. muster/parcel/rookery of penguins 90. brook/bevy/head/ostentation/pride/nye of pheasants 91. kit of pigeons (in flight) 92. farrow of piglets 93. litter/herd of pigs 94. congregation/flight/stand/wing of plovers 95. rush/flight of pochards 96. pod/school/herd/turmoil of porpoises 97. covey of ptarmigan 98. litter of pups 99. bevy/covey/drift of quail 100. bury/colony/nest/warren of rabbits 101. nursery of raccoons 102. string of racehorses 103. colony of rats 104. unkindness of ravens 105. crash of rhinoceros 106. bevy of roe deer 107. parliament/building/clamour/rookery of rooks 108. hill of ruffs 109. family of sardines 110. pod/harem/herd/rookery of seals 111. flock/herd/trip/mob of sheep 112. dopping of sheldrake 113. den/pit/nest of snakes 114. walk/wisp/whisper/wish of snipe 115. host/surration/quarrel of sparrows 116. cluster/clutter of spiders 117. drey of squirrels 118. chattering/crowd/murmation of starlings 119. flight of swallows 120. bank/bevy/game/herd/squadron, teeme/wedge/whiteness of swans (on land) 121. drift/herd/sounder of swine 122. spring of teal 123. mutation of thrush 124. ambush of tigers 125. knab/knot of toads 126. hover of trout 127. dule/raffle/rafter of turkeys 128. bale/turn of turtles 129. herd/nest/pledge of wasps 130. bunch/knob of waterfowl 131. colony/school/herd/pod/gam of whales 132. company/trip of wigeon 133. sounder of wild boar 134. dout/destruction of wild cats 135. team of wild ducks (in flight) 136. bunch/trip/plump/knob of wildfowl 137. pack/rout of wolves 138. covey/fall/flight/plump of woodcock 139. descent of woodpeckers 140. herd of wrens 141. zeal of zebras ANIMAL/SPECIES ANTELOPES ANTS A HERD of antelopes. A COLONY of ants. TERM Melissa Bee An ARMY of ants. A STATE or SWARM of ants. A SHREWDNESS of apes A HERD or PACE of asses A DROVE of asses. A TROOP of baboons Michael Haberl APES ASSES BABOONS A FLANGE* of baboons Judith Rich A CONGRESS of baboons. John Provost * The history of this term is very interesting see the following http://www.qi.com/talk/viewtopic.php?t=8498&postdays=0&po storder=asc&start=15&sid=764b6eda4eab5327541dcc71faae 5e12 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baboon BACTERIA A COLONY of bacteria. Micribiologists call groups of bacteria COLONIES. A culture would consist of many colonies. Ron Orts A CULTURE of bacteria. Chris Moffatt BADGERS BARRACUDAS BASS A CETE of badgers A BATTERY of barracudas. A SHOAL of bass. Melissa Bee. BATS A COLONY of bats. Melissa Bee. A CLOUD of bats. Keith Harris BEARS BEAVERS A SLOTH or SLEUTH of bears A COLONY of beavers. A FAMILY of beavers. A GRIST, HIVE, SWARM, DRIFT or BIKE of bees A CLUSTER, ERST or NEST of bees. A FLOCK, FLIGHT, or PARCEL of birds. A POD of birds (small flock) A VOLARY of birds (in an aviary) A BRACE = a pair of gamebirds or waterfowl * * Melissa Bee. A DISSIMULATION of birds. Phillip Joss BEES BIRDS BISON BITTERNS A HERD of bison. A SEDGE of bitterns. Melissa Bee. BOAR (WILD) A SOUNDER or SINGULAR of wild boar BOBOLINKS A CHAIN of bobolinks (whatever they might be!!) Melissa Bee. Just in case there is anyone else out there who, like me, doesn't know what a Bobolink is I have been reliably informed by Amelia B., that it is a small bird. The male is black and white with a yellow cap on his head and the female is golden brown with brown markings. Another name for a bobolink is a whippoorwill* (their call sounds a little like someone saying the word whippoorwill). Thanks to Eric Pittenger for this additional information. * Apparently this is not the case. Clarice Olle has been kind enough to point out that the above is in fact incorrect. A bob-o-link (short for Robert of Lincoln) is NOT the same bird as a whippoorwill. This is confirmed on the site at http://nationalzoo.si.edu/default.cfm John Canepa as also provided the following information: Bobolinks and whippoorwills are two different birds. The bobolink is a small-medium size bird dwelling in open fields where it makes its nest on the ground and has one of the most amazing and hysterical songs ever. The whippoorwill is a medium size bird, active at night, with plumage so as that you practically step on them as they rest on the forest floor. An interesting note about the whippoorwill is that they will come to rest in a circle, with their tails all facing in so that they can be protected from danger. Susan Vanderveen also confirms - I respectively submit the information that a Bobolink and Whip-poor-will are not two terms for one bird. They are two very distinct species. A BRACE OR CLASH of bucks. Michael Haberl BUCK I was looking at your wonderful list of animal collectives for my website (everbosity.wordpress.com) and came across the use of "brace" several times, firstly under birds. A brace is a pair of anything and not specifically related to any animal. A player can score a brace of goals in a football match for example. I wouldn't consider it a collective title. Tench Ringgold BUDGERIGARS A CHATTER of budgerigars. BUFFALO BULLOCKS BUTTERFLIES A HERD, TROUP, GANG or OBSTINACY of buffalo A DROVE of bullocks. A SWARM or RABBLE of butterflies. A KALEIDOSCOPE of butterflies. Christina Gonzales A FLUTTER of butterflies. Priscilla Weikert A RAINBOW of butterflies. Amy Black BUZZARDS A WAKE of buzzards. Melissa Bee CAMELS CARIBOU CATERPILLARS A CARAVAN, FLOCK or TRAIN of camels. A HERD of caribou. An ARMY of caterpillars. Melissa Bee CATTLE A HERD, DROVE or DRIFT of cattle. A MOB of cattle (US and Australia) John Slay "Cattle" refers to both male and female cows. Gwendolyn Cannon Gwendolyn Cannon suggests that 'Cattle' refers to both male and female cows. You must be joshing me Gwendolyn. There is no such thing as a male cow ! He's either a "Bull" or a "steer/Ox". I'll bet you did that on purpose just to see how many responses you get, didn't you ? Donald Gillis Additional Clarification Although Donald is, of course, correct, in defence of Gwendolyn I think she was using the term 'cow' colloquially as it is quite difficult to think of a term which covers both sexes(hence the use of the term 'cattle' in the first place. According to Oxford Dictionaries - the definition of 'cattle' is 'large ruminant animals with horns and cloven hoofs, domesticated for meat or milk, or as beasts of burden; cows and oxen.' Another term for male cattle is 'bullock'. A bullock is a male domestic bovine animal that has been castrated and is raised for beef. A CLOWDER of cats. (sent in by Paul Chapin) A POUNCE of cats. A KINDLE, LITTER OR INTRIGUE (for kittens) Melissa Bee CATS A CLUTTER of cats. A COMFORT of cats. Gary Goldring A CHOWDER of cats. Amy Black CHEETAHS A COALITION of cheetahs Lisa Ashley Mayock CHICKEN CHICKS A BROOD, CLUTCH, FLOCK, RUN or PEEP of chicken A CLUTCH OR CHATTERING of chicks. Michael Haberl CHOUGHS CLAMS A CHATTERING of choughs. A BED of clams Clyde Hogendobler COATI (COATIMUNDI) COBRAS A BAND of coati (coatimundi) A QUIVER of cobras Michael Haberl COCKROACHES An INTRUSION of cockroaches. Melissa Bee COLTS COOTS A RAG of colts. A COVERT or COVER* of coots. Melissa Bee CORMORANTS A GULP (SOLITUDE) OR FLIGHT of cormorants. Melissa Bee COWS A HERD of cows. Patricia Ellistone A KINE of cows (12 cows are a FLINK) Michael Haberl * This term is not widely used these days and is considered archaic by some. "Kine" refers to only female cows (like a dairy herd). "Cattle" refers to both male and female cows. Gwendolyn Cannon SEE ALSO "CATTLE" above for other terms. COYOTE A PACK of coyotes A TRAIN of coyotes ald Kross Don A BAND of coyotes Haberl Michael A ROUT of coyotes Stockwell Bud CRABS A BUSHEL* of crabs Kristen Reece A CAST of crabs C. MacIntire For your information, a bushel of crabs is what you call it if you are buying crabs to eat. Bushel is the measurement of how many you will buy (i.e. Half a bushel, two bushels). Its like buying meat in pounds at the deli. eaten. I believe a group of live crabs is called a cast. Steve Miller has also pointed out that it is incorrect to apply this label to certain specific species e.g. a bushel of crabs as you could equally have a bushel of corn. CRANES A HERD, SEIGE or SEDGE of cranes * fMelissa Bee CROCODILES A CONGREGATION or NEST A BASK or FLOAT of crocodiles. Michael Haberl A STRIKER (unconfirmed) Mike Paget CROWS A HOVER, MUSTER, or PARCEL of crows. A MURDER of crows Jill Dobbs, Rachael Blomeley and anon. A HORDE of crows. Melissa Bee A PARLIAMENT of crows. Jill Dean CUBS CURLEW CURS A LITTER of cubs A HERD of curlew A COWARDICE of curs. Michael Haberl DEER ROE DEER A HERD, LEASH or MOB of deer A BEVY of roe deer. Melissa Bee DOGFISH A TROOP of dogfish DOGS A PACK (wild dogs) or KENNEL of dogs A COWARDICE of curs. ) A LITTER of puppies. Melissa Bee DOLPHINS A SCHOOL of dolphins. A POD of dolphins. Audrie Dugger DONKEYS A HERD or PACE of donkeys/asses Melissa Bee & Michael Haberl Melissa Bee DOTTEREL A TRIP of dotterel. Apparently a Dotterel is a rare plover of upland areas of Eurasia. Thanks to Linwood Lyons for supplying this useful information. DOVES A FLIGHT, DULE or DOLE of doves. A PITYING of turtle doves. Melissa Bee A PLAGUE of doves Jay Johnson DUCKS A RAFT, PADDLING or BUNCH of ducks on water. A TEAM, BRACE, BED, FLIGHT OR FLOCK* of wild ducks in flight. Melissa Bee A BADLING of ducks. Gordon Potts I was looking at your wonderful list of animal collectives for my website (everbosity.wordpress.com) and came across the use of "brace" several times, firstly under birds. A brace is a pair of anything and not specifically related to any animal. A player can score a brace of goals in a football match for example. I wouldn't consider it a collective title. Tench Ringgold DUNLINS EAGLES A FLING of dunlins A CONVOCATION of eagles. A CONGREGATION of eagles. Mike Field EELS An ARRAY of eels. John Beumer A SEETHING of eels. David Thomson ELEPHANTS A HERD or PARADE* of elephants also Raila and Jon Foley A CRASH of elephants. Susan Walsh ELK EMUS A HERD of elk. A GANG of elk (US) A MOB of emus. Michael Haberl FERRETS A BUSINESS of ferrets. ( Clyde Hogendobler, Phillip Joss & Brian Schott) A BUSYNESS of ferrets. Angus Mackintosh Other spellings of this term can be see at http://www.all-aboutferrets.com/collective-noun-for-ferrets.html FINCHES FISH A CHARM of finches A SHOAL, DRAFT, NEST, SCHOOL of fish. A RUN of fish in motion. * Melissa Bee FLAMINGOES A STAND of flamingoes. Melissa Bee A FLAMBOYANCE of flamingoes. Kevin Yocum FLIES A CLOUD, HATCH, BUSINESS* or SWARM of flies. * Melissa Bee FOXES A SKULK of foxes Clyde Hogendobler A CLOUD, TROOP, or COMPANY of foxes. A LEASH OR EARTH of foxes.* * Melissa Bee FROGS An ARMY or COLONY of frogs. A KNOT of frogs. Michael Haberl Luke Fewings GEESE GERBILS GIRAFFES A GAGGLE or FLOCK of geese. A SKEIN, TEAM or WEDGE of geese (in the air) A PLUMP of geese (on water) A HORDE of gerbils. A CORPS, TROOP, HERD of giraffes. A TOWER of giraffes. Melissa Bee A KINDERGARTEN of giraffes. James Marohn A JOURNEY of giraffes. Raila and Jon Foley A KALEIDOSCOPE of giraffes Jess Gayner (via South African Game Ranger) GNATS A CLOUD OR HORDE of gnats. Melissa Bee GNUS An IMPLAUSIBILITY of gnus. Andrew Davidson GOATS A FLOCK, HERD or TRIBE of goats A TRIP of goats (This is not one I have heard of before thank you Lee Lundberg) A CHARM of goldfinches. A TROUBLING of goldfish. A BAND of gorillas Clyde Hogendobler GOLDFINCHES GOLDFISH GORILLAS A WHOOP of gorillas. Several people have suggested a 'flange' of gorillas as this was featured in Series 2, episode 5 of 'Not The Nine O'Clock News' on the 28/04/1980 http://fans.noumene.com/ntnonfan/not.php?sketches#gorilla however, I feel this actually puts the term in doubt as appears to be qualified by Stephen Fry at:http://old.qi.com/talk/viewtopic.php?t=8498&postdays=0&pos torder=asc&start=15&sid=764b6eda4eab5327541dcc71faae 5e12 A CLOUD of grasshoppers. A LEASH of greyhounds. A PACK or COVEY of grouse A BAZAAR of guillemots. GRASSHOPPERS GREYHOUNDS GROUSE GUILLEMOTS GUINEA FOWL A CONFUSION of guinea fowl. Alexandra Bylczynski A RASP of guinea fowl. Reginald Hughes GUINEA PIGS A GROUP of guinea pigs Mike Holden GULLS A COLONY of gulls. Melissa Bee HAMSTERS A HORDE of hamsters. Margie and John HARES A HUSK, DOWN or MUTE of hares. A TRACE of hares. Alexandra Bylczynski HAWKS A CAST, KETTLE (flying in large numbers) or BOIL (two or more) of hawks. Melissa Bee HEDGEHOGS HENS HERONS An ARRAY of hedgehogs. A BROOD of hens. A SCATTERING, SEIGE or SEDGE* of herons. * Melissa Bee HERRING An ARMY of herring. Melissa Bee HIPPOPOTAMI A BLOAT of hippopotami (or hippopotamuses) A RAFT of hippopotami Jess Gayner (via South African Game Ranger) HOATZIN (South American jungle bird) A DONGLE of hoatzin. Elliot Eaton HOGS A DRIFT or PARCEL of hogs. Michael Haberl HORNETS A NEST of hornets. Melissa Bee HORSES A STUD or STRING of horses (Breeding) A TEAM, HARRAS, PAIR or RAG of horses (i.e. colts.)* A FIELD, HERD, REMUDA, SET or STABLE of horses. * Melissa Bee HOUNDS A PACK, KENNEL, MUTE or CRY of hounds Possibly LEASH of hounds (but cannot confirm this fact) John Branda. HUMMINGBIRDS A CHARM of hummingbirds Richard Sanborn BA, MA, JD HYENAS A CACKLE of hyenas. Melissa Bee INSECTS JACKRABBITS JAYS A SWARM of insects A HUSK of jackrabbits. A PARTY or SCOLD of jays. Melissa Bee JELLYFISH KANGAROOS KITTENS LADYBIRDS (LADYBUGS/LADYBEETLES) LAPWINGS A BROOD, SMUCK or SMACK of jellyfish. A MOB or TROOP of kangaroos A KENDLE, KINDLE or LITTER of kittens. A LOVELINESS of ladybirds. Sent in by Simon Odell - not authenticated but too nice to omit. A DESERT or DECEIT* of lapwings. Melissa Bee LARKS A BEVY of larks. An EXALTATION of larks. Elazar Friedman An ASCENSION of larks. Michael Haberl LEMURS A TROOP of lemurs. Alex Dunkel LEOPARDS A LEAP of leopards Clyde Hogendobler LICE LIONS A FLOCK of lice. A PRIDE, FLOCK, SAWT, SOUSE, or TROOP of lions. A SAULT of lions. Alexandra Bylczynski LOCUSTS LOONS A CLOUD, PLAGUE or SWARM of locusts. A RAFT of loons. Dr. D. T. Mulhearn Dr. Mulhearn kindly provided some additional information on this subject. "The term is not often usable because they rarely group. On occasion however, for reasons yet unknown, they will meet for short periods, on a lake in groups numbering from a half dozen to a few dozen. They drift around the lake in their raft for a few days until they eventually again go their separate ways." A TITTERING, TIDING, GULP, MURDER or CHARM of magpies. * Melissa Bee MAGPIES MALLARDS A SORD or BRACE* of mallards. Elazar Friedman * Melissa Bee I was looking at your wonderful list of animal collectives for my website (everbosity.wordpress.com) and came across the use of "brace" several times, firstly under birds. A brace is a pair of anything and not specifically related to any animal. A player can score a brace of goals in a football match for example. I wouldn't consider it a collective title. Tench Ringgold MARES A STUD of mares. Michael Haberl MARTENS A RICHNESS of martens. Melissa Bee A RICHESSE of martens. Jayne Collins MEERKATS A MOB of meerkats. Kristin Howard MICE MINNOWS MOLES A MISCHIEF of mice. A HORDE of mice. A HARVEST of mice. A COLONY of mice. A NEST of mice. A STEAM of minnows. A LABOUR of moles. Phillip Joss MONGOOSES A BUSINESS of mongooses. Steve Rundstrom MONKEYS A TROOP, CARTLOAD or BARREL* of monkeys * Melissa Bee MOOSE MOSQUITOES MULES A HERD of moose. A SCOURGE of mosquitoes. A BARREN, PACK* or SPAN of mules. * Melissa Bee NIGHTINGALES A WATCH of nightingales. An ENCHANTMENT of nightingales. David Thomson OTTERS A FAMILY, BEVY or ROMP* of otters. * Melissa Bee A RAFT of otters Donald Cheek. OWLS A PARLIAMENT of owls. Anonymous contributor & Raila and Jon Foley A STARE or WISDOM of owls. Grant Schneider A STUDY of owls. Amelia B. OXEN A TEAM or YOKE of oxen.. Melissa Bee A DROVE or HERD of oxen Michael Haberl A SPAN* of oxen Richard Bowen (I believe this may refer to a team of two or more) OYSTERS A BED of oysters Clyde Hogendobler and Kristen Reece PARROTS A PANDEMONIUM or COMPANY of parrots. * Melissa Bee PARTRIDGES PEACOCKS A COVEY of partridges A MUSTER or OSTENTATION* of peacock. * Melissa Bee A PULCHRITUDE of peacocks. * S. M. Steven. PEEPS A LITTER of peeps. Michael Haberl PELICANS A SQUADRON of pelicans. Miranda PENGUINS A POD or SCOOP of pelicans. A ROOKERY or COLONY* of penguins * Melissa Bee PHEASANTS A HEAD, NYE, NEST, , NIDE (BROOD)* or BEVY of pheasants. * Melissa Bee A BOUQUET of pheasants (in flight) Alexandra Bylczynski PIGEONS A KIT of pigeons (flying together) A FLOCK or FLIGHT of pigeons. Michael Haberl I have been advised by Terry West that this can also be a "LOFT" of pigeons. I am, however, a little nervous about this one as I know pigeons' living quarters are called a Loft. You question a 'loft' of pigeons because a loft may be a pigeon's home. Many creatures can be referred to in this way - cf. a dray of squirrels; and I wonder if a cete of badgers is not, at heart, a 'set' of badgers. Roger Whiteway PIGS A HERD, TRIP or LITTER of pigs A DRIFT, DROVE, SOUNDER (swine), TEAM, PASSEL (hog s)* * Melissa Bee PLOVERS PONIES PORCUPINES A STAND, WING OR CONGREGATION of plovers A DROVE OR STRING of ponies. A PRICKLE of porcupines. * Melissa Bee PORPOISES PRAIRIE DOGS A HERD, SCHOOL or POD of porpoises. A COTERIE of prairie dogs. Ken PTARMIGAN PUPS A COVEY of Ptarmigan A LITTER of pups A PUDDLE of puppies Sarah Smith QUAIL A BEVY, DRIFT or COVEY* of quail * Melissa Bee RABBITS A BURY, COLONY, CIRCLE, NEST, HERD (domestic), LITT ER (young) of rabbits. * Melissa Bee A TRACE of rabbits. Alexandra Bylczynski Several people, including Lyle McNair, have submitted this term but it has always been my understanding that 'warren' was the name given to the network of interconnecting rabbit burrows in which rabbits live. Collective nouns are notoriously difficult to authenticate but during research, although I could not find official clarification that warren is an authentic collective noun, I have seen other references to its use so I have decided to include it. A WARREN of rabbits. Lyle has now sent me some additional information regarding the use of the term "warren" as a collective noun. The "World English Dictionary" (accessible through www.dictionary.com) defines "warren" as "a colony of rabbits" and "colony" in a zoological sense is further defined as "a group of the same type of animal or plant living or growing together, especially in large numbers". A GAZE of raccoons. Chris Lam RACCOONS RACEHORSES RATS A NURSERY of raccoons. A STRING of racehorses A COLONY of rats. A PACK or SWARM of rats. Michael Haberl A MISCHIEF of rats. Phil Malia, RATTLESNAKES A RHUMBA of rattlesnakes. Michael Haberl. RAVENS An UNKINDNESS of ravens. A MURDER of ravens. Michelle Hellstern A CONSPIRACY of ravens. Alex Baxter REINDEER A HERD of reindeer. RHINOS A CRASH or HERD of rhinos Clyde Hogendobler) Michael Haberl/ Raila and Jon Foley ROEBUCKS ROOKS A BEVY of roebucks. A BUILDING or ROOKERY of rooks. A CLAMOUR of rooks. Michael Haberl A PARLIAMENT of rooks. Clayton Deathe ROTIFERS (a type of plankton found in lakes and rivers) A POD of rotifers. Matt RUFFS SARDINES SASQUATCH A HILL of ruffs A FAMILY of sardines. A PUNGENT of sasquatch. Lindsay Boe SCHNAUZERS A STENCH of Schnauzers No complaints please, this was sent in by DD a Schnauzer owner who is a Veterinary Surgeon (identity protected by me, for obvious reasons!!!!) A RAFT of sea otters Donald Cheek. SEA OTTERS SEAGULLS A FLOCK of seagulls. Jason Murray SEAHORSES A HERD of seahorses. * * It is rare for seahorses to group together so there is no real collective noun but the above is the term sometimes used for a collection of seahorses. Paul Bergeron has also advised that the term for the offspring of seahorses is "fry". SEALS A HERD, HAREM, TRIP or ROOKERY of seals A POD of seals (a small herd) * Tom Clarke has commented - "I note that you list harem for seals. A harem usually refers to a group of female seals who have been organized or collected by a single male for breeding purposes." * Leigh-Anne Kolasinski advises that the term "rookery" is normally used for the place where seals give birth rather than as a collective noun. Another term used for on land habitat of seals/sea lions is 'haul-out' but this would not be used as a collective noun. D. C. Reid. I have noticed that many of the collective nouns featured on the various pages do in fact refer to the habitat rather than groups but these terms are notoriously difficult to authenticate; even the most prestigious dictionaries do not feature them, presumably for that reason. I am led to believe, however, that the The Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus (ed. Maurice Waite, 2007) shows this term as being a collective noun. SHARKS A SHIVER of sharks. Melissa Bee SHEEP A FLOCK, HERD, HIRSEL, PACK, DROVE* or TRIP of sheep Courtesy of Melissa Bee A MOB of sheep (Australian) Anthony Coates SKUNKS A SURFEIT of skunks. Mary Gutierrez SKYLARKS An ASCENSION of skylarks. David Milne SNAKES A DEN, BED, PIT or SLITHER of snakes. A NEST or KNOT of snakes. Melissa Bee A BROOD of snakes (a family group) Robert Richards SNIPE SPARROWS A WISP or WALK of snipe A HOST of sparrows. A KNOT of sparrows. (Thomas Hardy Far from the Madding Crowd) Steve SQUIRRELS A DRAY or SCURRY* of squirrels. * Melissa Bee * Laurel Parker has pointed out "I believe the term "dray" of squirrels is incorrect, since a dray is the name for a squirrel's sleeping quarters, and most of the time there is only one squirrel inhabiting a dray. At most, a dray would house a litter (2-4 babies) plus mom but that is only twice a year. Squirrels do use a buddy system when they can and pair or triple up for safety ( this is not their mates but often siblings or two weaker members of a greater community will buddy for strength in numbers). Any way you look at it, a dray doesn't hold much of a group." I did some research on the subject and the term "dray" some appear to be the popular choice, however, like Laurel, experts say that as squirrels are fairly solitary creatures there is probably no need for a collective noun. I doubt if the lady who sent in the photos featured on the following site would agree! http://www.wildaboutbritain.co.uk/forums/mammal-forums/12141-do-i-really-deserve.html STARLINGS A MURMATION of starlings. Elazar Friedman A MURMURATION of starlings. Corrected by Andrew Okulitch A FILTH of starlings Wayne Bickley A CHATTERING of starlings. Richard Sanborn BA, MA, JD AN AFFLICTION of starlings. John Nanian STINGRAYS A FEVER of stingrays. Ellie Foran & Darryll Griffiths STORKS A MUSTERING of storks. Melissa Bee SWALLOWS A FLIGHT or GULP of swallows SWANS A GAME, BANK, TEAM, HERD or BEVY* of swans. A WEDGE of swans in the air. Melissa Bee A LAMENTATION of swans. Michael Haberl A BALLET of swans. Tom SWIFTS A FLOCK of swifts Michael Haberl SWINE TADPOLES A HERD, DRIFT OR SOUNDER of swine A CLOUD of tadpoles. Summer Robinson Jim Arnosky's book A Kettle of Hawks and other wildlife groups TEAL TERMITES THRUSHES TIGERS A SPRING of teal. A BROOD, COLONY, NEST OR SWARM of termites. A MUTATION of thrushes. An AMBUSH or STREAK* of tigers. * Melissa Bee TOADS A KNOT or KNAB of toads Clyde Hogendobler TORTOISES TROUT TURKEYS A CREEP of tortoises. A HOVER of trout. A RAFTER or GANG* of turkeys. * Melissa Bee A CLUTCH * of turkeys. Anon * I think this term usually refers to the eggs e.g. "a clutch of eggs" TURTLE DOVES A PITYING or DULE of turtle doves. Melissa Bee TURTLES A BALE, DOLE or NEST* of turtles. Clyde Hogendobler A TURN of turtles. * Melissa Bee UNICORNS A FANTASY of unicorns. Natalie Stevens A BLESSING of unicorns. Jayne Collins. A GLORY of unicorns. Brigitte Wray-Miller (via Bruce Coville) A SURPRISE of unicorns. Danielle W. (via Jane Yolen's short story "The Boy Who Drew Unicorns" A NEST of vipers. Mel issa Bee VIPERS A BROOD of vipers. The term 'brood' has been applied to vipers, most notably by Jesus (Matthew 12:34, Matthew 23:33), but also by John the Baptist (Matthew 3:7, Luke 3:7). Whether or not this stands up to scrutiny and qualifies as a precedent (given that neither of the two were scientists, nor were the translators of the Bible) is, of course, up to you. Indy Sambasivam VULTURES A COMMITTEE of vultures. Kevin Yocum WALRUSES WASPS A HERD or POD of walruses. A PLADGE of wasps. A PAIL of wasps. A NEST of wasps. Alexandra Bylczynski WATERFOWL A BUNCH, KNOB, TRIP or PLUMP* of waterfowl * Melissa Bee WEASELS A *BOOGLE, GANG, CONFUSION or PACK of weasels. ** Contributed by Dr Scott A McGinlay BVMS MRCVS DVM Wayne Bickley WHALES WIDGEON WILDFOWL A SCHOOL, HERD or GAM of whales A POD of whales (small school) A GRIND of bottle nose whales A COMPANY or TRIP of widgeon A BUNCH, TRIP or PLUMP of wildfowl. A KNOB of wildfowl (less than 30) WOLVES WOMBATS A PACK or ROUT of wolves A WISDOM of wombats. Andy Williams WOODCOCKS WOODPECKERS WORMS WRENS A FALL of woodcocks. A DESCENT of woodpeckers. A CLEW of worms. A HERD of wrens A CHIME of wrens p Joss Philli ZEBRAS A ZEAL, HERD or DAZZLE of zebras * Raila and Jon Foley	Toad
Who was the secretary-General of the Commonwealth from 1975 - 97?	172 unusual names for groups of animals 172 unusual names for groups of animals by These are names for groups of animals. If you have updated information please email Ariion at You donï¿½t need to worry about exam 70-450 & 70-511 pdf preparation. We provide updated exam 70-433 and examcollection 70-536 with 100% guarantee in exam 70-513 exams. The List of animal groups follow the article below Many species of animals, particularly those domesticated, have been given specific names for the male, the female, and the young of the species. There are a few generic terms, "bull-cow-calf", for instance, that are found across species, but many species have been granted unique names for these gender/age characteristics. It is thought that many of the bizarre words used for collective groupings of animals were first published in 1486 in the Book of St. Albans, in an essay on hunting attributed to a Dame Juliana Barnes. Many of the words are thought to be chosen simply for the humorous or poetic images they conjured up in her lively imagination. Story credit: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia en.wikipedia.org Albatross come in groups called a rookery Alligators come in groups called a congregation Alpaca come in groups called a herd Antelope come in groups called a herd Apes come in groups called a shrewdness or troop Antelope come in groups called a herd Ants come in groups called a colony, army, swarm or nest Armadillo come in groups called a roll Asses come in groups called a pace, herd or drove Auks come in groups called a colony, flock or raft Baboons come in groups called a troop or flange Bacteria come in groups called a culture Badgers come in groups called a cete, colony, set or company Barracudas come in groups called a battery Bats come in groups called a colony or cloud Bass come in groups called a shoal Bears come in groups called a sloth, sleuth or litter Beavers come in groups called a colony or family Bees come in groups called a grist, hive, swarm or nest Birds come in groups called a brood, clutch, flight, flock or dissimulation Bison come in groups called a herd Bitterns come in groups called a sedge, or seige Bloodhounds come in groups called a sute Bobolinks come in groups called a chain Boar sounder or singular Buffalo come in groups called a herd, troop, gang, or obstinancy Bullfinches come in groups called a bellowing Bullocks come in groups called a drove Butterflies come in groups called a flight, or flutter Buzzards come in groups called a wake Camels come in groups called a caravan, train, or flock Capons come in groups called a mews Caribou come in groups called a herd Caterpillars come in groups called a army Cats come in groups called a clowder, clutter, pounce, dout, nuisance, glorying, or glare Cattle come in groups called a drove, herd, or team Cheetahs come in groups called a coalition Chickens come in groups called a brood, or peep Chicks come in groups called a clutch, or chattering Chinchilla come in groups called a colony Choughs come in groups called a clattering Clams come in groups called a bed Cobras come in groups called a quiver Cockroaches come in groups called a intrusion Cod come in groups called a lap Colts come in groups called a rag, or rake Coots come in groups called a cover, or raft Cormorants come in groups called a gulp Cows come in groups called a kine Coyotes come in groups called a band Crabs come in groups called a cast Cranes come in groups called a sedge, or seige Crocodiles come in groups called a bask, or float Crones come in groups called a cackle Crows come in groups called a murder, horde, parcel, or storytelling Cur Dogs come in groups called a cowardice Curlews come in groups called a herd Debutants come in groups called a bevy or soirï¿½e Deer come in groups called a herd, leash, or gang Dinosaur come in groups called a herd or pack Dogs come in groups called a kennel Dolphins come in groups called a pod Donkeys come in groups called a drove, pace, or herd Dotterel come in groups called a trip Doves come in groups called a arc, dule, bevy, cote, dole, or paddling Ducks come in groups called a floc, brace, or badling Dunlins come in groups called a fling Eagles come in groups called a convocation, or aerie Eels come in groups called a swarm, bed, or fry Elephants come in groups called a herd, or memory Elk come in groups called a gang, or herd Emus come in groups called a mob Falcons come in groups called a cast Fat men come in groups called a bloat Ferrets come in groups called a business, cast, or fesnying Finches come in groups called a charm Fish come in groups called a draft, nest, shoal, school, catch, drought, or haul Flamingoes come in groups called a stand, or flamboyance Flies come in groups called a business, swarm, or cloud Frogs come in groups called a army, colony, or knot Fox come in groups called a leash, skulk, earth, lead, or troop Game Birds come in groups called a volary, brace, plump or knob Geese come in groups called a flock, skein, gaggle, herd, or corps Gerbil come in groups called a horde Giraffes come in groups called a herd, corps or tower Gnats come in groups called a cloud, horde, or swarm Gnus come in groups called a implausibility Goats come in groups called a tribe, trip, drove, herd, or flock Goldfinches come in groups called a charm Goldfish come in groups called a glint, or troubling Gorillas come in groups called a band, or troop Goshawks come in groups called a flight Grasshoppers come in groups called a cloud Greyhounds come in groups called a leash Grouse come in groups called a pack, or covey Guillemots come in groups called a bazaar Guinea pigs come in groups called a muddle Gulls come in groups called a colony, or screech Guinea Fowl come in groups called a confusion Hamster come in groups called a horde Hare come in groups called a warren, down or husk Hawks come in groups called a cast, kettle or oil Hedgehogs come in groups called a array Herons come in groups called a sedge, siege, or hedge Herring come in groups called a army, or shoal Hippopotamuses come in groups called a bloat Hog come in groups called a drove, or herd Hornets come in groups called a nest, or bike Horses come in groups called a team, harras, stable, troop, or stud Hound Dogs come in groups called a cry, mute, or pack Human come in groups called a clan, crowd, family, community, gang, mob, or tribe Hummingbirds come in groups called a charm Husbands come in groups called a couch or bench Hyenas come in groups called a cackle Impalas come in groups called a herd Insects come in groups called a horde, nest, swarm, rabble, or plague Jackrabbit come in groups called a husk Jays come in groups called a party, scold, or band Jellyfish come in groups called a smack, or brood Kangaroos come in groups called a troop, mob, or herd Kittens come in groups called a kindle, litter, or intrigue Koala come in groups called a cling Ladybirds come in groups called a loveliness Lapwings come in groups called a deceit Larks come in groups called a exaltation, or ascension Leopards come in groups called a leap Lice come in groups called a flock Lions come in groups called a pride, sault, or troop Lizards come in groups called a lounge Llama come in groups called a cria herd Locusts come in groups called a plague Magpies come in groups called a tiding, gulp, murder, or charm Mallards come in groups called a brace or sord Martens come in groups called a richness Mice come in groups called a mischief or nest Midges come in groups called a Bite Minnows come in groups called a shoal, steam, or swarm Moles come in groups called a labor, company, or movement Monkeys come in groups called a troop, barrel, carload, cartload, or tribe Moose come in groups called a herd Mosquitoes come in groups called a scourge Mudhens come in groups called a fleet Mules come in groups called a pack, span, barren, or rake Nightingales come in groups called a watch Opossum come in groups called a grin Ostrich come in groups called a flock Otters come in groups called a romp, bevy, family, or raft Owls come in groups called a parliament, or stare Oxen come in groups called a team, yoke, or drove Oysters come in groups called a bed Pandas come in groups called a bamboo Parrots come in groups called a company, or pandemonium Partridge come in groups called a covey, or bew Peacocks come in groups called a muster, ostentation, or pride Pekingese come in groups called a pomp Pelicans come in groups called a pod Penguins come in groups called a colony, rookery, huddle, crï¿½che, Pheasants come in groups called a nest, nye, nide, or bouquet Pigeons come in groups called a flight, flock, or kit Pigs come in groups called a drift, drove, singular, sounder, team, passel, drift, or parcel Pilchards come in groups called a shoal Platypus come in groups called a puddle Plovers come in groups called a congregation or wing Polecats come in groups called a chine Ponies come in groups called a string Porcupines come in groups called a prickle Porpoises come in groups called a herd, pod, school, crowd, or shoal Prairie Dogs come in groups called a coterie Pronghorn come in groups called a herd Ptarmigans come in groups called a covey Puppies come in groups called a litter Quail come in groups called a Bevy, covey Rabbits come in groups called a colony, warren, bury, trace, trip, herd, litter or nest Raccoons come in groups called a gaze Rats come in groups called a colony, pack, plague, or swarm Rattlesnakes come in groups called a rhumba or coil Ravens come in groups called a unkindness, or storytelling Reindeer come in groups called a herd Rhinoceroses come in groups called a crash, or stubbornness Roebucks come in groups called a bevy Rooks come in groups called a building, clamor, or parliament Ruffs come in groups called a hill Salmon come in groups called a run Sand Dollar come in groups called a purse Sandpipers come in groups called a fling Sardines come in groups called a family Scorpions come in groups called a bed, nest Seabirds come in groups called a Wreck Seals come in groups called a pod, bob, harem, herd, or rookery Seastar come in groups called a constellation Sea Urchin come in groups called a vagrant Serval come in groups called a sluthe Sharks come in groups called a shiver, school, or shoal Sheep come in groups called a drove, flock, down, hurtle, fold, pack, or trip Sheldrakes come in groups called a doading Skunk come in groups called a surfeit Skylarks come in groups called a exultation Squirrels come in groups called a dray, scurry Snails come in groups called a escargatoire, rout, or walk Snakes come in groups called a den, nest, pit, bed, or knot Snipe come in groups called a walk, or wisp Sparrows come in groups called a host Spiders come in groups called a cluster, or clutter Springbok come in groups called a herd Squirrels come in groups called a dray, or scurry Shrews (mouse-like animal) come in groups called a whisker Shrews (women) come in groups called a quarrel or nag Starlings come in groups called a murmuration, or chattering Stingrays come in groups called a fever Stoats come in groups called a pack, trip Storks come in groups called a mustering, or muster Swallows come in groups called a flight, or gulp Swans come in groups called a bevy, bank, herd, wedge, or flight Swifts come in groups called a flock Swine come in groups called a sounder Teal come in groups called a spring Termites come in groups called a colony, nest, swarm, or brood Thrush come in groups called a mutation Tigers come in groups called a streak, or ambush Toads come in groups called a knot, knab, or nest Toodlers come in groups called a tumble Trout come in groups called a hover Turkeys come in groups called a rafter, gang, or posse Turtles come in groups called a bale, nest, turn, or dole Turtle Doves come in groups called a pitying, or piteousness Unicorns come in groups called a blessing Vipers come in groups called a generation, or nest Vultures come in groups called a venue or kettle Wallaby come in groups called a mob Walruses come in groups called a herd, or pod Wasps come in groups called a nest, swarm Water ducks come in groups called a raft, team, or paddling Waterfowl come in groups called a knob, or plump Weasles come in groups called a gang, colony, or pack Whales come in groups called a pod, gam, herd, school, or mod Widgeons come in groups called a company Wild Cats come in groups called a destruction Wild Dogs come in groups called a pack Wildfowl come in groups called a plump Wild Horses come in groups called a herd Witches come in groups called a flight or cackle Wives come in groups called a nag Wolves come in groups called a pack, route, or rout Wombats come in groups called a wisdom Woodcocks come in groups called a fall Woodpeckers come in groups called a descent Worms come in groups called a bed, clew, bunch, or clat Wrens come in groups called a herd Yak come in groups called a herd Yellow Jacket come in groups called a colony Zebras come in groups called a Crossing, Zeal, Cohorts, or Herd You donï¿½t need to worry about exam 70-450 & 70-511 pdf preparation. We provide updated exam 70-433 and examcollection 70-536 with 100% guarantee in exam 70-513 exams. ï¿½ Copyright ariionkathleenbrindley.com 2012 If you've written a story or a novel, click Literary Agents email addresses to see a list of literary agents' e-mail addresses Click on the photo to visit the website Are you looking for a kitten? Click Himalayan kittens for sale to see Himalayan kittens If you would like to see some Persian kittens, click Persian kittens for sale to go to Kittybabies.com If you have written a novel or short story and need a professional edit and analysis, please click Novel Editing to see additional information Writers' Free Reference is a list of free websites providing information useful to writers and others. Please click List of free reference websites to see the free list	i don't know
A 'Tiding' or 'Tittering'is the collective noun for which type of birds?	Group Names for Birds Group Names for Birds: A Partial List By Terry Ross A bevy of quail A bouquet of pheasants [when flushed] A brood of hens A building of rooks A cast of hawks [or falcons] A charm of finches A colony of penguins A company of parrots A congregation of plovers A cover of coots A covey of partridges [or grouse or ptarmigans] A deceit of lapwings A descent of woodpeckers A dissimulation of birds A dole of doves An exaltation of larks A fall of woodcocks A flight of swallows [or doves, goshawks, or cormorants] A gaggle of geese [wild or domesticated] A host of sparrows A kettle of hawks [riding a thermal] A murmuration of starlings A murder of crows A muster of storks A nye of pheasants [on the ground] An ostentation of peacocks A paddling of ducks [on the water] A parliament of owls A party of jays A peep of chickens A pitying of turtledoves A raft of ducks A rafter of turkeys A siege of herons A skein of geese [in flight] A sord of mallards A spring of teal A tidings of magpies A trip of dotterel An unkindness of ravens A watch of nightingales A wedge of swans [or geese, flying in a "V"] A wisp of snipe Any of these group names may properly be used by birders who wish to display their erudition, although it is probably linguistically inaccurate (and it certainly is bad manners) to upbraid someone who refers to "a bunch of ravens" by saying, "Surely you mean `an unkindness of ravens,' my good fellow." Most of these terms date back at least 500 years. Some of them have been in continuous use since then; others have gone out of fashion and been resurrected in the last century or two; still others only exist on lists. Most of these terms are listed in James Lipton's An Exaltation of Larks. Lipton's list is substantially based on very old sources. There were manuscript lists of group names in the 15th century, and these lists appeared in some of the first books printed in England. Many of them make their first appearance in John Lydgate's Debate between the Horse, Goose, and Sheep (1440); and Lydgate's terms along with others appear in The Book of Hawking and Hunting (also known as The Book of St. Albans) by Dame Juliana Barnes (1486). Whether Lydgate and Barnes coined any of these terms, or whether they were setting down the terms that were considered proper in their day is not known. Many of the terms did catch on, and the lists they appeared on were frequently reprinted. The best source I know for investigating the histories of English words is the Oxford English Dictionary. Unfortunately, on the question whether these terms ever were or still are appropriate, the OED is not entirely helpful. To make sense of the matter, I have placed the group names into groups-- GROUP A--The following group names are standard: A bevy of quail A bouquet of pheasants A brood of hens A cast of hawks A charm of finches A covey of partridges A flight of swallows A gaggle of geese A nye of pheasants A siege of herons A skein of geese A trip of dotterel A wisp of snipe GROUP B--These terms are not group names for a particular type of bird, but have been commonly used for many different types: Colony Company Flock Parliament Party GROUP C--These terms are archaic; they were once obsolete, but they have been revived somewhat in the 19th or 20th centuries: A building of rooks A murmuration of starlings A muster of peacocks A peep of chickens A sord of mallards A spring of teal A watch of nightingales GROUP D--These terms are obsolete; they appeared on the old lists, but almost nobody has used them in centuries: A congregation of plovers A dissimulation of birds A dole of doves A fall of woodcock A host of sparrows A paddling of ducks An unkindness of ravens GROUP E--These terms are not in the OED at all as group names for birds: A cover of coots A kettle of hawks A murder of crows An ostentation of peacocks A pitying of turtledoves A rafter of turkeys A tidings of magpies My categories are imprecise, but they provide some guidance about usage. Have no qualms about using any of the terms in group A; use the terms in group B for any group of birds that seems apt; use the terms in groups C and D only if you don't mind being thought pedantic or literary; avoid the terms in group E unless you know something the OED doesn't. Alas, the OED itself is not totally reliable: the word "kettle" (as both a noun and a verb) has been used by hawk watchers for many years, and it has often appeared in print; the OED editors obviously are not birders. It may well be that the other terms in group E appear on the 15th-century lists and were simply missed. Thanks to the following for their suggestions and contributions: Bruce Helmboldt, Stephan L. Moss, Pete Janzen, Macklin Smith, Billie Jo Johnstone, Richard Danca, Gail Mackiernan, Alice Rasa. Review the correspondence on this matter from BirdChat. View a list of whimsical group names submitted by chatters.	Magpie
What colour are the feetand legs of a Greylag Goose?	Collective Nouns Collective Nouns One of the many oddities of the English language is the multitude of different names given to collections or groups, be they beasts, birds, people or things. Many of these collective nouns are beautiful and evocative, even poetic. A colony of auks (flock, raft) A colony of avocets A flock of birds (dissimulation, fleet, flight, parcel, pod, volary, ) A sedge of bitterns (siege) A chain of bobolinks A brood of chickens (cletch, clutch, peep) A chattering of choughs (clattering) A covert of coots ( commotion, cover, fleet, flock, pod, rasp, swarm) A flight of cormorants (gulp) A sedge of cranes (herd, sedge, siege) A murder of crows ( hover, muster, parcel) A head of curlews (herd) A trip of dotterels A dole of doves ( dule, flight, piteousness, pitying, prettying) A flush of ducks (badelynge, brace, bunch, dopping, flock, paddling, plump, raft, safe, skein, sord, string, team) A flight of dunbirds (rush) A fling of dunlins A convocation of eagles (aerie) A cast of falcons A charm of finches (chirm, trembling, trimming) A stand of flamingos A gaggle of geese (flock, plump, skein, team, wedge) A charm of goldfinches (chattering, drum, troubling) A dopping of goosanders A covey of grouse (brace, brood, flight, pack) A bazaar of guillemots A mews of hawks (aerie, cast, kettle, mew, moulting, screw, stream) A brood of hens A sedge of herons (flight, hedge, rookery, siege) A charm of hummingbirds (chattering, drum, troubling) A colony of ibises A band of jays (party, scold) A desert of lapwings (deceit) A parcel of linnets An exaltation of larks (ascension, bevy, flight) A congregation of magpies (charm, flock, gulp, murder, tiding, tittering, tribe, ) A sord of mallards (flush, puddling, sute) A plump of moorhens A watch of nightingales (match, pray) A pride of ostriches (flock) A parliament of owls (stare) A fling of oxbirds A company of parrots (flock, pandemonium, psittacosis) A covey of partridges (bevy, bew, clutch, warren) A muster of peacocks (ostentation, pride) A pod of pelicans (scoop) A colony of penguins (parcel, rookery) A cadge of peregrines A nye of pheasants (bouquet, head, nide, warren, ) A flight of pigeons (flock, kit, passel, ) A knob of pintails [small number] A congregation of plovers (band, flight, leash, stand, wing) A rush of pochards (flight, knob[small number]) A run of poultry A bevy of quails (covey, drift) An unkindness of ravens (aerie, conspiracy) A crowd of redwings A parliament of rooks (building, clamour, congregation, shoal, wing) A hill of ruffs A dopping of sheldrakes (doading) A walk of snipes (wisp) A host of sparrows (meinie, quarrel, tribe, ubiquity) A murmuration of starlings (chattering, cloud, congregation, clutter) A mustering of storks (flight, phalanx) A flight of swallows (gulp) A herd of swans (bank, bevy, drift, eyrar, game, herd, lamentation, sownder, squadron, team, wedge, whiteness, whiting) A flock of swifts A spring of teals (bunch, coil, knob, raft) A mutation of thrushes A flock of turkeys (dole, dule, raffle, raft, rafter, posse) A pitying of turtledoves A colony of vultures (committee, wake) A plump of waterfowls (bunch, knob, raft) A company of widgeons (bunch, coil, flight, knob, trip) A trip of wildfowls (bunch, knob, lute, plump,scry, skein, sord, sute) A fall of woodcocks (covey, flight, plump) A descent of woodpeckers A cluster of antelopes (herd, tribe) A shrewdness of apes (troop) A pace of asses (drove, coffle, herd) A congress of baboons (flange, troop) A cete of badgers (colony) A cloud of bats (colony) A sloth of bears (sleuth) A colony of beavers (family, lodge) A herd of bisons (gang) A sute of bloodhounds A herd of boars (singular) A sounder of (wild) boars [12+] A herd of bucks (leash) A gang of buffalos (herd, obstinacy) A drove of bullocks A flock of camels (caravan, herd, train) A herd of caribous A clowder of cats (glaring, cluster, clutter) A destruction of (wild) cats (dout, dowt) A herd of cattle (drift, drove, mob) A herd of chamois A rake of colts (rack, rag) A bury of conies (game) A flink of cows [12+] A pack of coyotes (band, rout) A litter of cubs A herd of deers (bunch, leash, mob, parcel, rangale) A pack of dogs (kennel) A pod of dolphins (flock, school, team) A herd of donkeys (drove) A herd of elands A herd of elephants (parade) A gang of elks (herd) A business of ferrets (cast, fesnying) A skulk of foxes (earth, lead, leash, troop) A brace of geldings A journey of giraffes (corps, group, herd, tower) A herd of gnus (implausibility) A trip of goats (flock, herd, trip, tribe) A band of gorillas (whoop) A leash of greyhounds A group of guinea pigs A horde of hamsters A drove of hares (down, flick, herd, husk, kindle, leash, trace, trip) A herd of harts A array of hedgehogs (prickle) A parcel of hinds A bloat of hippopotami (crash, herd, pod, school, thunder) A drift of hogs (drove, parcel) A stable of horses (drove, harras, herd, remuda, string, stud, team) A pack of hounds (cry, hunt, kennel, leash, meet, mute, stable, sute) A clan of hyenas A mob of kangaroos (troop) A kindle of kittens (litter) A fall of lambs A leap of leopards (lepe) A kindle of leverets A pride of lions (flock, sault, sawt, sowse, troop) A herd of llamas A richness of martens (richesse) A mischief of mice (horde, nest, trip) A labour of moles (company, movement) A band of mongooses (pack) A troop of monkeys (cartload, mission, tribe, wilderness) A herd of moose A barren of mules (pack, rake, span) A family of otters (bevy, raft, romp) A team of oxen (drove, herd, meinie, span, yoke) A pomp of pekingese A drove of pigs (drift, flock, herd) A doylt of (tame) pigs A sounder of (wild) pigs A farrow of piglets (litter) An aurora of polar bears (pack) A chine of polecats A string of ponies (herd) A prickle of porcupines A school of porpoises (herd, pod) A coterie of prairie dogs (town) A litter of pups A colony of rabbits (bury, drove, flick, kindle, leash, nest, trace, warren, wrack) A field of racehorses (string) A nursery of raccoons (gaze) A colony of rats (horde, mischief, swarm) A crash of rhinoceroses (herd, stubbornness) A bevy of roe deers A colony of seals (harem, herd, pod, rookery, spring) A flock of sheep (down, drift, drove, fold, herd, meinie, mob, parcel, trip) A surfeit of skunks A dray of squirrels (colony) A pack of stoats (trip) A drove of swine (herd) A doylt of (tame) swine (drift, trip) A sounder of (wild) swine [12+] An ambush of tigers (streak) A blessing of unicorns A huddle of walruses (herd, ugly) A mob of wallabyies A sneak of weasels (gang, pack) A grind of bottle-nosed whales A school of whales (float, gam, herd, mob, pod, run, shoal, troup) A destruction of wildcats (dout) A herd of wildebeests A pack of wolves (herd, rout) A mob of wombats A colony of ants (army, bike, swarm) A swarm of bees (bike, cast, cluster, drift, erst, game, grist, hive, rabble, stand) A bike of (wild) bees A flight of butterflies (kaleidoscope, rabble, swarm) An army of caterpillars A swarm of flies (business, cloud, grist, hatch) A cloud of gnats (horde, rabble, swarm) A cloud of grasshoppers (cluster, swarm) A bike of hornets (nest, swarm) A flight of insects (horde, plague, rabble, swarm) A flock of lice (colony, infestation) A plague of locusts (cloud, swarm) A scourge of mosquitoes (swarm) A clutter of spiders (cluster) A colony of termites (swarm) A colony of wasps (bike, nest) A company of angel fish A company of archer fish A battery of barracudas A fleet of bass (shoal) A grind of blackfish A school of butterfly fish A school of cod A swarm of dragonet fish A troop of dogfish A shoal of fish (catch, draught, fray, haul, run, school) A glide of flying fish A glint of goldfish (troubling) A glean of herrings (army, shoal) A shoal of mackerels A shoal of minnows (steam, stream, swarm) A pack of perch A shoal of pilchards (school) A cluster of porcupine fish A party of rainbow fish A shoal of roach A bind of salmons(draught, leap, run, school, shoal) A family of sardines	i don't know
Which terrorist organisation was responsible for the hijacking of the cruise ship 'Achille Lauro'?	Chapter 6 -- Terrorist Organizations Chapter 6 -- Terrorist Organizations Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism April 30, 2008 Report Terrorist Organizations Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) aliases cited are consistent with and drawn from the Specially Designated Nationals list maintained by the Department of Treasury. The full list can be found at the following website: http://www.treasury.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/sdn/sdnlist.txt . On October 15, 1999, pursuant to UNSCR 1267, the “al-Qa’ida and Taliban Sanctions Committee” was established. The 1267 sanctions regime has been modified and strengthened by subsequent resolutions so that the sanctions now cover individuals and entities associated with al-Qa’ida, Usama bin Ladin, and the Taliban. The targeted individuals and entities are placed on the Consolidated List. The full list can be found at the following website: http://www.un.org/sc/committees/1267/consolist.shtml . U.S. Government Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) Communist Party of Philippines/New People's Army (CPP/NPA) Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA) Gama'a al-Islamiyya (IG) Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) Kongra-Gel (formerly Kurdistan Worker’s Party (PKK)) Lashkar e-Tayyiba Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) Mujahadin-e Khalq Organization (MEK) Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC) Al-Qa’ida Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) [Formerly Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC)] Real IRA (RIRA) Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) Revolutionary Nuclei (RN) Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N) Revolutionary People's Liberation Party/Front (DHKP/C) Shining Path (SL) United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) a.k.a. Arab Revolutionary Brigades; Arab Revolutionary Council; Black September; Fatah Revolutionary Council; Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims Description: The Abu Nidal Organization (ANO), an international terrorist organization, was founded by Sabri al-Banna (a.k.a. Abu Nidal) after splitting from the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1974. The group's previous known structure consisted of various functional committees, including political, military, and financial. In August 2002, Abu Nidal died in Baghdad, probably at the hands of Iraqi security officials; the new leadership of the organization remains unclear. Activities: The ANO has carried out terrorist attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring almost 900 persons. The group has not staged a major attack against Western targets since the late 1980s. Major attacks included the Rome and Vienna airports in 1985, the Neve Shalom synagogue in Istanbul, the hijacking of Pan Am Flight 73 in Karachi in 1986, and the City of Poros day-excursion ship attack in Greece in 1988. The ANO is suspected of assassinating PLO deputy chief Abu Iyad and PLO security Chief Abu Hul in Tunis in 1991. The ANO conducted no attacks in 2007. Strength: Current strength is unknown. Location/Area of Operation: The group is largely considered inactive, although former and possibly current ANO associates might be in Iraq and Lebanon. External Aid: The ANO's current access to resources is unclear, but it is likely that the decline in state support has had a severe impact on its capabilities. Abu Sayyaf Group a.k.a. Al Harakat al Islamiyya Description: The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) is an Islamic terrorist group operating in the southern Philippines. Some ASG leaders allegedly fought in Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion and are students and proponents of radical Islamic teachings. The group split from the much larger Moro National Liberation Front in the early 1990s under the leadership of Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani, who was killed in a clash with Philippine police in December 1998. His younger brother, Khadaffy Janjalani, replaced him as the nominal leader of the group. In September 2006, Janjalani was killed in a gun battle with the Armed Forces of the Philippines. Radullah Sahiron is assumed to be the new ASG leader. Activities: The ASG engages in kidnappings for ransom, bombings, beheadings, assassinations, and extortion. The group's stated goal is to promote an independent Islamic state in western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, areas in the southern Philippines heavily populated by Muslims, but the ASG primarily has used terror for financial profit. Recent bombings may herald a return to a more radical, politicized agenda, at least among certain factions. In August 2006, the Armed Forces of the Philippines began "Operation Ultimatum," a sustained campaign that disrupted ASG forces in safe havens on Jolo Island in the Sulu archipelago, and resulted in the killing of ASG leader Khadaffy Janjalani in September 2006 and his deputy, Abu Solaiman in January 2007. In July 2007, the ASG, and Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) engaged a force of Philippine marines on Basilan Island, killing fourteen, of which ten were beheaded. The group's first large-scale action was a raid on the town of Ipil in Mindanao in April 1995. In April 2000, an ASG faction kidnapped 21 persons, including ten Western tourists, from a resort in Malaysia. In May 2001, the ASG kidnapped three U.S. citizens and 17 Filipinos from a tourist resort in Palawan, Philippines. Several of the hostages, including U.S. citizen Guillermo Sobero, were murdered. A Philippine military hostage rescue operation in June 2002 freed U.S. hostage Gracia Burnham, but her husband Martin Burnham and Filipina Deborah Yap were killed. U.S. and Philippine authorities blamed the ASG for a bomb near a Philippine military base in Zamboanga in October 2002 that killed a U.S. serviceman. In February 2004, Khadaffy Janjalani's faction bombed SuperFerry 14 in Manila Bay, killing 132. In March 2004, Philippine authorities arrested an ASG cell whose bombing targets included the U.S. Embassy in Manila. The ASG also claimed responsibility for the 2005 Valentine's Day bombings in Manila, Davao City, and General Santos City, which killed eight and injured more than 150. In November 2007, a motorcycle bomb exploded outside the Philippines Congress, killing a congressman and three staff members. While there was no definitive claim of responsibility, three suspected ASG members were arrested during a subsequent raid on a safe house. Strength: ASG is estimated to have 200 to 500 members. Location/Area of Operation: The ASG was founded in Basilan Province and operates primarily in the provinces of the Sulu Archipelago, namely Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi. The group also operates on the Zamboanga peninsula, and members occasionally travel to Manila. In mid-2003, the group started operating in Mindanao's city of Cotobato and on the provincial coast of Sultan Kudarat, Mindanao. The ASG was expelled from Mindanao proper by the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in mid-2005. The group expanded its operational reach to Malaysia in 2000 with the abduction of foreigners from a tourist resort there. External Aid: The ASG is funded through acts of ransom and extortion, and receives funding from both regional terrorist groups such as Jemaah Islamiya (JI), which is based mainly in Indonesia, and from Middle Eastern Islamic extremists. In October, the ASG appealed for funds and recruits on YouTube by featuring a video of the Janjalani brothers before they were killed. Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade a.k.a. al-Aqsa Martyrs Battalion Description: The al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade consists of loose cells of Palestinian militants loyal to, but not under the direct control of the secular-nationalist Fatah movement. Al-Aqsa emerged at the outset of the 2000 Palestinian al-Aqsa intifada as a militant offshoot of the Fatah party to attack Israeli military targets and settlers with the aim of driving Israel from the West Bank and Gaza and establishing a Palestinian state. Al-Aqsa has no central leadership; the cells operate with autonomy, although they remained ideologically loyal to Palestinian Authority (PA) President and Fatah party head Yassir Arafat until his death in November 2004. Activities: Al-Aqsa initially focused on small arms attacks against Israeli military personnel and settlers in the West Bank. In 2002, however, the group began to conduct suicide bombings against Israeli civilians. Al-Aqsa suspended most anti-Israel attacks as part of the broader unilateral Palestinian ceasefire agreement during 2004 but resumed them following HAMAS's victory in January 2006 Palestinian Legislative Council elections. Al-Aqsa members continued the anti-Israeli and intra-Palestinian violence that contributes to the overall chaotic security environment in the Palestinian territories. In 2007, the majority of al-Aqsa attacks were rocket and mortar attacks into southern Israel from HAMAS-ruled Gaza. Israel agreed to extend a conditional pardon to 178 West Bank al-Aqsa members, but did not expand the program to the rest of the organization. Al-Aqsa has not targeted U.S. interests as a policy, although its anti-Israeli attacks have killed some dual U.S.-Israeli citizens. Strength: Current strength is unknown, but most likely numbers a few hundred. Location/Area of Operation: Al-Aqsa operates mainly in the West Bank but has conducted attacks inside Israel and Gaza. The group also has members in Palestinian refugee camps in External Aid: Iran has exploited al-Aqsa's lack of resources and formal leadership by providing funds and other aid, mostly through Hizballah facilitators. Ansar al-Islam a.k.a. Ansar al-Sunna; Ansar Al-Sunnah Army; Devotees of Islam; Followers of Islam in Kurdistan; Helpers of Islam; Jaish Ansar Al-Sunnah; Jund Al-Islam; Kurdish Taliban; Kurdistan Supporters of Islam; Partisans of Islam; Soldiers of God; Soldiers of Islam; Supporters of Islam in Kurdistan Description: Ansar al-Sunnah (AS) is a Salafi terrorist group whose goals include expelling the U.S.-led Coalition from Iraq and establishing an independent Iraqi state based on Sharia law. In 2003, AS announced its creation by posting a statement on the Internet calling all extremists in Iraq to unite under the new name. The bid to become an extremist umbrella organization failed, but the name AS remained in use until November, when it changed its name back to Ansar al-Islam (AI). AI has ties to the al-Qa’ida (AQ) central leadership and to al-Qa’ida in Iraq (AQI), although it has a competitive relationship with AQI, and did not join the AQI-dominated "Islamic State of Iraq." Some members of AI trained in AQ camps in Afghanistan, and the group provided safe haven to affiliated terrorists before Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). Since OIF, AI has become the second-most prominent group engaged in anti-Coalition attacks in Iraq behind AQI and has maintained a strong propaganda campaign. Despite AI's ties to AQ, the group does not seem to be interested in attacking targets outside Iraq. Activities: AI continued to conduct attacks against a wide range of targets including Coalition Forces, the Iraqi government and security forces, and Kurdish and Shia figures. AI has claimed responsibility for many high profile attacks, including the execution-style killing of nearly two dozen Yazidi civilians in Mosul in reprisal for the stoning death of a Muslim convert in April, the car-bombing of a police convoy in Kirkuk in July, the suicide bombing of Kurdistan Democratic Party offices in Khursbat in October, and numerous kidnappings, executions, and assassinations. Strength: Precise numbers are unknown. AI is one of the largest Sunni terrorist groups in Iraq. Location/Area of Operation: Primarily central, western, and northern Iraq. External Aid: AI receives assistance from a Armed Islamic Group (GIA) a.k.a. Al-Jama'ah al-Islamiyah al-Musallah, Groupement Islamique Arme Description: The Armed Islamic Group (GIA) aims to overthrow the Algerian regime and replace it with a state governed by Sharia law. The GIA began its violent activity in 1992 after the military government suspended legislative elections in anticipation of an overwhelming victory by the Islamic Salvation Front, the largest Algerian Islamic opposition party. Activities: The GIA engaged in attacks against civilians and government workers. The group began conducting a terrorist campaign of civilian massacres in 1992, sometimes wiping out entire villages and killing tens of thousands of Algerians, alienating itself from the Algerian populace. Since announcing its campaign against foreigners living in Algeria in 1992, the GIA killed more than 100 expatriate men and women, mostly Europeans, in the country. Many of the GIA's members joined other Islamist groups or have been killed or captured by the Algerian government. The government's September 2005 reconciliation program led to an increase in the number of GIA terrorist suspects who surrendered to security forces. The GIA's most recent significant attacks occurred in August 2001. After the arrest of the GIA's last known emir and subsequent counterterrorism operations, the Algerian government declared that the GIA network was almost entirely broken up. The last terror attack attributed to the GIA occurred in 2006. Strength: Precise numbers are unknown, but the group continues to decline and probably numbers fewer than 40. The last known emir was Nourredine Boudiafi, who was arrested by Algerian authorities in November 2005. Location/Area of Operation: Algeria, the Sahel, and Europe. External Aid: GIA members in Europe provide funding, but most funding comes from the group members’ criminal activity. Asbat al-Ansar Description: Asbat al-Ansar is a Lebanon-based Sunni extremist group composed primarily of Palestinians with links to the al-Qa’ida (AQ) organization and other Sunni extremist groups. The group follows an extremist interpretation of Islam that justifies violence against civilian targets to achieve political ends. Some of the group's goals include thwarting perceived anti-Islamic and pro-Western influences in the country. Activities: Asbat al-Ansar maintains close ties with the AQ network, with its base of operations in the Ain al-Hilwah Palestinian refugee camp near Sidon. Lebanese authorities detained a cell of al-Qa’ida in Iraq (AQI) extremists in June in the Bekaa Valley that had trained with Asbat al-Ansar and was possibly planning terrorist attacks throughout Lebanon against United Nations Interim Forces in Lebanon (UNIFIL) or other Western targets. Asbat al-Ansar has recently been reluctant to involve itself in operations in Lebanon due in part to concerns over losing its safe haven in Ain al-Hilwah. Various extremist web forums criticized Asbat al-Ansar for its failure to support fellow Sunni extremist group Fatah al-Islam (FAI) during the Lebanese Armed Forces campaign in summer 2007 that forced FAI out of Nahr al-Barid refugee camp in northern Lebanon, and severely damaged the group. Members of Asbat al-Ansar were believed responsible for a Katyusha rocket attack on the Galilee region of Israel in December 2005. Asbat al-Ansar operatives have been involved in fighting Coalition Forces in Iraq since at least 2005 and several members of the group have been killed in anti-Coalition operations. Al-Sa'di was working in cooperation with Abu Muhammad al-Masri, the head of al-Qa’ida at the 'Ayn al-Hilwah refugee camp, where fighting has occurred between Asbat al-Ansar and Fatah elements. In 2007, Asbat al-Ansar remained focused on supporting jihad in Iraq and planning attacks against UNIFIL, Lebanese security forces, and U.S. and Western interests. Asbat al-Ansar-associated elements were implicated in the June 17 Katyusha rocket attack against northern Israel. Asbat al-Ansar first emerged in the early 1990s. In the mid-1990s the group assassinated Lebanese religious leaders and bombed nightclubs, theaters, and liquor stores. It was involved in clashes in northern Lebanon in December 1999, and carried out a rocket-propelled grenade attack on the Russian Embassy in Beirut in January 2000. Asbat al-Ansar's leader, Ahmad Abd al-Karim al-Sa'di, a.k.a. Abu Muhjin, remains at large despite being sentenced to death in absentia for the 1994 murder of a Muslim cleric. In September 2004, operatives with links to the group were allegedly involved in planning terrorist operations targeting the Italian Embassy, the Ukrainian Consulate General, and Lebanese government offices. In October 2004, Mahir al-Sa'di, a member of Asbat al-Ansar, was sentenced in absentia to life imprisonment for plotting to assassinate then U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon, David Satterfield, in 2000. Strength: The group commands between 100 and 300 fighters in Lebanon. Its named leader is Ahmed Abd al-Karim al-Saadi. Location/Area of Operation: The group's primary base of operations is the Ayn al-Hilwah Palestinian refugee camp near Sidon in southern Lebanon. External Aid: It is likely the group receives money through international Sunni extremist networks. Aum Shinrikyo a.k.a. A.I.C. Comprehensive Research Institute; A.I.C. Sogo Kenkyusho; Aleph; Aum Supreme Truth Description: Shoko Asahara established Aum Shinrikyo (Aum) in 1987, and the cult received legal status as a religious entity in 1989. Initially, Aum aimed to take over Japan and then the world, but over time it began to emphasize the imminence of the end of the world. Asahara predicted 1996, and 1999 to 2003, as likely dates and said that the United States would initiate Armageddon by starting World War III with Japan. The Japanese government revoked its recognition of Aum as a religious organization following Aum's deadly sarin gas attack in Tokyo in March 1995. In 1997, however, a government panel decided not to invoke the Operations Control Law to outlaw the group. A 1999 law authorized the Japanese government to maintain police surveillance over the group because of concerns Aum might launch future terrorist attacks. Under the leadership of Fumihiro Joyu, the chief of Aum's once thriving Moscow operation, Aum changed its name to Aleph in January 2000 and tried to distance itself from the violent and apocalyptic teachings of its founder. In late 2003, however, Joyu stepped down under pressure from members who wanted to return fully to the worship of Asahara. A growing divide between members supporting Joyu and Asahara emerged. In 2007, Joyu officially split and in May, established a splinter group called Hikari No Wa. Hikari No Wa is translated as ‘Circle of Light’ or ‘Ring of Light.’ Japanese authorities continued to monitor both Aum (now called Aleph) and Hikari No Wa. Activities: In March 1995, Aum members simultaneously released the chemical nerve agent sarin on several Tokyo subway trains, killing 12 persons and causing up to 6,000 to seek medical treatment. Subsequent investigations by the Japanese government revealed the group was responsible for other mysterious chemical incidents in Japan in 1994, including a sarin gas attack on a residential neighborhood in Matsumoto that killed seven and hospitalized approximately 500. Japanese police arrested Asahara in May 1995, and in February 2004 authorities sentenced him to death for his role in the 1995 attacks. In September 2006, Asahara lost his final appeal against the death penalty. Since 1997, the cult has recruited new members, engaged in commercial enterprises, and acquired property, although it scaled back these activities significantly in 2001 in response to a public outcry. In July 2001, Russian authorities arrested a group of Russian Aum followers who had planned to set off bombs near the Imperial Palace in Tokyo as part of an operation to free Asahara from jail and smuggle him to Russia. Strength: Aum's current membership in Japan is estimated to be about 1,500 persons, according to a study by the Japanese government issued in December. At the time of the Tokyo subway attack, the group claimed to have as many as 40,000 members worldwide, including 9,000 in Japan and 30,000 members in Russia. Location/Area of Operation: Aum's principal membership is located in Japan, while a residual branch of about 300 followers live in Russia. External Aid: None. Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) a.k.a. Askatasuna; Batasuna; Ekin; Euskal Herritarrok; Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna; Herri Batasuna; Jarrai-Haika-Segi; K.A.S.; XAKI Description: Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) was founded in 1959 with the aim of establishing an independent homeland based on Marxist principles encompassing the Spanish Basque provinces of Vizcaya, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, the autonomous region of Navarra, and the southwestern French territories of Labourd, Basse-Navarre, and Soule. Spain and the EU both have listed ETA as a terrorist organization; in 2002 the Spanish Parliament banned the political party Batasuna, ETA's political wing, charging its members with providing material support to the terrorist group. In 2004, Spain and France formed a joint counterterrorism and judicial unit to combat ETA and Islamic terrorist groups. During 2005 and 2006, police in both countries together arrested around 100 individuals associated with ETA, dismantled several of the group's cells, and dealt a significant blow to its operational capability. Spanish and French prisons are estimated to hold a total of more than 500 ETA members. In March 2006, days after claiming responsibility for a spate of roadside blasts in northern Spain that caused no injuries, ETA announced that it would implement a "permanent" cease-fire. However, on December 30, 2006, ETA exploded a massive car-bomb that destroyed much of the covered parking garage outside the new Terminal 4 of Madrid's Barajas International Airport. Two individuals killed in the blast became ETA's first fatalities in more than three years. The Spanish Government suspended talks with ETA, and government officials later said political negotiations with the group had ended. Activities: Since the beginning of 2007, the group has been suspected of conducting numerous arson and incendiary attacks against government, financial, and civilian targets using various youth organizations as a proxy. ETA claimed several bombings: one in late July, on a road targeting the Tour de France that caused no damage; a car bombing in late August targeting a police station that wounded two police officers and damaged the building; a bombing in early September on a road that caused no damage; an attempted car-bombing on a Defense Ministry building in early September that failed due to a technical fault; and a bombing in late September at another police station that damaged the building but caused no injuries. ETA was also suspected of a car bombing in early October that wounded the bodyguard of a local government official, although the group has not yet claimed responsibility. ETA formally renounced its “permanent” cease-fire in June, and in early September threatened a wave of attacks throughout Spain. Following indications in mid-2007 that the group may have expanded into Portugal its logistical operations, such as renting vehicles, Madrid and Lisbon agreed, in October, to intensify their cooperation against ETA by establishing a joint antiterrorism team based in Lisbon. In December, ETA murdered two Civil Guard officials in southern France, the first ETA killings in France since 1976. Several days later, the group threatened to open a new front in France against Spanish authorities. Also in December, Spanish and French authorities agreed to create a permanent joint police investigation team to fight ETA. ETA primarily conducts bombings and assassinations; targets are typically Spanish government officials, security and military forces, politicians, and judicial figures, but the group also has targeted journalists and tourist areas. The group is responsible for killing more than 800 and injuring thousands more since it began its lethal attacks in the late 1960s. Security service scrutiny and a public outcry after the Islamic extremist train bombings in Madrid in March 2004, have limited ETA's capability and willingness to inflict casualties. In February 2005, ETA detonated a car bomb in Madrid at a convention center where Spanish King Juan Carlos and then Mexican President Vicente Fox were scheduled to appear, wounding more than 20 people. ETA also detonated an explosive device at a stadium constructed as part of Madrid's bid to host the 2012 Olympic Games; there were no injuries in that attack. ETA’s late 2006 attack at Madrid's airport is the group's first fatal attack since March 2003. Strength: According to Spanish security forces quoted in the press in mid-2007, ETA has about 100 active members; this number was reduced in 2007 as a result of the number of arrested by Spanish and French authorities. Location/Area of Operation: ETA operates primarily in the Basque autonomous regions of northern Spain and southwestern France, but also has attacked Spanish and French interests elsewhere. External Aid: ETA finances its activities primarily through bribery and extortion of Basque businesses. It has received training at various times in the past in Libya, Lebanon, and Nicaragua. Some ETA members allegedly fled to Cuba and Mexico, while others reside in South America. ETA members have operated and been arrested in other European countries, including France, Belgium, the Netherlands, the UK, Germany, and Portugal. Communist Party of Philippines/New People's Army (CPP/NPA) a.k.a. Communist Party of the Philippines; CPP; New People's Army; NPA Description: The military wing of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), the New People’s Army (NPA), is a Maoist group formed in March 1969 with the aim of overthrowing the government through protracted guerrilla warfare. Jose Maria Sison, the chairman of the CPP's Central Committee and the NPA's founder, reportedly directs CPP and NPA activity from the Netherlands, where he lives in self-imposed exile. Luis Jalandoni, a fellow Central Committee member and director of the CPP's overt political wing, the National Democratic Front (NDF), also lives in the Netherlands and has become a Dutch citizen. Although primarily a rural-based guerrilla group, the NPA has an active urban infrastructure to support its terrorist activities and at times uses city-based assassination squads. In September, Sison was briefly arrested in the Netherlands but was released on a judge’s order a few days later. In November, the Armed Forces of the Philippines announced the capture of Elizabeth Principe, a suspected member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Philippines. Activities: The NPA primarily targets Philippine security forces, government officials, local infrastructure, and businesses that refuse to pay extortion, or "revolutionary taxes." The NPA charges politicians running for office in NPA-influenced areas for "campaign permits." The group opposes any U.S. military presence in the Philippines and has attacked U.S. military interests; it killed several U.S. service personnel before the U.S. base closures in 1992. The NPA claimed responsibility for the assassination of two congressmen, one from Quezon in May 2001 and one from Cagayan in June 2001, among other killings. Periodic peace talks with the Philippine government stalled after these incidents. In December 2005, the NPA publicly expressed its intent to target U.S. personnel if they were discovered in NPA operating areas. Strength: Estimated at less than 9,000, a number significantly lower than its peak strength of approximately 25,000 in the 1980s. Location/Area of Operations: Operates in rural Luzon, Visayas, and parts of northern and eastern Mindanao. There are cells in Manila and other metropolitan centers. External Aid: Unknown. Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA) a.k.a. Continuity Army Council; Continuity IRA; Republican Sinn Fein Description: The Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA) is a splinter group formed in 1994 as the clandestine armed wing of Republican Sinn Fein, which split from Sinn Fein in 1986. "Continuity" refers to the group's belief that it is carrying on the original Irish Republican Army's (IRA) goal of forcing the British out of Northern Ireland. CIRA cooperates with the larger Real IRA (RIRA). Activities: CIRA has been active in Belfast and the border areas of Northern Ireland, where it has carried out bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, hijackings, extortion, and robberies. On occasion, it has provided advance warning to police of its attacks. Targets have included the British military, Northern Ireland security forces, and Loyalist paramilitary groups. CIRA did not join the Provisional IRA in its September 2005 decommissioning and remained capable of effective, if sporadic, terrorist attacks. In late 2006, CIRA members issued a list of up to 20 individuals they were targeting for paramilitary attacks, several of whom were wounded in subsequent shootings. In early 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission reported that two splinter organizations, Óglaigh na hÉireann and Saoirse na hÉireann, were formed due to internal disputes within CIRA. In mid-October 2006, CIRA claimed the firebomb attacks of B&Q home-supply stores. CIRA activity has largely decreased from previous levels seen in 2005 and by 2007, the group had become increasingly active in criminal activity. In April, following the discovery of an improvised mortar adjacent to the railway line in Lurgan, three cira members were arrested and charged with conspiracy to murder, possession of explosives with intent to endanger life, and possession of articles for use in terrorism. Strength: Membership is small, with possibly fewer than 50 hard-core activists. Police counterterrorist operations have reduced the group's strength. Location/Area of Operation: Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. CIRA does not have an established presence in Great Britain. External Aid: Suspected of receiving funds and arms from sympathizers in the United States. CIRA may have acquired arms and materiel from the Balkans in cooperation with the Real IRA. Gama'a al-Islamiyya (IG) a.k.a. Al-Gama'at; Egyptian al-Gama'at al-Islamiyya; GI, Islamic Gama'at, IG; Islamic Group Description: Gama'a al-Islamiyya (IG), Egypt's largest militant group, has been active since the late 1970s, but is now a loosely organized network. The external wing, composed of mainly exiled members in several countries, maintains its primary goal is to overthrow the Egyptian government and replace it with an Islamic state. The IG announced a cease-fire in 1997 that led to a split into two factions: one, led by Mustafa Hamza, supported the cease-fire; the other, led by Rifa'i Taha Musa, called for a return to armed operations. The IG announced another ceasefire in March 1999, but its spiritual leader, Shaykh Umar Abd al-Rahman, sentenced to life in prison in January 1996 for his involvement in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and incarcerated in the United States, rescinded his support for the cease-fire in June 2000. IG has not conducted an attack inside Egypt since the 1997 Luxor attack, which killed 58 tourists and four Egyptians, and wounded dozens more. In February 1998, a senior member signed Usama bin Ladin's fatwa calling for attacks against the United States. In early 2001, Taha Musa published a book in which he attempted to justify terrorist attacks that cause mass casualties. Musa disappeared several months afterward, and we have no information about his whereabouts. In March 2002, members of the group's historic leadership in Egypt declared the use of violence misguided and renounced its future use, prompting denunciations by much of the leadership abroad. The Egyptian government continued to release IG members from prison; approximately 900 were released in 2003, and most of the 700 persons released in 2004 at the end of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan were IG members. In August 2006, Ayman al-Zawahiri announced that IG had merged with al-Qa’ida, but the group’s Egypt-based leadership quickly denied this claim. Activities: Before the 1997 cease-fire, IG conducted armed attacks against Egyptian security and other government officials, Coptic Christians, and Egyptian opponents of Islamic extremism. After the cease-fire, the faction led by Taha Musa launched attacks on tourists in Egypt, most notably the 1997 Luxor attack. IG claimed responsibility for the June 1995 assassination attempt on Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. IG was dormant in 2007. Strength: Unknown. At its peak IG probably commanded several thousand hardcore members and a like number of supporters. Security crackdowns following the 1997 attack in Luxor, the 1999 cease-fire, and post-September 11 security measures have probably resulted in a substantial decrease in the group's membership and extremist activities. Location/Area of Operation: IG operates mainly in the Al-Minya, Asyut, Qina, and Sohaj Governorates of southern Egypt. It also appears to have support in Cairo, Alexandria, and other urban locations, particularly among unemployed graduates and students. The IG maintains an external presence in Afghanistan, Yemen, the United Kingdom, and other locations in Europe. External Aid:. Al-Qa’ida and Afghan militant groups support the organization. IG also may obtain some funding through various Islamic non-governmental organizations. The Islamic Resistance Movement (HAMAS) a.k.a. Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya; Izz al-Din al Qassam Battalions; Izz al-Din al Qassam Brigades; Students of Ayyash; Student of the Engineer; Yahya Ayyash Units ; Izz al-Din al-Qassim Brigades; Izz al-Din al-Qassim Forces; Izz al-Din al-Qassim Battalions; Izz al-Din al Qassam Forces Description: HAMAS, which includes military and political wings, was formed at the onset of the first Palestinian uprising or Intifada in late 1987, as an outgrowth of the Palestinian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood. The armed element, called the Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades, conducts anti-Israeli attacks, including suicide bombings against civilian targets inside Israel. HAMAS also manages a broad, mostly Gaza-based network of "Dawa" or ministry activities that include charities, schools, clinics, youth camps, fund-raising, and political activities. A Shura council based in Damascus, Syria, sets overall policy. After winning Palestinian Legislative Council elections in January 2006, HAMAS took control of significant Palestinian Authority (PA) ministries, including the Ministry of Interior. HAMAS subsequently formed an expanded, overt militia called the Executive Force, subordinate to the Ministry. This force and other HAMAS cadres took control of Gaza in a military-style coup in June 2007, forcing Fatah forces to either leave Gaza or go underground there. Activities: Prior to 2005, HAMAS conducted numerous anti-Israeli attacks, including suicide bombings, rocket launches, improvised explosive device (IED) attacks, and shootings. HAMAS, however, has not directly targeted U.S. interests, although the group makes little or no effort to avoid soft targets frequented by foreigners. The group curtailed terrorist attacks in February 2005, after agreeing to a temporary period of calm brokered by the PA, and ceased most violence after winning control of the PA legislature and cabinet in January 2006. After HAMAS staged a June 2006 attack on IDF soldiers near Kerem Shalom that resulted in two deaths and the abduction of Corporal Gilad Shalit, Israel took steps that severely limited the operation of the Rafah crossing. HAMAS maintained and expanded its military capabilities in 2007. In June 2007, HAMAS took control of Gaza from the PA and Fatah in a military-style coup, leading to an international boycott and closure of Gaza borders. HAMAS has since dedicated the majority of its activity in Gaza to solidifying its control, hardening its defenses, tightening security, and conducting limited operations against Israeli military forces. HAMAS fired rockets from Gaza into Israel in 2007 but focused more mortar on attacks targeting Israeli incursions. Additionally, other terrorist groups in Gaza fired rockets into Israel, most, presumably, with HAMAS support or acquiescence. HAMAS internal security efforts have centered on confronting threats to the group’s hold on power, including arrest operations against Fatah. In June 2007, HAMAS took control of Gaza, leading to a drawn-out struggle between HAMAS and supporters of Fatah. The majority of HAMAS activity in Gaza is directed at solidifying their control over Gaza and weakening Fatah through kidnappings, torture, and the use of the “Executive Force” as a de-facto security apparatus. The continued international boycott and perceived efforts to destroy HAMAS have increased anti-U.S. sentiment on the Palestinian street, a development that could lead cells affiliated with HAMAS to launch attacks, including suicide bombings, without the sanction of HAMAS’ senior leadership. Strength: HAMAS probably has several hundred operatives in its armed wing, the al-Qassam Brigades, along with its reported 9,000-man Executive Force and tens of thousands of supporters and sympathizers. Location/Area of Operation: HAMAS has an operational presence in every major city in the Palestinian territories and currently focuses its anti-Israeli attacks on targets in the West Bank and within Israel. HAMAS could potentially activate operations in Lebanon or resume terrorist operations in Israel. The group retains a cadre of leaders and facilitators that conducts diplomatic, fundraising, and arms smuggling activities in Lebanon, Syria, and other states. HAMAS is also increasing its presence in the Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon, probably with the goal of eclipsing Fatah’s long-time dominance of the camps. External Aid: HAMAS receives some funding, weapons, and training from Iran. In addition, fundraising takes place in the Gulf countries, but the group also receives donations from Palestinian expatriates around the world and private benefactors in Arab states. Some fundraising and propaganda activity takes place in Western Europe and North America. Harakat ul-Mujahadin (HUM) a.k.a. Al-Faran; Al-Hadid; Al-Hadith; Harakat ul-Ansar; Harakat ul-Mujahideen; HUA; Jamiat ul-Ansar Description: Harakat ul-Mujahadin (HUM), an Islamic militant group based in Pakistan, is politically aligned with the radical political party Jamiat Ulema-i-Islam's Fazlur Rehman faction (JUI-F), and operates primarily in Kashmir. Reportedly under pressure from the Government of Pakistan, HUM's long time leader Fazlur Rehman Khalil stepped down and was replaced by Dr. Badr Munir as the head of HUM in January 2005. Khalil has been linked to Usama bin Ladin, and his signature was found on Bin Ladin's fatwa in February 1998, calling for attacks on U.S. and Western interests. HUM operated terrorist training camps in eastern Afghanistan until Coalition air strikes destroyed them in autumn 2001. Khalil was detained by Pakistani authorities in mid-2004 and subsequently released in late December. In 2003, HUM began using the name Jamiat ul-Ansar (JUA). Pakistan banned JUA in November 2003. Activities: HUM has conducted a number of operations against Indian troops and civilian targets in Kashmir. It is linked to the Kashmiri militant group al-Faran that kidnapped five Western tourists in Kashmir in July 1995; one was killed in August, and the other four reportedly were killed in December of the same year. HUM was responsible for the hijacking of an Indian airliner in December 1999 that resulted in the release of Masood Azhar, an important leader in the former Harakat ul-Ansar, who was imprisoned by India in 1994 and then founded Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) after his release. Ahmed Omar Sheik also was released in 1999, and was later convicted of the abduction and murder in 2002 of U.S. journalist Daniel Pearl. Strength: HUM has several hundred armed supporters located in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, India's southern Kashmir and Doda regions, and in the Kashmir valley. Supporters are mostly Pakistanis and Kashmiris, but also include Afghans and Arab veterans of the Afghan war. HUM uses light and heavy machine guns, assault rifles, mortars, explosives, and rockets. In 2000, HUM lost a significant share of its membership in defections to the JEM. Location/Area of Operation: Based in Muzaffarabad, Rawalpindi, and several other towns in Pakistan, HUM conducts insurgent and terrorist operations primarily in Kashmir, but members have also been found operating in Afghanistan. HUM trains its militants in Afghanistan and Pakistan. External Aid: HUM collects donations from wealthy and grassroots donors in Pakistan, Kashmir, Saudi Arabia, and other Gulf and Islamic states. HUM's financial collection methods include soliciting donations in magazine ads and pamphlets. The sources and amount of HUM's military funding are unknown. Its overt fundraising in Pakistan has been constrained since the government clampdown on extremist groups and the freezing of terrorist assets. Hizballah a.k.a. Party of God; Islamic Jihad; Islamic Jihad Organization; Revolutionary Justice Organization; Organization of the Oppressed on Earth; Islamic Jihad for the Liberation of Palestine; Organization of Right Against Wrong; Ansar alla; Followers of the Prophet Muhammed Description: Formed in 1982, in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, this Lebanese-based radical Shia group takes its ideological inspiration from the Iranian revolution and the teachings of the late Ayatollah Khomeini. The group generally follows the religious guidance of Khomeini's successor, Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. Hizballah is closely allied with Iran and often acts at its behest, though it also acts independently. Although Hizballah does not share the Syrian regime's secular orientation, the group has helped Syria advance its political objectives in the region. The Majlis al-Shura, or Consultative Council, is the group's highest governing body and has been led by Secretary General Hasan Nasrallah since 1992. Hizballah remains the most technically capable terrorist group in the world. It has strong influence in Lebanon's Shia community, which comprises about one-third of Lebanon's population. The Lebanese government and the majority of the Arab world, still recognize Hizballah as a legitimate "resistance group" and political party. Hizballah claimed 14 elected officials in the 128-seat Lebanese National Assembly and was represented in the Cabinet for the first time, by the Minister of Water and Electricity Mohammed Fneish, until his resignation, along with other Shia ministers and Hizballah members of Parliament on November 11, 2006. Hizballah has reduced its overt military presence in southern Lebanon in accordance with UNSCR 1701, although it likely maintains weapons caches in southern Lebanon. It justifies its continued armed status by claiming to act in defense of Lebanon against acts of Israeli aggression. Hizballah alleges that Israel has not withdrawn completely from Lebanese territory because, in its view, the Shebaa Farms and other areas belong to Lebanon. Hizballah provides support to several Palestinian terrorist organizations that reject peace between Israel and its neighbors. This support includes the covert provision of weapons, explosives, training, funding, and guidance, as well as overt political support. Activities: Hizballah is known to have been involved in numerous anti-U.S. and anti-Israeli terrorist attacks and prior to September 11, 2001, was responsible for more American deaths than any other terrorist group. In July 2006, Hizballah attacked an Israeli Army patrol, kidnapping two soldiers and killing three, starting the conflict with Israel that lasted into August. Since at least 2004, Hizballah has provided training to select Iraqi Shia militants, including the construction and use of shaped charge improvised explosive devices (IEDs) that can penetrate heavily armored vehicles, which it developed in southern Lebanon in the late 1990s. A senior Hizballah operative, Ali Mussa Daqduq, was captured in Iraq in 2007 while facilitating Hizballah training of Iraqi Shia militants. Hizballah’s terrorist attacks have included the suicide truck bombings of the U.S. Embassy and U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut in 1983, and the U.S. Embassy annex in Beirut in 1984, and the 1985 hijacking of TWA flight 847, during which a U.S. Navy diver was murdered. Elements of the group were responsible for the kidnapping, detention, and murder of Americans and other Westerners in Lebanon in the 1980s. Hizballah also was implicated in the attacks on the Israeli Embassy in Argentina in 1992 and the Argentine-Israeli Mutual Association (AMIA) in Buenos Aires in 1994. In 2000, Hizballah operatives captured three Israeli soldiers in the Sheba'a Farms area and kidnapped an Israeli non-combatant. Strength: Thousands of supporters, several thousand members, and a few hundred terrorist operatives. Location/Area of Operation: Operates in the southern suburbs of Beirut, the Bekaa Valley, and southern Lebanon. Has established support cells in Europe, Africa, South America, North America, and Asia. External Aid: Receives training, weapons, and explosives, as well as political, diplomatic, and organizational aid from Iran, and diplomatic, political, and logistical support from Syria. Hizballah also receives funding from private donations, and profits from legal and illegal businesses. Islamic Jihad Group (IJG) a.k.a. Al-Djihad al-Islami; Dzhamaat Modzhakhedov; Islamic Jihad Group of Uzbekistan; Jama'at al-Jihad; Jamiat al-Jihad al-Islami; Jamiyat; The Jamaat Mojahadin; The Kazakh Jama'at; The Libyan Society Description: The Islamic Jihad Group (IJG) is an extremist organization that splintered from the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU). They oppose secular rule in Uzbekistan and seek to replace it with a government based on Islamic law. They adhere to an anti-Western global agenda. Activities: In September, German authorities disrupted an IJG plot by detaining three IJG operatives involved in the operation. Two of the three had attended IJG run terrorist training camps in Pakistan and maintained communications with their Pakistani contacts after returning to Germany. The operatives had acquired large amounts of hydrogen peroxide and an explosives precursor that they stockpiled in a garage in southern Germany. The group had acquired large amounts of hydrogen peroxide for possible use in multiple car bomb attacks. The IJG subsequently claimed responsibility for the foiled attacks. The IJG issued a statement in May 2005, fully supporting the armed attacks on Uzbek police and military personnel in Andijon, Uzbekistan, and called for the overthrow of the regime in Uzbekistan. The group first conducted attacks in March-April 2004 targeting police at several roadway checkpoints and a popular bazaar. These attacks killed approximately 47 people, including 33 terrorists, some of whom were suicide bombers. The IJG's claim of responsibility, which was posted to multiple militant Islamic websites, denounced the leadership of Uzbekistan. These attacks marked the first use of suicide bombers in Central Asia. In July 2004, the group carried out near-simultaneous suicide bombings in Tashkent of the U.S. and Israeli Embassies, and the Uzbekistani Prosecutor General's office. The IJG again claimed responsibility via an Islamic website and stated that martyrdom operations by the group would continue. The statement also indicated that the attacks were done in support of IJG's Palestinian, Iraqi, and Afghan brothers in the global insurgency. The date of the July attack corresponded with the trial of individuals arrested for their alleged participation in the March-April attacks. Strength: Unknown. Location/Area of Operation: IJG members are scattered throughout Central Asia, South Asia, and Europe. External Aid: Unknown. Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) Description: The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) is a group of Islamic militants from Uzbekistan and other Central Asian states. The IMU's goal is to overthrow Uzbekistani President Islam Karimov and to establish an Islamic state in Uzbekistan. The IMU is affiliated with al-Qa’ida (AQ) and under the leadership of Tohir Yoldashev, has embraced Usama bin Ladin's anti-Western global terrorist ideology. Activities: Since Operation Enduring Freedom, the IMU has been predominantly occupied with attacks on U.S. and Coalition soldiers in Afghanistan. The IMU also was active in terrorist operations in Central Asia. Government authorities in Tajikistan arrested several IMU members in 2005. In November 2004, the IMU was blamed for an explosion in the southern Kyrgyz city of Osh that killed one police officer and one terrorist. In May 2003, Kyrgyz security forces disrupted an IMU cell that was seeking to bomb the U.S. Embassy and a nearby hotel in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. The IMU was also responsible for explosions in Bishkek in December 2002, and Osh in May 2003, that killed eight people. The IMU primarily targeted Uzbekistani interests before October 2001, and is believed to have been responsible for several explosions in Tashkent in February 1999. In August 1999, IMU militants took four Japanese geologists and eight Kyrgyz soldiers hostage, and in August 2000, they took four U.S. mountain climbers hostage. Strength: Approximately 500 members. Location/Area of Operation: IMU militants are located in South Asia, Central Asia, and Iran. Their area of operation includes Afghanistan, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan. External Aid: The IMU receives support from a large Uzbek Diaspora, Islamic extremist groups, and patrons in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) a.k.a. Army of Mohammed; Jaish-i-Mohammed; Khudamul Islam; Khuddam-ul-Islam; Kuddam e Islami; Mohammed's Army; Tehrik ul-Furqaan Description: Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) is an Islamic extremist group based in Pakistan that was founded in early 2000 by Masood Azhar, a former senior leader of Harakat ul-Ansar, upon his release from prison in India. The group's aim is to unite Kashmir with Pakistan, and it has openly declared war against the United States. It is politically aligned with the radical political party Jamiat Ulema-i-Islam's Fazlur Rehman faction (JUI-F). Pakistan outlawed JEM in 2002. By 2003, JEM had splintered into Khuddam ul-Islam (KUI), headed by Azhar, and Jamaat ul-Furqan (JUF), led by Abdul Jabbar, who was released from Pakistani custody in August 2004. Pakistan banned KUI and JUF in November 2003. Activities: JEM continued to operate openly in parts of Pakistan despite President Musharraf's 2002 ban on its activities. The group was well-funded, and was said to have tens of thousands of followers who supported attacks against Indian targets, the Pakistani government, and sectarian minorities. Since Masood Azhar's 2000 release from Indian custody in exchange for 155 hijacked Indian Airlines hostages, JEM has conducted many fatal terrorist attacks in the area. JEM continued to claim responsibility for several suicide car bombings in Kashmir, including an October 2001 suicide attack on the Jammu and Kashmir legislative assembly building in Srinagar that killed more than 30 people. The Indian government has publicly implicated the JEM, along with Lashkar e-Tayyiba (LT), for the December 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament that killed nine and injured 18. Pakistani authorities suspect that JEM members may have been involved in the 2002 anti-Christian attacks in Islamabad, Murree, and Taxila that killed two Americans. In December 2003, Pakistan implicated elements of JEM in the two assassination attempts against President Musharraf. In July 2004, Pakistani authorities arrested a JEM member wanted in connection with the 2002 abduction and murder of U.S. journalist Daniel Pearl. In 2006, JEM claimed responsibility for a number of attacks, including the killing of several Indian police officials in the Indian-administered Kashmir capital of Srinagar. Strength: JEM has at least several hundred armed supporters, including a large cadre of former HUM members, located in Pakistan, in India's southern Kashmir and Doda regions, and in the Kashmir Valley. Supporters are mostly Pakistanis and Kashmiris, but also include Afghans and Arab veterans of the Afghan war. The group uses light and heavy machine guns, assault rifles, mortars, improvised explosive devices, and rocket-propelled grenades. Location/Area of Operation: Pakistan and Kashmir. Prior to autumn 2001, JEM maintained training camps in Afghanistan. External Aid: Most of JEM's cadre and material resources have been drawn from the Pakistani militant groups Harakat ul-Jihad-i-Islami (HUJI-B) and the Harakat ul-Mujahadin (HUM). In anticipation of asset seizures by the Pakistani government, JEM withdrew funds from bank accounts and invested in legal businesses, such as commodity trading, real estate, and production of consumer goods. In addition, JEM collects funds through donation requests in magazines and pamphlets, and allegedly from AQ. Jemaah Islamiya (JI) Description: Southeast Asia-based Jemaah Islamiya (JI) is a terrorist group that seeks the establishment of an Islamic caliphate spanning Indonesia, Malaysia, southern Thailand, Singapore, Brunei, and the southern Philippines. More than 300 JI operatives, including operations chief Hambali, have been captured since 2002, although many are free after serving short sentences, including former JI emir Abu Bakar Bashir. Abu Bakar was released from prison in 2006 after serving a 25-month sentence for his involvement in the 2002 Bali bombings. Indonesia’s Supreme Court later that year acquitted him of the charges. The death of top JI bomb maker Azahari bin Husin in November 2005, the arrests of several close associates of senior JI operative Noordin Mat Top in 2006, and the 2007 arrests of former acting JI emir Muhammad Naim (a.k.a. Zarkasih), JI military commander Abu Dujana, and several of their associates, coupled with additional efforts by the Government of Indonesia, likely disrupted JI's anti-Western attacks that had occurred annually from 2002-2005. Activities: The group's most recent high-profile attack occurred in Bali on October 1, 2005, which left 26 persons dead, including the three suicide bombers. Other major JI attacks include the September 2004 bombing outside the Australian Embassy in Jakarta, the August 2003 bombing of the J. W. Marriott Hotel in Jakarta, and the October 2002 Bali bombing. The 2002 Bali attack, which killed more than 200, was one of the deadliest terrorist attacks since 9/11. In December 2001, Singaporean authorities uncovered a JI plot to attack the U.S. and Israeli Embassies, and British and Australian diplomatic buildings in Singapore. In December 2000, JI coordinated bombings of numerous Christian churches in Indonesia and was involved in the bombings of several targets in Manila. In February 2004, JI facilitated attacks in Manila, Davao, and General Santos City. In 2007, the group staged an improvised explosive device (IED) attack in Sultan Kudarat that killed two civilians and injured thirty others. JI associates in the Philippines provide operational support and training for indigenous Philippine Muslim violent extremists. Strength: Exact numbers currently are unknown. Estimates of total JI members vary from the hundreds to one thousand. Location/Area of Operation: JI is based in Indonesia and is believed to have cells in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. External Aid: Investigations indicate that JI is fully capable of its own fundraising, although it also receives financial, ideological, and logistical support from Middle Eastern contacts and non-governmental organizations. Al-Jihad Egyptian Islamic Jihad; Egyptian al-Jihad; New Jihad; Jihad Group Description: In 2001, this Egyptian Islamic extremist group merged with al-Qa’ida (AQ). Usama bin Ladin's deputy, Ayman al-Zawahiri, was the former head of Al-Jihad (AJ). Active since the 1970s, AJ's primary goal has been the overthrow of the Egyptian government and the establishment of an Islamic state. The group's targets, historically, have been high-level Egyptian government officials as well as U.S. and Israeli interests in Egypt and abroad. Regular Egyptian crackdowns on extremists and Cairo’s deradicalization measures aimed at imprisoned AJ members have greatly reduced AJ’s capabilities in Egypt. Activities: The original AJ was responsible for the 1981 assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat. It claimed responsibility for the attempted assassinations in 1993 of Interior Minister Hassan al-Alfi and Prime Minister Atef Sedky. AJ has not conducted an attack inside Egypt since 1993 and has never successfully targeted foreign tourists there. The group was responsible for the Egyptian Embassy bombing in Islamabad in 1995, and a disrupted plot against the U.S. Embassy in Albania in 1998. AJ was dormant in 2007. Strength: Believed to have several hundred hard-core members inside and outside Egypt. Location/Area of Operation: Most AJ members today are outside Egypt in countries such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, Lebanon, the United Kingdom, and Yemen. AJ activities have been centered outside Egypt for several years under the auspices of AQ. External Aid: Since 1998, AJ has received most of its funding from AQ; these close ties culminated in the eventual merger of the groups in June 2001. Some funding may come from various Islamic non-governmental organizations, cover businesses, and criminal acts. Kahane Chai (Kach) a.k.a. American Friends of the United Yeshiva; American Friends of Yeshivat Rav Meir; Committee for the Safety of the Roads; Dikuy Bogdim; DOV; Forefront of the Idea; Friends of the Jewish Idea Yeshiva; Jewish Legion; Judea Police; Judean Congress; Kach; Kahane; Kahane Lives; Kahane Tzadak; Kahane.org; Kahanetzadak.com; Kfar Tapuah Fund; Koach; Meir's Youth; New Kach Movement; Newkach.org; No'ar Meir; Repression of Traitors; State of Judea; Sword of David; The Committee Against Racism and Discrimination (CARD); The Hatikva Jewish Identity Center; The International Kahane Movement; The Jewish Idea Yeshiva; The Judean Legion; The Judean Voice; The Qomemiyut Movement; The Rabbi Meir David Kahane Memorial Fund; The Voice of Judea; The Way of the Torah; The Yeshiva of the Jewish Idea; Yeshivat Harav Meir Description: Kahane Chai’s (Kach) stated goal was to restore the biblical state of Israel. The group disbanded in 2005. Kach was founded by radical Israeli-American rabbi Meir Kahane. Its offshoot, Kahane Chai, (translation: "Kahane Lives") was founded by Meir Kahane's son Binyamin following his father's 1990 assassination in the United States. Both Kach and Kahane Chai were declared terrorist organizations in 1994 by the Israeli Cabinet under its 1948 Terrorism Law. This designation followed the groups' statements in support of Dr. Baruch Goldstein's attack in February 1994 on the Ibrahimi Mosque and their verbal attacks on the Israeli government. Palestinian gunmen killed Binyamin Kahane and his wife in a drive-by shooting in December 2000 in the West Bank. The group has attempted to gain seats in the Israeli Knesset over the past several decades, but has won only one seat, in 1984. Activities: Kach has harassed and threatened Arabs, Palestinians, and Israeli government officials, and has vowed revenge for the death of Binyamin Kahane and his wife. Kach is suspected of involvement in a number of low-level attacks since the start of the al-Aqsa Intifada in 2000. Strength: Unknown. Location/Area of Operation: Israel and West Bank settlements, particularly Qiryat Arba' in Hebron. External Aid: Receives support from sympathizers in the United States and Europe. Kongra-Gel Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK); Freedom and Democracy Congress of Kurdistan (KADEK); Halu Mesru Savunma Kuvveti (HSK); Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress; Kurdistan People's Congress (KHK); Partiya Karkeran Kurdistan; People's Congress of Kurdistan; The People's Defense Force (Note: Despite name changes, the group is still most commonly referred to as the PKK; for the purposes of this report we use the name Kongra-Gel/Kurdistan Workers Party or KGK/PKK.) Description: The Kongra-Gel/Kurdistan Worker’s Party was founded by Abdullah Ocalan in 1978 as a Marxist-Leninist separatist organization. The group, composed primarily of Turkish Kurds, launched a campaign of violence in 1984. The KGK/PKK aspired to establish an independent Kurdish state in southeastern Turkey, but in recent years has spoken more often about autonomy within a Turkish state that guaranteed Kurdish cultural and linguistic rights. In the early 1990s, the KGK/PKK moved beyond rural-based insurgent activities to include urban terrorism. In the 1990s, southeastern Anatolia was the scene of significant violence; some estimates place casualties at approximately 30,000 persons. Following his capture in 1999, Ocalan announced a "peace initiative," ordering members to refrain from violence and requesting dialogue with Ankara on Kurdish issues. Ocalan's death-sentence was commuted to life-imprisonment; he remains the symbolic leader of the group. The group foreswore violence until June 2004, when the group's hard-line militant wing took control and renounced the self-imposed cease-fire of the previous five years. Striking over the border from bases within Iraq the KGK/PKK engaged in terrorist attacks in eastern and western Turkey. Activities: Primary targets have been Turkish government security forces, local Turkish officials, and villagers who oppose the organization in Turkey. KGK/PKK’s reputed military-wing, the People’s Defense Force (HPG), has been responsible mainly for attacks against military and paramilitary targets in the southeastern area of Turkey. The group conducted attacks on Turkish diplomatic and commercial facilities in West European cities in 1993 and again in spring 1995. In an attempt to damage Turkey's tourist industry, the KGK/PKK bombed tourist sites and hotels and kidnapped foreign tourists in the early-to-mid-1990s. KGK/PKK-initiated attacks rose from just five in 2000 to more than 70 in 2007. Last year was the most violent year for Turkish security forces since the 1990s, with more than 140 deaths attributed to counterterrorism related operations in eastern Turkey. Strength: Approximately 4,000 to 5,000; 3,000 to 3,500 are currently located in northern Iraq. Location/Area of Operation: Operates primarily in Turkey, Iraq, Europe, and the Middle East. External Aid: In the past, KGK/PKK has received safe haven and modest aid from Syria, Iraq, and Iran. Since 1999, Syria and Iran have cooperated in a limited fashion with Turkey against the KGK/PKK. The group maintains a large extortion, fundraising, and propaganda network in Europe. Lashkar e-Tayyiba (LT) a.k.a. Al Mansooreen; Al Mansoorian; Army of the Pure; Army of the Pure and Righteous; Army of the Righteous; Lashkar e-Toiba; Lashkar-i-Taiba; Paasban-e-Ahle-Hadis; Paasban-e-Kashmir; Paasban-i-Ahle-Hadith; Pasban-e-Ahle-Hadith; Pasban-e-Kashmir Description: Lashkar e-Tayyiba (LT) is one of the largest and most proficient of the Kashmiri-focused militant groups. LT formed in the late 1980s or early 1990s as the militant wing of the Islamic extremist organization Markaz Dawa ul-Irshad (MDI), a Pakistan-based Islamic fundamentalist mission organization and charity founded to oppose the Soviet presence in Afghanistan. LT, which is not connected to any political party, is led by Hafiz Muhammad Saeed. Elements of LT and Jaish-e-Muhammad combined with other groups to mount attacks as "The Save Kashmir Movement. LT, which is not connected to any political party, is led by Hafiz Muhammad Saeed. Elements of LT and Jaish-e-Muhammad (JEM) combined with other groups to mount attacks as "The Save Kashmir Movement.” The Pakistani government banned the group and froze its assets in January 2002. LT and its leader, Hafiz Muhammad Saeed, continue to spread ideology advocating terrorism, as well as virulent rhetoric condemning the United States, India, Israel, and other perceived enemies. Activities: LT has conducted a number of operations against Indian troops and civilian targets in Jammu and Kashmir since 1993, as well as several high profile attacks inside India itself. LT claimed responsibility for numerous attacks in 2001, including an attack in January on Srinagar airport that killed five Indians; an attack on a police station in Srinagar that killed at least eight officers and wounded several others; and an attack in April against Indian border security forces that left at least four dead. The Indian government publicly implicated LT, along with JEM, for the December 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament building, although concrete evidence is lacking. LT is also suspected of involvement in May 2002 attack on an Indian Army base in Kaluchak that left 36 dead. India blamed LT for an October 2005 attack in New Delhi and a December 2005 Bangalore attack. Senior al-Qa’ida (AQ) lieutenant Abu Zubaydah was captured at an LT safe house in Faisalabad in March 2002, which suggested that some members were facilitating the movement of AQ members in Pakistan. Indian governmental officials hold LT responsible for the July 11, 2006 train attack in Mumbai and several attacks since then in Hyderabad. Strength: The actual size of the group is unknown but LT has several thousand members in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, in the southern Jammu and Kashmir and Doda regions, and in the Kashmir Valley. Most LT members are Pakistanis from madrassas across Pakistan or Afghan and/or veterans of the Afghan wars, though the group is alleged to augment its strength through collaboration with terrorist groups comprised of non-Pakistanis. The group uses assault rifles, light and heavy machine guns, mortars, explosives, and rocket-propelled grenades. Location/Area of Operation: Based in Muridke (near Lahore) and Muzaffarabad, Pakistan; maintains a number of facilities, including training camps, schools, and medical clinics. External Aid: Collects donations from the Pakistani expatriate communities in the Middle East and the United Kingdom, Islamic NGOs, and Pakistani and other Kashmiri business people. LT coordinates its charitable activities through its front organization Jamaat ud-Daawa (JUD), which spearheaded humanitarian relief to the victims of the October 2005 earthquake in Kashmir. The precise amount of LT funding is unknown. Lashkar i Jhangvi (LJ) Description: Lashkar i Jhangvi (LJ) is the militant offshoot of the Sunni Deobandi sectarian group Sipah-i-Sahaba Pakistan. LJ focuses primarily on anti-Shia attacks and was banned by Pakistani President Musharraf in August 2001 as part of an effort to rein in sectarian violence. Many of its members then sought refuge in Afghanistan with the Taliban, with whom they had existing ties. After the collapse of the Taliban, LJ members became active in aiding other terrorists with safe houses, false identities, and protection in Pakistani cities, including Karachi, Peshawar, and Rawalpindi. Activities: LJ specializes in armed attacks and bombings and has admitted responsibility for numerous killings of Shia religious and community leaders in Pakistan. In January, the Interior Ministry ordered the arrest of three LJ militants suspected of being involved in a suicide bombing at a Shia religious procession in Peshawar that killed 15 people. In February, police arrested 20 LJ militants who were wanted for various terrorism attacks in the Punjab and Sindh provinces. In June, Sindh authorities issued a statement attributing the April 2006 Mishtar Parking bombing in Karachi to a militant with ties to LJ. The government claimed that the group was involved in the April 2006 assassination attempt and the July 2006 assassination of Allama Turabi, an influential Shia leader. In October, Afghan security forces claimed to have arrested four Pakistani suicide bombers in Kandahar who asserted that they belonged to LJ. In May 2006, Pakistani police arrested two LJ militants suspected of involvement in the March bombing outside the U.S. Consulate in Karachi that killed one U.S. official. Pakistani authorities have publicly linked LJ members to the 2002 abduction and murder of U.S. journalist Daniel Pearl. Media reports linked LJ to attacks on Christian targets in Pakistan, including a March 2002 grenade assault on the Protestant International Church in Islamabad that killed two U.S. citizens, but no formal charges were filed. Pakistani authorities believe LJ was responsible for the July 2003 bombing of a Shia mosque in Quetta, Pakistan. Authorities also implicated LJ in several sectarian incidents in 2004, including the May and June bombings of two Shia mosques in Karachi that killed more than 40 people. In January 1999, the group attempted to assassinate former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and his brother Shabaz Sharif, Chief Minister of Punjab Province. Strength: Probably fewer than 100. Location/Area of Operation: LJ is active primarily in Punjab and Karachi. Some members travel between Pakistan and Afghanistan. External Aid: Unknown. Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) a.k.a. Ellalan Force; Tamil Tigers Description: Founded in 1976, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) is a powerful Tamil secessionist group in Sri Lanka. The LTTE wants to establish an independent Tamil state in the island's north and east. Since the beginning of its insurgency against the Sri Lankan government in 1983, it has evolved its capability from terrorist and guerilla tactics to conventional warfare. Although the LTTE nominally committed to a 2002 cease-fire agreement with the Sri Lankan government, it continued terrorist attacks against government leaders and dissident Tamils. Activities: LTTE has integrated a battlefield insurgent strategy with a terrorist program that targets key personnel in the countryside and senior Sri Lankan political and military leaders in Colombo and other urban centers. It has conducted a sustained campaign targeting rival Tamil groups and figures, and assassinated Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi of India in 1991, and President Ranasinghe Premadasa of Sri Lanka in 1993. Although most notorious for its cadre of suicide bombers, the Black Tigers, the organization also features an amphibious force, the Sea Tigers; and a nascent air wing, the Air Tigers. Fighting between the LTTE and the Sri Lanka government escalated in 2006 and continued through 2007. Political assassinations and bombings were commonplace tactics prior to the cease-fire and have increased again since mid-2005. After a period of targeting Sri Lankan military and official personnel throughout 2007, the LTTE appears to have recently resumed its targeting of civilians. Strength: Exact strength is unknown, but LTTE is estimated to have 8,000 to 10,000 armed combatants in Sri Lanka, with an elite cadre of 5,000 to 7,000. LTTE also has a significant overseas support structure for fundraising, weapons procurement, and propaganda activities. Location/Area of Operations: LTTE controls portions of the northern areas of Sri Lanka, where it has set up a de facto administrative structure, but over the past year, the LTTE has lost control of its eastern bases to the Sri Lankan military. LTTE also has conducted operations throughout the island and has established an extensive network of checkpoints and informants to keep track of any outsiders who enter the group’s area of control. External Aid: The LTTE uses its international contacts and the large Tamil Diaspora in North America, Europe, and Asia to procure weapons, communications, funding, and other needed supplies. The group employs charities as fronts to collect and divert funds for their activities. In May 2007, Australian police arrested two individuals with ties to LTTE. The two were also accused of collecting money for tsunami relief and sending the funds to the LTTE in Sri Lanka instead. In November, the United States designated the Tamils Rehabilitation Organization (TRO) — a charitable organization with offices in seventeen countries worldwide —as an LTTE front organization that facilitates fundraising and procurement for the group. Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) Description: In the early 1990s, the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) emerged from the group of Libyans who had fought Soviet forces in Afghanistan and the Qadhafi regime in Libya. The LIFG declared Libyan President Muammar Qadhafi un-Islamic and pledged to overthrow him. In the years following, some members maintained a strictly anti-Qadhafi focus and targeted Libyan government interests. Others, such as Abu al-Faraj al-Libi, who in 2005 was arrested in Pakistan, aligned with Usama bin Ladin and are believed to be part of the al-Qa’ida (AQ) leadership structure or active in the international terrorist network. On November 3, 2007, senior AQ leaders announced that LIFG had officially joined AQ. Activities: Libyans associated with the LIFG are part of the broader international terrorist movement. The LIFG is one of the groups believed to have planned the Casablanca suicide bombings in May 2003. Spanish media in August 2005 linked Ziyad Hashem, an alleged member of the LIFG’s media committee, as well as the imprisoned amir Abdallah al-Sadeq, with Tunisian Islamist Serhane Ben Abdelmajid Fakhet, the suspected ringleader in the 2004 Madrid attacks. The LIFG continued to target Libyan interests, and attempted to assassinate Qadhafi four times; the last attempt was in 1998. The LIFG engaged Libyan security forces in armed clashes during the 1990s. However, the LIFG has been largely operationally inactive in Libya since the late 1990s when members fled predominately to Europe and the Middle East because of tightened Libyan security measures. To date, the November 3 merger with AQ has not resulted in a significant increase in LIFG activities within Libya. Strength: The LIFG probably has several hundred active members or supporters, mostly in the Middle East or Europe. Location/Area of Operation: Since the late 1990s, many members have fled to various Asian, Arabian Gulf, African, and European countries, particularly the UK. It is likely that LIFG maintained a limited presence in eastern Libya. External Aid: Unknown. The LIFG has used Islamic charitable organizations as cover for fundraising and transferring money and documents; it may have also financed operations with criminal activity. Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) a.k.a. Groupe Islamique Combattant Marocain Description: : The Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) has disintegrated, and it is likely that the few remaining former members no longer operate on behalf of any single group. Much of the leadership in Morocco and Europe have been killed, imprisoned, or are awaiting trial. There is no indication that new leaders have emerged or additional members have been recruited to fill the ranks of arrested cell members, although individual extremists still pose a threat. The Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) was a clandestine transnational terrorist group centered in the Moroccan Diaspora communities of Western Europe. Its goals included establishing an Islamic state in Morocco and supporting al-Qa’ida’s (AQ 's) war against the West by assisting in the assimilation of AQ operatives into Moroccan and European society. The group emerged in the 1990s and was comprised of Moroccan recruits who trained in armed camps in Afghanistan, including some who fought in the Soviet Afghan war. GICM members interact with other North African extremists, particularly in Europe. Activities: GICM members were among those responsible for the 2004 Madrid bombing, and Moroccans associated with the GICM are part of the broader international terrorist movement. GICM members were implicated in the recruitment network of individuals for Iraq, and at least one GICM member carried out a suicide attack against Coalition Forces in Iraq. GICM individuals are believed to have been involved in the 2003 Casablanca attacks. Strength: Much of the GICM's leadership in Morocco and Europe have been killed, imprisoned, or are awaiting trial. Alleged leader Mohamed al-Guerbouzi was convicted in absentia by the Moroccan government for his role in the Casablanca attacks but remained free in exile in the UK. Location/Area of Operation: Morocco, Western Europe, Afghanistan, and Canada. External Aid: The GICM was involved in narcotics trafficking in North Africa and Europe to fund its operations. Moroccan security officials believe money from drug trafficking largely financed the 2003 Casablanca attacks. The Madrid attacks were financed mainly by the narcotics trafficking of Moroccan terrorist Jamal Ahmidan. Mujahadin-e Khalq Organization (MEK) a.k.a. MKO; Mujahadin-e Khalq (Iranian government name for group); Muslim Iranian Students' Society; National Council of Resistance (NCR); Organization of the People's Holy Warriors of Iran; The National Liberation Army of Iran (NLA); The People's Mujahadin Organization of Iran (PMOI); National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI); Sazeman-e Mujahadin-e Khalq-e Iran Description: The Mujahadin-e Khalq Organization (MEK) advocates the violent overthrow of the Iranian regime and was responsible for the assassination of several U.S. military personnel and civilians in the 1970s. The MEK’s armed wing is known as the National Liberation Army of Iran (NLA). In December 2006, the European Court of Justice ruled to overturn the designation of the MEK as a terrorist organization but was not supported by the Council of the European Union (EU). The MEK emerged in the 1960s as one of the more violent political movements opposed to the Pahlavi dynasty and its close relationship with the United States. MEK ideology has gone through several iterations and blends elements of Marxism, Islam, and feminism. The group has planned and executed terrorist operations against the Iranian regime for nearly three decades from its European and Iraqi bases of operations. Additionally, it has expanded its fundraising base, further developed its paramilitary skills, and aggressively worked to expand its European ranks. In addition to its terrorist credentials, the MEK has also displayed cult-like characteristics. Upon entry into the group, new members are indoctrinated in MEK ideology and revisionist Iranian history. Members are also required to undertake a vow of "eternal divorce" and participate in weekly "ideological cleansings." Additionally, children are reportedly separated from parents at a young age. MEK leader Maryam Rajavi has established a "cult of personality." She claims to emulate the Prophet Muhammad and is viewed by members as the "Iranian President in exile." Activities: The group's worldwide campaign against the Iranian government uses propaganda and terrorism to achieve its objectives and has been supported by reprehensible regimes, including that of Saddam Hussein. During the 1970s, the MEK assassinated several U.S. military personnel and U.S. civilians working on defense projects in Tehran and supported the violent takeover in 1979 of the U.S. Embassy in Tehran. In 1981, MEK leadership attempted to overthrow the newly installed Islamic regime; Iranian security forces subsequently initiated a crackdown on the group. The MEK instigated a bombing campaign, including an attack against the head office of the Islamic Republic Party and the Prime Minister's office, which killed some 70 high-ranking Iranian officials, including Chief Justice Ayatollah Mohammad Beheshti, President Mohammad-Ali Rajaei, and Prime Minister Mohammad-Javad Bahonar. These attacks resulted in a popular uprising against the MEK and an expanded Iranian government crackdown which forced MEK leaders to flee to France. For five years, the MEK continued to wage its terrorist campaign from its Paris headquarters. Expelled by France in 1986, MEK leaders turned to Saddam Hussein's regime for basing, financial support, and training. Near the end of the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War, Baghdad armed the MEK with heavy military equipment and deployed thousands of MEK fighters in suicidal, mass wave attacks against Iranian forces. The MEK's relationship with the former Iraqi regime continued through the 1990s. In 1991, the group reportedly assisted the Iraqi Republican Guard's bloody crackdown on Iraqi Shia and Kurds who rose up against Saddam Hussein's regime. In April 1992, the MEK conducted near-simultaneous attacks on Iranian embassies and installations in 13 countries, demonstrating the group's ability to mount large-scale operations overseas. In April 1999, the MEK targeted key Iranian military officers and assassinated the deputy chief of the Iranian Armed Forces General Staff, Brigadier General Ali Sayyaad Shirazi. In April 2000, the MEK attempted to assassinate the commander of the Nasr Headquarters, Tehran's interagency board responsible for coordinating policies on Iraq. The pace of anti-Iranian operations increased during "Operation Great Bahman" in February 2000, when the group launched a dozen attacks against Iran. One attack included a mortar attack against a major Iranian leadership complex in Tehran that housed the offices of the Supreme Leader and the President. In 2000 and 2001, the MEK was involved in regular mortar attacks and hit-and-run raids against Iranian military and law enforcement personnel, as well as government buildings near the Iran-Iraq border. Also in 2001, the FBI arrested seven Iranians in the United States who funneled $400,000 to an MEK-affiliated organization in the UAE, which used the funds to purchase weapons. Following an initial Coalition bombardment of the MEK's facilities in Iraq at the outset of Operation Iraqi Freedom, MEK leadership negotiated a cease-fire with Coalition Forces and voluntarily surrendered their heavy-arms to Coalition control. Since 2003, roughly 3,400 MEK members have been encamped at Ashraf in Iraq, under the protection of Coalition Forces. In 2003, French authorities arrested 160 MEK members at operational bases they believed the MEK was using to coordinate financing and planning for terrorist attacks. Upon the arrest of MEK leader Maryam Rajavi, MEK members took to Paris' streets and engaged in self-immolation. French authorities eventually released Rajavi. Although currently in hiding, Rajavi has made “motivational” appearances via video-satellite to MEK-sponsored conferences across the globe. According to evidence which became available after the fall of Saddam Hussein, the MEK received millions of dollars in Oil-for-Food program subsidies from Saddam Hussein from 1999 through 2003. In addition to discovering 13 lists of recipients of such vouchers on which the MEK appeared, evidence linking the MEK to the former Iraqi regime includes lists, as well as video footage of Saddam Hussein handing over suitcases of money to known MEK leaders, and video of MEK operatives receiving training from the Iraqi military. Strength: Estimates place MEK's worldwide membership at between 5,000 and 10,000 members, with large pockets in Paris and other major European capitals. In Iraq, roughly 3,400 MEK members are gathered under Coalition protection at Camp Ashraf, the MEK's main compound north of Baghdad, where they have been treated as "protected persons" consistent with provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention. This status does not affect the group's members outside of Camp Ashraf or the MEK's designation as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. As a condition of the 2003 cease-fire agreement, the MEK relinquished more than 2,000 tanks, armored personnel carriers, and heavy artillery. A significant number of MEK personnel have voluntarily left Ashraf, and an additional several hundred individuals have renounced ties to the MEK and been voluntarily repatriated to Iran. Location/Area of Operation: The MEK maintains its main headquarters in Paris and has concentrations of members across Europe, in addition to the large concentration of MEK located at Camp Ashraf in Iraq. The MEK's global support structure remains in place, with associates and supporters scattered throughout Europe and North America. Operations target Iranian regime elements across the globe, including in Europe and Iran. MEK's political arm, the National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI), has a global support network with active lobbying and propaganda efforts in major Western capitals. NCRI also has a well-developed media communications strategy. External Aid: Before Operation Iraqi Freedom began in 2003, the MEK received all of its military assistance and most of its financial support from Saddam Hussein. The fall of Saddam's regime has led MEK increasingly to rely on front organizations to solicit contributions from expatriate Iranian communities. National Liberation Army (ELN) a.k.a. Ejercito de Liberacion Nacional Description: The National Liberation Army (ELN) is a Colombian Marxist-Leninist terrorist group formed in 1964 by urban intellectuals inspired by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara. It is primarily rural-based, although it possesses several urban units. Peace talks between the ELN and the Colombian government began in Cuba in December 2005 and continued as recently as August 2007. To date, Bogota and the ELN have yet to agree on a formal framework for peace negotiations. Activities: The ELN engages in kidnappings, hijackings, bombings, drug trafficking, and extortion activities. It has minimal conventional military capabilities. The group conducts kidnappings for ransom, often targeting foreign employees of large corporations, especially in the petroleum industry. In August, ELN leadership discussed the possibility of ending kidnapping as a means of financing insurgent operations as a government-proposed precondition for formal peace talks. However, the organization has yet to renounce kidnapping. ELN derives some revenue from taxation of the illegal narcotics industry, and its involvement may be increasing. It attacks energy infrastructure and has inflicted major damage on oil and natural gas pipelines and the electrical distribution network, but has lost much of its capacity to carry out these types of attacks in recent years. Strength: Approximately 3,000 armed combatants and an unknown number of active supporters. Location/Area of Operation: Mostly in rural and mountainous areas of northern, northeastern, and southwestern Colombia, and Venezuelan border regions. External Aid: Cuba provides some medical care and political consultation. Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) a.k.a. PLF-Abu Abbas; Palestine Liberation Front – Abu Abbas Faction Description: In the late 1970s the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) splintered from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC), and later split into pro-PLO, pro-Syrian, and pro-Libyan factions. The pro-PLO faction was led by Muhammad Zaydan (a.k.a. Abu Abbas) and was based in Baghdad prior to Operation Iraqi Freedom. Activities: Abbas's group was responsible for the 1985 attack on the Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro and the murder of U.S. citizen Leon Klinghoffer. In 1993, the PLF officially renounced terrorism when it acknowledged the Oslo accords, although it was suspected of supporting terrorism against Israel by other Palestinian groups into the 1990s. In April 2004, Abu Abbas died of natural causes while in U.S. custody in Iraq. Current leadership and membership of the relatively small PLF appears to be based in Lebanon and the Palestinian territories. The PLF took part in the 2006 Palestinian parliamentarian elections but did not win a seat. Strength: Estimates have placed membership between 50 and 500. Location/Area of Operation: Based in Iraq from 1990 until 2003. The group currently is based in Lebanon and Syria. External Aid: Unknown. Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ) a.k.a. Palestine Islamic Jihad-Shaqaqi Faction; PIJ-Shaqaqi Faction; PIJ-Shallah Faction; Islamic Jihad of Palestine; Islamic Jihad in Palestine; Abu Ghunaym Squad of the Hizballah Bayt Al-Maqdis; Al-Quds Squads; Al-Quds Brigades; Saraya Al-Quds; Al-Awdah Brigades Description: Formed by militant Palestinians in Gaza during the 1970s, Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ) is committed to both the creation of an Islamic state in all of historic Palestine, including present day Israel, and the destruction of Israel through attacks against Israeli military and civilian targets. Activities: PIJ terrorists have conducted numerous attacks, including large-scale suicide bombings against Israeli civilian and military targets. In 2006, the group conducted two suicide bombings and launched numerous homemade rockets from Gaza into neighboring Israeli towns. PIJ continues to plan and direct attacks against Israelis both inside Israel and in the Palestinian territories. Although U.S. citizens have died in PIJ mounted attacks, the group has not directly targeted U.S. interests. All but one of PIJ’s attacks in 2007 consisted of rocket attacks aimed at southern Israeli cities. Strength: Unknown. Location/Area of Operation: Primarily Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza. The group's senior leadership resides in Syria. Other leadership elements reside in Lebanon and official representatives are scattered throughout the Middle East. External Aid: Receives financial assistance and training primarily from Iran. Syria provides the group with safe haven. Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) a.k.a. Halhul Gang; Halhul Squad; Palestinian Popular Resistance Forces; PPRF; Red Eagle Gang; Red Eagle Group; Red Eagles Description: The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), a Marxist-Leninist group founded by George Habash, broke away from the Arab Nationalist Movement in 1967. The PFLP does not view the Palestinian struggle as religious, seeing it instead as a broader revolution against Western imperialism. The group earned a reputation for spectacular international attacks in the 1960s and 1970s, including airline hijackings that killed at least 20 U.S. citizens. A leading faction within the PLO, the PFLP has long accepted the concept of a two-state solution but has opposed specific provisions of various peace initiatives. Activities: The PFLP stepped up its operational activity during the al-Aqsa intifada. This was highlighted by at least two suicide bombings since 2003, multiple joint operations with other Palestinian terrorist groups, and the assassination of Israeli Tourism Minister Rehavam Ze'evi in 2001 to avenge Israel's killing of the PFLP Secretary General earlier that year. In March 2006, the PFLP's current Secretary General, Ahmed Sa'adat, who had been imprisoned by the Palestinian Authority for his involvement in the Ze'evi assassination, was seized from the Jericho prison compound by Israeli forces and is now awaiting trial. The PFLP-GC is suspected in several rocket attacks against Israel in 2007. Strength: Unknown. Location/Area of Operation: Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza. External Aid: Receives safe haven and some logistical assistance from Syria. Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC) Description: The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC) split from the PFLP in 1968, claiming it wanted to focus more on resistance and less on politics. Originally, the group was violently opposed to the Arafat-led PLO. Ahmad Jibril, a former captain in the Syrian Army, whose son Jihad was killed by a car bomb in May 2002, has led the PFLP-GC since its founding. The PFLP-GC is closely tied to both Syria and Iran. Activities: The PFLP-GC carried out dozens of attacks in Europe and the Middle East during the 1970s and 1980s. The organization was known for cross-border terrorist attacks into Israel using unusual means, such as hot-air balloons and motorized hang gliders. The group's primary focus now is on supporting Hizballah’s attacks against Israel, training members of other Palestinian terrorist groups, and weapons smuggling. The PFLP-GC maintains an armed presence in several Palestinian refugee camps and its own military bases in Lebanon. The PFLP-GC has been implicated by Lebanese security officials in several rocket attacks against Israel in 2007. Strength: Several hundred to several thousand. Location/Area of Operation: Headquartered in Damascus with bases in southern Lebanon and a presence in the Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon and Syria. External Aid: Receives logistical and military support from Syria and financial support from Iran. Al Qa’ida a.k.a. al Qaeda; International Front for Fighting Jews and Crusaders; Islamic Army; Islamic Army for the Liberation of Holy Sites; Islamic Salvation Foundation; The Base; The Group for the Preservation of the Holy Sites; The Islamic Army for the Liberation of the Holy Places; The World Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders; Usama bin Ladin Network; Usama bin Ladin Organization; al-Jihad; the Jihad Group; Egyptian al-Jihad; Egyptian Islamic Jihad; New Jihad Description: Al-Qa’ida (AQ) was established by Usama bin Ladin in 1988 with Arabs who fought in Afghanistan against the Soviet Union. The group helped finance, recruit, transport, and train Sunni Islamic extremists for the Afghan resistance. AQ’s near-term goal is uniting Muslims to fight the United States and its allies, overthrowing regimes it deems "non-Islamic," and expelling Westerners and non-Muslims from Muslim countries. Its ultimate goal is the establishment of a pan-Islamic caliphate throughout the world. AQ leaders issued a statement in February 1998 under the banner of "The World Islamic Front for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders" saying it was the duty of all Muslims to kill U.S. citizens, civilian and military, and their allies everywhere. AQ merged with al-Jihad (Egyptian Islamic Jihad) in June 2001. Activities: Even as AQ's top leaders continue to plot and direct terror attacks worldwide, terrorists affiliated with but not necessarily controlled by AQ have increasingly carried out high-profile attacks. AQ, its affiliates, and those inspired by the group were involved in anti-U.S. and anti-Coalition attacks in Africa, Europe, the Middle East, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq, including suicide bombings and vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices. AQ has reconstituted some of its pre-9/11 operational capabilities through the reestablishment of a safe haven in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan, replacement of captured or killed operational lieutenants, and the restoration of some central control by its top leadership, in particular Ayman al-Zawahiri. Although bin Ladin remains the group’s ideological figurehead, Zawahiri has emerged as AQ’s strategic and operational planner. AQ is assessed to be the top terrorist threat to the United States and is developing stronger operational relationships with affiliates in the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. It is through these “franchises” that AQ has conducted its recent attacks. AQ remains committed to attacking the United States and focuses its planning on targets that would produce mass casualties, dramatic visual destruction, and economic dislocation. In a 1999 interview with the press, bin Ladin’s response to a question about chemical and nuclear weapons was, “Acquiring weapons for the defense of Muslims is a religious duty.” The Government of Pakistan accused AQ, along with the Taliban, of being responsible for the October suicide bombing attempt against former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto that killed at least 144 people in Karachi, Pakistan. On December 27, the Government of Pakistan stated that Baitullah Mahsud, a leading Pakistani Taliban commander with close ties to AQ, was responsible for the assassination of Benazir Bhutto. In 2006, AQ and affiliated organizations continued major efforts to attack the West and its interests. For example, in mid-August, UK and U.S. authorities foiled a plot to blow up several aircraft. AQ may have been complicit in the plot but the group has made no public statement claiming its involvement. Additionally, al-Qa’ida in the Arabian Peninsula claimed responsibility for the February 24, 2006 attack on the Abqaiq petroleum processing facility, the largest such facility in the world, in Saudi Arabia. The Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) officially merged with al-Qa’ida in September 2006, subsequently changed its name to al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), and attacked a U.S. contractor bus in December 2006 in greater Algiers, marking its first attack against a U.S. entity. On December 11, 2007, AQIM conducted a near-simultaneous double suicide bombing that hit both the Algerian Court building and a UN office building. The Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) also officially merged with AQ in November 2007, although no significant LIFG activities have occurred since the merger. Bin Ladin's deputy Ayman al-Zawahiri claimed responsibility on behalf of AQ for multiple attacks on July 7, 2005 against the London public transportation system. The extent of senior leadership involvement in planning the July 2005 attacks was unclear. Some suspects in the attacks included homegrown United Kingdom-based extremists who were “inspired” by AQ. In 2003 and 2004, Saudi-based AQ operatives and associated extremists launched more than a dozen attacks, killing at least 90 people, including 14 Americans in Saudi Arabia. AQ may have been connected to the suicide bombers and planners of the November 2003 attacks in Istanbul that targeted two synagogues, the British Consulate, and the HSBC Bank, and resulted in the deaths of more than 60 people. Pakistani President Musharraf blames AQ for two attempts on his life in December 2003. In October 2002, AQ directed a suicide attack on the French tanker MV Limburg off the coast of Yemen that killed one and injured four. The group also carried out the November 2002 suicide bombing of a hotel in Mombasa, Kenya that killed 15. AQ probably provided financing for the October 2002 Bali bombings by Jemaah Islamiya that killed more than 200. On September 11, 2001, 19 AQ members hijacked and crashed four U.S. commercial jets – two into the World Trade Center in New York City, one into the Pentagon near Washington, DC, and a fourth into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania – leaving nearly 3,000 individuals dead or missing. In October 2000, AQ conducted a suicide attack on the USS Cole in the port of Aden, Yemen, with an explosive-laden boat, killing 17 U.S. Navy sailors and injuring 39. AQ also carried out the August 1998 bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam killing at least 301 individuals and injuring more than 5,000 others. AQ and its supporters claim to have shot down U.S. helicopters and killed U.S. servicemen in Somalia in 1993, and to have conducted three bombings that targeted U.S. troops in Aden in December 1992. Strength: AQ's organizational strength is difficult to determine in the aftermath of extensive counterterrorist efforts since 9/11, but several thousand members and associates comprise the AQ-associated movement. The arrests and deaths of mid-level and senior AQ operatives have disrupted some communication, financial, and facilitation nodes and disrupted some terrorist plots. Additionally, supporters and associates worldwide who are “inspired” by the group's ideology may be operating without direction from AQ central leadership; it is impossible to estimate their numbers. AQ also serves as a focal point of “inspiration” for a worldwide network that is comprised of many Sunni Islamic extremist groups, including some members of the Gama'at al-Islamiyya, the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, the Islamic Jihad Group, Lashkar i Jhangvi, Harakat ul-Mujahadin, Ansar al-Sunnah, the Taliban, and Jemaah Islamiya. Location/Area of Operation: AQ worldwide networks are augmented by ties to local Sunni extremists. The group was based in Afghanistan until Coalition Forces removed the Taliban from power in late 2001. While the largest concentration of senior AQ members now resides in Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas, the network incorporates members of al-Qa’ida in Iraq and other associates throughout the Middle East, Southeast Asia, Africa, Europe, and Central Asia who are working to carry out future attacks against U.S. and Western interests. External Aid: Al-Qa’ida primarily depends on donations from like-minded supporters and individuals who believe that their money is supporting a humanitarian or other cause. Some funds are diverted from Islamic charitable organizations. In addition, parts of the organization raise funds through criminal activities; for example, al-Qa’ida in Iraq raises funds through hostage-taking for ransom, and members in Europe have engaged in credit card fraud. U.S. and international efforts to block al-Qa’ida funding have hampered the group's ability to raise money. Al-Qa’ida in Iraq a.k.a. al-Qa’ida Group of Jihad in Iraq; al-Qa’ida Group of Jihad in the Land of the Two Rivers; al-Qa’ida in Mesopotamia; al-Qa’ida in the Land of the Two Rivers; al-Qa’ida of Jihad in Iraq; Al-Qa’ida of Jihad Organization in the Land of The Two Rivers; Al-Qa’ida of the Jihad in the Land of the Two Rivers; Al-Tawhid; Jam'at al-Tawhid Wa'al-Jihad; Tanzeem Qa’idat al Jihad/Bilad al Raafidaini; Tanzim Qa’idat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn; The Monotheism and Jihad Group; The Organization Base of Jihad/Country of the Two Rivers; The Organization Base of Jihad/Mesopotamia; The Organization of al-Jihad's Base in Iraq; The Organization of al-Jihad's Base in the Land of the Two Rivers; The Organization of al-Jihad's Base of Operations in Iraq; The Organization of al-Jihad's Base of Operations in the Land of the Two Rivers; The Organization of Jihad's Base in the Country of the Two Rivers; al-Zarqawi Network Description: In January 2006, in an attempt to unify Sunni extremists in Iraq, al-Qa’ida in Iraq (AQI) created the Mujahidin Shura Council (MSC), an umbrella organization meant to encompass the various Sunni terrorist groups in Iraq. AQI claimed its attacks under the MSC until mid-October, when Abu Mus'ab al-Zarqawi's successor, Abu Ayyub al-Masri, took the first step toward al-Qa’ida's goal of establishing a caliphate in the region by declaring the "Islamic State of Iraq" (ISI), under which AQI now claims its attacks. Although Iraqis compose 90 percent of the group’s membership, it is probable that the majority of AQI’s leadership is foreign-born. In an attempt to give AQI a more Iraqi persona, the Islamic State of Iraq umbrella organization was created and headed by “Abu Omar al-Baghdadi.” Abu Ayyub al-Masri, Zarqawi's successor, issued a statement pledging to continue what Zarqawi began, and AQI has continued its strategy of targeting Coalition Forces, Iraqi government groups, and Shia civilians to provoke sectarian violence and undermine perceptions that the Iraqi central government can defend them. AQI has claimed joint attacks with both Ansar Al-Sunnah (AS) and the Islamic Army in Iraq (IAI); however, ideological differences have prevented these groups from merging. More recently, IAI and the 1920 Revolution Brigades cooperated with Coalition Forces in targeting AQI. ( See Chapter 2, Country Reports, Middle East and North Africa , for further information on U.S. efforts to counter AQI.) Activities: High-profile attacks in 2007 included the suicide car-bombing attack of a mosque in Al Habbaniyah in February, the multiple suicide bombing attack of Shia pilgrims in Al Hillah in March, several chlorine gas canister bombings from January through June, an orchestrated bridge bombing campaign throughout Iraq aimed at isolating Baghdad Shia population concentrations and disrupting ground transportation from January through October, the suicide truck bombing of a market in Tall ‘Afar in March, the suicide truck bombings of a market and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) party offices in Amurli and Kirkuk in July, and the single deadliest attack of the Iraq war, the multiple suicide truck bombings of two Yazidi villages near Sinjar in August. In August 2003, Zarqawi's group carried out major terrorist attacks in Iraq when it bombed the Jordanian Embassy in Baghdad, which was followed 12 days later by a suicide vehicle-borne improvised explosive device (VBIED) attack against the UN Headquarters in Baghdad that killed 23, including the Secretary-General's Special Representative for Iraq, Sergio Vieira de Mello. That same month the group conducted a VBIED attack against Shia worshippers outside the Imam Ali Mosque in al Najaf, killing 85, including the leader of the Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq (SCIRI). The group kept up its attack pace throughout 2003, striking numerous Iraqi, Coalition, and relief agency targets such as the Red Cross. Zarqawi's group conducted VBIED attacks against U.S. military personnel and Iraqi infrastructure throughout 2004, including suicide attacks inside the Green Zone perimeter in Baghdad. The group successfully penetrated the Green Zone in the October 2004 bombing of a popular café and market. It also claimed responsibility for the videotaped execution by beheading of Americans Nicholas Berg (May 11, 2004), Jack Armstrong (September 22, 2004), and Jack Hensley (September 21, 2004). AQI was likely involved in other hostage incidents as well. In 2005, AQI largely focused on conducting multiple high-profile, coordinated suicide attacks. AQI claimed numerous attacks primarily aimed against civilians, the Iraqi government, and security forces, such as the coordinated attacks against polling sites during the January elections and the coordinated VBIED attacks outside the Sheraton and Palestine hotels in Baghdad on October 24. The group also continued assassinations against Shia leaders and members of the Shia militia groups Jaysh al-Mahdi and Badr Corps. AQI increased its external operations in 2005 by claiming credit for three attacks: suicide bomber attacks against hotels in Amman on November 9; a rocket attack against U.S. Navy ships in the port of Aqaba in August, which resulted in limited damage in Jordan and in Eilat, Israel; and the firing of several rockets into Israel from Lebanon in December. In August 2005, an AQI operative was arrested in Turkey while planning an operation targeting Israeli cruise ships. Prior to 2005, Zarqawi planned and conducted limited attacks in Jordan, including the assassination of USAID official Laurence Foley in 2002. In October 2006, AQI declared the ISI would become a platform from which AQI would launch terrorist attacks throughout the world. Following the announcement, AQI members marched through cities they considered to be part of their new state as a show of force. AQI attack claims, which the group released under the auspices of the Mujahidin Shura Council and now the ISI, increased in 2006 but decreased significantly in 2007. AQI was implicated in the February 2006 Samarra’ al-Askari Mosque bombing that precipitated the escalation in sectarian violence. AQI senior leaders in Iraq may have had advance knowledge of terrorist attacks in Iraq that incorporated chlorine into vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs). However, the use of chlorine in suicide attacks probably represents an opportunistic evolution of conventional VBIED attacks. Strength: Membership is estimated at 5,000 to 10,000, making it the largest Sunni extremist group in Iraq. AQI perpetrates the majority of suicide and mass casualty bombings in Iraq with foreign operatives constituting the majority of these bombers. The selection of civilian targets, particularly in Baghdad, generates widespread media coverage. Location/Area of Operation: AQI's operations are predominately Iraq-based, but it has perpetrated attacks in Jordan. The group maintains an extensive logistical network throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Iran, South Asia, and Europe. In Iraq, AQI currently conducts the majority of its operations in Ninawa, Diyala, Salah ad Din, and Baghdad provinces and to a lesser extent Al Anbar. External Aid: AQI probably receives funds from donors in the Middle East and Europe, local sympathizers in Iraq, from a variety of businesses and criminal activities, and other international extremists throughout the world. In many cases, AQI's donors are probably motivated to support terrorism rather than an attachment to any specific terrorist group. Al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) a.k.a. Tanzim al-Qa'ida fi Bilad al-Maghrib al-Islamiya; Le Groupe Salafiste pour la Predication et le Combat; Salafist Group for Call and Combat; Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat Description: The Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) officially merged with al-Qa’ida (AQ) in September 2006 and subsequently changed its name to al-Qa’ida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). The GSPC formed in 1998 when its members left the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) over disagreements about leadership, tactics, and indiscriminant targeting of Algerian civilians. In contrast to the GIA, it has pledged to avoid attacks on civilians inside Algeria, but civilians have died in numerous GSCP/AQIM attacks. The GSPC retained GIA’s mission of overthrowing the Algerian government and installing an Islamic regime. AQIM is the most effective and largest armed group inside Algeria. AQIM and AQ have used the merger extensively in their propaganda. Activities: On April 11, 2007, AQIM for the first time employed suicide tactics. The attacks on that date, near-simultaneous bombings of multiple targets inside Algiers including the office of Algeria’s prime minister, claimed more than 30 lives. Shortly thereafter, AQIM vowed to continue to use suicide tactics, and the organization carried out five further suicide attacks in Algeria during 2007. On December 11, AQIM carried out two near-simultaneous suicide vehicle-borne improvised explosive device (VBIED) attacks that struck two UN offices and the headquarters of Algeria's Constitutional Council, killing 41 people, (including 17 UN employees), and wounding at least 170 others. AQIM had previously attacked vehicles belonging to foreign corporations several times during the year, beginning in December 2006 with an attack in Algiers on a bus belonging to a U.S.-Algeria joint venture and carrying several expatriate workers. Outside Algeria, in December 2007, multiple AQIM-linked attacks in Mauritania were the first terrorist incidents since 2005, when the GSPC had claimed responsibility for an attack on a remote Mauritanian military outpost that killed 15; this appeared to indicate an AQIM shift towards a more regional terrorist campaign. Also during 2007, police in France, Italy, and Spain arrested several individuals from Algeria and other Maghreb countries suspected of providing support to AQIM. French officials announced that AQIM had issued an Internet call-to-action against France, declaring France "public enemy number one." Strength: AQIM has several hundred fighters operating in Algeria and the Sahel. Abdelmalek Droukdel, a.k.a. Abu Mus’ab Abd al-Wadoud is the leader of the group. Location/Area of Operation: Algeria and the Sahel, with affiliates and logistics/fundraisers in Western Europe. External Aid: Algerian expatriates and AQIM members abroad, many residing in Western Europe, provide financial and logistical support. AQIM members also engage in criminal activity to finance their operations. Real IRA (RIRA) a.k.a. 32 County Sovereignty Committee; 32 County Sovereignty Movement; Irish Republican Prisoners Welfare Association; Real Irish Republican Army; Real Oglaigh Na Heireann Description: Like the Continuity IRA, the Real IRA (RIRA) did not participate in the September 2005 weapons decommissioning. RIRA was formed in 1997 as the clandestine armed wing of the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, a "political pressure group" dedicated to removing British forces from Northern Ireland and unifying Ireland. RIRA also seeks to disrupt the Northern Ireland peace process. The 32 County Sovereignty Movement opposed Sinn Fein's September 1997 adoption of the Mitchell principles of democracy and non-violence; it also opposed the amendment in December 1999 of Articles 2 and 3 of the Irish Constitution that laid claim to Northern Ireland. Despite internal rifts and calls by some jailed members, including the group's founder Michael "Mickey" McKevitt, for a cease-fire and disbandment, RIRA pledged additional violence and continued to conduct attacks. Activities: Many RIRA members are former Provisional Irish Republican Army members who left that organization after it renewed its cease-fire in 1997. These members brought a wealth of experience in terrorist tactics and bomb-making to RIRA. Targets have included civilians (most notoriously in the Omagh bombing in August 1998), British security forces, police in Northern Ireland, and local Protestant communities. RIRA's most recent fatal attack was in August 2002 at a London army base, killing a construction worker. The organization seeks to improve its intelligence-gathering ability, engineering capacity, and access to weaponry; it also trains members in the use of guns and explosives. RIRA continues to attract new members, and its senior members are committed to launching attacks on security forces. Three suspected RIRA members that engaged in cigarette smuggling were arrested in Spain in 2006. From 2006 to November 2007, terrorist activity in the form of successful and attempted attacks by RIRA slightly decreased. Notably, between August and November 2006, throughout Northern Ireland, RIRA targeted B&Q home-supply stores and other retail businesses in successful and attempted firebombings, although a handful of these attacks were also claimed by the Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA). In November 2007, RIRA claimed two armed attacks that wounded two Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) officers. Strength: According to the Irish government, RIRA has approximately 100 active members. The organization may receive limited support from IRA hardliners and Republican sympathizers dissatisfied with the IRA's continuing cease-fire and with Sinn Fein's involvement in the peace process. Approximately 40 RIRA members are in Irish jails. Location/Area of Operation: Northern Ireland, Great Britain, and the Irish Republic. External Aid: RIRA is suspected of receiving funds from sympathizers in the United States and of attempting to buy weapons from U.S. gun dealers. RIRA also is reported to have purchased weapons from the Balkans. Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) a.k.a. Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia Description: The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) is Latin America's oldest, largest, most capable, and best-equipped insurgency. It began in the early sixties as an outgrowth of the Liberal Party-based peasant self-defense leagues, but took on Marxist ideology, although it only nominally fights in support of Marxist goals today. The FARC is governed by a general secretariat led by co-founder Antonio Marin (a.k.a. Manuel Marulanda or "Tirofijo") and six others, including senior military commander Victor Suarez (a.k.a. Jorge Briceno or "Mono Jojoy"). The FARC is organized along military lines and includes some specialized urban fighting units. A Colombian military offensive targeting FARC fighters in southern Colombia has experienced some success, with a number of FARC mid-level leaders killed or captured. Colombian military operations in September and October resulted in the deaths of Thomas Median Caracas (a.k.a. “Negro Acacio”) and Gustavo Rueda (a.k.a. “Martin Caberllero”), two senior FARC military commanders, respectively. Activities: The FARC has carried out bombings, murder, mortar attacks, kidnapping, extortion, and hijacking, as well as guerrilla and conventional military action against Colombian political, military, and economic targets. In February 2003, when a U.S. plane crashed in a FARC-held area, the FARC murdered a U.S. citizen and a Colombian; it continues to hold hostage the three other U.S. citizens that were on the plane. In late 2007, the Colombian government granted Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez permission to negotiate with the FARC to secure the release of the three U.S. citizens and 42 other so-called “political” hostages, some held as long as a decade. Colombia ended Chavez’ role after he repeatedly ignored Colombian positions, however, the FARC did release two hostages. Foreign citizens were often targets of abductions that the FARC carried out to obtain ransom and political leverage. The FARC has well-documented ties to the full range of narcotics trafficking activities, including taxation, cultivation, and distribution. Strength: Approximately 9,000 to 12,000 combatants and several thousand more supporters. Location/Area of Operation: Primarily in Colombia with some activities such as extortion, kidnapping, weapons sourcing, and logistics in neighboring countries. External Aid: Cuba provided some medical care, safe haven, and political consultation. Venezuela supplied some lethal aid to the FARC, although this may be a result of individual corruption rather than official policy; available information is not conclusive. The FARC often used the Colombia/Venezuela and Colombia/Ecuador border areas for incursions into Colombia and also used Venezuelan and Ecuadorian territory for safe haven, although the degree of government acquiescence was not clear and may vary depending on cross-border relations. Revolutionary Nuclei a.k.a. Revolutionary Cells; ELA; Epanastatiki Pirines; Epanastatikos Laikos Agonas; June 78; Liberation Struggle; Organization of Revolutionary Internationalist Solidarity; Popular Revolutionary Struggle; Revolutionary People’s Struggle; Revolutionary Popular Struggle Description: Revolutionary Nuclei (RN) emerged from a broad range of anti-establishment and anti-U.S./NATO/EU leftist groups active in Greece between 1995 and 1998. The group is believed to be the successor to or offshoot of Greece's most prolific terrorist group, Revolutionary People's Struggle (ELA), which has not claimed an attack since January 1995. Indeed, RN appeared to fill the void left by ELA, particularly as lesser groups faded from the scene. RN's few communiqués show strong similarities in rhetoric, tone, and theme to ELA proclamations. Activities: Since it began operations in January 1995, the group has claimed responsibility for some two dozen arson attacks and low-level bombings against a range of U.S., Greek, and other European targets in Greece. In its most infamous and lethal attack to date, the group claimed responsibility for a bomb it detonated at the Intercontinental Hotel in April 1999 that resulted in the death of a Greek woman and injury of a Greek man. RN's modus operandi includes warning calls of impending attacks, attacks targeting property instead of individuals, use of rudimentary timing devices, and strikes during the late evening to early morning hours. RN may have been responsible for two attacks in July 2003 against a U.S. insurance company and a local bank in Athens. RN's last confirmed attacks against U.S. interests in Greece came in November 2000, with two separate bombings against the Athens offices of Citigroup and the studio of a Greek-American sculptor. Greek targets have included judicial and other government office buildings, private vehicles, and the offices of Greek firms involved in NATO-related defense contracts in Greece. Similarly, the group has attacked European interests in Athens. Strength: Group membership is believed to be small, probably drawing from the Greek militant leftist or anarchist milieu. Location/Area of Operation: Primary area of operation is the Athens metropolitan area. External Aid: Unknown but believed to be self-sustaining. Revolutionary Organization 17 November a.k.a. Epanastatiki Organosi 17 Noemvri; 17 November Description: Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N) is a radical leftist group established in 1975 and named for the student uprising in Greece in November 1973 that protested the ruling military junta. 17N is an anti-Greek, anti-U.S., anti-Turkey, and anti-NATO group that seeks the ouster of U.S. bases from Greece, the removal of Turkish military forces from Cyprus, and the severing of Greece's ties to NATO and the European Union (EU). Activities: Initial attacks were assassinations of senior U.S. officials and Greek public figures. Five U.S. Embassy employees have been murdered since 17N began its terrorist activities in 1975. The group began using bombings in the 1980s. In 1990, 17N expanded its targets to include Turkish diplomats, EU facilities, and foreign firms investing in Greece, and added improvised rocket attacks to its methods. The group supported itself largely through bank robberies. A failed 17N bombing attempt in June 2002 at the port of Piraeus in Athens, coupled with robust detective work, led to the arrest of 19 members, the first 17N operatives ever arrested, including a key leader of the organization. In December 2003, a Greek court convicted 15 members, five of whom were given multiple life terms. Four other alleged members were acquitted for lack of evidence. In December 2005, against the backdrop of a sympathetic press, a group appeals trial opened for the 15 convicted members and two of the previously acquitted members. The appeals trial essentially represents a new trial for the convicts because new evidence and facts can be introduced under Greek law. At the conclusion of the appeals trial in May 2007, 13 of the 17 members of 17N were found guilty of terrorism. Two members already released from prison for medical reasons in July 2006 and 2005 were cleared of their charges since the crimes they were suspected of committing were outside of the Greek twenty-year statute of limitations. Two others were also acquitted due to doubts surrounding the charges against them. The last suspected attack by 17N occurred in May 2004, at a courthouse in Larissa, Greece, wounding one civilian and causing minor damage to the facility. Although no group claimed responsibility for the attack, authorities believed 17N was responsible. Strength: Unknown but presumed to be small. Location/Area of Operation: Athens, Greece. External Aid: Unknown. Revolutionary People's Liberation Party/Front (DHKP/C) a.k.a. Dev Sol; Dev Sol Armed Revolutionary Units; Dev Sol Silahli Devrimci Birlikleri; Dev Sol SDB; Devrimci Halk Kurtulus Partisi-Cephesi; Devrimci Sol; Revolutionary Left Description: The Revolutionary People's Liberation Party/Front (DHKP/C) originally formed in 1978 as Devrimci Sol, or Dev Sol, a splinter faction of Dev Genc (Revolutionary Youth). It was renamed in 1994, after factional infighting. "Party" refers to the group's political activities, while "Front" is a reference to the group's militant operations. The group espouses a Marxist-Leninist ideology and is vehemently anti-U.S., anti-NATO, and anti-Turkish establishment. Its goals are the establishment of a socialist state and the abolition of F-type prisons, which contain one to three-man prison cells. DHKP/C finances its activities chiefly through donations and extortion. Activities: Since the late 1980s, the group has targeted primarily current and retired Turkish security and military officials. It began a new campaign against foreign interests in 1990, which included attacks against U.S. military and diplomatic personnel and facilities. To protest perceived U.S. imperialism during the Gulf War, Dev Sol assassinated two U.S. military contractors, wounded an Air Force officer, and bombed more than 20 U.S. and NATO military, commercial, and cultural facilities. In its first significant terrorist act as DHKP/C in 1996, the group assassinated a prominent Turkish businessman and two others; the perpetrators fled to Belgium, where legal cases continue. DHKP/C added suicide bombings to its repertoire in 2001, with successful attacks against Turkish police in January and September. Since the end of 2001, DHKP/C has typically used improvised explosive devices against official Turkish targets and soft U.S. targets of opportunity. Attacks against U.S. targets beginning in 2003 probably came in response to Operation Iraqi Freedom. Operations and arrests against the group have weakened its capabilities. In late June 2004, the group was suspected of a bus bombing at Istanbul University, which killed four civilians and 21 other people. In July 2005, in Ankara, police intercepted and killed a suicide bomber who attempted to attack the Ministry of Justice. In June 2006, in Istanbul, the group fired upon and killed a police officer; four members of the group were arrested the next month for the attack. In January 2007, authorities raided DHKP/C safe-houses in Duinbergen, Belgium, and in Istanbul, Turkey, resulting in the confiscation of weapons, bomb-making material, documents, and propaganda material, and in the arrest of several members of DHKP/C. In the spring of 2007, the Belgian Supreme Court overturned, on procedural grounds, the conviction of several DHKP/C operatives, including the DHKP/C spokesman in Belgium, Bahar Kimyougur, and key figure Musa Asoglu, who had been convicted of membership in a terrorist organization, arms possession, and using forged documents. Strength: Probably several dozen terrorist operatives inside Turkey, with a large support network throughout Europe. Location/Area of Operation: Turkey, primarily Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, and Adana. External Aid: Widely believed to have training facilities or offices in Lebanon and Syria. DHKP/C raises funds in Europe. Shining Path (SL) a.k.a. Sendero Luminoso; Ejercito Guerrillero Popular (People's Guerrilla Army); EGP; Ejercito Popular de Liberacion (People's Liberation Army); EPL; Partido Comunista del Peru (Communist Party of Peru); PCP; Partido Comunista del Peru en el Sendero Luminoso de Jose Carlos Mariategui (Communist Party of Peru on the Shining Path of Jose Carlos Mariategui); Socorro Popular del Peru (People's Aid of Peru); SPP Description: Former university professor Abimael Guzman formed the Shining Path (SL) in Peru in the late 1960s, and his teachings created the foundation of SL's militant Maoist doctrine. In the 1980s, SL became one of the most ruthless terrorist groups in the Western Hemisphere. The Peruvian government made dramatic gains against SL during the 1990s, but recent SL attacks against Peruvian counternarcotics police underscore that SL continues to be a threat. In response to SL's bloody attacks in late 2005, Peruvian authorities stepped up counterterrorism efforts against the group. SL's stated goal is to destroy existing Peruvian institutions and replace them with a communist peasant revolutionary regime. It also opposes any influence by foreign governments. More recently, SL members have attempted to influence the local populace through indoctrination versus violence. Activities: In the past, SL has conducted indiscriminate bombing campaigns, ambushes, and selective assassinations. Remnants of SL now focus on drug-trafficking activities to obtain funds to carry out attacks. Strength: Unknown but estimated to be between 200 and 300 armed militants. Location/Area of Operation: Peru, with most activity in rural areas, specifically the Huallaga Valley, the Ene River, and the Apurimac Valley of central Peru. External Aid: None. United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) a.k.a. Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia Description: The United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), commonly referred to as the paramilitaries, was an umbrella group formed in April 1997 to organize loosely affiliated illegal paramilitary groups that had emerged to retaliate against leftist guerillas fighting the Colombian government and the landed establishment. The AUC increasingly discarded its counterguerilla activities, electing instead to involve itself in the illegal drug trade. By 2007, as the result of a large demobilization process, most of the AUC's centralized military structure had been dismantled, and all of the top paramilitary chiefs had stepped down with the majority being held in a maximum security facility. More than 31,000 paramilitary members and support personnel demobilized bloc by bloc from 2003 to 2006. Colombia now faces criminal gangs formed by demobilized paramilitaries and other individuals, and one minor paramilitary group that refused to disarm. Unlike the AUC, the new criminal groups make little claim to fighting insurgents and are more clearly criminal enterprises focused primarily on drug trafficking, other lucrative illicit activities, and influencing local politics to facilitate their criminal ventures. These new criminal groups are not a reconstituted AUC, but they recruit heavily from the pool of former AUC members. A large part of their leadership appears to be former mid-level paramilitary commanders who did not participate in demobilization. Activities: Paramilitary operations varied from assassinating suspected insurgent supporters to engaging insurgent combat units. As much as 70 percent of the paramilitary operational costs were financed with drug-related earnings, with the rest coming from "donations" from sponsors and government corruption. These groups generally avoided actions against U.S. personnel or interests. Traditional paramilitary operations are largely nonexistent as a result of the demobilization of all AUC groups, although some individuals are violating their demobilization commitments by continued participation in criminal activities. Strength: The Colombian government has determined that the AUC no longer exists. The Colombian government and Organization of American States estimate that 22 new criminal groups have emerged in the wake of AUC demobilization. According to Colombian government figures, approximately 10 to 15 percent of the 3,000 to 4,000 members of these groups are former members of paramilitary groups, including the AUC. Location/Areas of Operation: Paramilitary forces were strongest in northwest Colombia in Antioquia, Cordoba, Sucre, Atlantico, Magdelena, Cesar, La Guajira, and Bolivar Departments, with affiliate groups in the coffee region, Valle del Cauca, and Meta Department. External Aid: None.	Palestine Liberation Front
Which artist painted 'Dancer At The Barre'?	Cruise Ship Terror Attack - ObamaCSI.com Cruise Ship Terror Attack OBAMA TERROR ATTACKS ‎ > ‎ Cruise Ship Terror Attack OBAMACSI.COM: A cruise ship terror attack in America is imminent and Florida and/or Maryland appear to be the locations where the attack is most probable. While San Diego should also be considered, to date no relevant information or data regarding a cruise ship terror threat has been located. The most disturbing of all the news and information concerning an impending cruise ship attack is the terror drills the U.S. Coast Guard has conducted off the coast of Florida. These drills are cover for black operations and coincidentallythe use of pyrotechnics (explosives). All indications are that a major terror attack involving cruise ships is on the American horizon. 1. Cruise Ship Breaking News: Recent news regarding cruise ships may indicate that a terror attack is imminent. Hundreds of students are moving to a cruise ship in Baltimore, and a terrorist hijacking of the ship may be the intended plan. Also, 2 recent deaths on a cruise ship raise suspicions that a cruise ship false-flag terror plot may be being groomed. 2. Cruise Ship Terror Drills: The news regarding cruise ship terror drills is shocking. In September and October of 2011, two terror drills have occurred in Florida as well as a Coast Guard pyrotechnics drill right off the Florida coast. If a cruise ship terror attack were to take place, Florida would be the optimal location due to its massive number of cruise ships. 3. Cruise Ship Terror Propaganda: The news and propaganda regarding cruise ships and terrorism has been rather steady since 9/11 and basically states that cruise ships are vulnerable and that terrorists want to target cruise ships. 4. Cruise Ship Terror Plots & Patsies: Since 9/11, there have been 5 cases located that indicate potential terror plots, most coming the way of bomb threats on cruise ships. In all cases, authorities boarded the ship but found nothing. These plots and patsies are likely orchestrated to give the public the notion that cruise ships are targets and that there has been a history of cruise ships being targeted for terror. 5. Cruise Ship Terror White Papers: The RAND Corporation, the U.S. Congress, and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security all state in their white papers that cruise ship terror is coming and that America is not prepared. RAND goes as far as stating that the most deadly way for terrorists to attack is with a nuclear or biological device. White papers are issues by governments to create plausible deniability and to psychologically prepare the public for the impending terror attack. 6. Cruise Ship Terror Security: The security implementations regarding cruise ships are relatively worthless in that they submit travel itineraries and fingerprints to Homeland Security but do nothing in the way of preventing state-sponsored terrorism. These draconian measures instituted in the post-9/11 era only further decrease the amount of people who want to cruise and terrorize the public in the process. 1. CRUISE SHIP BREAKING NEWS OBAMACSI.COM: Recent news regarding cruise ships may indicate that a terror attack is imminent. Hundreds of students are moving to a cruise ship in Baltimore, and a terrorist hijacking of the ship may be the intended plan. Also, 2 recent deaths on a cruise ship raise suspicions that a cruise ship false-flag terror plot may be being groomed. Title: Maryland School Will Use Cruise Ship As Dorm Date: October 26, 2011 Source: CBS News Abstract: Living in luxury while in college. That will be the answer to a moldy, smelly problem at St. Mary’s College of Maryland. Vic Carter reports at the waterfront campus in St. Mary’s City, a rented cruise ship will be turned into a dorm. You can’t see the mold but students say you can certainly smell it. It’s in the ceiling. It’s so bad that students were moved out of the dorms to hotels more than 20 miles from campus. “If I was one of those students, I’d be pissed. It’s far. It’s like a 40-minute commute,” said Randall Hause, St. Mary’s sophomore. School officials have been scrambling for a better solution. Enter the Voyager, a luxury cruise ship that will dock on Friday on the St. Mary’s River. This weekend, 250 students will make the move. “They’ll have the full run of the ship,” said Dr. Joe Urgo, President. “I think it’s pretty sweet,” said Fletcher Sims, student. Another plus for the school: it will cost less than all those hotel rooms. School administrators will do their best to help students make the move to their new digs and they hope to have the mold problem resolved before next semester (CBS News, 2011) . Title: Cruise Docks In Boston With 2 Dead Passengers Date: October 28, 2011 Source: Fox News Abstract: A cruise ship turned into a potential crime scene Friday after docking in Boston with two dead passengers, though authorities later announced that they had not found evidence of foul play. Police responded to the Black Falcon Cruise Terminal after the Norwegian Cruise Line ship docked at 6:30 a.m. on Friday. The two passengers died Thursday, but their deaths are not considered connected. Massachusetts State Police said Friday afternoon that one of the passengers was a 67-year-old woman from Rhode Island who appeared to have died of an apparent medical condition. The other passenger was a 23-year-old man from New Hampshire, and his death is not being considered suspicious. No names were released. The FBI assisted in the investigation because the deaths occurred outside state waters, MyFoxBoston.com reported. A message was left Friday with Miami-based Norwegian Cruise Line (Fox News, 2011) . 2. CRUISE SHIP TERROR DRILLS OBAMACSI.COM: The news regarding cruise ship terror drills is shocking. In September and October of 2011, two terror drills have occurred in Florida as well as a Coast Guard pyrotechnics drill right off the Florida coast. If a cruise ship terror attack were to take place, Florida would be the optimal location due to its massive number of cruise ships. Title: Coast Guard And Panama City To Conduct Area Maritime Security Exercise Date: September 24, 2011 Source: Coast Guard News Abstract: Members from Coast Guard Sector Mobile and the Panama City Area Maritime Security Committee will conduct an exercise that will focus on maritime transportation security awareness and terrorism prevention. During the tabletop exercise, participants will conduct global, regional and local terrorism threat scenarios that could potentially impact the port community. “Safety and security in the Port of Panama City is a team effort, with players from all levels of government, community leaders, and private businesses,” said Capt. Don Rose, commander of Sector Mobile and the federal maritime security coordinator for the Port of Panama City. “This exercise is a chance to put the team together and practice, face-to-face, across the table, to make sure we understand each other and are operating from the same playbook” (Coast Guard News, 2011) . Title: Coast Guard To Conduct Pyrotechnics Training In Waters Off Fort San Felipe Del Morro, Puerto Rico Date: October 26, 2011 Source: Coast Guard News Abstract: Coast Guard crewmembers from Boat Station San Juan are scheduled to conduct pyrotechnics familiarization training Wednesday from 6 p.m. to 8 p.m., in waters approximately one nautical mile off Fort San Felipe del Morro in Old San Juan, Puerto Rico. “This training exercise is an important annual requirement for our crewmembers to maintain their proficiency and knowledge in using the different type of flares, properly identifying their colors and trajectories, and recognizing the audible and visual signs of distress,” said Chief Petty Officer Eduardo Oropeza, Boat Station San Juan Executive Petty Officer. The flare training includes introductions to the proper handling and usage of the Mark 79 Mod 0 illumination signal kit, the Mark 124 MOD 0 marine smoke and illumination signal and the Mark 127 parachute illumination signal. The Mark 79 signal kit contains a flare launching device, called a pencil launcher, and seven flares. When fired, the red star flare goes approximately 250-650 feet into the air that lasts approximately 4.5 seconds. The Mark 124 signal is a two-sided signaling device that has both a day end and a night end. The day end disperses thick neon orange smoke for approximately 20 seconds and the night end disperses a blinding red flare for the same amount of time. The Mark 127 parachute illumination signal, when fired, the white star flare goes approximately 600-650 feet into the air and lasts approximately 36 seconds. These flares can be seen from a distance of three to five miles. Coast Guardsmen throughout the country constantly train to improve efficiency, maintain qualifications and to teach new members who may be involved in a rescue. Mariners can tune in the VHF-Channels 16 and 22 for an informational broadcast issued by the Coast Guard regarding the exercise (Coast Guard News, 2011) . Title: Coast Guard And Partner Agencies To Participate In Joint Security Exercise In Port Canaveral Date: October 24, 2011 Source: Coast Guard News Abstract: The Coast Guard and Canaveral Port Authority along with federal, state and local partner agencies are participating in Operation Focused Lens East, a full scale Area Maritime Security Training and Exercise Program designed to evaluate area maritime security operations in response to an increased threat in Port Canaveral. The objectives of Operation Focused Lens East are designed to mitigate vulnerabilities associated with terrorist attacks and to enhance communications and response operations between federal, state, and local agencies and industry maritime stakeholders. “We are exercising our outstanding interagency partnerships in Port Canaveral in order to increase preparedness for all types of security challenges,” said Capt. Andy Blomme, commander, Coast Guard Sector Jacksonville. “The Port Canaveral maritime stakeholder community can rest assured that all levels of government are working together in this endeavor.” Participating agencies include the Coast Guard, Navy, Air Force, Customs and Border Protection, Transportation Security Administration, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission, Florida Department of Law Enforcement, Central Florida Information Exchange, Port Canaveral Police Department, Brevard County Office of Emergency Management, Brevard County Sherriff’s Office, and Cape Canaveral Fire Department (Coast Guard News, 2011) . 3. CRUISE SHIP TERROR PROPAGANDA OBAMACSI.COM: The news and propaganda regarding cruise ships and terrorism has been rather steady since 9/11 and basically states that cruise ships are vulnerable and that terrorists want to target cruise ships. Title: Seaports, Cruise Ships Vulnerable To Terrorism Date: July 28, 2001 Source: Politics OL Abstract: As a multi-mission, maritime, military service within the Department of Transportation, the Coast Guard is a leader in ensuring America's maritime security. As a lead agency for seaport security, we provide a valuable service to the American people by making the nation safer, cleaner, more mobile, and more secure. ... U.S. trade is expected to more than double by the year 2020. The Interagency Commission on Crime and Security in U.S. Seaports identifies a lack of adequate security for our critical Marine Transportation System (MTS) infrastructure, which can potentially affect our entire economy. We don't think often enough of our maritime ports as security threats. But, as indicated in the Interagency Report on Crime and Security in U.S. Seaports, our maritime borders are more porous and have lower security levels when compared to our airports and land borders. Recent history shows us that, throughout the world, terrorists target transportation. All of us remember the terrorist bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway, and the deliberate derailment of Amtrak's Sunset Limited -- each an example of an attack against a transportation target. Ridership on cruise ships has increased exponentially over the past ten years. Ten years ago, a cruise ship of 70,000 gross tons was the largest in the world. Today, we have an entire class of cruise ships that exceed 140,000 gross tons. These new mega-ships carry upwards of 5000 passengers and crewmembers. A successful terrorist attack on any one of these ships could result in a catastrophic number of casualties, and threaten the economic viability of the entire industry. Just last week, Coast Guard units in Miami, along with the FBI, responded to a bomb threat against a cruise ship capable of carrying approximately 3,000 passengers and 1,000 crewmembers. The ship implemented their security plan, a plan required by the Passenger Vessel Safety Act - to prevent the threat from being realized. We successfully ensured the safety of the passengers, crew, vessel, and port as a whole. Who can say what would have happened had we not responded as we did, or if the cruise line personnel had not followed their well-prepared plan? The same security activities used to prevent a terrorist attack also aid in preventing criminal acts such as smuggling of illicit drugs, contraband and stowaways; trade fraud and commercial smuggling; environmental crimes; cargo theft; and the unlawful exportation of controlled commodities, munitions, stolen property, and drug proceeds. This same security provides for secure ports in support of military deployments and national defense. In addition to the traditional physical security threats, the information age brings with it new vulnerabilities. We need to protect our critical information systems as well as our physical infrastructure. As we modernize our transportation infrastructure by integrating technology with automation, we also make their associated information systems more interdependent and interconnected. These systems become declared targets for attacks by hackers and cyber-terrorists. Someone intent on disruption, or destruction, of the flow of sensitive operational information contained in our transportation management systems will cause crippling damage. Consequently, we face a significant challenge to ensure our information systems are protected from those who would cause harm, and yet remain accessible to our customers -- the traveling public, commercial transportation operators and government agencies alike. The MTS is especially vulnerable to crime and terrorism because of the scale, complexity, and pace of activity in our ports. The task of protecting our transportation system is complex and requires close coordination between our regulatory, intelligence, and law enforcement organizations. Effective deterrence, prevention and response activities affecting U.S. transportation assets and programs must be coordinated between federal law enforcement authorities, the Coast Guard, state and local officials, and the transportation community. The willingness of intelligence and law enforcement agencies to share threat information with the Coast Guard greatly enhances our ability to work with the transportation industry to increase security awareness and, if necessary, implement security countermeasures. The reports from the Interagency Committee on the Marine Transportation System (ICMTS), the Marine Transportation System National Advisory Committee (MTSNAC), the 1999 Report to Congress on the U.S. Marine Transportation System (MTS), and the Interagency Commission on Crime and Security in U.S. Seaports contain recommendations for improving security that will require additional resources for implementation. Both the ICMTS, chaired by the Coast Guard, and MARAD's MTSNAC are discussing many of these security issues and beginning to coordinate efforts ranging from national defense and terrorism to theft and our economic security. Examples include implementing infrastructure improvements to allow for interagency systems integration, and pursuing the "model port concept" through which best practices by marine terminal operators are shared, and voluntary minimum-security guidelines are developed. These groups are working to balance security imperatives and the increasing need for a fast and efficient U.S. transportation system, a key contributor to the country's overall economic prosperity. To the extent there are resource implications, they must be weighed against other priorities in the context of the overall budget. In summary, the Coast Guard is encouraged that seaport security concerns are receiving national attention. It is not my intent to instill fear or alarm in anyone today. But the sobering reality is, because we live in a country that prides itself on the openness of its democracy, we are always at risk of a terrorist attack. Therefore, it is very important that we address the issues of security and crime in seaports now. If we do, we can assure our national security and our ability to keep our nation's transportation system the very best in the world (Politics OL, 2001) . Title: EXCLUSIVE: Cruise Ships Are Terror Target Date: October 12, 2005 Source: The Mirror Abstract: URGENT action needs to be taken to stop al-Qaeda attacking cruise liners and oil tankers, Tony Blair has been warned. Maritime security is the weak link in the defence against another 9/11-style outrage, says an international agreement on combating terror. The document, agreed by the Prime Minister and more than 30 other world leaders, said more must be done to lessen the "serious" risk of an attack at sea. The warning comes after pirates attacked luxury cruise liner Seabourn Spirit off the coast of Africa last month with guns and rockets. Security sources fear the raid could inspire terrorists to launch a Christmas spectacular against a passenger ship causing mass casualties. A security source told the Mirror: "Al-Qaeda has the aim of targeting weak links in the global economy. "Given most of the 80 million barrels of oil the world uses every day is transported by sea, shipping is a high-value, low-risk target." Experts have warned that cruise ships with up to 5,000 passengers could be sunk by a small number of terrorists. And suicide assaults against oil tankers could be made using small speedboats packed with explosives. Such an attack in the English Channel - the world's busiest shipping lane - would cause economic damage and be an environmental disaster. The Euro-Mediterranean Code of Conduct on Countering Terrorism, agreed last month in Barcelona, said: "We must lessen our vulnerability to attack." EU chiefs are looking at increasing naval patrols, spot checks and tougher port controls. A major push will be made next year to get Gulf states to sign up. The International Maritime Organisation is also to urge UN Secretary General Kofi Annan to take the issue to the Security Council (The Mirror, 2005) . Title: Somali Pirate Threat Forces Cruise Ship Evacuation Date: December 9, 2008 Source: Fox News Abstract: A cruise ship will evacuate passengers before sailing past the Somali coast and fly them to the next port of call to protect them from possible pirate attacks, German cruise operator Hapag-Lloyd said Tuesday. An official with the European Union's anti-piracy mission said separately that it would station armed guards on vulnerable cargo ships — the first such deployment of military personnel during the international anti-piracy operations in the Gulf of Aden. The MS Columbus cruise ship will drop off its 246 passengers Wednesday at the Yemeni port of Hodeidah before the ship and some of its crew sail through the Gulf, the Hamburg-based cruise company said in a statement. The passengers will take a charter flight to Dubai and spend three days at a five-star hotel waiting to rejoin the 490-foot vessel in the southern Oman port of Salalah for the remainder of a round-the-world tour that began in Italy. Hapag-Lloyd said the detour was a "precautionary measure," given rampant piracy off the coast of lawless Somalia that recently has targeted cruise ships as well as commercial vessels, including a Saudi oil tanker carrying $100 million in crude and a Ukrainian ship loaded with tanks and other weapons. Pirates last week fired upon the M/S Nautica — a cruise liner carrying 650 passengers and 400 crew members — but the massive ship outran its assailants. Other ships have not been so lucky. Pirates have attacked 32 vessels and hijacked 12 of them since NATO deployed a four-vessel flotilla on Oct. 24 to escort cargo ships and conduct anti-piracy patrols. The Hapag-Lloyd cruise company planned the detour for its passengers in order to heed a German Foreign Ministry travel warning, after the German government denied the cruise company's request for a security escort through the Gulf, company spokesman Rainer Mueller said. As long as the travel warning is in effect, he said, "we won't travel through the Gulf of Aden with passengers." A U.S. Navy official said, however, that while the danger of a pirate attack was significant, it was not advising ships to avoid transiting the Gulf. "We are advising all ships to transit through the international traffic corridor within the Gulf of Aden," said Lt. Nathan Christensen, a Bahrain-based spokesman for the U.S. Navy's 5th Fleet, referring to a security corridor patrolled by the international coalition since August. Some 21,000 cargo ships a year — or more than 50 a day — cross the Gulf of Aden, which links the Mediterranean Sea, the Suez Canal and the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean, international agencies have said. The growing chaos in impoverished Somalia, which has had no effective government for nearly two decades, has allowed an Islamic insurgency to flourish in the country while speedboat bandits attack ships offshore. The EU launched its anti-piracy mission five days early on Tuesday, before it takes over for the NATO ships next Monday. The EU mission will involve six ships and up to three aircraft patrolling at any one time, and will station armed guards aboard the most vulnerable cargo vessels, such as ships transporting food aid to Somalia, according to the British naval commander in charge of the mission. "We would seek to place vessel protect detachments on board World Food Program ships transiting to Somalia," British Rear Admiral Philip Jones told a news conference in Brussels. "They are the most vulnerable ships of all, and the best deterrence is achieved by having such a detachment on board." The NATO anti-piracy mission has also focused on escorting the U.N. aid agency's chartered vessels, helping some 30,000 tons of humanitarian aid reach Somalia since Oct. 24. In addition, about a dozen other warships from the U.S. 5th Fleet based in Bahrain, as well as from India, Russia and Malaysia and other nations are patrolling in the area. The Russian navy will soon replace its warship in the region with another from a different fleet, navy spokesman Capt. Igor Dygalo said Tuesday in Moscow. The missile frigate Neustrashimy, or Intrepid — deployed from Russia's Northern Fleet after pirates seized the Ukrainian ship in September — has helped thwart at least two pirate attacks, Dygalo said. It will remain in the region through December and be replaced by a ship from Russia's Pacific Fleet. Jones welcomed an offer from Japan to contribute a vessel to the one-year EU mission. It is the European Union's first naval endeavor, though the bloc has conducted 20 peacekeeping operations. Britain, France, Greece, Sweden, Spain, Belgium, and the Netherlands will contribute at least 10 warships and three aircraft, with contingents rotated every three months (Fox News, 2008) . Title: GAO Reports Waterside Attacks Threaten Cruise Ships Date: May 21, 2010 Source: Security Director News Abstract: The safety of thousands of passengers afloat on the open sea was the topic of a recent government report highlighting threats facing the nation’s cruise lines. The Government Accountability Office in its April report, “Maritime Security: Varied Actions Taken to Enhance Cruise Ship Security, but Some Concerns Remain,” estimated that more than 9.3 million passengers departed from 30 U.S. ports aboard North American cruises in 2008. The GAO determined that these cruise ships represent high-prestige symbolic targets for terrorists and evaluated the security measures in place to protect them. While the report emphasized that as of January 2010 the National Maritime Intelligence Center had no evidence of credible terrorist threats against cruise ships, waterside attacks are of utmost concern for cruise ships. Charlie Mandigo, director of fleet security for Holland America, with a fleet of 14 ships embarking on 500 annual cruises from 320 ports around the world, agreed that waterside attacks are a concern for cruise operators, but said there are multiple security measures in place to prevent such attacks. For example, when a ship enters a port, it is in immediate and constant communication with port authorities. Ports will often send out escort boats when the cruise ship enters the harbor and create exclusion zones around ships, preventing unknown vessels from nearing it. Terrorist attacks aboard ships are also a threat cited in the GAO report. Mandigo said Holland America deploys stringent screening measures for both passengers and supplies boarding the ship. “We have the same type of security as an airport, using x-ray metal detectors, hand wands and, if necessary, pat downs for passengers,” he said. “Also, all goods are screened using canines, x-ray or other methods and that’s probably the most important component—controlling what can come onto the ship.” The cruise line also has security personnel patrolling the boat. For a cruise with 2,000 passengers and a crew of about 700, Holland America has at least 10 full-time dedicated security officers who conduct screening, patrol the ship and monitor the ship’s CCTV and access control systems. In addition to physical screening, cruise lines submit extensive passenger and crew member manifests to U.S. Customs and Border Protection to compare against terrorist watchlists and the National Crime Information Center database, to determine their potential risk to the United States or the cruise ship. “We provide CBP with full access to our reservation system,” said Mandigo. However, he would like to see cruise lines have greater access to the government’s terrorist watchlists, similar to the access given to airlines. “Airlines have AQQ (APIS Quick Query) capabilities, which gives them a direct link to the CBP list of terrorists or prohibited list,” he said. “Cruise lines do not have access to it, but we’re looking at it and do have an interest in doing this.” Another concern cited by the GAO was the threat based on the regularity of cruise lines’ schedules. “That’s something anyone can go on the Web site of a cruise line and access the itineraries and often, week after week, itineraries are repeated and that gives someone an opportunity for repeated surveillance,” said Mandigo. While the report was largely positive, the advisory committee made several recommendations including: (1) developing and publishing a listing of prohibited items not allowed on board cruise ships; (2) developing equipment performance standards for screening detection equipment; and (3) developing standards for screening operations, training, and qualifications of persons engaged in screening activities at cruise ship facilities. Also, the U.S. Coast Guard plans to develop new security regulations for cruise ships by 2011 in response to recommendations regarding cruise ship security measures made by the National Maritime Security Advisory Committee in 2006, according to the report. Overall, Mandigo said he was pleased with the GAO’s assessment. “I thought it was a balanced report and there were no big surprises,” he said. “Everybody on the industry side and government side seem to be on the same wave length” (Security Director News, 2010) . Title: Somali Pirates: Eyewitness Account Of The Threat To Cruise Ships Date: September 17, 2010 Source: Telegraph Abstract: The Filipino chef at the breakfast buffet was about to slide a couple of fried eggs on to my plate, and John Brocklehurst, the ship's captain, was in his private quarters on the bridge deck when the pirates appeared. Our cruise ship, the Discovery (operated by Voyages of Discovery cruise line), was making good progress from Mombasa over the glassy waters of the Indian Ocean towards the Seychelles when suddenly, in the bright sunshine of early morning, a speedboat came roaring in and stationed itself about 100 yards off the port side. The officer of the watch informed the captain and over the public address system came the "Code Purple, Code Purple" call. My eggs stayed on the hotplate as the Filipino crew members rushed to their emergency stations. Those passengers who were already up and out on deck – it was before 7am – were told to go to their designated "safe areas". Ironically, the practice drill had been scheduled for later this very morning, but suddenly it was for real. The speedboat was now parallel with us, its seven Somali occupants sussing us out as a potential target. They were armed with rocket-propelled grenade launchers, clearly visible to the trained eye of one of my fellow lecturers, Brigadier Hugh Willing. We were about 200 miles off the Somali coast, so the pirates must have been operating from a "mother" ship, perhaps a captured Taiwanese fishing vessel, a few miles over the horizon. Captain Brocklehurst fired two warning shots with a flare gun to show the Somalis that he knew they were there. Slowly the speedboat fell astern of us and veered off westwards. The impressive defences on Discovery – rolls of razor wire all over the stern rail, bundles of logs to be released to fall on any craft attaching itself to our hull – must have deterred them. Aside from the few people at breakfast, not many of the 750 passengers saw the pirates. When news quickly spread of the threat, their reactions were mixed: some wished to disembark immediately; others took a more stoic view and reasoned that as the pirates hadn't attacked us it was rather a jolly drama that they could dine out on for some time to come. For less prepared ships, the danger could have been real. Unofficial figures show that 2009 was the most prolific year for Somali pirates, with more than 200 attacks and more than £30 million received in ransoms. The naval forces of several nations don't seem to deter them, however. The US Navy has some 15 warships stationed near Somalia, and Nato Response Force has up to 10 ships in these parts. But they seem to be hamstrung by the maritime rules of engagement – they can only intervene if they come across an act of piracy in progress. Even then, they often don't, as in the case of Paul and Rachel Chandler, who were seized by pirates from their yacht as they sailed from the Seychelles towards Tanzania on October 23 last year while a Royal Navy warship looked on, and have been held to ransom in Somalia ever since. Statement from Voyages of Discovery "The incident in question, which occurred in April, saw a small skiff operating as part of a group of three. The skiff left the other two and approached Discovery but never near enough to present a real threat. It then rejoined the other boats after a very short time. It remains unclear who was on board the boat and what its intentions were. "The safety of our guests remains our highest priority. Our crew members, security teams and procedures are capable of responding to a wide variety of challenges. All ships operating in an area with a perceived high risk of pirate activity follow standard maritime procedures. This includes being able to reach military vessels, which patrol the area, at a moment's notice should the need arise" (Telegraph, 2010) . Title: How Safe Are We At Sea? Date: 2011 Source: Cruise Mates Abstract: And although the world changed dramatically on September 11, one thing that has not been required to change as much as other aspects of travel is cruise ship security. That's because cruise ships have, for the most part, always adhered to very strict security guidelines and practices. While the cruise lines and governments around the world have tightened and refined security after the recent turn of events, cruise ships have always been relatively secure. As an avid and frequent cruiser, I decided to explore the subject. I talked to a number of people in the cruise industry and some in the U.S. government. Some things you'll find surprising, others you will not. If you're looking for real in-depth information about precautions, policies and tactics, please look elsewhere. It wouldn't be proper to discuss or divulge any information that is considered sensitive. Immediately after the terrorist attacks of September 11, cruise lines implemented what they call "Level 3" security measures, as outlined by the U.S. Coast Guard's "Security for Passenger Vessels and Passenger Terminals" regulations. These measures include: Screening of all passenger baggage, carry-on luggage, ship stores and cargo; intensified screening of passenger lists and passenger identification; close coordination with the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service and other federal agencies to ensure that any passengers or crew suspected of being on the INS "Prevent Departure" list are promptly reported to the federal authorities. Restricting access to any sensitive vessel areas, such as the bridge and the engine room. Implementing onboard security measures to deter unauthorized entry and illegal activity. Requiring all commercial vessels to give 96 hours notice before entering U.S. ports. Previously, ships had to give 24 hours' notice. Maintaining a 100-yard security zone around cruise ships. Let's look at some of the basic fundamentals of cruise ship security. Controlled Access One thing that contributes to the security of cruise ships is that it's relatively easy for them to move about and alter ports of call if any are deemed unsafe. Cruise ships are also relatively easy to "contain"--that is, it's easy to control and limit access to the ships. When a ship is in port, passengers and crew can only enter through one or two controlled access points, where ship's security personnel can check IDs, manifests and such. Because access to the terminals and docking areas is limited as well, it's relatively tough to get onboard if you don't belong there. Anti-Terrorism Measures The greatest threat to passengers and the ships themselves is terrorism. Consequently, the cruise lines are taking preventive measures like security checks of all passengers, carry-on parcels and checked baggage. Unlike the airlines, which only x-ray 10 to 20 percent of all checked baggage, cruise lines have the time to thoroughly x-ray every bag that goes into the ship. All passengers and crew are now required to pass through metal detectors before boarding. The crew and port officials also examine every shipment of supplies that is brought aboard. When ships are in port, watches are posted on deck, and at night, the decks are lit and ropes are let in. The ships are also keeping records of who is aboard and not aboard at any given time, and most major lines now have automated systems that enable security personnel to see exactly who is on the ship at any given moment, at the touch of a button. Recently, when the Golden Princess departed the Azores for Fort Lauderdale, it happened that two passengers had suddenly disembarked the vessel without notice. At that point, the ship abruptly reversed course heading back for the Azores and the entire ship was searched from stem to stern. Eventually the staff realized that there was no threat and all was well. Trained Security Security onboard varies from line to line and ship to ship. Some cruise lines hire former military and naval personnel to implement and oversee their security, whiles others hire private security firms or former law enforcement officers. In the past, most security measures were intended to deal with passenger disturbances, but the focus now is on maintaining a safe and secure environment, eliminating or minimizing the threat of harm to passengers, crew and ship. Some lines even have dedicated security personnel whose primary job is to assess the risk potential and work with onboard crew to make sure all the proper procedures are taken. Each port is reviewed for its history of security-related incidents, stowaway threat, contraband threat, shore-side security operations and equipment, and so on. Ship staffers are trained to recognize and deal with things like a crew member being in an unauthorized area, an unfamiliar face in a crew area, a passenger in an off-limits area, or a bag being found somewhere it Some lines carry security to extremes: Princess Cruises uses Gurkahs, the famed and extremely fierce Nepalese fighters of the British Army, for it's fleetwide security force. They have been in place for some time; at last report, there were at least six on both Grand Princess and Golden Princess. Passengers often ask if there are armed security personnel aboard. For obvious reasons, I cant answer that--but no one really wants to find out, do they? Big Brother is Watching Did you realize there are surveillance cameras all around you onboard ship? Security personnel, officers, staff and crew can visually monitor virtually ever area of the ship. There are cameras in the embarkation areas; corridors; public rooms; entry points to the "out of bounds" areas for passengers such as crew areas; machinery spaces; and even common deck areas such as the promenade and pool areas. Port Security Abroad Don't assume that foreign ports are any less secure, or security conscious, than North American ports. England, for instance, has laws that oblige the terminal owner/operator to take specific actions and provide certain equipment and procedures, and require the ship owner to take specific measures as well. As one cruise ship captain with a great deal of security experience told me, "European ports have always struck me as being more security conscious in general. When sailing from countries that have had previous land-based terrorist activities, there has been more active screening processes, identification checks, and a higher general awareness of port security. The general level of security in the European ports, both on the northern coast and on the Mediterranean coasts, has been fairly consistent. Most European countries have, unfortunately, been touched by terrorism. England has dealt with the IRA, Spain with the ETA and Germany, Greece, and others have all dealt with various threats." What to Expect Now Since September 11th, much stricter security measures have been in place to protect ships and their passengers. Every U.S. port now maintains and enforces a minimum 300-foot "no float zone," a security perimeter that prohibits private craft from coming near cruise ships. In addition, cruise ships are getting an armed U.S. Coast Guard escort in and out of port. There is also stricter access control to ports and terminals: Passengers are now required to show their tickets to enter both the port area and the terminal. Look for multiple security checkpoints: You can expect to pass through three or four security checkpoints before being granted access to your cruise ship. Cruise lines are working with local, state, federal and international authorities such as the port authorities where ships call, the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, the U.S. Customs Service, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and Interpol. This will enhance the safety and security of everyone onboard cruise ships. Embarkation and debarkation may take longer to accommodate additional security procedures, so plan your flights accordingly. Expect strict enforcement of required ID and nationality/travel papers. Boarding will be denied if you don't have the proper documents. Don't expect to catch that early morning flight home. Passengers and lines have been reporting delays in disembarking passengers. In most cases, don't expect to be ashore before 9-10 a.m. Have patience. You may encounter some long lines as you wait to embark or disembark. Everyone is in the same boat, so keep your sense of humor and remember, it's for your own safety! (Cruise Mates, 2011) . 4. CRUISE SHIP TERROR PLOTS & PATSIES OBAMACSI.COM: Since 9/11, there have been 5 cases located that indicate potential terror plots, most coming the way of bomb threats on cruise ships. In all cases, authorities boarded the ship but found nothing. These plots and patsies are likely orchestrated to give the public the notion that cruise ships are targets and that there has been a history of cruise ships being targeted for terror. OBAMACSI.COM: Ship: Legend of the Seas Location: Ensenada, Mexico Charges: 2 counts of violating terrorism laws Notes: Admitted penning two notes threatening to kill all U.S. citizens aboard the cruise ship. Title: Arrest Made In Cruise Ship Threats Date: February 11, 2009 Source: CBS News Abstract: A woman faces terrorism-related charges accusing her of planting threatening notes aboard a cruise ship in hopes of halting a family trip so she could return home to her boyfriend. Because of the notes, the cruise of the Legend of the Seas was interrupted last week so the FBI could question passengers. Kelley Marie Ferguson of Laguna Hills, Calif., appeared in federal court Monday on two counts of violating terrorism laws. She was arrested Saturday. A hearing is set for Thursday. Ferguson, 20, of Laguna Hills, Calif., admitted penning two notes threatening to kill all U.S. citizens aboard the Legend of the Seas if the ship, which had sailed from Ensenada, Mexico, stopped at an American port, U.S. Attorney Edward Kubo said. The discovery of the threats last Tuesday and Wednesday in the same sixth-deck public restroom led authorities to reroute the ship to an anchorage off Honolulu so FBI could search the vessel and question its 2,400 passengers and crew members. The diversion canceled the ship's scheduled stop at Hilo. More than 120 members of the FBI's Joint Terrorism Task Force scoured the Royal Caribbean ship for biological, chemical, radiological and explosive weapons, officials said. During the investigation, Ferguson admitted writing the notes, Kubo said. "The defendant said she never wanted to go on this cruise ship with her family to begin with and that she wrote these notes hoping that it would shorten her time on the cruise," Kubo said. The charges carry a maximum penalty of 10 years in prison. Kubo said his office also would seek restitution for the cost of the investigation (CBS News, 2009) . OBAMACSI.COM: Location: Port Canaveral, Florida Charges: Cruise ship bomb threat Notes: Law enforcement boarded the ship and after conducting a search, determined the threat was a hoax, as no bomb was found. Title: Bomb Threat Hoax Delays Cruise Ship Return Date: March 28, 2010 Source: WFTV Abstract: A Carnival cruise ship was forced to stay off-shore due to a Sunday morning bomb threat that turned out to be a hoax. The Carnival Sensation received the bomb threat early Sunday morning as the ship was returning to Port Canaveral after a three-day cruise in the Bahamas. The ship stopped about four miles off shore and Carnival officials notified the US Coast Guard, FBI, Brevard County Sheriff’s and Brevard County Fire Rescue. Law enforcement boarded the ship and after conducting a search, determined the threat was a hoax, as no bomb was found. The Carnival Sensation was cleared to proceed to Port Canaveral at about 10:45 a.m. According to a statement released by Carnival Cruise Lines, a bomb threat was reported to the ship by a guest who claims another guest made the threat. Both guests were interviewed by law enforcement and the suspect accused of making the threat was arrested. The suspect has been identified as 31-year-old Ibrahim Zarou from Leesburg, Virginia. Approximately 3,470 passengers and crew members were aboard the Sensation at the time of the threat. Stay tuned to wftv.com and Eyewitness News for further updates on this story (WFTV, 2010) . OBAMACSI.COM: Location: Port Canaveral, Florida Charges: Cruise ship bomb threat Notes: Following an extensive security sweep, the unified command determined the bomb threat to be non-credible. Title: Coast Guard Responds To Bomb Threat Aboard Cruise Ship In Port Canaveral, Florida Date: February 5, 2011 Source: Coast Guard News Abstract: A unified command consisting of the Coast Guard, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Department of Homeland Security, Customs and Border Protection, Transportation Security Administration, the Brevard County Sheriff’s Office and local law enforcement agencies responded to a report of an alleged bomb threat aboard the cruise ship Norwegian Sun in Port Canaveral Saturday. Following an extensive security sweep of the cruise ship Norwegian Sun, the unified command has determined the bomb threat to be non-credible. Operations within the Port of Canaveral and the cruise terminal have returned to normal. Coast Guard Marine Safety Detachment Canaveral watchstanders were initially notified Saturday by an agent aboard the cruise ship Norwegian Sun of the alleged bomb threat. The cruise ship has safely disembarked approximately 1,894 passengers at Pier Terminal 5 in Port Canaveral. The source of the bomb threat is under investigation (Coast Guard News, 2011) . OBAMACSI.COM: Charges: Bomb threat on a cruise ship. Notes: US Coast Guard boarded the ship but the initial search turned up nothing. Title: Cruise Ship Bomb Scare Date: August 21, 2011 Source: Examiner Abstract: As a result of a bomb scare, Discovery Cruise Line's only ship, the Discovery Sun, spent five listless hours Friday night, bobbing in the ocean eighteen miles off of Ft. Lauderdale. To add insult to injury, Discovery Cruise Line is scheduled to "go out of business" on September 6, right after Labor Day. The Discovery Sun departed from Lucayan Harbor at Grand Bahama Island at 5pm with nearly 900 passengers, en route back to Port Everglades with a 10:30pm arrival time. When the ship was notified of the bomb scare, passengers were restricted to their cabins or a few designated public areas. As US Coast Guard and bomb squad technicians boarded the ship around midnight, the main lobby was off-limits. After the initial search turned up nothing, the ship was allowed to return to Port Everglades around 4am. Mike Jachles, a spokesman for the Broward Sheriff’s office said that at about 9pm, the Miami Dade police department received a 911 call warning that there was a man aboard the ship with a gun and a bomb. “We immediately notified our homeland security office, the federal authorities, Coast Guard and Florida Department of Law Enforcement,” said Jachles. He went on to say that the US Coast Guard boarded the ship at sea around midnight, accompanied by the Broward Sheriff’s Office’s bomb-detecting dogs. With nothing suspicious found onboard, the all-clear was given and the Discovery Sun was allowed to return to Ft. Lauderdale. By 6am, passengers and crew were cleared for debarkation. With an empty ship, the Coast Guard, FBI, Customs and Border Protection and the BSO (Broward Sherriff’s Office) performed another search and again turned up nothing. “We take all bomb threats seriously and so we have to determine their credibility and err of the side of safety for the public and do a complete response as needed,” Jachles added. There is an ongoing investigation between the FBI, Coast Guard, BSO and Customs and Border Protection, according to Jachles (Examiner, 2011) . 5. CRUISE SHIP TERROR WHITE PAPERS OBAMACSI.COM: The RAND Corporation, the U.S. Congress, and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security all state in their white papers that cruise ship terror is coming and that America is not prepared. RAND goes as far as stating that the most deadly way for terrorists to attack is with a nuclear or biological device. White papers are issues by governments to create plausible deniability and to psychologically prepare the public for the impending terror attack. Title: Maritime Terrorism: Risk And Liability Date: 2006 Source: RAND Abstract: Policymakers have become increasingly concerned in recent years about the possibility of future maritime terrorist attacks. Although the historical occurrence of such attacks has been limited, concerns have nevertheless been galvanized by recognition that maritime vessels and facilities may (in some respects) be particularly vulnerable to terrorism. In addition, some plausible maritime attacks could have very significant consequences, in the form of mass casualties, severe property damage, and attendant disruption of commerce. Understanding thenature of maritime terrorism risk requires an investigation of threats, vulnerabilities, and consequences associated with potential attacks, as grounded both by relevant historical data and by intelligence on the capabilities and intentions of known terrorist groups. Assessment of the risks associated with maritime terrorism can help policymakers and private firms to calibrate and prioritize security measures, prevention efforts, and mitigation plans. The risks associated with maritime terrorism also provide the context for understanding government institutions that will respond to future attacks, and particularly so with regard to the U.S. civil justice system. In principle, civil liability operates to redistribute the harms associated with legally redressable claims, so that related costs are borne by the parties responsible for having caused them. In connection with maritime terrorism, civil liability creates the prospect that independent commercial defendants will be held responsible for damages caused by terrorist attacks. Liability is thus a key aspect of the government’s institutional response to terrorism, because (1) it creates strong incentives for private-sector prevention and mitigation efforts, (2) it serves as a foundation for insurance to spread related risks, and (3) it defines the scope and likelihood of compensatory transfer payments from firms to victims. Th is book explores the nature of maritime terrorism risks associated with a limited set of attack scenarios involving passenger and container shipping. The book also examines U.S. civil liability rules as they may apply in the context of these types of attacks. Risk Assessment: Threat, Vulnerability & Consequences Our analytic strategy for addressing the risks associated with attacks on passenger and container shipping began from a broad assessment of related threats and vulnerabilities, based on a combination of historical data regarding previous attacks, and on a series of interviews with counterterrorism experts. We then investigated the likely consequences that would follow from different modes of attack, drawing on historical data and publicly available analyses, and by framing those consequences in terms of human effects (e.g., casualties), economic effects (e.g., property damage and business disruption), and intangible effects (e.g., political and governmental responses). Finally, we combined the information on threat, vulnerability, and consequences to generate estimates of relative risk, in connection with attack scenarios involving ferries, cruise ships, and container shipping. Our qualitative method for generating these risk estimates involved the use of defined ordinal scales to assess terrorists’ intents and capabilities, target vulnerabilities, and attack consequences. This method is described in detail in the appendix. With regard to attacks on ferries, our findings suggest that onboard bombings present the greatest combination of threat and vulnerability among the specific types of assaults that we considered. In terms of consequences, all of the attack modes targeting ferries involve roughly comparable estimates of potential economic harm, but on-board bombings are projected to be somewhat less invidious in inflicting human casualties than two other modes of assault bombing, and ramming attacks involving improvised explosive devices [IEDs]). With regard to attacks on cruise ships, we considered a broader range of likely attacks, and found that on-board bombings, followed by standoff artillery assaults and food or water contamination scenarios, present the greatest combination of threat and vulnerability. Once again, all of the attack modes targeting cruise ships involve roughly comparable estimates of potential economic harm, but parasitic bombings, ramming attacks with IEDs, and biological attacks (i.e., those involving contamination of a ship’s food or water supply) are projected as presenting somewhat greater potential for harm in the form of human casualties. With regard to attacks on containerized shipping, we note that cargo vessels themselves are attractive primarily as a means to transport weapons or to sabotage commercial operations more broadly, rather than as a direct target for terrorist assaults per se. This being said, most scenarios we considered had comparable combinations of threat and vulnerability. The economic consequences associated with any maritime assault that shuts down operations at a major U.S. port could be severe. A dirty-bomb attack perpetrated using an illicit cargo container presents the greatest combination of likelihood and expected economic harm. In terms of human consequences (i.e., casualties), most container shipping scenarios present a low likelihood of inflicting such harms, and the prospect of relatively modest human consequences even where that likelihood is realized. Perhaps most notably, container shipping scenarios involving nuclear detonations are less likely than the other scenarios we considered, but could entail far greater potential consequences in both human and economic terms (RAND, 2006) . Title: Maritime Security: Potential Terrorist Attacks And Protection Priorities Date: May 14, 2007 Source: CRS Report for Congress Abstract: A key challenge for U.S. policy makers is prioritizing the nation’s maritime security activities among a virtually unlimited number of potential attack scenarios. While individual scenarios have distinct features, they may be characterized along five common dimensions: perpetrators, objectives, locations, targets, and tactics. In many cases, such scenarios have been identified as part of security preparedness exercises, security assessments, security grant administration, and policy debate. There are far more potential attack scenarios than likely ones, and far more than could be meaningfully addressed with limited counter-terrorism resources. There are a number of logical approaches to prioritizing maritime security activities. One approach is to emphasize diversity, devoting available counterterrorism resources to a broadly representative sample of credible scenarios. Another approach is to focus counter-terrorism resources on only the scenarios of greatest concern based on overall risk, potential consequence, likelihood, or related metrics. U.S. maritime security agencies appear to have followed policies consistent with one or the other of these approaches in federally-supported port security exercises and grant programs. Legislators often appear to focus attention on a small number of potentially catastrophic scenarios. Clear perspectives on the nature and likelihood of specific types of maritime terrorist attacks are essential for prioritizing the nation’s maritime anti-terrorism activities. In practice, however, there has been considerable public debate about the likelihood of scenarios frequently given high priority by federal policy makers, such as nuclear or “dirty” bombs smuggled in shipping containers, liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanker attacks, and attacks on passenger ferries. Differing priorities set by port officials, grant officials, and legislators lead to differing allocations of port security resources and levels of protection against specific types of attacks. How they ultimately relate to one another under a national maritime security strategy remains to be seen. Maritime terrorist threats to the United States are varied, and so are the nation’s efforts to combat them. As oversight of the federal role in maritime security continues, Congress may raise questions concerning the relationship among the nation’s various maritime security activities, and the implications of differing protection priorities among them. Improved gathering and sharing of maritime terrorism intelligence may enhance consistency of policy and increase efficient deployment of maritime security resources. In addition, Congress may assess how the various elements of U.S. maritime security fit together in the nation's overall strategy to protect the public from terrorist attacks. Conclusion Public information suggests that the threat of maritime terrorism is significant, and can take myriad forms, but that different dimensions of the nation’s maritime security activities prioritize these activities in different ways. As oversight of the federal role in maritime security continues, Congress may raise questions concerning the relationship among these activities, and the implications of differing terrorism scenario priorities among them. Improved gathering and sharing of maritime terrorism intelligence may enhance consistency across various U.S. maritime security activities and increase the efficient deployment of maritime security resources. In addition to these issues, Congress may assess how the various elements of U.S. maritime security fit together in the nation's overall strategy to protect the public from terrorist attacks. For example, bulk quantities of hazardous chemicals are found in marine vessels, in rail and highway tankers, and in chemical facilities on land. Terrorists may seek to exploit such chemicals in any of these sectors. Balancing the nation's homeland security resources across the maritime and non-maritime sectors is a policy challenge because specific sectors may fall under different homeland security authorities and regulations. Uncertainty about terrorist capabilities and activities complicates this problem by making it difficult to compare terrorist attack scenarios across sectors. Without such a comprehensive perspective on terrorist threats, security analysts may have difficulty identifying which assets to protect and how well to protect them with the limited security resources available. Reviewing how these security priorities and activities fit together to achieve common goals could be an oversight challenge for Congress (CRS Report for Congress, 2007) . Title: MARITIME SECURITY: Varied Actions Taken to Enhance Cruise Ship Security, but Some Concerns Remain Date: April 2010 Abstract : Why GAO Did This Study Varied Actions Taken to Enhance Cruise Ship Security, but Some Concerns Remain Highlights of GAO-10-400, a report to the Chairman, Committee on Homeland Security, House of Representatives Over 9 million passengers departed from U.S. ports on cruise ships in 2008, and according to agency officials, cruise ships are attractive terrorist targets. GAO was asked to review cruise ship security, and this report addresses the extent to which (1) the Coast Guard, the lead federal agency on maritime security, assessed risk in accordance with the Department of Homeland Security’s (DHS) guidance and identified risks; and (2) federal agencies, cruise ship and facility operators, and law enforcement entities have taken actions to protect cruise ships and their facilities. GAO reviewed relevant requirements and agency documents on maritime security, analyzed 2006 through 2008 security operations data, interviewed federal and industry officials, and made observations at seven ports. GAO selected these locations based on factors such as the number of sailings from each port. Results of the visits provided additional information on security, but were not projectable to all ports. What GOA Found The Coast Guard has assessed the risks to cruise ships in accordance with DHS guidance—which requires that the agency analyze threats, vulnerabilities, and consequences—and, with other maritime stakeholders, identified some concerns. Specifically, agency officials reported in January 2010 that there had been no credible threats against cruise ships in the prior 12 months, but also noted the presence of terrorist groups that have the capability to attack a cruise ship. The Coast Guard, cruise ship and facility operators, and law enforcement officials generally believe waterside attacks are a concern for cruise ships. Agency officials and terrorism researchers also identified terrorists boarding a cruise ship as a concern. The Coast Guard has also identified the potential consequences of an attack, which would include potential loss of life and economic effects. Federal agencies, cruise ship and facility operators, and law enforcement entities have taken various actions to enhance the security of cruise ships and their facilities and implement related laws, regulations, and guidance, and additional actions are under way. DHS and component agencies have taken security measures such as the Coast Guard providing escorts of cruise ships during transit, and CBP’s review of passenger and crew data to help target passenger inspections. Cruise ship and cruise ship facility operators’ security actions have included developing and implementing security plans, among other things. The Coast Guard is also in the process of expanding a program to deter and prevent small vessel attacks, and is developing additional security measures for cruise ships. In addition, CBP’s 2005-2010 Strategic Plan states that CBP should seek to improve identification and targeting of potential terrorists through automated advanced information. CBP, however, has not assessed the cost and benefit of requiring cruise lines to provide passenger reservation data, which in the aviation mode, CBP reports to be useful for the targeting of passengers for inspection. GAO’s previous work identified evaluations as a way for agencies to explore the benefits of a program. If CBP conducted a study to determine whether collecting additional passenger data is cost effective and addressed privacy implications, CBP would be in a better position to determine whether additional actions should be taken to augment security. Conclusion Given the number of passengers that travel on cruise ships each year and the attractiveness of these vessels as terrorist targets, it is important that the risk to cruise ships is assessed and actions are taken to help ensure the security of these ships and their facilities. Federal agencies and maritime security stakeholders, including cruise lines, have implemented various measures to better secure cruise ships and their facilities. As examples, the Coast Guard provides escorts for cruise ships to prevent waterside attacks and CBP screens passengers using manifest data to prevent terrorists from boarding cruise ships. Although these measures have been implemented and there has been no recent credible terrorist threat against cruise ships, this does not preclude the possibility of such an incident occurring in the future, particularly given the existence of terrorist groups that have the capability to attack a cruise ship. Moreover, the President’s 2010 memorandum directing DHS to aggressively pursue enhanced screening efforts further underscores the potential importance of this type of security action. By conducting a study to determine whether requiring cruise lines to provide automated Passenger Name Record data on a systematic basis is cost effective and addresses privacy implications, CBP would be in a better position to determine whether additional actions should be taken to augment security through enhanced screening of cruise ship passengers (United States Governmnet Accountability Office, 2010) . 6. CRUISE SHIP TERROR SECURITY OBAMACSI.COM: The security implementations regarding cruise ships are relatively worthless in that they submit travel itineraries and fingerprints to Homeland Security but do nothing in the way of preventing state-sponsored terrorism. These draconian measures instituted in the post-9/11 era only further decrease the amount of people who want to cruise and terrorize the public in the process. Title: National Environmental Assessment: U.S. Visit Implementation At Passenger Cruise Ship Ports Of Entry Date: November 2003 Title: U.S. Department Of Homeland Security: Cruise Ship Passengers Will Be Fingerprinted Date: April 24, 2008 Source: Cruise Bruise Abstract: The United States Department Of Homeland Security (DHS) has announced plans to begin a policy of fingerprinting cruise ship passengers at U.S. cruise ship terminals before they board. The loophole in the new policy excludes American citizens from the policy, making it easy for criminals on the run, known sex offenders and others posing a threat to the cruise ship passenger population to board the ships and continue to elude law enforcement. With only a fraction of passengers embarking from U.S. ports required to submit to fingerprinting, the delays and cost to passengers is still thought to be extensive. The proposal calls for cruise lines and airlines, not the U.S. government to pay for the cost of fingerprinting and processing is due to the fact that the U.S. government will be outsourcing the process. DHS says the new regulations are a "quantum leap" in homeland security. I agree. It is a quantum leap back to the past, not to the future. Currently, U.S. government agents collect visitors' fingerprints as they enter the U.S., and it was anticipated that government agents, not private sector employees, would collect the fingerprints when the program expands to include people leaving the country. This puts fingerprints in the hands of common citizens working in the travel industry. The new requirement is suppose to go into effect in June of 2009. There is a sixty day period for the airlines and cruise company's to protest the new policy and the protests are flooding in. Given the biggest threat to passengers and ship safety, for cruises embarking at U.S. ports, has been U.S. citizens, this half-baked policy will do very little to protect passengers from those who pose the largest risk. A browse of Cruise Bruise confirms, that nearly all the cases of crimes aboard ships embarking from U.S. ports, where the crimes were committed by passengers, were all Americans or legal American residents. The crimes committed by non-Americans were almost always by crew who had already been fingerprinted and given C1D1 work visas. They from a minority of the cases compared to passenger crimes. Other crimes committed by passengers who were not American, were mostly from ships embarking from foreign ports, to non-American destinations. DHS has no control over those passengers. While I'd love to see the cruise lines pay for crime prevention, this new DHS policy does nothing to really protect Americans aboard ships embarking from our cities. It is a toothless policy aimed at given a false sense of security (Cruise Bruise, 2008) . Title: Cruise Ships May Be Required To Hand Over Passenger Reservation Data Date: May 13, 2010 Source: Homeland Security Newswire Abstract : Security experts worry about a waterside attack using a waterborne improvised explosive device; such an attack could conceivably come while the ship was in transit or docked at port; to address this worry, DHS will require cruise ships departing and entering the United States to provide Customs and Border Protection (CBP) with passenger reservation data Cruise ships departing and entering the United States may be required in the future to provide Customs and Border Protection (CBP) with passenger reservation data because of terrorism concerns, according to a recent Government Accountability Office (GAO) report. Matthew Harwood writes that in a recent report on cruise ship security, the GAO recommended that CBP study the cost and security benefits of requiring the cruise ship industry to provide automated Passenger Name Record (PNR) data to the agency for passenger screening purposes. DHS, the CBP’s parent organization, agreed and responded that the agency would conduct the study and determine whether the program should be implemented. Harwood notes that the idea is to bring the same attention to detail to screening cruise-ship passengers that already exists for airline passengers. International airlines are already required to submit PNR information to the CBP as part of its mission to prevent terrorists and their weapons from entering the United States. Currently, cruise ships departing or entering the United States only submit passenger manifests for CBP to check against terrorist watch-lists and the National Crime Information Center database. CBP officials told GAO investigators that PNR data provides a fuller picture for better targeting of high-risk passengers, including those with suspected terrorist ties. “[PNR] data may include, among other things, a passenger’s full itinerary, reservation booking date, phone number, and billing information, which is not usually available in the manifest data,” reports the GAO. A representative from the Cruise Lines International Association told GAO investigators that the industry would comply with the program if CBP required them to do so, although the representative did not know if such a rule would hurt reservation rates. In 2008, 9.3 million passengers departed the United States on board cruise ships, according to the Department of Transportation’s Maritime Administration. Officials across DHS believe cruise ships could be a terrorist target, but a recent intelligence report from the U.S. military’s National Maritime Intelligence Center (NMIC) in January found no credible terrorist threat to cruise ships existed in 2009. Nevertheless, the NMIC pointed to the 1985 terrorist hijacking of the Achille Lauro cruise ship by four terrorists from the Palestinian Liberation Front as evidence that terrorists could target these vessels. After the four terrorists took control of the cruise ship off of Egypt, they executed Leon Klinghoffer — a 69-year-old, wheelchair-bound American Jew — and dumped his body and wheelchair into the sea. Harwood writes that the big fear for homeland security officials has nothing to with terrorists finding their way on board a cruise ship though. What they dread most is a waterside attack using a waterborne improvised explosive device. Such an attack could conceivably come while the ship was in transit or docked at port. In 2000, two al Qaeda members rammed the U.S.S. Cole in the port of Aden with a explosive-packed 35-foot-long boat, killing themselves and seventeen sailors. Cruise ships, however, are considered strong, resilient vessels, reports the GAO. “Coast Guard officials stated that cruise ships are built to sustain various types of attack scenarios and keep passengers safe until they are able to be rescued, and that a very large hole in the hull would have to occur to cause any significant damage to the ship” (Homeland Security Newswire, 2010) . Title: DHS Cruise Ship Protection Efforts Given High Marks Date: July 2010	i don't know
Who was known as 'Longshanks'?	BBC - Scotland's History - Edward I, King of England. Scotland's History Articles Edward I, King of England. Born 1239, died 1307. Reign 1272 – 1307 Edward I, King of England. Born 1239, died 1307. Reign 1272 – 1307 One of the most effective English kings, Edward was also one of Scotland's greatest adversaries. Through his campaigns against Scotland he would come to be known after his death as 'Scottorum malleus' – the Hammer of the Scots. Intelligent and impatient, Edward proved to be a highly effective king. The reign of his father, Henry III, was marked by internal instability and military failure. Upon succeeding to the throne on 1272 Edward did much to rectify these issues. He managed to control and placate the unruly English barons and unite them behind him. A learned scholar, Edward also took great personal interest in matters of administration and government and introduced reforms and ideas learnt whilst staying abroad in the family-held territory of Gascony. He also made great use of his Parliament – a strategy that helped maintain stability in the country and, more importantly for Edward, brought in regular sums of money to enable Edward to pursue his ambitions. Edward also devised far uglier means of raising money. In 1275 Edward issues the Statute of Jewry that persecuted the Jewish population of England and imposed severe taxation on them. Proving both lucrative and popular, Edward extended this policy further. In 1290 the Jews were expelled from England – minus their money and property. The money raised from this dark practise was used to fund his his ambition to be overlord of the Scotland and Wales. As a younger man Edward forged an impressive reputation as a man of action. Domestically and abroad Edward proved himself as a soldier and a leader of men. In 1266 Edward received international accolade for his role in the 8th and 9th Crusades to the Holy Land where he helped secure the survival of the beleagured coastal city of Acre. It was while returning from the Crusade that Edward learned that his father, Henry III, had died and that he was now the King of England. Ambitious and impulsive, Edward wasted no time in enforcing his will on his neighbours. As an ominous precursor for his plans for Scotland, Edward attacked Wales. Edward attacks Wales During the 1250s Edward's father, Henry III, had mounted military campaigns in an attempt to control and dominate Wales. After a series of disastrous defeats Henry was forced to negotiate a peace that saw the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffydd extend his territories into England. Henry also had to recognise the royal status of Llewelyn as Prince of Wales. Llywelyn in turn was to acknowledge Henry as his overlord. Edward had experienced these failed campaigns first hand as part of his father's retinue and was determined not to repeat the same mistakes. Using the pretence of Llywelyn's refusal to pay homage to him in 1274 Edward raised a sizeable army and invaded Wales. Llywelyn was defeated and stripped of his territories. In another uncanny foreshadowing of events to come in Scotland Edward's complete conquest of his neighbour was to be thrown into doubt by a courageous campaign for liberation. In 1282 Llywelyn's brother Dafydd sparked a rebellion to rid Wales of English dominance. With Edward caught off-guard the rising had initial success. The death of Llywelyn in battle turned the tide for Edward however. Soon after Dafydd was captured and executed. Without strong leadership the Welsh rising failed. To consolidate his stranglehold, Edward built a series of impressive castles across Wales (such as Caernarfon Castle) and in 1284 Edward issued the Statute of Rhuddlan that effectively annexed Wales and made it a province of England. The title Prince of Wales was handed to Edward's eldest son, Prince Edward (later Edward II) – a practise that continues to this day. Edward plots against Scotland In 1287 Alexander III, King of Scots, died suddenly after falling from his horse at Kinghorn. The succession crisis that followed presented Edward with a golden opportunity to expand on his conquest of Wales. The Adobe Flash player and Javascript are required in order to view a video which appears on this page. You may wish to download the Adobe Flash player . With the absence of an immediate heir, the Scots throne looked likely to pass to Alexander's infant granddaughter, Margaret (the 'Maid of Norway') – the daughter of the King of Norway. Rival Scottish claims for the right to succeed as the next monarch led to the Norwegians approaching Edward. Edward planned to wed his own son Edward to Margaret and thus control Scotland via matrimonial rights. The Scots nobles, fearful of such a takeover, agreed that Margaret should be queen – but at the expense of Edward's marriage plans. Events were thrown into turmoil when Margaret died en route to Scotland. Edward the Kingmaker With the succession crisis still looming large and rival claimants still in fierce competition the Guardians of Scotland needed to find someone to adjudicate the claims and help break the deadlock. The perfect candidate was Edward. As an internationally respected king and a recognised expert on legal matters of state Edward was a logical choice. With the benefit of hindsight this may seem to be the worst of decisions until you consider that England and Scotland had enjoyed an extended period of relatively peaceful co-existence. Claims of English overlordship over Scotland were seen to be a thing of the distant past. The Guardians were in for a very rude shock. The Adobe Flash player and Javascript are required in order to view a video which appears on this page. You may wish to download the Adobe Flash player . In a series of political manouverings Edward insisted that he be recognised as feudal overlord of the Scots before a new Scots king be appointed. The Guardians refused but Edward, the legal expert, got his wish. While there were two rival claimants (Robert Bruce and John Balliol) Edward's role was adjudicate. If there were more than two then, under medieval law, only a judge could be expected to pronounce a verdict. As a judge Edward had to have authority – and in royal matters authority meant overlordship. Edward found other claimants for the vacant throne to put pressure on Bruce and Balliol. The plan worked and one by one they came forward to swear allegiance. From that point, with all principle claimants as his vassals, it did not matter who became king. Ultimately Balliol took the crown. Edward's subsequent heavy-handed treatment of the Scots (demanding taxes and soldiers to help fight his wars) led to the first inklings of rebellion. In 1295 the Scots signed a mutual aid treaty with France (later to be known as the Auld Alliance). This pact with Edward's enemy brought about swift retaliation from Edward. Edward destroyed Berwick, slaughtering thousands of the town's inhabitants, before pushing deeper into scotland. The Scots met Edward in battle at Dunbar but was decisively beaten. repeating his accomplishments in Wales, Edward had now conquered Scotland. In a similar tactic to the those he employed in Wales Edward stripped the country of its treasures and symbollic icons of nationhood as easily as he stripped Balliol of his status as king. Most notably the crown jewels and the Stone of Destiny was removed to be sent back to England. The message was clear – there was to be no other king in Scotland but Edward. Edward's campaigning, however, had left him seriously short of funds. He could no-longer afford to build costly castles to control his new domain as he had in Wales. Wars of Independence Just as he had with the welsh, Edward had underestimated the Scots. Within a year rebellions to English control broke out – notably led by Andrew Murray in the north and William wallace in the south of the country. The Adobe Flash player and Javascript are required in order to view a video which appears on this page. You may wish to download the Adobe Flash player . Edward left the matter of crushing the rebellion to his representative, John de Warenne, rather than take control personally. At Stirling Bridge Warenne's force was routed by Wallace and Murray's army. Edward marches north and took control of his army and defeated Wallace's army at Falkirk. Wallace was later captured and executed. Once again Edward assumed that Scotland was conquered. An interesting point to note is that the expense incurred in subjugating the Welsh meant that the same pattern of conquest and castle-building was not open to Edward. The success of that campaign could not so easily be emulated. Enter the Bruce Waiting in the wings for Edward was Robert the Bruce. Bruce's ambition to be king was finally realised in 1306. News of the coronation of a new Scots king brought Edward's army northward. A series of swift victories saw Edward victorious and the new King of Scots on the run. Once again Edward assumed the job was done. News of Bruce's return with a handful of followers was given scant regard. Edward would rue this inattentiveness. Within a year Bruce had defeated larger English forces and regained control of swathes of Scotland. A minor rebellion had become a sizeable rising. Not even the capture and execution of key Bruce supporters (including members of Bruce's own family) could reverse the tide. The Adobe Flash player and Javascript are required in order to view a video which appears on this page. You may wish to download the Adobe Flash player . In Bruce Edward had met a formidable, ruthless and determined opponent – a man cut from the same cloth. A Job Worth Doing... Despite ill health and advancing years Edward, Hammer of the Scots, marched his army north to rid himself of Bruce once and for all. In 1307, with Scotland in sight, Edward died at Burgh-on-Sands. The campaign for the conquest of Scotland passed on to his son, Edward II. The Scots were relieved to find that the brutal and effective military prowess displayed by the father were absent in the son. The Adobe Flash player and Javascript are required in order to view a video which appears on this page. You may wish to download the Adobe Flash player . In 1314 Bruce routed a larger English force at Bannockburn. Recognition of Scotland's sovereignty came years later in 1328. On his death bed accounts credit Edward's dying wish to be that his bones be left unburied as long as Scotland was unconquered. Mercifully this request was ignored. As arguably, England's greatest king (and Scotland's greatest enemy) his temporary interment would have lasted an awful long time. More articles	Edward I of England
In which country is the 444 mile long, 'Susquahanna River'?	6/12/2006 • Military History A case can be made that Edward I was the greatest English king of the Middle Ages. A strong ruler, he was a man blessed with a strong sense of duty. Although he was no democrat, he believed the king should promote the general welfare and place himself above class or faction–a revolutionary concept in the 13th century. Although he has been called ‘the English Justinian’ because of his legal codes, Edward was first and foremost a military man, one of the great generals of the medieval world. Edward was born in June 1239, the son of King Henry III. Weak and indecisive, Henry was not a bad man–just a bad king. He was devoted to his family and took great pleasure in art and architecture. One of his pet projects was the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey in the Gothic style that was just coming into vogue. Unfortunately, Henry’s private virtues became public vices. Because of his devotion to his wife, he gave the queen’s undeserving foreign relatives places at court. Worse still, Henry’s building projects were a drain on the exchequer, and his excessive piety made him a dupe of the papacy. That mix of piety, politics and penury–he was always short of funds–bore bitter fruit. Simon de Montfort, leader of the baronial opposition, led an open revolt that defeated the king at the Battle of Lewes in 1264. Lewes gave Prince Edward his first real taste of combat. As a headstrong young blade of 25, he took exception to the London troops of Montfort’s army, sincerely believing they had insulted his mother. When the battle opened on May 14, Edward led a cavalry charge that scattered the London burghers like dead leaves in a windstorm. Intoxicated by the chase, he began a single-minded pursuit of his fleeing quarry that took him miles from the battlefield. Once his thirst for vengeance was appeased, Edward returned to Lewes–only to find that Montfort had defeated his father’s main army. Assailed from both flanks by Montfort’s knights, the dumbfounded prince was forced to surrender. But a great lesson had been learned–from then on, with few exceptions, his intellect would govern his passions. Eventually Edward escaped, joined forces with Roger Mortimer, Earl of Gloucester, and together they defeated Simon de Montfort at Evesham on August 4, 1265. By then, Edward was king in all but name, since his father was growing old and was as self-absorbed as ever. Fired with chivalric zeal and a surfeit of youthful energy, Prince Edward ‘took the cross’–that is, declared himself a crusader pledged to free the Holy Land from the grip of the Muslim ‘infidels.’ In 1271, Edward reached the Middle East with a small army of 1,000 men and amazed everyone by chalking up a series of victories over the Muslim forces of the Mamluk Sultan Baybars Bundukdari of Egypt. The prince captured Nazareth, scoring a moral victory by liberating the hometown of Jesus Christ, but his forces were too small to consolidate his gains. Once, when Edward was resting in his tent, a Muslim assassin broke in and attacked him with a poisoned knife. The prince quickly killed his assailant but was wounded in the arm. Soon the limb swelled, and the foul-smelling flesh grew black. Gangrene had set in. Handicapped by the lack of medical knowledge at the time, the doctors were baffled and lost hope. But one brave physician cut away the blackened tissue and hoped for the best. By some miracle, Edward survived. The next year, 1272, a truce was arranged between Baybars and the Crusaders, enabling Edward to go home at last. While en route to England, he received word that his father was dead and he was now king in his own right. On August 2, 1274, the new king landed at Dover after an absence of four years. Crowds gave a tumultuous welcome to their new monarch, who, at 6 feet 2 inches, towered over contemporaries. He was handsome, but his piercing blue eyes were slightly offset by a drooping left eyelid. Like most of his Plantagenet dynasty, Edward had a volcanic temper that sometimes erupted into murderous rages. Generally, though, he was too intelligent to let his anger get the better of him. A few years after his accession to the throne, Edward was forced to deal with Wales, the mountainous land to the west of England. Politically, Wales was a confusing mosaic of divided loyalties. In the south and central portions of the country, Anglo-Norman barons, called Marcher lords, managed to subdue and pacify the Welsh tribesmen, but in the north the situation was different. There, a line of Gwynedd princes high in the mountains of Snowdonia refused to submit to the English yoke. One Welsh ruler, Llewellyn-ap-Graffyd, declared himself prince of Wales and set about expanding his domain at the expense of the Marcher lords. Initially Edward had little interest in Wales, and he might have accepted Llewellyn’s independence if the latter had rendered lip service to his feudal obligations to the English crown. But Llewellyn’s arrogance seemed to grow with his power, and he refused to render homage to Edward. Thoroughly aroused, the king was determined to bring his rebellious vassal to heel. In July 1277, in the town of Worcester, Edward gathered one of the biggest armies ever seen in Britain. The feudal levy summoned 1,000 armored knights, while a number of English shires–Cheshire, Derbyshire, Shropshire and others–supplied about 15,000 foot soldiers, including many Welshmen and Gascon crossbowmen. The northern Welsh under Llewellyn were not prepared to meet Edward on his own terms, so they melted back into the misty valleys and snow-dappled peaks of their mountainous homeland. Natural guerrillas, they lived off the land when fighting and generally preferred ambushes to pitched battles. The men of southern Wales generally had spears, but the northern tribes possessed a formidable new weapon–the longbow. One chronicler described it as ‘made of wild elm, unpolished, rude and uncouth,’ but in the hands of a trained archer it was a formidable weapon, hitting targets with such force that a longbow shaft could pierce chain mail and pin a man to his horse. Edward advanced along the north Welsh coast, marching slowly up the valleys of the Severn and the Dee. Leaving a chain of rising fortresses in his wake, Edward continued on until he reached the mouth of the Conway River. There, the king unveiled his trump card–sea power. Just off the coast, on the island of Anglesey, was some of the most fertile soil in Wales, the breadbasket of Llewellyn’s tribes. Thanks to ships provided by Edward’s Cinque Ports, Anglesey was quickly taken. Ringed in by hostile troops and threatened by starvation, Llewellyn sued for peace. After a few years’ respite, however, Llewellyn’s brother David raised the standard of revolt. The 1282 rebellion was a replay of the 1277 campaign, but this time Llewellyn was killed in a chance encounter, and his head was sent to adorn London Bridge. David was captured and executed, and the rebellion he had hatched collapsed. Edward decided that only more castles could help sink English roots and stabilize the shifting political soil of Wales. Luckily for the king, his reign coincided with the great age of medieval military architecture, and he found a builder of genius in Master James of St. George. Master James’ fertile imagination produced a series of elaborate designs, each adapted to the particular needs of an individual site. Even today, Conway, Harlech, Rhuddlan, Beaumaris and Caernarvon castles give an overwhelming impression of strength and majesty. Wales was pacified, at least for the moment, so Edward turned his attention to Scotland. The Scottish throne was empty, and there were no less than 13 claimants for it. To solve the impasse, the claimants asked Edward to be arbiter and choose a candidate among their number. The English king should have known better; the Scottish succession was a morass of claims and counterclaims. After fevered consultations with barons, lawyers and churchmen, Edward chose John Bailol as king of the Scots. Bailol was a weakling, but the fractious Scottish nobles stiffened his backbone enough to defy Edward. Once again, Edward could brook no disobedience from a man he considered his feudal underling. The English monarch invaded Scotland with a large army, and in March 1296, he proceeded to besiege the important Scottish town of Berwick. Feeling overconfident, the citizens of Berwick shouted insults at Edward, in particular making fun of his ‘long shanks.’ Mounted on his great warhorse Bayard, Edward personally led the assault on Berwick. Hooves flailing, Bayard leapt across a ditch, bounded over a low palisade and brought his royal master into the very heart of the city. Soon English troops poured into the narrow streets and fighting gave way to a general massacre of the inhabitants. In short order Bailol was deposed, and Edward ruled the northern kingdom through a series of military garrisons. But Edward’s brutal conquest had unleashed a sort of early nationalistic spirit among the Scots. A Scottish knight, William Wallace, gathered an army and managed to defeat an English force at Stirling Bridge on September 11, 1297. With his prestige on the line, Edward–though he was now growing old–took to the field once again and invaded Scotland. On July 22, 1298, the English and Scottish armies met at Falkirk. The backbone of Wallace’s forces was his infantry, drawn up in four phalanx-style formations called schiltrons. Bristling with spears, the schiltrons seemed invulnerable to the kind of cavalry charge favored by medieval knights. And sure enough, before Edward could fully deploy his unwieldy army, his knights rushed forward in a headlong charge. Try as they might, the English knights could make no impression on the prickly Scottish formations, and round one went to the stubborn Celts. But Edward had a surprise waiting in the wings–swarms of Welsh archers, who came forward in large numbers to discharge their deadly shafts. The schiltrons were quickly reduced to heaps of dead and wounded men, and the remaining Scottish infantry became easy prey for Edward’s cavalry. Only Wallace and a handful of fugitives escaped the terrible slaughter, and the back of Scottish resistance seemed broken forever. At Falkirk, Edward Long Shanks acquired a new nickname: Scottorum malleus (Hammer of the Scots). The battle validated his reputation as a general and showcased his tactical skills. His adoption of the Welsh longbow foreshadowed the English triumphs at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt. Eventually, Wallace was captured and hanged, drawn and quartered, but his grisly fate left the Scots uncowed. Time and again, Edward had to return to Scotland in an attempt to crush the embers of revolt. Yet every time he returned home, the flame of Scots nationalism would blaze anew. A new Scottish champion, Robert the Bruce, declared himself king of Scotland and girded himself for another English invasion. It was not long in coming. Edward, white-haired and ailing, must have felt he was an English Sisyphus, condemned to roll the rock of conquest forward again and again. At 69–something akin to 90 by the standards of the Middle Ages–the king had little reason to find happiness in his waning years. His son and heir, Prince Edward of Caernarvon, was a homosexual and a worthless spendthrift, more interested in fine clothes than the arts of war. King Edward moved forward toward Scotland, but his battle-scarred and aging body could not obey the commands of his iron will. He died on July 6, 1307, a short distance from the Scottish border at Burgh-on-Sands. Later, Edward II would return to Scotland in force–only to suffer a humiliating defeat at the hands of Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn, on June 23, 1314, by which Scotland won its independence from England. Although he was not the equal of a Caesar or Napoleon, Edward I was still a great commander who grasped the essentials of war. Even his enemies recognized his military greatness. Comparing Edward I to his son Edward II, Robert the Bruce once declared, ‘I am more afraid of the bones of the father dead, than of the living son; and, by all the saints, it was more difficult to get a half a foot of the land from the old king than a whole kingdom from the son!’ This article was written by Eric Niderost and originally published in the December 1995 issue of Military History magazine. For more great articles be sure to subscribe to Military History magazine today!	i don't know
Which racecourse opened in Essex in April 2008?	BBC - Essex - History - Galloping Galleywood You are in: Essex > History > Local History > Galloping Galleywood Steeplechase at Galleywood racecourse Galloping Galleywood Ted Hawkins As the new racecourse opens at Great Leighs we look back on the history of horse racing in Galleywood. The historic Galleywood Racecourse on Galleywood Common in the Borough of Chelmsford, Essex was the scene of the Chelmsford Races for at least 176 years from 1759 to 1935. It was one of the oldest racecourses in the country and probably dates back to the days of King Charles II (1660-1680). Racing at Galleywood was no easy task. The hilly nature of the track was quite unequalled in England and the rise to the winning post was like a mountainside to the rider. The races were first published in The Chelmsford Chronicle in August 1764 soon after the newspaper was launched. Galleywood racecourse from the air It was a three day event. Each day there were races for a plate of £50 each and these were for the best of three two-mile or four-mile heats. The horses for each days plate had to be entered for the race on the previous Saturday at the Black Boy Inn in Chelmsford. In 1770 the Chelmsford races received the stamp of Royal Approval when King George III announced that he was graciously pleased to give the sum of 100 guineas as prize money to be called the 'Queen’s Plate.' The breeding of English thoroughbred horses famous for their speed and endurance was responsible from 1776 onwards for the immense change to 'dash' races i.e. having one race over the course instead of the best of three heats. The Galleywood race meetings in the summer with public breakfasts, assemblies, concerts and balls were the great social occasions of the year. At the Black Boy Inn there would also be 'Ordinaries' i.e. set-priced meals at a fixed hour each day. Special Balls were arranged each night for 'respectable farmers and tradesmen.' Race meetings at Galleywood had all the additional attractions of prize-fighting, dog-fights, rat-hunts and cock-fighting. There would also be dancing booths, sparring booths, booths where 'terrible melodramas' were performed, gambling booths and beer and food booths. The Galleywood sign features horses The popular games of chance, roulette and the three-card trick were played on the Common. In 1767 there were 43 cock-fights on Galleywood Common. Cock-fighting was declared illegal in 1849. The Grandstand was maliciously set on fire in 1779 and destroyed but it was soon rebuilt. Before Grandstands were built the nobility would arrive at the side of the course in a succession of horse-drawn carriages which acted a Grandstand and a refreshment bar. During the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 a large star-shaped Fort with artillery batteries, redoubts and earthwork fortifications were built on the racecourse astride the Margaretting Road in response to an invasion threat by French forces on the Essex coast. These defence works were decommissioned around 1815. The Essex Chronicle reported in 1821 'that the state of our racecourse was inferior to none' and boasted the presence of the most distinguished nobility. The 1860’s were the heyday of horse racing on the Common. A new grandstand was built near The Admiral Rous Inn which is now a private residence. Admiral Rous was the Senior Steward of the Jockey Club and so-called 'Dictator of the Turf' who frequently officiated at the Chelmsford Races. Thousands of racegoers flocked to the Galleywood race meetings. The population was then only about 800. In 1876 it was reported that the attendance at the races was not so numerous as of yore and they were being run at a loss. In 1887 the Royal Plate was discontinued. A decisive turnaround of the fortunes of the Galleywood Race Stand Company happened in 1892 when it was decided to hold Steeplechase and Hunt meetings under the Grand National Rules. So flat racing gave way to steeplechasing. It was a right handed course, two miles round starting at the Grandstand, with nine hurdles and a water jump. In 1893 the racecourse uniquely encircled (1) Galleywood Church, the only church in the country built in the middle of a racecourse (2) a Brickworks (3) a Corn Windmill (4) a major part of the Galleywood Golf Links of the Chelmsford Golf Club, the first Golf Club in the Chelmsford area and (5) the remains of the Napoleonic Defences. However horse racing dwindled in the years before WWI. During the war the Grandstand and the Common were taken over by the Army. In 1922 when it appeared that the great days of horse racing were over, the Chelmsford Race Stand Company was put up for auction. There was a feeling of euphoria when the highly popular horse racing was revived by the Chelmsford Racecourse Company on 21st March 1923. The old Grandstand had been thoroughly renovated to accommodate 1,200 spectators with an excellent view of every part of the course and a new Members' stand accommodating 700 people constructed with the front facing the racecourse. All modern facilities were provided and hot luncheons and teas served in both stands. Many improvements had been made to the Racecourse. Jockeys praised the fine fettle of the course. This grand setting for steeplechase meetings attracted thousands of people who came on foot, by bicycles, coaches, charabancs, carriages, motor cars and special trains from Liverpool Street station. In 1928 the Racecourse was reported to be one of the best situated and attractive in the whole of England. It was 250 feet above sea level, in beautiful surroundings over open heathland and crossing two roads at four crossing points. In 1931 the famous racehorse Golden Miller won two hurdle races on the Galleywood Racecourse over a distance of two miles by 10 lengths each and within three months won the Cheltenham Gold Cup in 1932. Golden Miller went on to win the Cheltenham Gold Cup on five consecutive occasions and also won the Grand National in 1934. The flamboyant tipster Ras Prince Monolulu was frequently seen in his multi-coloured feathered headdress with his famous racecourse cry 'I Gotta Horse!! I Gotta Horse!!' The attendance at the March 1935 meeting was 3,000 but sadly the next meeting in April 1935 was to be the last. Although the race meetings were successful they were run at a loss as the large crowd of spectators on the surrounding common land with a good view of the races could watch them free of charge. Pony-racing took over in May 1935 and ended in 1939. The freehold land and property totalling 22 acres were put up for Sale by Auction in 1939 and subsequently in 1942 the Chelmsford Rural District Council (now the Chelmsford Borough Council) completed the purchase of the land and property of the Chelmsford Racecourse Company and the 116 acres of Galleywood Common. The Galleywood Parish Council formed in 1987 specially commissioned the beautiful Village Sign featuring Galleywood Common in its heyday with racehorses and jockeys in brilliant colours, the Keene Hall and the spire of Galleywood Church seen as a landmark for miles around. Galleywood today has a proud heritage and splendid memories of the centuries of Horse Racing on Galleywood Common. Large sections of the historic Galleywood Racecourse with the white posts and rails have been preserved and forever remind us of its glorious past. last updated: 30/04/2008 at 09:20 created: 24/04/2008	Great Leighs
In France, what are 'Huitres'?	BBC - Essex - History - Galloping Galleywood You are in: Essex > History > Local History > Galloping Galleywood Steeplechase at Galleywood racecourse Galloping Galleywood Ted Hawkins As the new racecourse opens at Great Leighs we look back on the history of horse racing in Galleywood. The historic Galleywood Racecourse on Galleywood Common in the Borough of Chelmsford, Essex was the scene of the Chelmsford Races for at least 176 years from 1759 to 1935. It was one of the oldest racecourses in the country and probably dates back to the days of King Charles II (1660-1680). Racing at Galleywood was no easy task. The hilly nature of the track was quite unequalled in England and the rise to the winning post was like a mountainside to the rider. The races were first published in The Chelmsford Chronicle in August 1764 soon after the newspaper was launched. Galleywood racecourse from the air It was a three day event. Each day there were races for a plate of £50 each and these were for the best of three two-mile or four-mile heats. The horses for each days plate had to be entered for the race on the previous Saturday at the Black Boy Inn in Chelmsford. In 1770 the Chelmsford races received the stamp of Royal Approval when King George III announced that he was graciously pleased to give the sum of 100 guineas as prize money to be called the 'Queen’s Plate.' The breeding of English thoroughbred horses famous for their speed and endurance was responsible from 1776 onwards for the immense change to 'dash' races i.e. having one race over the course instead of the best of three heats. The Galleywood race meetings in the summer with public breakfasts, assemblies, concerts and balls were the great social occasions of the year. At the Black Boy Inn there would also be 'Ordinaries' i.e. set-priced meals at a fixed hour each day. Special Balls were arranged each night for 'respectable farmers and tradesmen.' Race meetings at Galleywood had all the additional attractions of prize-fighting, dog-fights, rat-hunts and cock-fighting. There would also be dancing booths, sparring booths, booths where 'terrible melodramas' were performed, gambling booths and beer and food booths. The Galleywood sign features horses The popular games of chance, roulette and the three-card trick were played on the Common. In 1767 there were 43 cock-fights on Galleywood Common. Cock-fighting was declared illegal in 1849. The Grandstand was maliciously set on fire in 1779 and destroyed but it was soon rebuilt. Before Grandstands were built the nobility would arrive at the side of the course in a succession of horse-drawn carriages which acted a Grandstand and a refreshment bar. During the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 a large star-shaped Fort with artillery batteries, redoubts and earthwork fortifications were built on the racecourse astride the Margaretting Road in response to an invasion threat by French forces on the Essex coast. These defence works were decommissioned around 1815. The Essex Chronicle reported in 1821 'that the state of our racecourse was inferior to none' and boasted the presence of the most distinguished nobility. The 1860’s were the heyday of horse racing on the Common. A new grandstand was built near The Admiral Rous Inn which is now a private residence. Admiral Rous was the Senior Steward of the Jockey Club and so-called 'Dictator of the Turf' who frequently officiated at the Chelmsford Races. Thousands of racegoers flocked to the Galleywood race meetings. The population was then only about 800. In 1876 it was reported that the attendance at the races was not so numerous as of yore and they were being run at a loss. In 1887 the Royal Plate was discontinued. A decisive turnaround of the fortunes of the Galleywood Race Stand Company happened in 1892 when it was decided to hold Steeplechase and Hunt meetings under the Grand National Rules. So flat racing gave way to steeplechasing. It was a right handed course, two miles round starting at the Grandstand, with nine hurdles and a water jump. In 1893 the racecourse uniquely encircled (1) Galleywood Church, the only church in the country built in the middle of a racecourse (2) a Brickworks (3) a Corn Windmill (4) a major part of the Galleywood Golf Links of the Chelmsford Golf Club, the first Golf Club in the Chelmsford area and (5) the remains of the Napoleonic Defences. However horse racing dwindled in the years before WWI. During the war the Grandstand and the Common were taken over by the Army. In 1922 when it appeared that the great days of horse racing were over, the Chelmsford Race Stand Company was put up for auction. There was a feeling of euphoria when the highly popular horse racing was revived by the Chelmsford Racecourse Company on 21st March 1923. The old Grandstand had been thoroughly renovated to accommodate 1,200 spectators with an excellent view of every part of the course and a new Members' stand accommodating 700 people constructed with the front facing the racecourse. All modern facilities were provided and hot luncheons and teas served in both stands. Many improvements had been made to the Racecourse. Jockeys praised the fine fettle of the course. This grand setting for steeplechase meetings attracted thousands of people who came on foot, by bicycles, coaches, charabancs, carriages, motor cars and special trains from Liverpool Street station. In 1928 the Racecourse was reported to be one of the best situated and attractive in the whole of England. It was 250 feet above sea level, in beautiful surroundings over open heathland and crossing two roads at four crossing points. In 1931 the famous racehorse Golden Miller won two hurdle races on the Galleywood Racecourse over a distance of two miles by 10 lengths each and within three months won the Cheltenham Gold Cup in 1932. Golden Miller went on to win the Cheltenham Gold Cup on five consecutive occasions and also won the Grand National in 1934. The flamboyant tipster Ras Prince Monolulu was frequently seen in his multi-coloured feathered headdress with his famous racecourse cry 'I Gotta Horse!! I Gotta Horse!!' The attendance at the March 1935 meeting was 3,000 but sadly the next meeting in April 1935 was to be the last. Although the race meetings were successful they were run at a loss as the large crowd of spectators on the surrounding common land with a good view of the races could watch them free of charge. Pony-racing took over in May 1935 and ended in 1939. The freehold land and property totalling 22 acres were put up for Sale by Auction in 1939 and subsequently in 1942 the Chelmsford Rural District Council (now the Chelmsford Borough Council) completed the purchase of the land and property of the Chelmsford Racecourse Company and the 116 acres of Galleywood Common. The Galleywood Parish Council formed in 1987 specially commissioned the beautiful Village Sign featuring Galleywood Common in its heyday with racehorses and jockeys in brilliant colours, the Keene Hall and the spire of Galleywood Church seen as a landmark for miles around. Galleywood today has a proud heritage and splendid memories of the centuries of Horse Racing on Galleywood Common. Large sections of the historic Galleywood Racecourse with the white posts and rails have been preserved and forever remind us of its glorious past. last updated: 30/04/2008 at 09:20 created: 24/04/2008	i don't know

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.