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What is the second highest mountain in Africa? | Mount Kenya - The Second Highest Mountain in Africa - Jenman African Safaris
Why you should climb Mount Kenya
As if the opportunity to visit Kenya – the home of Great African Lakes, seemingly never-ending deserts, and national parks teeming with African wildlife – weren’t enticing enough; Mount Kenya presents a unique and unforgettable challenge . Vastly different to Mount Kilimanjaro , this range is less frequented by the touring masses, yet breath-takingly beautiful in many ways.
When it comes to international renown, Mount Kenya is famous for its abundance of African wildlife. Ascending the slopes towards the summit, bring hikers and climbers into the presence of such creatures as the hyrax, the common duiker, the groove-toothed rat, hyenas, porcupines, and – if you’re lucky – the majestic leopard. Twitchers are also spoiled for spotting with an array of birdlife having found a home on the mountain, including species such as the rare Afro-alpine moorland and Verreaux eagle.
How you can climb Mount Kenya
When it comes to reaching Point Lenana, there are eight routes from which you can choose. Of these, the Sirimon routes (Sirmon-Chogoria and Sirimon-Naro Maru) are the more popular, with Burguret providing more of a challenge for seasoned hikers. Sirimon-Chogoria is considered to be the definitive trek up Mount Kenya , and takes up to seven days to complete. The ascent up this route is scenic and relatively easy, with a descent down Chogoria that features one of the most striking vistas on the mountain, consisting of sheer-sided gullies, tarns and waterfalls.
Sirimon-Naro Moru is the most popular route on the Mountain and is renowned for its steady rate of ascent and descent. While this route misses out on some of the beautiful features of Mount Kenya , it is still scenically memorable passing up Mackinders’ Valley before descending through a vertical bog into dense rainforest below. The Burguret route offers hikers the likely chance of encountering a stampede, and then making up for it with stunning landscapes and a wide range of wildlife. Burguret is more challenging, which is why it is less popular, yet equally pleasing to the eye, even between stretches of rough and muddy going.
Most travellers who decide to embark upon a journey to Mount Kenya , whether they climb to the summit or not, are left with a gratifying awe at the country’s many marvels. With a number of lesser peaks and glaciers that are more easily scaled, you can even choose to split your time between the Mountain and its surrounding forests where elephant, buffalo, lion, antelope, servals and leopards roam.
| Mount Kenya |
"""I hate it when people always say 'yes' to me. When I say 'no' I expect them to say 'no' as well"". Is a saying attributed to which film maker?" | The Top 5 Highest Mountains In Africa
The Top 5 Highest Mountains In Africa
Updated on May 16, 2012
Google Earth: Africa's Highest Mountains
{"lat":-1.333843,"lng":33.611164,"zoom":6,"mapType":"HYBRID","markers":[{"id":30410,"lat":"-3.066465","lng":"37.350666","name":"Mt Kilimanjaro","address":"Mt Kilimanjaro, Mt.Kilimanjaro National Park, Tanzania","description":""},{"id":30411,"lat":"-0.146730","lng":"37.307732","name":"Mt Kenya","address":"Mt Kenya, Mount Kenya National Park, Kenya","description":""},{"id":30412,"lat":"0.385833","lng":"29.871668","name":"Mount Stanley","address":"Margherita Peak, Democratic Republic of the Congo","description":""},{"id":30413,"lat":"0.400000","lng":"29.883333","name":"Mount Speke","address":"Mt Speke, Democratic Republic of the Congo","description":""},{"id":30414,"lat":"0.366667","lng":"29.900000","name":"Mount Baker, Ruwenzori","address":"Mt Baker, Rwenzori National Park, Uganda","description":""}]}
5. Mount Baker
Together with Mount Stanley and Mount Speke, Mount Baker forms a triangle creating the Bujuku Valley. Its height is 4,844 m. The area these mountains lay is locally known as the Mountains of the Moon. As with the vast majority of peaks in the Ruwenzori Range, Mt Bakers highest jagged ridge is known as Edward Peak. The mountain is named after Sir Samuel Baker who was an early in the region although never actually ascended the mountain himself.
4. Mount Speke
Mt Speke is 4,890m and has several peaks including Vittorio Emanuele 4,890m; Ensonga 4,865m; Johnston 4,834m & Trident 4,572m. The people who live in the mountains call this mountain range the 'Rwenzori', 'the rain maker' in Swahili. Early explorers visited this region in search of the source of the River Nile and whilst the expedition leader John Speke didn’t climb this mountain he mapped the source of the White Nile in 1862. The mountains are blessed with a variety of wildlife due to the rivers and streams which criss-cross the mountain including elephant, chimpanzee, leopard, monkey & antelope.
3. Mount Stanley
With an elevation of 5,109 m it's the highest mountain in both the DRC and Uganda and the third highest mountain on the continent after Mount Kenya and Mt Kilimanjaro. The peaks are actually high enough to support a glacier and it was named after explorer Sir Henry Morton Stanley. It's part of the UNESCO world heritage site that is Rwenzori Mountains National Park and was first summited in 1906 by Duke of the Abruzzi and his fellow climbers and was named Margherita Peak after the Queen Margherita of Italy.
2. Mt Kenya
Mt Kenya is both the highest mountain in Kenya and the second highest mountain in Africa behind neighbouring Mt Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. Point Batian is 5,199m and the highest point on Mt Kenya. Mt Kenya is located in Central Kenya and runs right through the equator. It was established as a National Park in 1949 and then as a UNESCO site in 1997. There are a wide variety of animals that live lower down on the slopes of Mt Kenya including various species of monkey, antelope, porcupine and tree hyrax and some larger animals including both buffalo and elephant.
1. Mt Kilimanjaro
Mt Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa standing at 5,895 metres above sea level and consists of three peaks, Shira, Kibo and Mawenzi with Uhuru peak being the highest on the Kibo crater rim. The mountains peak was reached for the first time in 1889 by Hans Meyer, a German geographer and Ludwig Purtscheller, an Austrian mountaineer. Since 1912, 80% of the Kibo glacier has disappeared due to the world's temperatures increasing, that's an annual loss of 1% and at its current rate Kilimanjaro is expected to be ice free between 2022 and 2033.
Climbing Kilimanjaro is popular with climbers all over the world but the Tanzanian mountain rescue service are concerned by the fact many people believe it's an easy climb and end up paying the consequences further up the mountain for their naivety. It's estimated that more people have died climbing Kilimanjaro than they have climbing Mt Everest, although far fewer people attempt Everest.
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Which company makes the 'Very Irresistable' range of fragrances? | Very Irresistible Perfume for Women by Givenchy
Very Irresistible Perfume
By Givenchy for Women
Very Irresistible Perfume by Givenchy, In 2003 givenchy introduced a terrifically feminine fragrance to the world - very irresistible . The team behind this incredible and truly irresistible floral fragrance includes dominique ropion, sophie labbe and carlos benaim. The fragrance includes five variations of roses, opening with fresh anise and a harmony of cassia and lemon verbena. The heart is composed of delicate fresh rose and magnolia, with pure floral essence of peony. The base note framing ... Read More ... Read More this exquisite and alluring scent is taif rose. It's a complete delight for rose lovers who want to make an elegant entrance and is suitable for any occasion. All products are original, authentic name brands. We do not sell knockoffs or imitations.
Women’s Perfume List by Letter
Women’s Perfume List by Letter
#
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What position was held by 'Caiaphas' in the Gospels? | Givenchy - Beauty | Debenhams
GIVENCHY
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Learn more about Givenchy
Founded in 1952 by the famous designer Hubert de Givenchy, the Parisian fashion house Givenchy is noted for its unison of French heritage and American glamour.
Beyond the diversity of its creations, specific brand values guide the association of classic rigour and imagination. Indeed, Givenchy fragrances, make-up and skincare products reflect the DNA of the Haute Couture brand by translating its aristocratic heritage combined with an impertinent sense of style for the magnetic Givenchy woman. The first Givenchy perfume, l'Interdit, was created in 1957 thanks to the legendary meeting between Hubert de Givenchy and Audrey Hepburn.
Givenchy Make up
Givenchy Le Makeup enhances your look with its innovative textures. Discover Le Rouge lipstick for sophisticated lips, Noir Couture mascara for exceptional eyes and Prisme Libre powder for a radiant complexion.
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Find your inner beauty in Givenchy's portfolio of feminine fragrances, from the audacious Live Irrésistible, the timeless Dahlia Divin to the captivating Ange ou Démon.
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Givenchy men's fragrances exude true sophistication and masculine charm. There is a Gentlemen Only fragrance for every gentleman, from seductive to classic or casual.
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Which city is served by Tullamarine Airport? | Melbourne Airport - Flight Information, Shopping & Parking
Melbourne Airport
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T2 Re-development
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At what weight has Ricky Hatton fought the majority of his bouts? | Meet the MAA Board
Meet the MAA Board
Meet the MAA Board
The Melbourne Airport Authority was established by ordinance on May 2, 1967, to plan, operate, maintain and develop what would later become Melbourne International Airport. The authority is charged with the airport’s fiduciary and oversight responsibilities.
Its seven-member board is appointed, and each board member serves a two-year term. Terms are staggered and representation is intended to reflect a variety of interests served by the airport.
Three of the board members are appointed from the Melbourne City Council. The city’s Chamber of Commerce and tenants of the Airport Industrial Park appoint one member each. Two members are selected by the remainder of the board.
The full board selects a chairman each year at its December meeting. The Melbourne Airport Authority’s regular meeting is scheduled for the fourth Wednesday of the month, beginning at 8:30 a.m.
The airport is represented by one of the largest law firms in the state: GrayRobinson, P.A.
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What structure has forms called 'Dogleg', 'Straight', 'Open', 'Well' and 'Circular'? | Staircase Design| RCC Structures | Civil Engineering Projects
Civil Engineering Projects
Staircase Design| RCC Structures
RCC Staircase Design
RCC Structures are nothing but reinforced concrete structures. RCC structure is composed of building components such as Footings, Columns, Beams, Slabs, Staircase etc.
These components are reinforced with steel that give stability to the structure. Staircase is one such important component in a RCC structure.
Dog Legged Stair | Staircase design
In this article, we will discuss different types of staircases and study the dog-legged reinforced cement concrete staircase design.
Stairs
Stairs consist of steps arranged in a series for purpose of giving access to different floors of a building. Since a stair is often the only means of communication between the various floors of a building, the location of the stair requires good and careful consideration.
In a residential house, the staircase may be provided near the main entrance.
In a public building, the stairs must be from the main entrance itself and located centrally, to provide quick accessibility to the principal apartments.
All staircases should be adequately lighted and properly ventilated.
Various types of Staircases
| Stairs |
The Seychelles gained independence from which country in 1976? | Staircase Design| RCC Structures | Civil Engineering Projects
Civil Engineering Projects
Staircase Design| RCC Structures
RCC Staircase Design
RCC Structures are nothing but reinforced concrete structures. RCC structure is composed of building components such as Footings, Columns, Beams, Slabs, Staircase etc.
These components are reinforced with steel that give stability to the structure. Staircase is one such important component in a RCC structure.
Dog Legged Stair | Staircase design
In this article, we will discuss different types of staircases and study the dog-legged reinforced cement concrete staircase design.
Stairs
Stairs consist of steps arranged in a series for purpose of giving access to different floors of a building. Since a stair is often the only means of communication between the various floors of a building, the location of the stair requires good and careful consideration.
In a residential house, the staircase may be provided near the main entrance.
In a public building, the stairs must be from the main entrance itself and located centrally, to provide quick accessibility to the principal apartments.
All staircases should be adequately lighted and properly ventilated.
Various types of Staircases
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Who am I? I first entered Parliament as MP for Oldham in 1900 and retired in 1964 when I was MP for Woodford (Essex)? | Winston Churchill | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Lieutenant-Colonel
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG , OM , CH , TD , DL , FRS, Hon. RA (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 (that is, for most of the Second World War ) and again from 1951 to 1955. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army , a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British Prime Minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States .
Churchill was born into an aristocratic family as the grandson of the 7th Duke of Marlborough . His father, Lord Randolph Churchill , was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jennie Jerome , was an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, The Sudan, and the Second Boer War . He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns.
At the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade , Home Secretary, and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of the Asquith Liberal government . During the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active army service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers . He returned to government as Minister of Munitions , Secretary of State for War , and Secretary of State for Air . After the War, Churchill served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Conservative (Baldwin) government of 1924–29, controversially returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure on the UK economy. Also controversial was his opposition to increased home rule for India and his resistance to the 1936 abdication of Edward VIII .
Out of office and politically "in the wilderness" during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament. On the outbreak of the Second World War , he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His steadfast refusal to consider defeat, surrender, or a compromise peace helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult early days of the War when Britain stood alone among European countries in its active opposition to Adolf Hitler . Churchill was particularly noted for his speeches and radio broadcasts, which helped inspire the British people. He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured.
After the Conservative Party lost the 1945 election, he became Leader of the Opposition to the Labour ( Attlee ) government. After winning the 1951 election, he again became Prime Minister, before retiring in 1955. Upon his death, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral, which saw one of the largest assemblies of world statesmen in history. [1] Named the Greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 poll, Churchill is widely regarded as being among the most influential people in British history, consistently ranking well in opinion polls of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom .
Contents
Jennie Jerome, Lady Randolph Churchill , mother of Winston Churchill
Born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough , a branch of the noble Spencer family , [2] Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father, used the surname "Churchill" in public life. [3] His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough , to highlight his descent from John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough . Churchill's father, Lord Randolph Churchill , the third son of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough , was a politician; and his mother, Lady Randolph Churchill (née Jennie Jerome) was the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome . Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace , Woodstock, Oxfordshire. [4] [5]
From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy and employed Churchill's father as his private secretary. Churchill's brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill , was born during this time in Ireland. It has been claimed that the young Churchill first developed his fascination with military matters from watching the many parades pass by the Vice Regal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin , the official residence of the President of Ireland ). [6] [7]
Churchill, aged seven, in 1881
Churchill's earliest exposure to education occurred in Dublin, where a governess tried teaching him reading, writing, and arithmetic (his first reading book was called 'Reading Without Tears'). With limited contact with his parents, Churchill became very close to his nanny, 'Mrs' Elizabeth Anne Everest , whom he called 'Old Woom'. She served as his confidante, nurse, and mother substitute. [8] The two spent many happy hours playing in Phoenix Park . [9] [10]
Independent and rebellious by nature, Churchill generally had a poor academic record in school, for which he was punished. [11] He was educated at three independent schools: St. George's School, Ascot , Berkshire; Brunswick School in Hove, near Brighton (the school has since been renamed Stoke Brunswick School and relocated to Ashurst Wood in West Sussex); and at Harrow School from 17 April 1888. Within weeks of his arrival at Harrow, Churchill had joined the Harrow Rifle Corps . [12]
Blenheim Palace , the Churchill family home
Churchill was rarely visited by his mother, and wrote letters begging her either to come to the school or to allow him to come home. His relationship with his father was distant; he once remarked that they barely spoke to one another. [13] His father died on 24 January 1895, aged 45, leaving Churchill with the conviction that he too would die young and so should be quick about making his mark on the world. [14]
Speech impediment
Edit
Churchill had a lisp that continued throughout his career, reported consistently by journalists of the time and later. Authors writing in the 1920s and 1930s, before sound recording became common, also mentioned Churchill having a stutter, describing it in terms such as 'severe' or 'agonizing'. [15] Churchill described himself as having a "speech impediment" which he worked to overcome.[ citation needed ] The Churchill Centre and Museum says the majority of records show his impediment was a lisp, while Churchill's stutter is a myth. [16]
His dentures were specially designed to aid his speech ( Demosthenes ' pebbles). [17] After many years of public speeches carefully prepared not only to inspire, but also to avoid hesitations, he could finally state, "My impediment is no hindrance". [18]
Marriage and children
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A young Winston Churchill and fiancée Clementine Hozier shortly before their marriage in 1908
Churchill met his future wife, Clementine Hozier , in 1904 at a ball in Crewe House, home of the Earl of Crewe and Crewe's wife Margaret Primrose (daughter of Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery and Hannah Rothschild ). [19] In 1908, they met again at a dinner party hosted by Susan Jeune, Baroness St Helier . Churchill found himself seated beside Clementine, and they soon began a lifelong romance. [20] He proposed to Clementine during a house party at Blenheim Palace on 10 August 1908, in a small Temple of Diana . [21]
On 12 September 1908, he and Clementine were married in St. Margaret's, Westminster . The church was packed; the Bishop of St Asaph conducted the service. [22] The couple spent their honeymoon at Highgrove House in Eastcote . [23] In March 1909, the couple moved to a house at 33 Eccleston Square.
Their first child, Diana , was born in London on 11 July 1909. After the pregnancy, Clementine moved to Sussex to recover, while Diana stayed in London with her nanny. [24] On 28 May 1911, their second child, Randolph , was born at 33 Eccleston Square. [25]
Their third child, Sarah , was born on 7 October 1914 at Admiralty House . The birth was marked with anxiety for Clementine, as Churchill had been sent to Antwerp by the Cabinet to "stiffen the resistance of the beleaguered city" after news that the Belgians intended to surrender the town. [26]
Clementine gave birth to her fourth child, Marigold Frances Churchill, on 15 November 1918, four days after the official end of the First World War. [27] In the early days of August 1921, the Churchills' children were entrusted to a French nursery governess in Kent named Mlle. Rose. Clementine, meanwhile, travelled to Eaton Hall to play tennis with Hugh Grosvenor, 2nd Duke of Westminster and his family. While still under the care of Mlle. Rose, Marigold had a cold, but was reported to have recovered from the illness. As the illness progressed with hardly any notice, it turned into septicaemia . Following advice from a landlady, Rose sent for Clementine. However the illness turned fatal on 23 August 1921, and Marigold was buried in the Kensal Green Cemetery three days later. [28]
On 15 September 1922, the Churchills' last child, Mary , was born. Later that month, the Churchills bought Chartwell , which would be their home until Winston's death in 1965. [29] [30]
Military service
Edit
Churchill in military uniform, 1895
After Churchill left Harrow in 1893, he applied to attend the Royal Military College, Sandhurst . He tried three times before passing the entrance exam; he applied for cavalry rather than infantry because the grade requirement was lower and did not require him to learn mathematics, which he disliked. He graduated eighth out of a class of 150 in December 1894, [31] and although he could now have transferred to an infantry regiment as his father had wished, chose to remain with the cavalry and was commissioned as a Cornet ( Second Lieutenant ) in the 4th Queen's Own Hussars on 20 February 1895. [12] In 1941, he received the honour of being appointed Regimental Colonel of the 4th Hussars , an honour which was increased after the Second World War when he was appointed as Colonel-in-Chief ; a privilege usually reserved for royalty.
Churchill's pay as a second-lieutenant in the 4th Hussars was £300 annually. However, he believed that he needed at least a further £500 (equivalent to £55,000 in 2012 terms) [32] to support a style of life equal to that of other officers of the regiment. His mother provided an allowance of £400 per year, but this was repeatedly overspent. According to biographer Roy Jenkins , this is one reason why he took an interest in war correspondence. [33] He did not intend to follow a conventional career of promotion through army ranks, but rather to seek out all possible chances of military action, using his mother's and family influence in high society to arrange postings to active campaigns. His writings brought him to the attention of the public, and earned him significant additional income. He acted as a war correspondent for several London newspapers [34] and wrote his own books about the campaigns.
Cuba
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In 1895, Churchill, and fellow officer Reginald Barnes , travelled to Cuba to observe the Spanish fight the Cuban guerrillas ; he had obtained a commission to write about the conflict from the Daily Graphic . He came under fire on his twenty-first birthday, [12] the first of about 50 times during his life, and the Spanish awarded him his first medal. [35] :17 Churchill had fond memories of Cuba as a "...large, rich, beautiful island..." [36] While there, he soon acquired a taste for Havana cigars, which he would smoke for the rest of his life. While in New York, he stayed at the home of Bourke Cockran , an admirer of his mother. Bourke was an established American politician, and a member of the House of Representatives. He greatly influenced Churchill, both in his approach to oratory and politics, and encouraging a love of America. [37]
He soon received word that his nanny, Mrs Everest, was dying; he then returned to England and stayed with her for a week until she died. He wrote in his journal, "She was my favourite friend." In My Early Life he wrote: "She had been my dearest and most intimate friend during the whole of the twenty years I had lived." [38]
India
In early October 1896, he was transferred to Bombay, British India. He was considered one of the best polo players in his regiment and led his team to many prestigious tournament victories. [39]
A young Winston Churchill on a lecture tour of the United States in 1900
In 1897, Churchill attempted to travel to both report and, if necessary, fight in the Greco-Turkish War , but this conflict effectively ended before he could arrive. Later, while preparing for a leave in England, he heard that three brigades of the British Army were going to fight against a Pashtun tribe in the North West Frontier of India and he asked his superior officer if he could join the fight. [40] He fought under the command of General Jeffery, the commander of the second brigade operating in Malakand , in the Frontier region of British India. Jeffery sent him with fifteen scouts to explore the Mamund Valley; while on reconnaissance, they encountered an enemy tribe, dismounted from their horses and opened fire. After an hour of shooting, their reinforcements, the 35th Sikhs arrived, the firing gradually ceased and the brigade and the Sikhs marched on. Hundreds of tribesmen then ambushed them and opened fire, forcing them to retreat. As they were retreating, four men were carrying an injured officer, but the fierceness of the fight forced them to leave him behind. The man who was left behind was slashed to death before Churchill's eyes; afterwards he wrote of the killer, "I forgot everything else at this moment except a desire to kill this man." [41] However, the Sikhs' numbers were being depleted, so the next commanding officer told Churchill to get the rest of the men to safety.
Before he left, he asked for a note so that he would not be charged with desertion. [42] He received the note, quickly signed, headed up the hill and alerted the other brigade, whereupon they then engaged the army. The fighting in the region dragged on for another two weeks before the dead could be recovered. He wrote in his journal: "Whether it was worth it I cannot tell." [41] [43] An account of the Siege of Malakand was published in December 1900 as The Story of the Malakand Field Force . He received £600 for his account. During the campaign, he also wrote articles for the newspapers The Pioneer and The Daily Telegraph. [44] His account of the battle was one of his first published stories, for which he received £5 per column from The Daily Telegraph. [45]
Sudan and Oldham
File:WinstonChurchillRiverWar.jpg
Churchill was transferred to Egypt in 1898. He visited Luxor before joining an attachment of the 21st Lancers serving in the Sudan under the command of General Herbert Kitchener . During this time he encountered two military officers with whom he would work during the First World War: Douglas Haig , then a captain, and David Beatty , then a gunboat lieutenant. [46] While in the Sudan, he participated in what has been described as the last meaningful British cavalry charge , at the Battle of Omdurman in September 1898. [47] He also worked as a war correspondent for the Morning Post . By October 1898, he had returned to Britain and begun his two-volume work; The River War , an account of the reconquest of the Sudan which was published the following year. Churchill resigned from the British Army effective from 5 May 1899.
Main article: Oldham by-election, 1899
He soon had his first opportunity to begin a Parliamentary career, when he was invited by Robert Ascroft to be the second Conservative Party candidate in Ascroft's Oldham constituency. Ascroft's sudden death caused a double by-election and Churchill was one of the candidates. In the midst of a national trend against the Conservatives, both seats were lost; however Churchill impressed by his vigorous campaigning.
South Africa
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Having failed at Oldham, Churchill looked about for some other opportunity to advance his career. On 12 October 1899, the Second Boer War between Britain and the Boer Republics broke out and he obtained a commission to act as war correspondent for The Morning Post with a salary of £250 per month. He rushed to sail on the same ship as the newly appointed British commander, Sir Redvers Buller . After some weeks in exposed areas, he accompanied a scouting expedition in an armoured train, leading to his capture and imprisonment in a POW camp in Pretoria (converted school building for Pretoria High School for Girls ). His actions during the ambush of the train led to speculation that he would be awarded the Victoria Cross , Britain's highest award to members of the armed forces for gallantry in the face of the enemy, but this was not possible, as he was a civilian. [12]
He escaped from the prison camp and travelled almost 300 miles (480 km) to Portuguese Lourenço Marques in Delagoa Bay , with the assistance of an English mine manager. [48] His escape made him a minor national hero for a time in Britain though, instead of returning home, he rejoined General Buller's army on its march to relieve the British at the Siege of Ladysmith and take Pretoria. [49] This time, although continuing as a war correspondent, he gained a commission in the South African Light Horse . He was among the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria. He and his cousin, the Duke of Marlborough , were able to get ahead of the rest of the troops in Pretoria, where they demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer prison camp guards. [50]
Returning from the Boer War on the RMS Dunottar Castle , July 1900. [51] Standing L-R: Sir Byron Leighton, Claud Grenfel, Major Frederick Russell Burnham , Captain Gordon Forbes, Abe Bailey (his son John would marry Diana Churchill in 1932), next two unidentified, Lord John Weston Brooke . Seated L-R: Major Bobby White, Lord Downe , General Sir Henry Edward Colville (a year later Churchill as MP would demand an enquiry over his dismissal from South Africa), Major Harry White, Major Joe Laycock , Winston Churchill, Sir Charles Bentinck. Sitting L-R: unidentified, Col. Maurice Gifford .
In 1900, Churchill returned to England on the RMS Dunottar Castle , the same ship on which he had set sail for South Africa eight months earlier. [51] He then published London to Ladysmith and a second volume of Boer war experiences, Ian Hamilton's March . Churchill stood again for parliament in Oldham in the general election of 1900 and won (his Conservative colleague, Crisp, was defeated) in the contest for two seats. [52] [53] After the 1900 general election, he embarked on a speaking tour of Britain, followed by tours of the United States and Canada, earning in excess of £5,000. [54]
Territorial Service and advancement
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In 1900 he retired from the regular army, and in 1902 joined the Imperial Yeomanry , where he was commissioned as a Captain in the Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars on 4 January 1902. [55] In that same year, he was initiated into Freemasonry at Studholme Lodge #1591, London, and raised to the Third Degree on 25 March 1902. [56] [57] In April 1905, he was promoted to Major and appointed to command of the Henley Squadron of the Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars. [58] In September 1916, he transferred to the territorial reserves of officers, where he remained until retiring in 1924, at the age of fifty. [58]
First Lord of the Admiralty
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In October 1911, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty . While serving in this position, he put strong emphasis on modernisation and was also in favour of using aeroplanes in combat.(See Captain Bertram Dickson ) He launched a program to replace coal power with oil power. When he assumed his position, oil was already being used on submarines and destroyers, but most ships were still coal-powered, though oil was sprayed on the coals. Churchill began this program by ordering that the upcoming Queen Elizabeth-class battleships were to be built with oil-fired engines. Churchill also established a Royal Commission chaired by Admiral Sir John Fisher , which confirmed the benefits of oil over coal in three classified reports, and judged that ample supplies of oil existed, but recommended that oil reserves be maintained in the event of war. The delegation then travelled to the Persian Gulf, and the government, largely through Churchill's advice, eventually invested in the Anglo-Persian Oil Company , bought most of its stock, and negotiated a secret contract with a 20-year supply. [59] [60]
Churchill continued to serve as First Lord of the Admiralty into World War I . When a coalition government was formed in May 1915 Churchill was removed from the Admiralty because he had proposed the disastrous Battle of Gallipoli . He remained in the Cabinet for six months as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster until the decision was made to evacuate the Gallipoli bridgehead.
Western Front
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Winston Churchill commanding the 6th Battalion, the Royal Scots Fusiliers , 1916
After his resignation, Churchill rejoined the British Army , attempting to obtain an appointment as brigade commander, but settling for command of a battalion. After spending some time as a Major with the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards , he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel , commanding the 6th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers (part of the 9th (Scottish) Division ), on 1 January 1916. Correspondence with his wife shows that his intent in taking up active service was to rehabilitate his reputation, but this was balanced by the serious risk of being killed. As a commander he continued to exhibit the reckless daring which had been a hallmark of all his military actions, although he disapproved strongly of the mass slaughter involved in many Western Front actions. [61]
Lord Deedes opined to a gathering of the Royal Historical Society in 2001 why Churchill went to the front line: "He was with Grenadier Guards , who were dry at battalion headquarters. They very much liked tea and condensed milk, which had no great appeal to Winston, but alcohol was permitted in the front line, in the trenches. So he suggested to the colonel that he really ought to see more of the war and get into the front line. This was highly commended by the colonel, who thought it was a very good thing to do." [62] (Near the end of his life, a new MP asked the former prime minister if he would like some tea. Churchill replied, "No. Don't be a bloody fool. I want a large glass of whisky!" [63] )
Political career to the Second World War
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Churchill stood again for the seat of Oldham at the 1900 general election. [64] After winning the seat, he went on a speaking tour throughout Britain and the United States, raising £10,000 for himself (about £970,000 today). [65] In Parliament, he became associated with a faction of the Conservative Party led by Lord Hugh Cecil ; the Hughligans . During his first parliamentary session , he opposed the government's military expenditure [66] and Joseph Chamberlain 's proposal of extensive tariffs, which were intended to protect Britain's economic dominance. His own constituency effectively deselected him, although he continued to sit for Oldham until the next general election. After the Whitsun recess in 1904, he crossed the floor to sit as a member of the Liberal Party. As a Liberal, he continued to campaign for free trade. When the Liberals took office with Henry Campbell-Bannerman as prime minister, in December 1905, Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, dealing mainly with South Africa after the Boer War. From 1903 until 1905, Churchill was also engaged in writing Lord Randolph Churchill, a two-volume biography of his father which was published in 1906 and received much critical acclaim. [67]
Following his deselection in the seat of Oldham, Churchill was invited to stand for Manchester North West. He won the seat at the 1906 general election with a majority of 1,214 and represented the seat for two years, until 1908. [68] When Campbell-Bannerman was succeeded by Herbert Henry Asquith in 1908, Churchill was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade . [53] Under the law at the time, a newly appointed Cabinet Minister was obliged to seek re-election at a by-election; Churchill lost his seat but was soon back as a member for Dundee constituency. As President of the Board of Trade he joined newly appointed Chancellor Lloyd George in opposing First Lord of the Admiralty Reginald McKenna 's proposed huge expenditure for the construction of Navy dreadnought warships, and in supporting the Liberal reforms . [69] In 1908, he introduced the Trade Boards Bill setting up the first minimum wages in Britain. [70] In 1909, he set up Labour Exchanges to help unemployed people find work. [71] He helped draft the first unemployment pension legislation, the National Insurance Act of 1911 . [72] As a supporter of eugenics, he participated in the drafting of the Mental Deficiency Act 1913; however, the Act, in the form eventually passed, rejected his preferred method of sterilisation of the feeble-minded in favour of their confinement in institutions. [73]
Churchill in 1904
Churchill also assisted in passing the People's Budget , [74] becoming President of the Budget League, an organisation set up in response to the opposition's "Budget Protest League". [75] The budget included the introduction of new taxes on the wealthy to allow for the creation of new social welfare programmes. After the budget bill was passed by the Commons in 1909 it was vetoed by the House of Lords. The Liberals then fought and won two general elections in January and December 1910 to gain a mandate for their reforms. The budget was passed after the first election, and after the second election the Parliament Act 1911 , for which Churchill also campaigned, was passed. In 1910, he was promoted to Home Secretary. His term was controversial after his responses to the Siege of Sidney Street and the dispute at the Cambrian Colliery and the suffragettes .
In 1910, a number of coal miners in the Rhondda Valley began what has come to be known as the Tonypandy Riot . [69] The Chief Constable of Glamorgan requested troops be sent in to help police quell the rioting. Churchill, learning that the troops were already travelling, allowed them to go as far as Swindon and Cardiff, but blocked their deployment. On 9 November, The Times criticised this decision. In spite of this, the rumour persists that Churchill had ordered troops to attack, and his reputation in Wales and in Labour circles never recovered. [76]
Winston Churchill (highlighted) at Sidney Street, 3 January 1911
In early January 1911, Churchill made a controversial visit to the Siege of Sidney Street in London. There is some uncertainty as to whether he attempted to give operational commands, and his presence attracted much criticism. After an inquest, Arthur Balfour remarked, "he [Churchill] and a photographer were both risking valuable lives. I understand what the photographer was doing, but what was the right honourable gentleman doing?" [77] A biographer, Roy Jenkins , suggests that he went simply because "he could not resist going to see the fun himself" and that he did not issue commands. [78] Another account said the police had the miscreants—Latvian anarchists wanted for murder—surrounded in a house, but Churchill called in the Scots Guards from the Tower of London and, dressed in top hat and astrakhan collar greatcoat, directed operations. The house caught fire and Churchill prevented the fire brigade from dousing the flames so that the men inside were burned to death. "I thought it better to let the house burn down rather than spend good British lives in rescuing those ferocious rascals." [79]
Churchill's proposed solution to the suffragette issue was a referendum on the issue, but this found no favour with Herbert Henry Asquith and women's suffrage remained unresolved until after the First World War. [80]
In 1911, Churchill was transferred to the office of First Lord of the Admiralty , a post he held into the First World War. He gave impetus to several reform efforts, including development of naval aviation (he undertook flying lessons himself); [81] the construction of new and larger warships; the development of tanks; and the switch from coal to oil in the Royal Navy . [82]
First World War and the Post-War Coalition
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On 5 October 1914, Churchill went to Antwerp, which the Belgian government proposed to evacuate. The Royal Marine Brigade was there and at Churchill's urgings the 1st and 2nd Naval Brigades were also committed. Antwerp fell on 10 October with the loss of 2500 men. At the time he was attacked for squandering resources. [83] It is more likely that his actions prolonged the resistance by a week (Belgium had proposed surrendering Antwerp on 3 October) and that this time saved Calais and Dunkirk. [84]
Churchill was involved with the development of the tank , which was financed from naval research funds. [85] He then headed the Landships Committee which was responsible for creating the first tank corps and, although a decade later development of the battle tank would be seen as a tactical victory, at the time it was seen as misappropriation of funds. [85] In 1915, he was one of the political and military engineers of the disastrous Gallipoli landings on the Dardanelles during the First World War. [86] He took much of the blame for the fiasco, and when Prime Minister Asquith formed an all-party coalition government , the Conservatives demanded his demotion as the price for entry. [87]
For several months Churchill served in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster . However on 15 November 1915 he resigned from the government, feeling his energies were not being used [88] and, though remaining an MP, served for several months on the Western Front commanding the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers , with the rank of lieutenant colonel . [89] [90] While in command he personally made 36 forays into no man's land , and his section of the front at Ploegsteert became one of the most active. [90] In March 1916, Churchill returned to England after he had become restless in France and wished to speak again in the House of Commons. [91] Future prime minister David Lloyd George acidly commented: "You will one day discover that the state of mind revealed in (your) letter is the reason why you do not win trust even where you command admiration. In every line of it, national interests are completely overshadowed by your personal concern." [92] In July 1917, Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions , and in January 1919, Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air . He was the main architect of the Ten Year Rule , a principle that allowed the Treasury to dominate and control strategic, foreign and financial policies under the assumption that "there would be no great European war for the next five or ten years". [93]
A major preoccupation of his tenure in the War Office was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . Churchill was a staunch advocate of foreign intervention, declaring that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". [94] He secured, from a divided and loosely organised Cabinet, intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation—and in the face of the bitter hostility of Labour. In 1920, after the last British forces had been withdrawn, Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded Ukraine.He was also instrumental in having para-military forces ( Black and Tans and Auxiliaries ) intervene in the Anglo-Irish War. [95] He became Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1921 and was a signatory of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which established the Irish Free State. Churchill was involved in the lengthy negotiations of the treaty and, to protect British maritime interests, he engineered part of the Irish Free State agreement to include three Treaty Ports —Queenstown (Cobh), Berehaven and Lough Swilly —which could be used as Atlantic bases by the Royal Navy . [96] In 1938, however, under the terms of the Chamberlain-De Valera Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement , the bases were returned to the Irish Free State.
In 1919, Churchill sanctioned the use of tear gas on Kurdish tribesmen in Iraq. [97] Though the British did consider the use of non-lethal poison gas in putting down Kurdish rebellions, it was not used, as conventional bombing was considered effective. [97]
In 1923, Churchill acted as a paid consultant for Burmah Oil (now BP plc ) to lobby the British government to allow Burmah to have exclusive rights to Persian (Iranian) oil resources, which were successfully granted. [98]
Rejoining the Conservative Party—Chancellor of the Exchequer
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In September, the Conservative Party withdrew from the Coalition government, following a meeting of backbenchers dissatisfied with the handling of the Chanak Crisis , a move that precipitated the looming October 1922 General Election. Churchill fell ill during the campaign, and had to have an appendicectomy . This made it difficult for him to campaign, and a further setback was the internal division which continued to beset the Liberal Party. He came fourth in the poll for Dundee, losing to prohibitionist Edwin Scrymgeour . Churchill later quipped that he left Dundee "without an office, without a seat, without a party and without an appendix". [68] He stood for the Liberals again in the 1923 general election, losing in Leicester, and then as an independent, first without success in a by-election in the Westminster Abbey constituency, and then successfully in the general election of 1924 for Epping. The following year, he formally rejoined the Conservative Party, commenting wryly that "anyone can rat, but it takes a certain ingenuity to re-rat." [68] [99]
Churchill was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1924 under Stanley Baldwin and oversaw Britain's disastrous return to the Gold Standard, which resulted in deflation, unemployment, and the miners' strike that led to the General Strike of 1926 . [100] His decision, announced in the 1924 Budget, came after long consultation with various economists including John Maynard Keynes , the Permanent Secretary to the Treasury, Sir Otto Niemeyer and the board of the Bank of England. This decision prompted Keynes to write The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill, arguing that the return to the gold standard at the pre-war parity in 1925 (£1=$4.86) would lead to a world depression. However, the decision was generally popular and seen as 'sound economics' although it was opposed by Lord Beaverbrook and the Federation of British Industries. [101]
Churchill later regarded this as the greatest mistake of his life. However in discussions at the time with former Chancellor McKenna , Churchill acknowledged that the return to the gold standard and the resulting 'dear money' policy was economically bad. In those discussions he maintained the policy as fundamentally political—a return to the pre-war conditions in which he believed. [102] In his speech on the Bill he said "I will tell you what it [the return to the Gold Standard] will shackle us to. It will shackle us to reality." [103]
The return to the pre-war exchange rate and to the Gold Standard depressed industries. The most affected was the coal industry, already suffering from declining output as shipping switched to oil. As basic British industries like cotton came under more competition in export markets, the return to the pre-war exchange was estimated to add up to 10% in costs to the industry. In July 1925, a Commission of Inquiry reported generally favouring the miners rather than the mine owners' position. [104] Baldwin, with Churchill's support proposed a subsidy to the industry while a Royal Commission prepared a further report.
That Commission solved nothing and the miners' dispute led to the General Strike of 1926 . Churchill was reported to have suggested that machine guns be used on the striking miners. Churchill edited the Government's newspaper, the British Gazette , and during the dispute he argued that "either the country will break the General Strike, or the General Strike will break the country" claiming that the fascism of Benito Mussolini "rendered a service to the whole world," showing "a way to combat subversive forces"—that is, he considered the regime to be a bulwark against the perceived threat of communist revolution. At one point, Churchill went as far as to call Mussolini the "Roman genius... the greatest lawgiver among men." [105]
Later economists, as well as people at the time, also criticised Churchill's budget measures. These were seen as assisting the generally prosperous rentier banking and salaried classes (to which Churchill and his associates generally belonged) at the expense of manufacturers and exporters which were known then to be suffering from imports and from competition in traditional export markets, [106] and as paring the Armed Forces too heavily. [107]
Political isolation
Churchill wrote a biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough in the mid-1930s
The Conservative government was defeated in the 1929 General Election. Churchill did not seek election to the Conservative Business Committee, the official leadership of the Conservative MPs. Over the next two years, Churchill became estranged from Conservative leadership over the issues of protective tariffs and Indian Home Rule , by his political views and by his friendships with press barons, financiers and people whose characters were seen as dubious. When Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government in 1931, Churchill was not invited to join the Cabinet. He was at the low-point in his career, in a period known as "the wilderness years". [108]
He spent much of the next few years concentrating on his writing, works including Marlborough: His Life and Times —a biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough —and A History of the English Speaking Peoples (though the latter was not published until well after the Second World War), [108] Great Contemporaries and many newspaper articles and collections of speeches. He was one of the best paid writers of his time. [108] His political views, set forth in his 1930 Romanes Election and published as Parliamentary Government and the Economic Problem (republished in 1932 in his collection of essays "Thoughts and Adventures") involved abandoning universal suffrage , a return to a property franchise, proportional representation for the major cities and an economic 'sub parliament'. [109]
Indian independence
See also: Simon Commission and Government of India Act 1935
Churchill opposed Gandhi's peaceful disobedience revolt and the Indian Independence movement in the 1930s, arguing that the Round Table Conference "was a frightful prospect". [110] Later reports indicate that Churchill favoured letting Gandhi die if he went on a hunger strike. [111] During the first half of the 1930s, Churchill was outspoken in his opposition to granting Dominion status to India. He was a founder of the India Defence League , a group dedicated to the preservation of British power in India. Churchill brooked no moderation. "The truth is," he declared in 1930, "that Gandhi-ism and everything it stands for will have to be grappled with and crushed." [112] In speeches and press articles in this period, he forecast widespread unemployment in Britain and civil strife in India should independence be granted. [113] The Viceroy Lord Irwin , who had been appointed by the prior Conservative Government, engaged in the Round Table Conference in early 1931 and then announced the Government's policy that India should be granted Dominion Status. In this the Government was supported by the Liberal Party and, officially at least, by the Conservative Party. Churchill denounced the Round Table Conference.
At a meeting of the West Essex Conservative Association, specially convened so that Churchill could explain his position, he said "It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace... to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor." [114] [115] He called the Indian National Congress leaders "Brahmins who mouth and patter principles of Western Liberalism". [116]
Two incidents damaged Churchill's reputation greatly within the Conservative Party in this period. Both were taken as attacks on the Conservative front bench. The first was his speech on the eve of the St George by-election in April 1931. In a secure Conservative seat, the official Conservative candidate Duff Cooper was opposed by an independent Conservative. The independent was supported by Lord Rothermere , Lord Beaverbrook and their respective newspapers. Although arranged before the by-election was set, [117] Churchill's speech was seen as supporting the independent candidate and as a part of the press baron's campaign against Baldwin. Baldwin's position was strengthened when Duff Cooper won, and when the civil disobedience campaign in India ceased with the Gandhi-Irwin Pact . The second issue was a claim by Churchill that Sir Samuel Hoare and Lord Derby had pressured the Manchester Chamber of Commerce to change evidence it had given to the Joint Select Committee considering the Government of India Bill, and in doing so had breached Parliamentary privilege. He had the matter referred to the House of Commons Privilege Committee which, after investigations in which Churchill gave evidence, reported to the House that there had been no breach. [118] The report was debated on 13 June. Churchill was unable to find a single supporter in the House and the debate ended without a division.
Churchill permanently broke with Stanley Baldwin over Indian independence and never again held any office while Baldwin was prime minister. Some historians see his basic attitude to India as being set out in his book My Early Life (1930). [119] Another source of controversy about Churchill's attitude towards Indian affairs arises over what some historians term the Indian 'nationalist approach' to the Bengal famine of 1943 , which has sought to place significant blame on Churchill's wartime government for the excessive mortality of up to three million people. [120] [121] [122] While some commentators point to the disruption of the traditional marketing system and maladministration at the provincial level, [123] Arthur Herman, author of Churchill and Gandhi, contends, 'The real cause was the fall of Burma to the Japanese, which cut off India's main supply of rice imports when domestic sources fell short...[though] it is true that Churchill opposed diverting food supplies and transports from other theatres to India to cover the shortfall: this was wartime.' [124] In response to an urgent request by the Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery , and Viceroy of India, Wavell , to release food stocks for India, Churchill responded with a telegram to Wavell asking, if food was so scarce, "why Gandhi hadn't died yet." [125] In July 1940, newly in office, he welcomed reports of the emerging conflict between the Muslim League and the Indian Congress, hoping "it would be bitter and bloody". [112]
German rearmament and conflicts in Europe, Asia and Africa
Portrait of Churchill by Ambrose McEvoy
Beginning in 1932, when he opposed those who advocated giving Germany the right to military parity with France, Churchill spoke often of the dangers of Germany's rearmament. [126] He later, particularly in The Gathering Storm, portrayed himself as being for a time, a lone voice calling on Britain to strengthen itself to counter the belligerence of Germany. [127] However Lord Lloyd was the first to so agitate. [128]
In 1932 Churchill accepted the presidency of the newly founded New Commonwealth Society , a peace organization which he described in 1937 as "one of the few peace societies that advocates the use of force, if possible overwhelming force, to support public international law". [129]
Churchill's attitude towards the fascist dictators was ambiguous. After the World War I defeat of Germany, a new danger occupied the political consciousness—the spread of communism. A newspaper article penned by Churchill and published on 4 February 1920, had warned that world peace was threatened by the Bolsheviks, a movement which he linked through historical precedence to Jewish conspiracy . [130] He wrote in part:
"This movement among Jews is not new... but a "world-wide conspiracy for the overthrow of civilisation and for the reconstitution of society on the basis of arrested development, of envious malevolence, and impossible equality." [131]
In 1931, he warned against the League of Nations opposing the Japanese in Manchuria "I hope we shall try in England to understand the position of Japan, an ancient state.... On the one side they have the dark menace of Soviet Russia. On the other the chaos of China, four or five provinces of which are being tortured under communist rule". [132] In contemporary newspaper articles he referred to the Spanish Republican government as a communist front, and Franco's army as the "Anti-red movement". [133] He supported the Hoare-Laval Pact and continued up until 1937 to praise Benito Mussolini. [134]
Speaking in the House of Commons in 1937, Churchill said "I will not pretend that, if I had to choose between communism and Nazism, I would choose communism". [135] In a 1935 essay titled "Hitler and his Choice", which was republished in his 1937 book Great Contemporaries, Churchill expressed a hope that Hitler, if he so chose, and despite his rise to power through dictatorial action, hatred and cruelty, might yet "go down in history as the man who restored honour and peace of mind to the great Germanic nation and brought it back serene, helpful and strong to the forefront of the European family circle." [136] Churchill's first major speech on defence on 7 February 1934 stressed the need to rebuild the Royal Air Force and to create a Ministry of Defence; his second, on 13 July urged a renewed role for the League of Nations. These three topics remained his themes until early 1936. In 1935, he was one of the founding members of The Focus, which brought together people of differing political backgrounds and occupations who were united in seeking "the defence of freedom and peace". [137] The Focus led to the formation of the much wider Arms and the Covenant Movement in 1936.
Churchill, holidaying in Spain when the Germans reoccupied the Rhineland in February 1936, returned to a divided Britain. The Labour opposition was adamant in opposing sanctions and the National Government was divided between advocates of economic sanctions and those who said that even these would lead to a humiliating backdown by Britain as France would not support any intervention. [138] Churchill's speech on 9 March was measured, and praised by Neville Chamberlain as constructive. But within weeks Churchill was passed over for the post of Minister for Co-ordination of Defence in favour of Attorney General Sir Thomas Inskip . [139] Alan Taylor called this "an appointment rightly described as the most extraordinary since Caligula made his horse a consul". [140] In June 1936, Churchill organised a deputation of senior Conservatives who shared his concern to see Baldwin, Chamberlain and Halifax. He had tried to have delegates from the other two parties and later wrote, "If the leaders of the Labour and Liberal oppositions had come with us there might have been a political situation so intense as to enforce remedial action". [141] As it was, the meeting achieved little, Baldwin arguing that the Government was doing all it could, given the anti-war feeling of the electorate.[ citation needed ]
On 12 November, Churchill returned to the topic. Speaking in the Address in Reply debate, after giving some specific instances of Germany's war preparedness, he said "The Government simply cannot make up their mind or they cannot get the prime minister to make up his mind. So they go on in strange paradox, decided only to be undecided, resolved to be irresolute, adamant for drift, solid for fluidity, all powerful for impotency. And so we go on preparing more months more years precious perhaps vital for the greatness of Britain for the locusts to eat." [142]
R.R. James called this one of Churchill's most brilliant speeches during this period, Baldwin's reply sounding weak and disturbing the House. The exchange gave new encouragement to the Arms and the Covenant Movement. [143]
Abdication crisis
Main article: Edward VIII abdication crisis
In June 1936, Walter Monckton told Churchill that the rumours that King Edward VIII intended to marry Mrs Wallis Simpson were true. Churchill then advised against the marriage and said he regarded Mrs Simpson's existing marriage as a 'safeguard'. [144] In November, he declined Lord Salisbury 's invitation to be part of a delegation of senior Conservative backbenchers who met with Baldwin to discuss the matter. On 25 November he, Attlee and Liberal leader Archibald Sinclair met with Baldwin, were told officially of the King's intention, and asked whether they would form an administration if Baldwin and the National Government resigned should the King not take the Ministry's advice. Both Attlee and Sinclair said they would not take office if invited to do so. Churchill's reply was that his attitude was a little different but he would support the government. [145]
The Abdication crisis became public, coming to a head in the first two weeks of December 1936. At this time, Churchill publicly gave his support to the King. The first public meeting of the Arms and the Covenant Movement was on 3 December. Churchill was a major speaker and later wrote that in replying to the Vote of Thanks, he made a declaration 'on the spur of the moment' asking for delay before any decision was made by either the King or his Cabinet. [146] Later that night Churchill saw the draft of the King's proposed wireless broadcast and spoke with Beaverbrook and the King's solicitor about it. On 4 December, he met with the King and again urged delay in any decision about abdication. On 5 December, he issued a lengthy statement implying that the Ministry was applying unconstitutional pressure on the King to force him to make a hasty decision. [147] On 7 December, he tried to address the Commons to plead for delay. He was shouted down. Seemingly staggered by the unanimous hostility of all Members, he left. [148]
Churchill's reputation in Parliament and England as a whole was badly damaged. Some such as Alistair Cooke saw him as trying to build a King's Party. [149] Others like Harold Macmillan were dismayed by the damage Churchill's support for the King had done to the Arms and the Covenant Movement. [150] Churchill himself later wrote "I was myself so smitten in public opinion that it was the almost universal view that my political life was at last ended." [151] Historians are divided about Churchill's motives in his support for Edward VIII. Some such as A.J.P. Taylor see it as being an attempt to 'overthrow the government of feeble men'. [152] Others such as R.R. James see Churchill's motives as entirely honourable and disinterested, that he felt deeply for the King. [153]
Return from exile
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Winston Churchill giving his famous 'V' sign —on 20 May 1940, just ten days after Churchill became Prime Minister, German troops reached the English Channel.
Churchill later sought to portray himself as (to some extent) an isolated voice warning of the need to rearm against Germany. While it is true that he had a small following in the House of Commons during much of the 1930s, he was given privileged information by some elements within the Government, particularly by disaffected civil servants in the War Ministry. The "Churchill group" in the latter half of the decade consisted of only himself, Duncan Sandys and Brendan Bracken . It was isolated from the other main factions within the Conservative Party pressing for faster rearmament and a stronger foreign policy; [154] [155] one meeting of anti-Chamberlain forces decided that Churchill would make a good Minister of Supply . [63]
Even during the time Churchill was campaigning against Indian independence, he received official and otherwise secret information. From 1932, Churchill's neighbour, Major Desmond Morton with Ramsay MacDonald's approval, gave Churchill information on German air power. [156] From 1930 onwards Morton headed a department of the Committee of Imperial Defence charged with researching the defence preparedness of other nations. Lord Swinton as Secretary of State for Air, and with Baldwin's approval, in 1934 gave Churchill access to official and otherwise secret information.
Swinton did so, knowing Churchill would remain a critic of the government, but believing that an informed critic was better than one relying on rumour and hearsay. [157] Churchill was a fierce critic of Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Adolf Hitler [158] and in a speech to the House of Commons, he bluntly and prophetically stated, "You were given the choice between war and dishonour. You chose dishonour, and you will have war." [159]
First term as prime minister
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After the outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty and a member of the War Cabinet, as he had been during the first part of the First World War. When they were informed, the Board of the Admiralty sent a signal to the Fleet: "Winston is back". [160] [161] In this position, he proved to be one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called " Phoney War ", when the only noticeable action was at sea. Churchill advocated the pre-emptive occupation of the neutral Norwegian iron-ore port of Narvik and the iron mines in Kiruna , Sweden, early in the war. However, Chamberlain and the rest of the War Cabinet disagreed, and the operation was delayed until the successful German invasion of Norway .
"We shall never surrender"
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Churchill wears a helmet during an air raid warning in the Battle of Britain in 1940
On 10 May 1940, hours before the German invasion of France by a lightning advance through the Low Countries, it became clear that, following failure in Norway, the country had no confidence in Chamberlain's prosecution of the war and so Chamberlain resigned. The commonly accepted version of events states that Lord Halifax turned down the post of prime minister because he believed he could not govern effectively as a member of the House of Lords instead of the House of Commons. Although the prime minister does not traditionally advise the King on the former's successor, Chamberlain wanted someone who would command the support of all three major parties in the House of Commons. A meeting between Chamberlain, Halifax, Churchill and David Margesson , the government Chief Whip , led to the recommendation of Churchill, and, as constitutional monarch, George VI asked Churchill to be prime minister. Churchill's first act was to write to Chamberlain to thank him for his support. [162]
Churchill takes aim with a Sten submachine gun in June 1941. The man in the pin-striped suit and trilby on Churchill's left is his bodyguard, Walter H. Thompson .
Churchill was still unpopular among many Conservatives and the Establishment , [155] [163] who opposed his replacing Chamberlain; the former prime minister remained party leader until dying in November. [164] Churchill probably could not have won a majority in any of the political parties in the House of Commons, and the House of Lords was completely silent when it learned of his appointment. [155] An American visitor reported in late 1940 that
Everywhere I went in London people admired [Churchill's] energy, his courage, his singleness of purpose. People said they "didn't know what Britain would do without him." He was obviously respected. But no one felt he would be Prime Minister after the war. He was simply the right man in the right job at the right time. The time being the time of a desperate war with Britain's enemies. [165]
An element of British public and political sentiment favoured a negotiated peace with Germany, among them Halifax as Foreign Secretary , but Churchill refused to consider an armistice. [166] Although at times personally pessimistic about Britain's chances for victory—Churchill told Hastings Ismay on 12 June 1940 that "[y]ou and I will be dead in three months' time" [164] —his use of rhetoric hardened public opinion against a peaceful resolution and prepared the British for a long war. [167] Coining the general term for the upcoming battle, Churchill stated in his "finest hour" speech to the House of Commons on 18 June, "I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin." [168] By refusing an armistice with Germany, Churchill kept resistance alive in the British Empire and created the basis for the later Allied counter-attacks of 1942–45, with Britain serving as a platform for the supply of Soviet Union and the liberation of Western Europe.
In response to previous criticisms that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of the war Churchill created and took the additional position of Minister of Defence , making him the most powerful wartime prime minister in British history. [155] He immediately put his friend and confidant, industrialist and newspaper baron Lord Beaverbrook , in charge of aircraft production. It was Beaverbrook's business acumen that allowed Britain to quickly gear up aircraft production and engineering, which eventually made the difference in the war. [169]
Winston Churchill walks through the ruins of Coventry Cathedral , 1941
The war energised Churchill, who was 65 years old when he became Prime Minister. An American journalist wrote in 1941: "The responsibilities which are his now must be greater than those carried by any other human being on earth. One would think such a weight would have a crushing effect upon him. Not at all. The last time I saw him, while the Battle of Britain was still raging, he looked twenty years younger than before the war began ... His uplifted spirit is transmitted to the people". [163] Churchill's speeches were a great inspiration to the embattled British. His first speech as prime minister was the famous "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat ". One historian has called its effect on Parliament as "electrifying"; the House of Commons that had ignored him during the 1930s "was now listening, and cheering". [63] Churchill followed that closely with two other equally famous ones, given just before the Battle of Britain . One included the words:
... we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches , we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender. [170]
The other:
Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves, that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, ' This was their finest hour '. [171]
Churchill with Field Marshal Alan Brooke (left) and Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , 1944
At the height of the Battle of Britain, his bracing survey of the situation included the memorable line " Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few ", which engendered the enduring nickname The Few for the RAF fighter pilots who won it. [172] He first spoke these famous words upon his exit from No. 11 Group's underground bunker at RAF Uxbridge , now known as the Battle of Britain Bunker on 16 August 1940. One of his most memorable war speeches came on 10 November 1942 at the Lord Mayor's Luncheon at Mansion House in London, in response to the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein . Churchill stated:
This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning. [173]
Without having much in the way of sustenance or good news to offer the British people, he took a risk in deliberately choosing to emphasise the dangers instead.
"Rhetorical power", wrote Churchill, "is neither wholly bestowed, nor wholly acquired, but cultivated." Not all were impressed by his oratory. Robert Menzies , prime minister of Australia and himself a gifted phrase-maker, said of Churchill during the Second World War: "His real tyrant is the glittering phrase so attractive to his mind that awkward facts have to give way." [174] Another associate wrote: "He is... the slave of the words which his mind forms about ideas.... And he can convince himself of almost every truth if it is once allowed thus to start on its wild career through his rhetorical machinery." [175]
Throughout his life Winston Churchill suffered from clinical depression which he called his "Black Dog". His personal physician Lord Moran ( Charles Wilson, 1st Baron Moran ) in his book states that during the war years Winston sought solace in his tumbler of whiskey and soda and his cigar. He was also a very emotional man and would break into tears during meetings when he heard of bad news. During some of his broadcast speeches it was noticeable that he was trying to hold back the tears. It was during a meeting at the White House, when Churchill was handed a signal that Tobruk had fallen, that he burst into tears. The US President stood up, approached Churchill and said to him "What can we do to help?". [176]
Perhaps the person best placed to summarise Churchill's contradictory motivations and flawed character during the war was the man who arguably worked most closely with him throughout most of the conflict, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) from December 1941 on, Field Marshall Alan Brooke . His diary (Alanbrooke War Diaries - Phoenix - 2001 -p590) entry for 10 September 1944 is particularly revealing :
.....And the wonderful thing is that 3/4 of the population of the world imagine that Churchill is one of the Strategists of History, a second Marlborough, and the other 1/4 have no idea what a public menace he is and has been throughout this war ! It is far better that the world should never know, and never suspect the feet of clay of this otherwise superhuman being. Without him England was lost for a certainty, with him England has been on the verge of disaster time and again.......Never have I admired and despised a man simultaneously to the same extent. Never have such opposite extremes been combined in the same human being.
Relations with the United States
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek , President Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in 1943
Churchill's good relationship with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt —between 1939 and 1945 they exchanged an estimated 1,700 letters and telegrams and met 11 times; Churchill estimated that they had 120 days of close personal contact [177] —helped secure vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes. [178] It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940. Upon re-election, Roosevelt immediately set about implementing a new method of providing military hardware and shipping to Britain without the need for monetary payment. Put simply, Roosevelt persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the US; and so Lend-lease was born. Churchill had 12 strategic conferences with Roosevelt which covered the Atlantic Charter , Europe first strategy, the Declaration by the United Nations and other war policies. After Pearl Harbor was attacked , Churchill's first thought in anticipation of US help was, "We have won the war!" [179] On 26 December 1941, Churchill addressed a joint meeting of the US Congress, asking of Germany and Japan, "What kind of people do they think we are?" [180] Churchill initiated the Special Operations Executive (SOE) under Hugh Dalton's Ministry of Economic Warfare , which established, conducted and fostered covert, subversive and partisan operations in occupied territories with notable success; and also the Commandos which established the pattern for most of the world's current Special Forces . The Russians referred to him as the "British Bulldog".
File:Kellyrogers.jpg
Churchill's health was fragile, as shown by a mild heart attack he suffered in December 1941 at the White House and also in December 1943 when he contracted pneumonia. Despite this, he travelled over 100,000 miles (160,000 km) throughout the war to meet other national leaders. For security, he usually travelled using the alias Colonel Warden. [181]
Churchill was party to treaties that would redraw post-Second World War European and Asian boundaries. These were discussed as early as 1943. At the Second Quebec Conference in 1944 he drafted and, together with Roosevelt, signed a less-harsh version of the original Morgenthau Plan , in which they pledged to convert Germany after its unconditional surrender "into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character." [182] Proposals for European boundaries and settlements were officially agreed to by Harry S. Truman , Churchill, and Joseph Stalin at Potsdam . Churchill's strong relationship with Harry Truman was also of great significance to both countries. While he clearly regretted the loss of his close friend and counterpart Roosevelt, Churchill was enormously supportive of Truman in his first days in office, calling him, "the type of leader the world needs when it needs him most." [183]
Relations with the Soviet Union
File:Churchillcommando.jpg
When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union , Winston Churchill, a vehement anti-communist, famously stated "If Hitler invaded Hell, I would at least make a favourable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons," regarding his policy toward Stalin. [184] Soon, British supplies and tanks were flowing to help the Soviet Union. [185]
The Casablanca Conference , a meeting of Allied powers held in Casablanca, Morocco, on 14 January through 23 January 1943, produced what was to be known as the “ Casablanca Declaration .” In attendance were Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt and Charles de Gaulle. Joseph Stalin had bowed out, citing the need for his presence in the Soviet Union to attend to the Stalingrad crisis. It was in Casablanca that the Allies made a unified commitment to continue the war through to the “unconditional surrender” of the Axis powers. In private, however, Churchill did not fully subscribe to the doctrine of “unconditional surrender,” and was taken by surprise when Franklin Roosevelt announced this to the world as Allied consensus. [186] [187]
The settlement concerning the borders of Poland, that is, the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union and between Germany and Poland , was viewed as a betrayal in Poland during the post-war years, as it was established against the views of the Polish government in exile. It was Winston Churchill, who tried to motivate Mikołajczyk , who was prime minister of the Polish government in exile, to accept Stalin's wishes, but Mikołajczyk refused. Churchill was convinced that the only way to alleviate tensions between the two populations was the transfer of people , to match the national borders.
As he expounded in the House of Commons on 15 December 1944, "Expulsion is the method which, insofar as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble... A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by these transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions." [188] [189] However the resulting expulsions of Germans were carried out in a way which resulted in much hardship and, according to a 1966 report by the West German Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons , the death of over 2.1 million. Churchill opposed the effective annexation of Poland by the Soviet Union and wrote bitterly about it in his books, but he was unable to prevent it at the conferences. [190]
Winston Churchill at the Yalta Conference , with Roosevelt and Stalin beside him
During October 1944, he and Eden were in Moscow to meet with the Russian leadership. At this point, Russian forces were beginning to advance into various eastern European countries. Churchill held the view that until everything was formally and properly worked out at the Yalta conference , there had to be a temporary, war-time, working agreement with regard to who would run what. [191] The most significant of these meetings was held on 9 October 1944 in the Kremlin between Churchill and Stalin. During the meeting, Poland and the Balkan problems were discussed. [192] Churchill told Stalin:
Let us settle about our affairs in the Balkans. Your armies are in Rumania and Bulgaria. We have interests, missions, and agents there. Don't let us get at cross-purposes in small ways. So far as Britain and Russia are concerned, how would it do for you to have ninety per cent predominance in Rumania, for us to have ninety per cent of the say in Greece, and go fifty-fifty about Yugoslavia? [191]
Stalin agreed to this Percentages Agreement , ticking a piece of paper as he heard the translation. In 1958, five years after the account of this meeting was published (in The Second World War ), authorities of the Soviet Union denied that Stalin accepted the "imperialist proposal". [192]
One of the conclusions of the Yalta Conference was that the Allies would return all Soviet citizens that found themselves in the Allied zone to the Soviet Union. This immediately affected the Soviet prisoners of war liberated by the Allies, but was also extended to all Eastern European refugees. [193] Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn called the Operation Keelhaul "the last secret of World War II." [194] The operation decided the fate of up to two million post-war refugees fleeing eastern Europe. [195]
Dresden bombings controversy
The destruction of Dresden, February 1945
Dresden: A pile of bodies awaiting cremation
Between 13–15 February 1945, British and US bombers attacked the German city of Dresden, which was crowded with German wounded and refugees. [196] There were an unknown number of refugees in Dresden, so historians Matthias Neutzner, Götz Bergander and Frederick Taylor have used historical sources and deductive reasoning to estimate that the number of refugees in the city and surrounding suburbs was around 200,000 or less on the first night of the bombing. Because of the cultural importance of the city, and of the number of civilian casualties close to the end of the war, this remains one of the most controversial Western Allied actions of the war. Following the bombing Churchill stated in a top-secret telegram:
It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of bombing of German cities simply for the sake of increasing the terror, though under other pretexts, should be reviewed... I feel the need for more precise concentration upon military objectives such as oil and communications behind the immediate battle-zone, rather than on mere acts of terror and wanton destruction, however impressive. [197]
On reflection, under pressure from the Chiefs of Staff and in response to the views expressed by Sir Charles Portal ( Chief of the Air Staff ) and Sir Arthur Harris ( AOC-in-C of RAF Bomber Command ), among others, Churchill withdrew his memo and issued a new one. [198] [199] This final version of the memo completed on 1 April 1945, stated:
It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of the so called 'area-bombing' of German cities should be reviewed from the point of view of our own interests. If we come into control of an entirely ruined land, there will be a great shortage of accommodation for ourselves and our allies... We must see to it that our attacks do no more harm to ourselves in the long run than they do to the enemy's war effort. [198] [199]
Ultimately, responsibility for the British part of the attack lay with Churchill, which is why he has been criticised for allowing the bombings to occur. German historian Jörg Friedrich claims that Churchill's decision was a war crime", [200] and writing in 2006 the philosopher A. C. Grayling questioned the whole strategic bombing campaign by the RAF, presenting the argument that although it was not a war crime it was a moral crime that undermines the Allies' contention that they fought a just war . [201] On the other hand, it has also been asserted that Churchill's involvement in the bombing of Dresden was based on the strategic and tactical aspects of winning the war. The destruction of Dresden, while immense, was designed to expedite the defeat of Germany. As historian and journalist Max Hastings wrote in an article subtitled "the Allied Bombing of Dresden": "I believe it is wrong to describe strategic bombing as a war crime, for this might be held to suggest some moral equivalence with the deeds of the Nazis. Bombing represented a sincere, albeit mistaken, attempt to bring about Germany's military defeat." British historian Frederick Taylor asserts that "All sides bombed each other's cities during the war. Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia. That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids." [202]
The Second World War ends
Edit
Churchill waves to crowds in Whitehall on the day he broadcast to the nation that the war with Germany had been won, 8 May 1945
In June 1944, the Allied Forces invaded Normandy and pushed the Nazi forces back into Germany on a broad front over the coming year. After being attacked on three fronts by the Allies, and in spite of Allied failures, such as Operation Market Garden , and German counter-attacks, including the Battle of the Bulge , Germany was eventually defeated. On 7 May 1945 at the SHAEF headquarters in Rheims the Allies accepted Germany's surrender . On the same day in a BBC news flash John Snagge announced that 8 May would be Victory in Europe Day . [203] On Victory in Europe Day, Churchill broadcast to the nation that Germany had surrendered and that a final cease fire on all fronts in Europe would come into effect at one minute past midnight that night. [204] [205] Afterwards, Churchill told a huge crowd in Whitehall: "This is your victory." The people shouted: "No, it is yours", and Churchill then conducted them in the singing of Land of Hope and Glory . In the evening he made another broadcast to the nation asserting the defeat of Japan in the coming months. [53] The Japanese later surrendered on 15 August 1945.
As Europe celebrated peace at the end of six years of war, Churchill was concerned with the possibility that the celebrations would soon be brutally interrupted. [206] He concluded that the UK and the US must anticipate the Red Army ignoring previously agreed frontiers and agreements in Europe, and prepare to "impose upon Russia the will of the United States and the British Empire." [207] According to the Operation Unthinkable plan ordered by Churchill and developed by the British Armed Forces, the Third World War could have started on 1 July 1945 with a sudden attack against the allied Soviet troops. The plan was rejected by the British Chiefs of Staff Committee as militarily unfeasible.
Leader of the opposition
Main article: Later life of Winston Churchill
Although Churchill's role in the Second World War had generated much support for him amongst the British population, he was defeated in the 1945 election. [208] Many reasons for this have been given, key among them being that a desire for post-war reform was widespread amongst the population and that the man who had led Britain in war was not seen as the man to lead the nation in peace. [209] It was anticipated that Churchill would step down and hand over the leadership to Anthony Eden , who became his deputy after the election defeat, but Churchill (despite now being in his seventies) was determined to fight on as leader and Eden was too loyal to challenge his leadership. It would be another decade before Churchill finally did hand over the reins to Eden. [210]
Churchill with American General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery at a meeting of NATO in October 1951, shortly before Churchill was to become prime minister for a second time
For six years he was to serve as the Leader of the Opposition. During these years Churchill continued to have an impact on world affairs. During his 1946 trip [211] to the United States, Churchill famously lost a lot of money in a poker game with Harry Truman and his advisors. [212] (He also liked to play Bezique , which he learned while serving in the Boer War.)
During this trip he gave his Iron Curtain speech about the USSR and the creation of the Eastern Bloc. Speaking on 5 March 1946 at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, he declared:
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere. [213]
Churchill also argued strongly for British independence from the European Coal and Steel Community , which he saw as a Franco-German project. He saw Britain's place as separate from the continent, much more in-line with the countries of the Commonwealth and the Empire, and with the United States, the so-called Anglosphere . [214] [215]
Second term as prime minister
Edit
After the General Election of 1951, Churchill again held the office of Minister of Defence between October 1951 and January 1952. He also became prime minister in October 1951, and his third government—after the wartime national government and the brief caretaker government of 1945—lasted until his resignation in April 1955. In domestic affairs, various reforms were introduced such as the Mines and Quarries Act of 1954 and the Housing Repairs and Rent Act of 1955. The former measure consolidated legislation dealing with the employment of young persons and women in mines and quarries, together with safety, health, and welfare. The latter measure extended previous housing Acts, and set out details in defining housing units as “unfit for human habitation.” [216] In addition, tax allowances were raised, [217] construction of council housing was accelerated, and pensions and national assistance benefits were increased. [218] Controversially, however, charges for prescription medicines were introduced. [219]
Housing was an issue the Conservatives were widely recognised to have made their own, after the Churchill government of the early 1950s, with Harold Macmillan as Minister for Housing, gave housing construction far higher political priority than it had received under the Attlee administration (where housing had been attached to the portfolio of Health Minister Aneurin Bevan , whose attention was concentrated on his responsibilities for the National Health Service ). Macmillan had accepted Churchill's challenge to meet the latter's ambitious public commitment to build 300,000 new homes a year, and achieved the target a year ahead schedule.[ citation needed ]
Churchill's domestic priorities in his last government were overshadowed by a series of foreign policy crises, which were partly the result of the continued decline of British military and imperial prestige and power. Being a strong proponent of Britain as an international power , Churchill would often meet such moments with direct action . One example was his dispatch of British troops to Kenya to deal with the Mau Mau rebellion . [220] Trying to retain what he could of the Empire, he once stated that, "I will not preside over a dismemberment." [220]
War in Malaya
Edit
This was followed by events which became known as the Malayan Emergency . In Malaya, a rebellion against British rule had been in progress since 1948. [221] Once again, Churchill's government inherited a crisis, and Churchill chose to use direct military action against those in rebellion while attempting to build an alliance with those who were not. [53] [222] While the rebellion was slowly being defeated, it was equally clear that colonial rule from Britain was no longer sustainable. [221] [223]
Relations with the United States
Edit
Churchill also devoted much of his time in office to Anglo-American relations and, although Churchill did not always agree with President Dwight D. Eisenhower , [224] Churchill attempted to maintain the Special Relationship with the United States. He made four official transatlantic visits to America during his second term as prime minister. [225]
The series of strokes
Edit
Churchill had suffered a mild stroke while on holiday in the south of France in the summer of 1949. In June 1953, when he was 78, Churchill suffered a more severe stroke at 10 Downing Street . News of this was kept from the public and from Parliament, who were told that Churchill was suffering from exhaustion. He went to his country home, Chartwell, to recuperate from the effects of the stroke which had affected his speech and ability to walk. [53] He returned to public life in October to make a speech at a Conservative Party conference at Margate . [53] [226] However, aware that he was slowing down both physically and mentally, Churchill retired as prime minister in 1955 and was succeeded by Anthony Eden. He suffered another mild stroke in December 1956.
Retirement and death
Main article: Later life of Winston Churchill
Churchill spent much of his retirement at his home Chartwell in Kent. He purchased it in 1922 after his daughter Mary was born.
Elizabeth II offered to create Churchill Duke of London , but this was declined due to the objections of his son Randolph, who would have inherited the title on his father's death. [227] He did, however, accept a knighthood as Garter Knight. After leaving the premiership, Churchill spent less time in parliament until he stood down at the 1964 General Election. As a mere "back-bencher," Churchill spent most of his retirement at Chartwell and at his home in Hyde Park Gate, in London, and became a habitue of high society on the French Riviera. [53] [228]
In the 1959 General Election Churchill's majority fell by more than a thousand, since many young voters in his constituency did not support an 85-year-old who could only enter the House of Commons in a wheelchair. As his mental and physical faculties decayed, he began to lose the battle he had fought for so long against the "black dog" of depression . [53]
There was speculation that Churchill may have had Alzheimer's disease in his last years, although others maintain that his reduced mental capacity was merely the result of a series of strokes . In 1963, US President John F. Kennedy , acting under authorisation granted by an Act of Congress, proclaimed him an Honorary Citizen of the United States , [229] but he was unable to attend the White House ceremony. [230]
Despite poor health, Churchill still tried to remain active in public life, and on St George's Day 1964, sent a message of congratulations to the surviving veterans of the 1918 Zeebrugge Raid who were attending a service of commemoration in Deal, Kent, where two casualties of the raid were buried in the Hamilton Road Cemetery . On 15 January 1965, Churchill suffered a severe stroke that left him gravely ill. He died at his London home nine days later, at age 90, on the morning of Sunday 24 January 1965, 70 years to the day after his father's death. [230]
Funeral
Main articles: Winston Churchill as historian and Winston Churchill as writer
Winston Churchill was an accomplished artist and took great pleasure in painting, especially after his resignation as First Lord of the Admiralty in 1915. [237] He found a haven in art to overcome the spells of depression which he suffered throughout his life. As William Rees-Mogg has stated, "In his own life, he had to suffer the 'black dog' of depression. In his landscapes and still lives there is no sign of depression." [238] Churchill was persuaded and taught to paint by his artist friend, Paul Maze , whom he met during the First World War. Maze was a great influence on Churchill's painting and became a lifelong painting companion. [239]
Churchill is best known for his impressionist scenes of landscape, many of which were painted while on holiday in the South of France, Egypt or Morocco. [238] Using the pseudonym "Charles Morin", [163] he continued his hobby throughout his life and painted hundreds of paintings, many of which are on show in the studio at Chartwell as well as private collections. [240] Most of his paintings are oil-based and feature landscapes, but he also did a number of interior scenes and portraits. In 1925 Lord Duveen , Kenneth Clark , and Oswald Birley selected his Winter Sunshine as the prize winner in a contest for anonymous amateur artists. [35] :46–47 Due to obvious time constraints, Churchill attempted only one painting during the Second World War. He completed the painting from the tower of the Villa Taylor in Marrakesh. [241]
Some of his paintings can today be seen in the Wendy and Emery Reves Collection at the Dallas Museum of Art . Emery Reves was Churchill's American publisher, as well as a close friend [242] and Churchill often visited Emery and his wife at their villa, La Pausa, in the South of France, which had originally been built in 1927 for Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel by her lover Bendor, 2nd Duke of Westminster . The villa was rebuilt within the museum in 1985 with a gallery of Churchill paintings and memorabilia. [243] [244]
Despite his lifelong fame and upper-class origins, Churchill always struggled to keep his income at a level which would fund his extravagant lifestyle. MPs before 1946 received only a nominal salary (and in fact did not receive anything at all until the Parliament Act 1911 ) so many had secondary professions from which to earn a living. [245] From his first book in 1898 until his second stint as Prime Minister, Churchill's income was almost entirely made from writing books and opinion pieces for newspapers and magazines. The most famous of his newspaper articles are those that appeared in the Evening Standard from 1936 warning of the rise of Hitler and the danger of the policy of appeasement.
Churchill was also a prolific writer of books, writing a novel, two biographies, three volumes of memoirs, and several histories in addition to his many newspaper articles. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 "for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values". [246] Two of his most famous works, published after his first premiership brought his international fame to new heights, were his six-volume memoir The Second World War and A History of the English-Speaking Peoples ; a four-volume history covering the period from Caesar's invasions of Britain (55 BC) to the beginning of the First World War (1914). [247]
Churchill was also an amateur bricklayer , building buildings and garden walls at his country home at Chartwell, [163] where he also bred butterflies. [248] As part of this hobby Churchill joined the Amalgamated Union of Building Trade Workers , [249] but was expelled because of his membership in the Conservative Party. [163]
Honours
Main article: Honours of Winston Churchill
In addition to the honour of a state funeral, Churchill received a wide range of awards and other honours. For example, he was the first person to become an Honorary Citizen of the United States . [250]
In 1945, while Churchill was mentioned by Halvdan Koht as one of seven appropriate candidates for the Nobel Prize in Peace , the nomination went to Cordell Hull. [251]
Churchill received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his numerous published works, especially his six-volume set The Second World War. In a 2002 BBC poll of the " 100 Greatest Britons ", he was proclaimed "The Greatest of Them All" based on approximately a million votes from BBC viewers. [252] Churchill was also rated as one of the most influential leaders in history by TIME. [253] Churchill College, Cambridge was founded in 1958 to memorialise him.
On 29 November 1995, during a visit to the United Kingdom, President Bill Clinton of the United States announced to both Houses of Parliament that an Arleigh Burke-class destroyer would be named the USS Winston S. Churchill (DDG-81) . This was the first United States warship to be named after a non-citizen of the United States since 1975.
Honorary degrees
Pelling, Henry . Winston Churchill (1974). ISBN 1-84022-218-2 . [Comprehensive biography.]
Rasor, Eugene L. Winston S. Churchill, 1874–1965: A Comprehensive Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press, 2000. ISBN 0-313-30546-3 [Entries include several thousand books and scholarly articles.]
Soames, Mary, ed. Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill (1998).
Stansky, Peter, ed. Churchill: A Profile (1973) [Perspectives on Churchill by leading scholars]
Storr, Anthony . Churchill's Black Dog and Other Phenomena of the Human Mind. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. New Edition ed., 1997. ISBN 978-0-00-637566-1
Toye, Richard . Churchill's Empire: The World that Made Him and the World He Made. Macmillan. 2010. ISBN 978-0-230-70384-1
Trukhanovskiĭ, Vladimir G . Winston Churchill. Moscow: Progress Publishers (1978 revised ed.).
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Winston Churchill
For other uses, see Winston Churchill (disambiguation) .
"Churchill" redirects here. For other uses, see Churchill (disambiguation) .
26 October 1951 – 7 April 1955
Monarch
10 May 1940 – 27 July 1945
Monarch
6 November 1924 – 4 June 1929
Prime Minister
19 February 1910 – 24 October 1911
Prime Minister
Member of Parliament , statesman , soldier , journalist , historian , author , painter
Signature
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG , OM , CH , TD , FRS , PC , PC (Can) (30 November 1874 - 24 January 1965) was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II . He served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. A noted statesman and orator , Churchill was also an officer in the British Army , a historian , a Nobel Prize -winning writer, and an artist .
During his army career, Churchill saw action in India , in the Sudan and the Second Boer War . He gained fame and notoriety as a war correspondent and through contemporary books he wrote describing the campaigns. He also served briefly in the British Army on the Western Front in World War I , commanding the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers .
At the forefront of the political scene for almost fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade , Home Secretary and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of the Asquith Liberal government . During the war he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Battle of Gallipoli caused his departure from government. He returned as Minister of Munitions , Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air . In the interwar years , he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Conservative government.
After the outbreak of the Second World War , Churchill was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, he became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and led Britain to victory against the Axis powers . [1] Churchill was always noted for his speeches, which became a great inspiration to the British people and embattled Allied forces .
After losing the 1945 election , he became Leader of the Opposition . In 1951, he again became Prime Minister before finally retiring in 1955. Upon his death the Queen granted him the honour of a state funeral , which saw one of the largest assemblies of statesmen in the world.
Contents
Family and early life
Blenheim Palace, Churchill's ancestral home
A descendant of the famous Spencer family , [2] Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father, used the surname Churchill in public life. [3] His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough , to highlight his descent from John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough . Winston's father, Lord Randolph Churchill , the third son of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough , was a politician, while his mother, Lady Randolph Churchill ( née Jennie Jerome) was the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome . Born on 30 November 1874 in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace , Woodstock , Oxfordshire ; [4] he arrived eight months after his parents' hasty marriage. [5] Churchill had one brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill .
Independent and rebellious by nature, Churchill generally did poorly in school, for which he was punished. He was educated at three independent schools: St. George's School in Ascot , Berkshire , followed by Brunswick School in Hove , near Brighton (the school has since been renamed Stoke Brunswick School and relocated to Ashurst Wood in West Sussex ), and then at Harrow School on 17 April 1888, where his military career began. Within weeks of his arrival, he had joined the Harrow Rifle Corps . [6] He earned high marks in English and history and was also the school's fencing champion.
Winston Churchill's father - Lord Randolph Henry Spencer Churchill
He was rarely visited by his mother (then known as Lady Randolph), and wrote letters begging her to either come to the school or to allow him to come home. His relationship with his father was a distant one, he once remarked that they barely spoke to each other. [7] Due to this lack of parental contact he became very close to his nanny, Elizabeth Anne Everest, who he used to call "Woomany". [8] [9] His father died on 24 January 1895, aged just 45, leaving Churchill with the conviction that he too would die young, so should be quick about making his mark on the world.
Speech impediment
See also: List of stutterers
Churchill described himself as having a "speech impediment" which he consistently worked to overcome. After many years, he finally stated, "My impediment is no hindrance." Trainee speech therapists are often shown videotapes of Churchill's mannerisms while making speeches and the Stuttering Foundation of America uses Churchill, pictured on its home page, as one of its role models of successful stutterers. This diagnosis is supported by contemporaries writing in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. [10] The Churchill Centre, however, flatly refutes the claim that Churchill stuttered while confirming that he did have difficulty pronouncing the letter 'S' and spoke with a lisp . [11] His father also spoke with a lisp. [12] The National Cluttering Association however maintains that Churchill had not a stutter but a clutter .
Marriage and children
Churchill met his future wife, Clementine Hozier , in 1904 at a ball in Crewe House, home of the Earl of Crewe and his wife Margaret Primrose (daughter of Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery ). [13] In 1908, they met again at a dinner party hosted by Lady St Helier . Churchill found himself seated beside Clementine, and they soon began a lifelong romance. [14] He proposed to Clementine during a house party at Blenheim Palace on 10 August 1908, in a small Temple of Diana . [15] On 12 September 1908, they were married in St. Margaret's, Westminster . The church was packed; the Bishop of St Asaph conducted the service. [16] In March 1909, the couple moved to a house at 33 Eccleston Square.
Winston's mother, Lady Randolph Churchill
Their first child, Diana , was born in London on 11 July 1909. After the pregnancy, Clementine moved to Sussex to recover, while Diana stayed in London with her nanny. [17] On 28 May 1911, their second child, Randolph , was born at 33 Eccleston Square. [18] Their third child, Sarah , was born on 7 October 1914 at Admiralty House . The birth was marked with anxiety for Clementine, as Winston had been sent to Antwerp by the Cabinet to "stiffen the resistance of the beleaguered city" after news that the Belgians intended to surrender the town. [19]
Clementine gave birth to her fourth child, Marigold Frances Churchill, on 15 November 1918, four days after the official end of World War I. [20] In the early months of August, the Churchills' children were entrusted to a French nursery governess in Kent named Mlle Rose. Clementine, meanwhile, travelled to Eaton Hall to play tennis with Hugh Grosvenor, 2nd Duke of Westminster and his family. While still under the care of Mlle Rose, Marigold had a cold, but was reported to have recovered from the illness. As the illness progressed with hardly any notice, it turned into septicaemia . Following advice from a landlady, Rose sent for Clementine. However the illness turned fatal on 23 August 1921, and Marigold was buried in the Kensal Green Cemetery three days later. [21] On 15 September 1922, the Churchills' last child was born, Mary . Later that month, the Churchills bought Chartwell , which would be Winston's home until his death in 1965. [22] [23]
Service in the Army
After Churchill left Harrow in 1893, he applied to attend the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst . It took three attempts before he passed the entrance exam; he applied for cavalry rather than infantry because the grade requirement was lower and did not require him to learn mathematics, which he disliked. He graduated eighth out of a class of 150 in December 1894, [24] and although he could now have transferred to an infantry regiment as his father had wished, chose to remain with the cavalry and was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the 4th Queen's Own Hussars on 20 February 1895. [25] In 1941, he received the honour of Colonel of the Hussars .
Churchill's pay as a second lieutenant in the 4th Hussars was £300. However, he believed that he needed at least a further £500 (equivalent to £25,000 in 2001 terms) to support a style of life equal to other officers of the regiment . His mother provided an allowance of £400 per year, but this was repeatedly overspent. According to biographer Roy Jenkins , this is one reason he took an interest in war correspondence. [26] He did not intend to follow a conventional career of promotion through army ranks, but to seek out all possible chances of military action and used his mother's and family influence in high society to arrange postings to active campaigns. His writings both brought him to the attention of the public, and earned him significant additional income. He acted as a war correspondent for several London newspapers [27] and wrote his own books about the campaigns.
Churchill in military uniform in 1895
Cuba
In 1895, Churchill travelled to Cuba to observe the Spanish fight the Cuban guerrillas; he had obtained a commission to write about the conflict from the Daily Graphic. To his delight, he came under fire for the first time on his twenty-first birthday. [25] He had fond memories of Cuba as a "...large, rich, beautiful island..." [28] While there, he soon acquired a taste for Havana cigars, which he would smoke for the rest of his life. While in New York, he stayed at the home of Bourke Cockran , an admirer of his mother's. Bourke was an established American politician, member of the House of Representatives and potential presidential candidate. He greatly influenced Churchill, both in his approach to oratory and politics, and encouraging a love of America. [29]
He soon received word that his nanny, Mrs Everest, was dying; he then returned to England and stayed with her for a week until she died. He wrote in his journal "She was my favourite friend." In My Early Life he wrote: "She had been my dearest and most intimate friend during the whole of the twenty years I had lived." [30]
India
In early October 1896, he was transferred to Bombay , British India . He was considered one of the best polo players in his regiment and led his team to many prestigious tournament victories. [31]
A young Winston Churchill on a lecture tour of the United States in 1900
Malakand
In 1897, Churchill attempted to travel to both report and, if necessary, fight in the Greco-Turkish War , but this conflict effectively ended before he could arrive. Later, while preparing for a leave in England, he heard that three brigades of the British Army were going to fight against a Pashtun tribe and he asked his superior officer if he could join the fight. [32] He fought under the command of General Jeffery, who was the commander of the second brigade operating in Malakand , in what is now Pakistan . Jeffery sent him with fifteen scouts to explore the Mamund Valley; while on reconnaissance, they encountered an enemy tribe, dismounted from their horses and opened fire. After an hour of shooting, their reinforcements, the 35th Sikhs arrived, and the fire gradually ceased and the brigade and the Sikhs marched on. Hundreds of tribesmen then ambushed them and opened fire, forcing them to retreat. As they were retreating four men were carrying an injured officer but the fierceness of the fight forced them to leave him behind. The man who was left behind was slashed to death before Churchill’s eyes; afterwards he wrote of the killer, "I forgot everything else at this moment except a desire to kill this man". [33] However the Sikhs' numbers were being depleted so the next commanding officer told Churchill to get the rest of the men and boys to safety.
Before he left he asked for a note so he would not be charged with desertion. [34] He received the note, quickly signed, and headed up the hill and alerted the other brigade, whereupon they then engaged the army. The fighting in the region dragged on for another two weeks before the dead could be recovered. He wrote in his journal: "Whether it was worth it I cannot tell." [33] [35] An account of the Siege of Malakand was published in December 1900 as The Story of the Malakand Field Force . He received £600 for his account. During the campaign, he also wrote articles for the newspapers The Pioneer and The Daily Telegraph . [36] His account of the battle was one of his first published stories, for which he received £ 5 per column from The Daily Telegraph . [37]
Sudan and Oldham
The River War was published in 1899
Churchill was transferred to Egypt in 1898 where he visited Luxor before joining an attachment of the 21st Lancers serving in the Sudan under the command of General Herbert Kitchener . During his time he encountered two future military officers, with whom he would later work, during the First World War : Douglas Haig , then a captain and John Jellicoe , then a gunboat lieutenant. [38] While in the Sudan, he participated in what has been described as the last meaningful British cavalry charge at the Battle of Omdurman in September 1898. He also worked as a war correspondent for the Morning Post . By October 1898, he had returned to Britain and begun his two-volume work; The River War , an account of the reconquest of the Sudan published the following year. Churchill resigned from the British Army effective from 5 May 1899.
Main article: Oldham by-election, 1899
He soon had his first opportunity to begin a Parliamentary career, when he was invited by Robert Ascroft to be the second Conservative Party candidate in Ascroft's Oldham constituency. In the event Ascroft's sudden death caused a double by-election and Churchill was one of the candidates. In the midst of a national trend against the Conservatives, both seats were lost; however Churchill was impressed by his vigorous campaigning.
South Africa
Having failed at Oldham, Churchill looked about for some other opportunity to advance his career. On 12 October 1899, the Second Boer War between Britain and the Boer Republics broke out and he obtained a commission to act as war correspondent for the Morning Post with a salary of £250 per month. He rushed to sail on the same ship as the newly appointed British commander, Sir Redvers Buller . After some weeks in exposed areas he accompanied a scouting expedition in an armoured train, leading to his capture and imprisonment in a POW camp in Pretoria . His actions during the ambush of the train led to speculation that he would be awarded the Victoria Cross , Britain's highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy, but this did not occur. [25] Writing in London to Ladysmith via Pretoria , a collected version of his war reports, he described the experience:
I have had, in the last four years, the advantage, if it be an advantage, of many strange and varied experiences, from which the student of realities might draw profit and instruction. But nothing was so thrilling as this: to wait and struggle among these clanging, rending iron boxes, with the repeated explosions of the shells and the artillery, the noise of the projectiles striking the cars, the hiss as they passed in the air, the grunting and puffing of the engine--poor, tortured thing, hammered by at least a dozen shells, any one of which, by penetrating the boiler, might have made an end of all--the expectation of destruction as a matter of course, the realization of powerlessness, and the alternations of hope and despair--all this for seventy minutes by the clock with only four inches of twisted iron work to make the difference between danger, captivity, and shame on the one hand--safety, freedom, and triumph on the other. [39]
He escaped from the prison camp and travelled almost 300 miles (480 km) to Portuguese Lourenço Marques in Delagoa Bay , with the assistance of an English mine manager. [40] His escape made him a minor national hero for a time in Britain, though instead of returning home, he rejoined General Buller's army on its march to relieve the British at the Siege of Ladysmith and take Pretoria. [41] This time, although continuing as a war correspondent, he gained a commission in the South African Light Horse . He was among the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria. He and his cousin, the Duke of Marlborough , were able to get ahead of the rest of the troops in Pretoria, where they demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer prison camp guards. [42]
In 1900, Churchill returned to England on the RMS Dunottar Castle , the same ship on which he set sail for South Africa eight months earlier. [43] He there published London to Ladysmith and a second volume of Boer war experiences, Ian Hamilton's March . Churchill stood again for parliament in Oldham in the general election of 1900 and won (his Conservative colleague, Crisp, was defeated) in the contest for two seats. [44] [45] After the 1900 general election he embarked on a speaking tour of Britain, followed by tours of the United States and Canada, earning in excess of £5,000. [46]
Territorial service
In 1900, he retired from regular army and in 1902 joined the Imperial Yeomanry where he was commissioned as a Captain in the Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars on 4 January 1902. [47] In April 1905, he was promoted to Major and appointed to command of the Henley Squadron of the Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars. [48] In September 1916, he transferred to the territorial reserves of officers where he remained till retiring in 1924. [48]
Western front
Churchill was First Lord of the Admiralty at the start of World War I, but was obliged to leave the war cabinet after the disastrous Battle of Gallipoli . He attempted to obtain a commission as a brigade commander, but settled for command of a battalion. After spending some time with the Grenadier Guards he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel , commanding the 6th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers , on 1 January 1916. Correspondence with his wife shows that his intent in taking up active service was to rehabilitate his reputation, but this was balanced by the serious risk of being killed. As a commander he continued to exhibit the reckless daring which had been a hallmark of all his military actions, although he disapproved strongly of the mass slaughter involved in many western front actions. [49]
Lord Deedes explained to a gathering of the Royal Historical Society in 2001 why Churchill went to the front line: "He was with Grenadier Guards , who were dry [without alcohol] at battalion headquarters. They very much liked tea and condensed milk, which had no great appeal to Winston, but alcohol was permitted in the front line, in the trenches. So he suggested to the colonel that he really ought to see more of the war and get into the front line. This was highly commended by the colonel, who thought it was a very good thing to do." [50]
Political career to World War II
Early years in Parliament
Churchill's election poster for the 1899 by-election in Oldham, which he lost.
Churchill stood again for the seat of Oldham at the 1900 general election . After winning the seat, he went on a speaking tour throughout Britain and the United States, raising £10,000 for himself. In Parliament, he became associated with a faction of the Conservative Party led by Lord Hugh Cecil ; the Hughligans . During his first parliamentary session , he opposed the government's military expenditure [51] and Joseph Chamberlain 's proposal of extensive tariffs, which were intended to protect Britain's economic dominance. His own constituency effectively deselected him, although he continued to sit for Oldham until the next general election. After the Whitsun recess in 1904 he crossed the floor to sit as a member of the Liberal Party . As a Liberal, he continued to campaign for free trade . When the Liberals took office with Henry Campbell-Bannerman as Prime Minister, in December 1905, Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies dealing mainly with South Africa after the Boer War. From 1903 until 1905, Churchill was also engaged in writing Lord Randolph Churchill , a two-volume biography of his father which was published in 1906 and received much critical acclaim. [52]
Following his deselection in the seat of Oldham, Churchill was invited to stand for Manchester North West . He won the seat at the 1906 general election with a majority of 1,214 and represented the seat for two years, until 1908. [53] When Campbell-Bannerman was succeeded by Herbert Henry Asquith in 1908, Churchill was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade . [45] Under the law at the time, a newly appointed Cabinet Minister was obliged to seek re-election at a by-election ; Churchill lost his seat but was soon back as a member for Dundee constituency . As President of the Board of Trade he joined newly appointed Chancellor Lloyd George in opposing First Lord of the Admiralty , Reginald McKenna 's proposed huge expenditure for the construction of Navy dreadnought warships, and in supporting the Liberal reforms . [54] In 1908, he introduced the Trade Boards Bill setting up the first minimum wages in Britain, [55] In 1909, he set up Labour Exchanges to help unemployed people find work. [56] He helped draft the first unemployment pension legislation, the National Insurance Act of 1911 . [57]
Churchill in 1904.
Churchill also assisted in passing the People's Budget [58] becoming President of the Budget League, an organisation set up in response to the opposition's "Budget Protest League". [59] The budget included the introduction of new taxes on the wealthy to allow for the creation of new social welfare programmes. After the budget bill was sent to the Commons in 1909 and passed, it went to the House of Lords , where it was vetoed. The Liberals then fought and won two general elections in January and December 1910 to gain a mandate for their reforms. The budget was then passed following the Parliament Act 1911 for which he also campaigned. In 1910, he was promoted to Home Secretary . His term was controversial, after his responses to the Siege of Sidney Street and the dispute at the Cambrian Colliery and the suffragettes .
In 1910, a number of coal miners in the Rhondda Valley began what has come to be known as the Tonypandy Riot . [54] The Chief Constable of Glamorgan requested troops be sent in to help police quell the rioting. Churchill, learning that the troops were already travelling, allowed them to go as far as Swindon and Cardiff but blocked their deployment. On 9 November, the Times criticized this decision. In spite of this, the rumour persists that Churchill had ordered troops to attack, and his reputation in Wales and in Labour circles never recovered. [60]
Winston Churchill (highlighted) at Sidney Street, 3 January 1911
In early January 1911, Churchill made a controversial visit to the Siege of Sidney Street in London. There is some uncertainty as to whether he attempted to give operational commands, and his presence attracted much criticism. After an inquest, Arthur Balfour remarked, "he [Churchill] and a photographer were both risking valuable lives. I understand what the photographer was doing, but what was the right honourable gentleman doing?" [61] A biographer, Roy Jenkins, suggests that he went simply because "he could not resist going to see the fun himself" and that he did not issue commands. [62]
Churchill's proposed solution to the suffragette issue was a referendum on the issue, but this found no favour with Herbert Henry Asquith and women's suffrage remained unresolved until after the First World War . [63]
In 1911, Churchill was transferred to the office of the First Lord of the Admiralty , a post he held into World War I . He gave impetus to several reform efforts, including development of naval aviation (he undertook flying lessons himself), [64] the construction of new and larger warships, the development of tanks, and the switch from coal to oil in the Royal Navy . [65]
World War I and the Post War Coalition
On 5 October 1914, Churchill went to Antwerp which the Belgian government proposed to evacuate. The Royal Marine Brigade was there and at Churchill’s urgings the 1st and 2nd Naval Brigades were also committed. Antwerp fell on 10 October with the loss of 2500 men. At the time he was attacked for squandering resources. [66] It is more likely that his actions prolonged the resistance by a week (Belgium had proposed surrendering Antwerp on 3 October) and that this time saved Calais and Dunkirk. [67]
Churchill was involved with the development of the tank , which was financed from naval research funds. [68] He then headed the Landships Committee which was responsible for creating the first tank corps and, although a decade later development of the battle tank would be seen as a tactical victory, at the time it was seen as misappropriation of funds. [68] In 1915, he was one of the political and military engineers of the disastrous Gallipoli landings on the Dardanelles during World War I. [69] He took much of the blame for the fiasco, and when Prime Minister Asquith formed an all-party coalition government , the Conservatives demanded his demotion as the price for entry. [70]
For several months Churchill served in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster . However on 15 November 1915 he resigned from the government, feeling his energies were not being used. [71] and, though remaining an MP, served for several months on the Western Front commanding the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers , under the rank of Colonel. [72] In March 1916, Churchill returned to England after he had become restless in France and wished to speak again in the House of Commons. [73] In July 1917, Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions , and in January 1919, Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air . He was the main architect of the Ten Year Rule , a principle that allows the Treasury to dominate and control strategic, foreign and financial policies under the assumption that "there would be no great European war for the next five or ten years". [74]
A major preoccupation of his tenure in the War Office was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . Churchill was a staunch advocate of foreign intervention, declaring that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". [75] He secured, from a divided and loosely organised Cabinet, intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation—and in the face of the bitter hostility of Labour. In 1920, after the last British forces had been withdrawn, Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded Ukraine . He became Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1921 and was a signatory of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which established the Irish Free State . Churchill was involved in the lengthy negotiations of the treaty and to protect British maritime interests, he engineered part of the Irish Free State agreement to include three Treaty Ports —Queenstown ( Cobh ), Berehaven and Lough Swilly —which could be used as Atlantic bases by the Royal Navy . [76] Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement the bases were returned to the newly renamed " Ireland " in 1938.
It is sometimes claimed that Churchill advocated the use of poison gas on Kurdish tribesmen in Mesopotamia [77] , a claim based on a War Office minute of 12 May 1919 in which Churchill argued for the use of tear gases:
I do not understand this squeamishness about the use of gas. We have definitely adopted the position at the Peace Conference of arguing in favour of the retention of gas as a permanent method of warfare. It is sheer affectation to lacerate a man with the poisonous fragment of a bursting shell and to boggle at making his eyes water by means of lachrymatory gas. I am strongly in favour of using poisoned [78] gas against uncivilised tribes. The moral effect should be so good that the loss of life should be reduced to a minimum. It is not necessary to use only the most deadly gasses: gasses can be used which cause great inconvenience and would spread a lively terror and yet would leave no serious permanent effects on most of those affected. [79]
If British forces did consider the use of poison gas in putting down Kurdish rebellions, there is no evidence that it was ever used.[ citation needed ]
Rejoining the Conservative Party – Chancellor of the Exchequer
In September, the Conservative Party withdrew from the Coalition government following a meeting of backbenchers dissatisfied with the handling of the Chanak Crisis , a move that precipitated the looming October 1922 General Election . Churchill fell ill during the campaign, and had to have an appendicectomy . This made it difficult for him to campaign, and a further setback was the internal division that continued to beset the Liberal Party. He came only fourth in the poll for Dundee , losing to the prohibitionist Edwin Scrymgeour . Churchill later quipped that he left Dundee "without an office, without a seat, without a party and without an appendix". [53] He stood for the Liberals again in the 1923 general election , losing in Leicester , and then as an independent, first without success in a by-election in the Westminster Abbey constituency , and then successfully in the general election of 1924 for Epping . The following year, he formally rejoined the Conservative Party, commenting wryly that "anyone can rat, but it takes a certain ingenuity to re-rat." [53] [80]
Churchill was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1924 under Stanley Baldwin and oversaw Britain's disastrous return to the Gold Standard , which resulted in deflation, unemployment, and the miners' strike that led to the General Strike of 1926 . [81] His decision, announced in the 1924 Budget, came after long consultation with various economists including John Maynard Keynes , the Permanent Secretary to the Treasury, Sir Otto Niemeyer and the board of the Bank of England . This decision prompted Keynes to write The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill, arguing that the return to the gold standard at the pre-war parity in 1925 (£1=$4.86) would lead to a world depression . However, the decision was generally popular and seen as 'sound economics' although it was opposed by Lord Beaverbrook and the Federation of British Industries. [82]
Churchill as Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1927
Churchill later regarded this as the greatest mistake of his life. However in discussions at the time with former Chancellor McKenna , Churchill acknowledged that the return to the gold standard and the resulting 'dear money' policy was economically bad. In those discussions he maintained the policy as fundamentally political - a return to the pre-war conditions in which he believed. [83] In his speech on the Bill he said "I will tell you what it [the return to the Gold Standard] will shackle us to. It will shackle us to reality." [84]
The return to the pre-war exchange rate and to the Gold Standard depressed industries. The most affected was the coal industry. Already suffering from declining output as shipping switched to oil, as basic British industries like cotton came under more competition in export markets, the return to the pre-war exchange was estimated to add up to 10% in costs to the industry. In July 1925, a Commission of Inquiry reported generally favouring the miners , rather than the mine owners' position. [85] Baldwin, with Churchill's support proposed a subsidy to the industry while a Royal Commission prepared a further report.
That Commission solved nothing and the miners dispute led to the General Strike of 1926 , Churchill was reported to have suggested that machine guns be used on the striking miners. Churchill edited the Government's newspaper, the British Gazette , and, during the dispute, he argued that "either the country will break the General Strike, or the General Strike will break the country" and claimed that the fascism of Benito Mussolini had "rendered a service to the whole world," showing, as it had, "a way to combat subversive forces"—that is, he considered the regime to be a bulwark against the perceived threat of Communist revolution . At one point, Churchill went as far as to call Mussolini the "Roman genius… the greatest lawgiver among men." [86]
Later economists, as well as people at the time, also criticised Churchill's budget measures. These were seen as assisting the generally prosperous rentier banking and salaried classes (to which Churchill and his associates generally belonged) at the expense of manufacturers and exporters which were known then to be suffering from imports and from competition in traditional export markets, [87] and as paring the Armed Forces too heavily. [88]
Political isolation
Churchill wrote a biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough in the mid 1930s
The Conservative government was defeated in the 1929 General Election . Churchill did not seek election to the Conservative Business Committee, the official leadership of the Conservative MPs. Over the next two years, Churchill became estranged from the Conservative leadership over the issues of protective tariffs and Indian Home Rule and by his political views and by his friendships with press barons, financiers and people whose characters were seen as dubious. When Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government in 1931, Churchill was not invited to join the Cabinet . He was at the low point in his career, in a period known as "the wilderness years". [89]
He spent much of the next few years concentrating on his writing, including Marlborough: His Life and Times —a biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough —and A History of the English Speaking Peoples (though the latter was not published until well after World War II), [89] Great Contemporaries and many newspaper articles and collections of speeches. He was one of the best paid writers of his time. [89] His political views, set forth in his 1930 Romanes Election and published as Parliamentary Government and the Economic Problem (republished in 1932 in his collection of essays "Thoughts and Adventures") involved abandoning universal suffrage , a return to a property franchise, proportional representation for the major cities and an economic 'sub parliament'. [90]
Indian Independence
See also: Simon Commission and Government of India Act 1935
During the first half of the 1930s, Churchill was outspoken in his opposition to granting Dominion status to India. He was one of the founders of the India Defence League, a group dedicated to the preservation of British power in India. In speeches and press articles in this period he forecast widespread British unemployment and civil strife in India should independence be granted. [91] The Viceroy Lord Irwin who had been appointed by the prior Conservative Government engaged in the Round Table Conference in early 1931 and then announced the Government's policy that India should be granted Dominion Status. In this the Government was supported by the Liberal Party and, officially at least, by the Conservative Party. Churchill denounced the Round Table Conference.
At a meeting of the West Essex Conservative Association specially convened so Churchill could explain his position he said, "It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle-Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well-known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace...to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor." [92] He called the Indian Congress leaders "Brahmins who mouth and patter principles of Western Liberalism." [93]
There were two incidents which damaged Churchill's reputation greatly within the Conservative Party in the period. Both were taken as attacks on the Conservative front bench. The first was his speech on the eve of the St George by-election in April 1931. In a secure Conservative seat, the official Conservative candidate Duff Cooper was opposed by an independent Conservative. The independent was supported by Lord Rothermere , Lord Beaverbrook and their respective newspapers. Although arranged before the by election was set, [94] Churchill's speech was seen as supporting the independent candidate and as a part of the Press Baron's campaign against Baldwin. Baldwin's position was strengthened when Duff Cooper won and when the civil disobedience campaign in India ceased with the Gandhi-Irwin Pact . The second issue was a claim that Sir Samuel Hoare and Lord Derby had pressured the Manchester Chamber of Commerce to change evidence it had given to the Joint Select Committee considering the Government of India Bill and in doing so had breached Parliamentary privilege. He had the matter referred to the House of Commons Privilege Committee which after investigations, in which Churchill gave evidence reported to the House that there had been no breach. [95] The report was debated on 13 June. Churchill was unable to find a single supporter in the House and the debate ended without a division.
Churchill permanently broke with Stanley Baldwin over Indian independence and never held any office while Baldwin was Prime Minister. Some historians see his basic attitude to India as being set out in his book My Early Life (1930). [96] Historians also dispute his motives in maintaining his opposition. Some see him as trying to destabilise the National Government. Some also draw a parallel between Churchill's attitudes to India and those towards the Nazis . [97]
Another source of controversy about Churchill's attitude towards Indian affairs arises over what some historians term the Indian 'nationalist approach' to the Bengal famine of 1943 , which has sought to place significant blame on Churchill's wartime government for the excess mortality of up to 3 million people. [98] While some commentators point to the disruption of the traditional marketing system and maladministration at the provincial level, [99] Arthur Herman, author of Churchill and Gandhi, contends, 'The real cause was the fall of Burma to the Japanese, which cut off India’s main supply of rice imports when domestic sources fell short...it is true that Churchill opposed diverting food supplies and transports from other theatres to India to cover the shortfall: this was wartime.' [100]
German rearmament
Beginning in 1932, when he opposed those who advocated giving Germany the right to military parity with France, Churchill spoke often of the dangers of Germany's rearmament. [101] He later, particularly in The Gathering Storm, portrayed himself as being for a time, a lone voice calling on Britain to strengthen itself to counter the belligerence of Germany. [102] However Lord Lloyd was the first to so agitate. [103] Churchill's attitude toward the fascist dictators was ambiguous. In 1931, he warned against the League of Nations opposing the Japanese in Manchuria "I hope we shall try in England to understand the position of Japan, an ancient state.... On the one side they have the dark menace of Soviet Russia. On the other the chaos of China, four or five provinces of which are being tortured under Communist rule". [104] In contemporary newspaper articles he referred to the Spanish Republican government as a Communist front, and Franco's army as the "Anti-red movement". [105] He supported the Hoare-Laval Pact and continued up until 1937 to praise Benito Mussolini . [106]
Speaking in the House of Commons in 1937, Churchill said "I will not pretend that, if I had to choose between communism and Nazism, I would choose communism".[ citation needed ] In a 1935 essay, entitled "Hitler and his Choice" as republished in Churchill's 1937 book Great Contemporaries, Churchill expressed a hope that Hitler, if he so chose, and despite his rise to power through dictatorial action, hatred, and cruelty, he might yet "go down in history as the man who restored honour and peace of mind to the great Germanic nation and brought it back serene, helpful and strong, to the forefront of the European family circle." [107] Churchill's first major speech on defence on 7 February 1934 stressed the need to rebuild the Royal Air Force and to create a Ministry of Defence; his second, on 13 July urged a renewed role for the League of Nations. These three topics remained his themes until early 1936. In 1935, he was one of the founding members of Focus which brought together people of differing political backgrounds and occupations who were united in seeking 'the defence of freedom and peace'. [108] Focus led to the formation of the much wider Arms and the Covenant Movement in 1936.
Churchill was holidaying in Spain when the Germans reoccupied the Rhineland in February 1936, and returned to a divided Britain—Labour opposition was adamant in opposing sanctions and the National Government was divided between advocates of economic sanctions and those who said that even these would lead to a humiliating backdown by Britain as France would not support any intervention. [109] Churchill's speech on 9 March was measured and praised by Neville Chamberlain as constructive. But within weeks Churchill was passed over for the post of Minister for Co-ordination of Defence in favour of the Attorney General Sir Thomas Inskip . [110] Alan Taylor called this; 'An appointment rightly described as the most extraordinary since Caligula made his horse a consul.' [111] In June 1936, Churchill organised a deputation of senior Conservatives who shared his concern to see Baldwin, Chamberlain and Halifax. He had tried to have delegates from the other two parties and later wrote "If the leaders of the Labour and Liberal oppositions had come with us there might have been a political situation so intense as to enforce remedial action". [112] As it was the meeting achieved little, Baldwin arguing that the Government was doing all it could given the anti-war feeling of the electorate.
On 12 November Churchill returned to the topic. Speaking in the Address in Reply debate after giving some specific instances of Germany’s war preparedness he said ‘’'The Government simply cannot make up their mind or they cannot get the Prime Minister to make up his mind. So they go on in strange paradox, decided only to be undecided, resolved to be irresolute, adamant for drift, solid for fluidity, all powerful for impotency. And so we go on preparing more months more years precious perhaps vital for the greatness of Britain for the locusts to eat.'’’
R.R. James called this one of Churchill’s most brilliant speeches in this period, Baldwin's reply sounding weak and disturbing the House. The exchange gave new encouragement to the Arms and the Covenant Movement. [113]
Abdication Crisis
Main article: Abdication Crisis of Edward VIII
In June 1936, Walter Monckton told Churchill that the rumours that King Edward VIII intended to marry Mrs Wallis Simpson were true. Churchill then advised against the marriage and said he regarded Mrs Simpson's existing marriage as a 'safeguard'. [114] In November, he declined Lord Salisbury 's invitation to be part of a delegation of senior Conservative backbenchers who met with Baldwin to discuss the matter. On 25 November he, Attlee and Liberal leader Archibald Sinclair met with Baldwin, were told officially of the King's intention, and asked whether they would form an administration if Baldwin and the National Government resigned should the King not take the Ministry's advice. Both Attlee and Sinclair said they would not take office if invited to do so. Churchill's reply was that his attitude was a little different but he would support the government. [115]
The Abdication crisis became public, coming to head in the first fortnight of December 1936. At this time Churchill publicly gave his support to the King. The first public meeting of the Arms and the Covenant Movement was on 3 December. Churchill was a major speaker and later wrote that in replying to the Vote of Thanks he made a declaration 'on the spur of the moment' asking for delay before any decision was made by either the King or his Cabinet. [116] Later that night Churchill saw the draft of the King's proposed wireless broadcast and spoke with Beaverbrook and the King's solicitor about it. On 4 December, he met with the King and again urged delay in any decision about abdication. On 5 December, he issued a lengthy statement implying that the Ministry was applying unconstitutional pressure on the King to force him to make a hasty decision. [117] On 7 December he tried to address the Commons to plead for delay. He was shouted down. Seemingly staggered by the unanimous hostility of all Members he left. [118]
Churchill's reputation in Parliament and England as a whole was badly damaged. Some such as Alistair Cooke saw him as trying to build a King's Party. [119] Others like Harold Macmillan were dismayed by the damage Churchill's support for the King had done to the Arms and the Covenant Movement. [120] Churchill himself later wrote "I was myself smitten in public opinion that it was the almost universal view that my political life was ended." [121] Historians are divided about Churchill's motives in his support for Edward VIII. Some such as A J P Taylor see it as being an attempt to 'overthrow the government of feeble men'. [122] Others such as Rhode James see Churchill's motives as entirely honourable and disinterested, that he felt deeply for the King. [123]
Return from exile
Churchill later sought to portray himself as an isolated voice warning of the need to rearm against Germany. While it is true that he had little following in the House of Commons during much of the 1930s he was given considerable privileges by the Government. The “Churchill group” in the later half of the decade consisted only of himself, Duncan Sandys and Brendan Bracken . It was isolated from the other main factions within the Conservative Party pressing for faster rearmament and a stronger foreign policy. [124] In some senses the ‘exile’ was more apparent than real. Churchill continued to be consulted on many matters by the Government or seen as an alternative leader. [125]
Winston Churchill giving his famous 'V' sign standing for "Victory".
Even during the time Churchill was campaigning against Indian independence, he received official and otherwise secret information. From 1932, Churchill’s neighbour, Major Desmond Morton with Ramsay MacDonald's approval, gave Churchill information on German air power. [126] From 1930 onwards Morton headed a department of the Committee of Imperial Defence charged with researching the defence preparedness of other nations. Lord Swinton as Secretary of State for Air, and with Baldwin’s approval, in 1934 gave Churchill access to official and otherwise secret information.
Swinton did so, knowing Churchill would remain a critic of the government but believing that an informed critic was better than one relying on rumour and hearsay. [127] Churchill was a fierce critic of Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Adolf Hitler [128] and in a speech to the House of Commons, he bluntly and prophetically stated, "You were given the choice between war and dishonour. You chose dishonour, and you will have war." [129]
Role as wartime Prime Minister
"Winston is back"
After the outbreak of World War II , on 3 September 1939 the day Britain declared war on Germany, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty and a member of the War Cabinet, just as he had been during the first part of World War I . When they were informed, the Board of the Admiralty sent a signal to the Fleet: "Winston is back". [130] [131] In this job, he proved to be one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called " Phony War ", when the only noticeable action was at sea. Churchill advocated the pre-emptive occupation of the neutral Norwegian iron-ore port of Narvik and the iron mines in Kiruna , Sweden, early in the war. However, Chamberlain and the rest of the War Cabinet disagreed, and the operation was delayed until the successful German invasion of Norway .
Bitter beginnings of the war
See also: Attack on Mers-el-Kébir
Churchill wears a helmet during an air raid warning in the Battle of Britain in 1940
Churchill fires a Sten submachine gun in June 1941. The man in the pin-striped suit and trilby on Churchill's left is his bodyguard, Walter H. Thompson
On 10 May 1940, hours before the German invasion of France by a lightning advance through the Low Countries , it became clear that, following failure in Norway, the country had no confidence in Chamberlain's prosecution of the war and so Chamberlain resigned. The commonly accepted version of events states that Lord Halifax turned down the post of Prime Minister because he believed he could not govern effectively as a member of the House of Lords instead of the House of Commons . Although the Prime Minister does not traditionally advise the King on the former's successor, Chamberlain wanted someone who would command the support of all three major parties in the House of Commons. A meeting between Chamberlain, Halifax, Churchill and David Margesson , the government Chief Whip , led to the recommendation of Churchill, and, as a constitutional monarch, George VI asked Churchill to be Prime Minister and to form an all-party government. Churchill's first act was to write to Chamberlain to thank him for his support. [132]
Winston Churchill walks through the ruins of Coventry Cathedral , 1941
Churchill had been among the first to recognize the growing threat of Hitler long before the outset of the Second World War, and his warnings had gone largely unheeded. Although there was an element of British public and political sentiment favouring negotiated peace with a clearly ascendant Germany, among them the Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax , Churchill nonetheless refused to consider an armistice with Hitler's Germany. [133] His use of rhetoric hardened public opinion against a peaceful resolution and prepared the British for a long war. [134] Coining the general term for the upcoming battle, Churchill stated in his "finest hour" speech to the House of Commons on 18 June 1940, "I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin." [135] By refusing an armistice with Germany, Churchill kept resistance alive in the British Empire and created the basis for the later Allied counter-attacks of 1942-45, with Britain serving as a platform for the supply of Soviet Union and the liberation of Western Europe .
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Winston Churchill
In response to previous criticisms that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of the war, Churchill created and took the additional position of Minister of Defence . He immediately put his friend and confidant, the industrialist and newspaper baron Lord Beaverbrook , in charge of aircraft production. It was Beaverbrook's business acumen that allowed Britain to quickly gear up aircraft production and engineering that eventually made the difference in the war. [136]
Churchill's speeches were a great inspiration to the embattled British. His first speech as Prime Minister was the famous "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat ". He followed that closely with two other equally famous ones, given just before the Battle of Britain . One included the words:
"... we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches , we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." [137]
The other:
Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves, that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, ' This was their finest hour '. [138]
Churchill with Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and Field Marshal Alan Brooke , 1944
At the height of the Battle of Britain, his bracing survey of the situation included the memorable line " Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few ", which engendered the enduring nickname " The Few " for the Allied fighter pilots who won it. [139] One of his most memorable war speeches came on 10 November 1942 at the Lord Mayor's Luncheon at Mansion House in London, in response to the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein . Churchill stated:
This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning. [140]
Without having much in the way of sustenance or good news to offer the British people , he took a political risk in deliberately choosing to emphasise the dangers instead.
"Rhetorical power," wrote Churchill, "is neither wholly bestowed, nor wholly acquired, but cultivated." Not all were impressed by his oratory. Robert Menzies, who was the Prime Minister of Australia, said during World War II of Churchill: "His real tyrant is the glittering phrase so attractive to his mind that awkward facts have to give way." [141] Another associate wrote: "He is . . . the slave of the words which his mind forms about ideas. . . . And he can convince himself of almost every truth if it is once allowed thus to start on its wild career through his rhetorical machinery." [142]
Relations with the United States
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek , Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Churchill at the Cairo Conference in 1943
Churchill's good relationship with Franklin D. Roosevelt secured vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes. It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940 . Upon re-election, Roosevelt immediately set about implementing a new method of providing military hardware and shipping to Britain without the need for monetary payment. Put simply, Roosevelt persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the US; and so Lend-lease was born. Churchill had 12 strategic conferences with Roosevelt which covered the Atlantic Charter , Europe first strategy, the Declaration by the United Nations and other war policies. After Pearl Harbor was attacked , Churchill's first thought in anticipation of US help was, "We have won the war!" [143] On 26 December 1941, Churchill addressed a joint meeting of the US Congress , asking of Germany and Japan, "What kind of people do they think we are?" [144] Churchill initiated the Special Operations Executive (SOE) under Hugh Dalton's Ministry of Economic Warfare , which established, conducted and fostered covert, subversive and partisan operations in occupied territories with notable success; and also the Commandos which established the pattern for most of the world's current Special Forces . The Russians referred to him as the "British Bulldog".
Winston Churchill at the Quebec Conference in 1944.
Churchill's health was fragile, as shown by a mild heart attack he suffered in December 1941 at the White House and also in December 1943 when he contracted pneumonia. Despite this, he travelled over 100,000 miles (160,000 km) throughout the war to meet other national leaders. For security, he usually travelled using the alias Colonel Warden. [145] Churchill was party to treaties that would redraw post-World War II European and Asian boundaries. These were discussed as early as 1943. Proposals for European boundaries and settlements were officially agreed to by Harry S Truman , Churchill, and Stalin at Potsdam . At the Second Quebec Conference in 1944 he drafted and, together with US President Franklin D. Roosevelt , signed a toned-down version of the original Morgenthau Plan , in which they pledged to convert Germany after its unconditional surrender "into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character." [146] Churchill's strong relationship with Harry Truman was also of great significance to both countries. While he clearly regretted the loss of his close friend and counterpart Roosevelt, Churchill was enormously supportive of Truman in his first days in office, calling him, "the type of leader the world needs when it needs him most." [147]
Relations with the Soviet Union
When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union , Winston Churchill, a vehement anti-Communist, famously stated "If Hitler invaded Hell, I would at least make a favourable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons," regarding his policy toward Stalin [148] . Soon, British supplies and tanks were flowing to help the Soviet Union. [149]
Churchill secretly meets with President Ismet Inönü at the Yenice Station 15 miles (24 km) outside of Adana in south-east Turkey , on 30 January 1943
The settlement concerning the borders of Poland, that is, the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union and between Germany and Poland , was viewed as a betrayal in Poland during the post-war years, as it was established against the views of the Polish government in exile . It was Winston Churchill, who tried to motivate Mikołajczyk , who was Prime Minister of the Polish government in exile, to accept Stalin's wishes, but Mikołajczyk refused. Churchill was convinced that the only way to alleviate tensions between the two populations was the transfer of people, to match the national borders.
As he expounded in the House of Commons on 15 December 1944, "Expulsion is the method which, insofar as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble... A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by these transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions." [150] [151] However the resulting expulsions of Germans were carried out in a way which resulted in much hardship and, according to a 1966 report by the West German Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons , the death of over 2.1 million. Churchill opposed the effective annexation of Poland by the Soviet Union and wrote bitterly about it in his books, but he was unable to prevent it at the conferences. [152]
Winston Churchill at the Yalta Conference , with Roosevelt and Stalin beside him.
During October 1944, he and Eden were in Moscow to meet with the Russian leadership. At this point, Russian forces were beginning to advance into various eastern European countries. Churchill held the view that until everything was formally and properly worked out at the Yalta conference , there had to be a temporary, war-time, working agreement with regard to who would run what. [153] The most significant of these meetings were held on 9 October 1944 in the Kremlin between Churchill and Stalin. During the meeting, Poland and the Balkan problems were discussed. [154] Churchill recounted his speech to Stalin on the day:
Let us settle about our affairs in the Balkans. Your armies are in Rumania and Bulgaria. We have interests, missions, and agents there. Don't let us get at cross-purposes in small ways. So far as Britain and Russia are concerned, how would it do for you to have ninety per cent predominance in Rumania, for us to have ninety per cent of the say in Greece, and go fifty-fifty about Yugoslavia? [153]
Stalin agreed to this Percentages Agreement , ticking a piece of paper as he heard the translation. In 1958, five years after the recount of this meeting was published (in The Second World War ), authorities of the Soviet denied that Stalin accepted the "imperialist proposal". [154]
One of the conclusions of the Yalta Conference was that the Allies would return all Soviet citizens that found themselves in the Allied zone to the Soviet Union. This immediately affected the Soviet prisoners of war liberated by the Allies, but was also extended to all Eastern European refugees . [155]
Dresden bombings controversy
Main article: Bombing of Dresden in World War II
Between 13 February and 15 February 1945, British and the US bombers attacked the German city of Dresden , which was crowded with German wounded and refugees. [156] Because of the cultural importance of the city, and of the number of civilian casualties close to the end of the war, this remains one of the most controversial Western Allied actions of the war. Following the bombing Churchill stated in a top secret telegram:
It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of bombing of German cities simply for the sake of increasing the terror, though under other pretexts, should be reviewed ... I feel the need for more precise concentration upon military objectives such as oil and communications behind the immediate battle-zone, rather than on mere acts of terror and wanton destruction, however impressive. [157]
On reflection, under pressure from the Chiefs of Staff and in response to the views expressed by Sir Charles Portal ( Chief of the Air Staff ,) and Arthur Harris ( AOC-in-C of Bomber Command ,) among others, Churchill withdrew his memo and issued a new one. [158] [159] This final version of the memo completed on 1 April 1945, stated:
It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of the so called 'area-bombing' of German cities should be reviewed from the point of view of our own interests. If we come into control of an entirely ruined land, there will be a great shortage of accommodation for ourselves and our allies ... We must see to it that our attacks do no more harm to ourselves in the long run than they do to the enemy's war effort. [158] [159]
Ultimately, responsibility for the British part of the attack lay with Churchill, which is why he has been criticised for allowing the bombings to happen. The German historian Jörg Friedrich , claims that "Winston Churchill's decision to [area] bomb a shattered Germany between January and May 1945 was a war crime" [160] and writing in 2006 the philosopher A. C. Grayling questioned the whole strategic bombing campaign by the RAF presenting the argument that although it was not a war crime it was a moral crime and undermines the Allies contention that they fought a just war . [161]
Churchill waves to crowds in Whitehall on the day he broadcast to the nation that the war with Germany had been won, 8 May 1945.
On the other hand, it has also been asserted that Churchill's involvement in the bombing of Dresden was based on the strategic and tactical aspects of winning the war. The destruction of Dresden, while immense, was designed to expedite the defeat of Germany. As the historian Max Hastings said in an article subtitled, "the Allied Bombing of Dresden": "I believe it is wrong to describe strategic bombing as a war crime, for this might be held to suggest some moral equivalence with the deeds of the Nazis. Bombing represented a sincere, albeit mistaken, attempt to bring about Germany's military defeat." Furthermore British historian, Frederick Taylor asserts that "All sides bombed each other's cities during the war. Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia. That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids. But the Allied bombing campaign was attached to military operations and ceased as soon as military operations ceased." [162]
The Second World War ends
Potsdam Conference : Josef Stalin , Harry S. Truman and Winston Churchill, July 1945
In June 1944, the Allied Forces invaded Normandy and pushed the Nazi forces back into Germany on a broad front over the coming year. After being attacked on three fronts by the Allies, and in spite of Allied failures, such as Operation Market Garden , and German counter-attacks, including the Battle of the Bulge , Germany was eventually defeated. On 7 May 1945 at the SHAEF headquarters in Rheims the Allies accepted Germany's surrender . On the same day in a BBC news flash John Snagge announced that 8 May would be Victory in Europe Day . [163] On Victory in Europe Day, Churchill broadcast to the nation that Germany had surrendered and that a final cease fire on all fronts in Europe would come into effect at one minute past midnight that night. [164] [165] Afterwards Churchill told a huge crowd in Whitehall: "This is your victory." The people shouted: "No, it is yours", and Churchill then conducted them in the singing of Land of Hope and Glory . In the evening he made another broadcast to the nation asserting the defeat of Japan in the coming months. [45] The Japanese later surrendered on 15 August 1945.
Churchill at Potsdam, July 1945
See also: Operation Unthinkable
As Europe celebrated peace at the end of six years of war, Churchill was concerning on the possibility that the celebrations would soon be brutally interrupted. [166] He concluded that the UK and the US must prepare for the Red Army ignoring previously-agreed frontiers and agreements in Europe "to impose upon Russia the will of the United States and the British Empire." [167] According to the Operation Unthinkable plan ordered by Churchill and developed by the British Armed Forces, the Third World War could have started on 1 July 1945 with a sudden attack against the allied Soviet troops. The plan was rejected by the British Chiefs of Staff Committee as militarily unfeasible. However this decision didn't stop the further development of the war plans: with the beginning Arms race the militarily unfeasible Third World War was developed into the Cold War doctrine.
Leader of the opposition
Main article: Later life of Winston Churchill
Although Churchill's role in World War II had generated him much support from the British population, he was defeated in the 1945 election . [168] Many reasons for this have been given, key among them being that a desire for post-war reform was widespread amongst the population and that the man who had led Britain in war was not seen as the man to lead the nation in peace. [169]
For six years he was to serve as the Leader of the Opposition . During these years Churchill continued to have an impact on world affairs. During his March 1946 trip to the United States, Churchill, famously lost a lot of money in a poker game with Harry Truman and his advisors. [170] (He also liked to play Bezique , which he learned while serving in the Boer War.)
During this trip he gave his Iron Curtain speech about the USSR and the creation of the Eastern Bloc . Speaking on March 5, 1946 at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri , he declared:
Churchill with American General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery at a meeting of NATO in October 1951, shortly before Churchill was to become Prime Minister for a second time.
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere. [171]
Churchill also argued strongly for British independence from the European Coal and Steel Community , which he saw as a Franco-German project. He saw Britain's place as separate from the continent, much more in-line with the countries of the Commonwealth and the Empire and with the United States, the so-called Anglosphere . [172] [173]
Second term as Prime Minister
Main articles: Mau Mau Uprising , Malayan Emergency , and 1953 Iranian coup d'état
Return to Government and the Decline of the British Empire
After the General Election of 1951 , Churchill again became Prime Minister. His third government—after the wartime national government and the brief caretaker government of 1945—lasted until his resignation in 1955. His domestic priorities in his last government were overshadowed by a series of foreign policy crises, which were partly the result of the continued decline of British military and imperial prestige and power. Being a strong proponent of Britain as an international power , Churchill would often meet such moments with direct action . One example was his dispatch of British troops to Kenya to deal with the Mau Mau rebellion . [174] Trying to retain what he could of the Empire, he once stated that, "I will not preside over a dismemberment." [174]
War in Malaya
This was followed by events which became known as the Malayan Emergency . In Malaya , a rebellion against British rule had been in progress since 1948. [175] Once again, Churchill's government inherited a crisis, and Churchill chose to use direct military action against those in rebellion while attempting to build an alliance with those who were not. [45] [176] While the rebellion was slowly being defeated, it was equally clear that colonial rule from Britain was no longer sustainable. [175] [177]
Relations with the United States
Churchill also devoted much of his time in office to Anglo-American relations and although Churchill did not get on well with President Dwight D. Eisenhower [ citation needed ], Churchill attempted to maintain the special relationship with the United States. He made four official transatlantic visits to America during his second term as Prime Minister. [178]
The series of strokes
In June 1953, when he was 78, Churchill suffered a stroke at 10 Downing Street . News of this was kept from the public and from Parliament, who were told that Churchill was suffering from exhaustion. He went to his country home, Chartwell, to recuperate from the effects of the stroke which had affected his speech and ability to walk. [45] He returned to public life in October to make a speech at a Conservative Party conference at Margate . [45] [179] However, aware that he was slowing down both physically and mentally, Churchill retired as Prime Minister in 1955 and was succeeded by Anthony Eden .
Retirement and Death
Churchill spent much of his retirement at his home Chartwell in Kent. He purchased it in 1922 after his daughter Mary was born.
Elizabeth II offered to create Churchill Duke of London , but this was declined due to the objections of his son Randolph, who would have inherited the title on his father's death. [180] After leaving the premiership, Churchill spent less time in parliament until he stood down at the 1964 General Election . As a mere "back-bencher," Churchill spent most of his retirement at Chartwell and at his home in Hyde Park Gate, in London. [45] As his mental and physical faculties decayed, he began to lose the battle he had fought for so long against the "black dog" of depression . [45] In 1963, US President John F. Kennedy , acting under authorisation granted by an Act of Congress , proclaimed him an Honorary Citizen of the United States , [181] but he was unable to attend the White House ceremony. On 15 January 1965, Churchill suffered a severe stroke that left him gravely ill. He died at his home nine days later, at age 90, on the morning of Sunday 24 January 1965, coincidentally 70 years to the day after his father's death. [182]
Funeral
By decree of the Queen, his body lay in state for three days and a state funeral service was held at St Paul's Cathedral . [183] As his coffin passed down the Thames from Tower Pier to Festival Pier on the Havengore , dockers lowered their crane jibs in a salute. [184] The Royal Artillery fired a 19-gun salute (as head of government ), and the RAF staged a fly-by of sixteen English Electric Lightning fighters. The coffin was then taken the short distance to Waterloo Station where it was loaded onto a specially prepared and painted carriage - Southern Railway Van S2464S - as part of the funeral train for its rail journey to Bladon. [185] The funeral also saw one of the largest assemblage of statesmen in the world until the 2005 funeral of Pope John Paul II . [186] The funeral train of Pullman coaches carrying his family mourners was hauled by Bulleid Pacific steam locomotive No. 34051 "Winston Churchill". In the fields along the route, and at the stations through which the train passed, thousands stood in silence to pay their last respects. At Churchill's request, he was buried in the family plot at St Martin's Church , Bladon , near Woodstock, not far from his birthplace at Blenheim Palace . Churchill's funeral van - Southern Railway Van S2464S - is now part of a preservation project with the Swanage Railway having been repatriated to the UK in 2007 from the USA where it was exported in 1965. [187]
Churchill artist, historian, and writer
Statue of Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt in New Bond Street, London
Main articles: Winston Churchill as historian and Winston Churchill as writer
Winston Churchill was also an accomplished artist and took great pleasure in painting, especially after his resignation as First Lord of the Admiralty in 1915. [188] He found a haven in art to overcome the spells of depression —or as he termed it, the "Black Dog"—which he suffered throughout his life. As William Rees-Mogg has stated, "In his own life, he had to suffer the 'black dog' of depression. In his landscapes and still lives there is no sign of depression". [189] He is best known for his impressionist scenes of landscape, many of which were painted while on holiday in the South of France or Morocco. [189] He continued his hobby throughout his life and painted dozens of paintings, many of which are on show in the studio at Chartwell. [190]
Despite his lifelong fame and upper-class origins Churchill always struggled to keep his income at a level that would fund his extravagant lifestyle. MPs before 1946 received only a nominal salary (and in fact did not receive anything at all until the Parliament Act 1911 ) so many had secondary professions from which to earn a living. [191] From his first book in 1898 until his second stint as Prime Minister, Churchill's income was almost entirely made from writing books and opinion pieces for newspapers and magazines. The most famous of his newspaper articles are those that appeared in the Evening Standard from 1936 warning of the rise of Hitler and the danger of the policy of appeasement.
Churchill was also a prolific writer of books, writing a novel, two biographies, three volumes of memoirs , and several histories in addition to his many newspaper articles. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values". [192] Two of his most famous works, published after his first premiereship brought his international fame to new heights, were his six-volume memoir The Second World War and A History of the English-Speaking Peoples ; a four-volume history covering the period from Caesar's invasions of Britain (55 BC) to the beginning of the First World War (1914). [193]
Honours
Main article: Honours of Winston Churchill
Statue in London
Aside from receiving the great honour of a state funeral , Churchill also received numerous awards and honours, including being made the first Honorary Citizen of the United States . [194] Churchill received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his numerous published works, especially his six-edition set The Second World War. In a 2002 BBC poll of the " 100 Greatest Britons ", he was proclaimed "The Greatest of Them All" based on approximately a million votes from BBC viewers. [195] Churchill was also rated as one of the most influential leaders in history by Time magazine . [196] Churchill College , Cambridge was founded in 1958 on his behalf.
Ancestors
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Which absorbable medical suture is made by twisting together strands of purified collagen taken from bovine intestines? | Suture - wikidoc
Suture
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
A suture is a medical device that doctors , and especially surgeons , use to hold skin , internal organs , blood vessels and all other tissues of the human body together, after they have been severed by injury or surgery . They must be strong (so they do not break), non-toxic and hypoallergenic (to avoid adverse reactions in the body), and flexible (so they can be tied and knotted easily). In addition, they must lack the so called "wick effect", which means that sutures must not allow fluids to penetrate the body through them from outside, which could easily cause infections.
Absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures
Sutures are divided into two kinds - those which are absorbable and will break down harmlessly in the body over time without intervention, and those which are non-absorbable and must be manually removed if they are not left indefinitely. The type of suture used varies on the operation, with the major criteria being the demands of the location and environment.
Sutures to be placed internally would require re-opening if they were to be removed. Sutures which lie on the exterior of the body can be removed within minutes, and without re-opening the wound. As a result, absorbable sutures are often used internally; non-absorbable externally.
Sutures to be placed in a stressful environment, for example the heart (constant pressure and movement) or the bladder (adverse chemical presence) may require specialized or stronger materials to perform their role; usually such sutures are either specially treated, or made of special materials, and are often non-absorbable to reduce the risk of degradation.
Absorbable sutures
Absorbable sutures are made of materials which are broken down in tissue after a given period of time, which depending on the material can be from ten days to eight weeks. They are used therefore in many of the internal tissues of the body. In most cases, three weeks is sufficient for the wound to close firmly. The suture is not needed any more, and the fact that it disappears is an advantage, as there is no foreign material left inside the body and no need for the patient to have the sutures removed.
Absorbable sutures were originally made of the intestines of sheep, the so called catgut . The manufacturing process was similar to that of natural musical strings for violins and guitar , and also of natural strings for tennis racquets. The inventor, a 10th century surgeon named al-Zahrawi reportedly discovered the dissolving nature of catgut when his lute 's strings were eaten by a monkey. Today, gut sutures are made of specially prepared beef and sheep intestine, and may be untreated (plain gut), tanned with chromium salts to increase their persistence in the body (chromic gut), or heat-treated to give more rapid absorption (fast gut). However, the major part of the absorbable sutures used are now made of synthetic polymer fibers, which may be braided or monofilament; these offer numerous advantages over gut sutures, notably ease of handling, low cost, low tissue reaction, consistent performance and guaranteed non-toxicity. In Europe and Japan, gut sutures have been banned due to concerns over bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad-cow disease), although the herds from which gut is harvested are certified BSE-free. Each major suture manufacturer has its own proprietary formulations for its brands of synthetic absorbable sutures; various blends of polyglycolic acid (Biovek for example), lactic acid or caprolactone are common.
Occasionally, absorbable sutures can cause inflammation and be rejected by the body rather than absorbed.
Non-absorbable sutures
8 nonabsorbable sutures in a person's left thumb.
Nonabsorbable sutures are made of materials which are not metabolized by the body, and are used therefore either on skin wound closure, where the sutures can be removed after a few weeks, or in some inner tissues in which absorbable sutures are not adequate. This is the case, for example, in the heart and in blood vessels, whose rhythmic movement requires a suture which stays longer than three weeks, to give the wound enough time to close. Other organs, like the bladder, contain fluids which make absorbable sutures disappear in only a few days, too early for the wound to heal. Inflammation caused by the foreign protein in some absorbable sutures can amplify scarring, so if other types of suture are less antigenic (ie, do not provoke as much of an immune response ) it would represent a way to reduce scarring.
There are several materials used for nonabsorbable sutures. The most common is a natural fiber, silk , which undergoes a special manufacturing process to make it adequate for its use in surgery. Other nonabsorbable sutures are made of artificial fibers, like polypropylene , polyester or nylon ; these may or may not have coatings to enhance their performance characteristics. Finally, stainless steel wires are commonly used in orthopedic surgery and for sternal closure in cardiac surgery .
Three sutures to a person's right arm, near the elbow.
Surgical needles for use with sutures
Traumatic needles are needles with holes or eyes which are supplied to the hospital separate from their suture thread. The suture must be threaded on site, as is done when sewing at home. Atraumatic needles with sutures comprise an eyeless needle attached to a specific length of suture thread. The suture manufacturer swages the suture thread to the eyeless atraumatic needle at the factory. There are several advantages to having the needle pre-mounted on the suture. The doctor or the nurse or odp does not have to spend time threading the suture on the needle. More important, the suture end of a swaged needle is smaller than the needle body. In traumatic needles with eyes, the thread comes out of the needle's hole on both sides. When passing through the tissues, this type of suture rips the tissue to a certain extent, thus the name traumatic. Nearly all modern sutures feature swaged atraumatic needles.
There are several shapes of surgical needles, including:
straight
Needles may also be classified by their point geometry; examples include:
taper (needle body is round and tapers smoothly to a point)
cutting (needle body is triangular and has a sharpened cutting edge on the inside)
reverse cutting (cutting edge on the outside)
trocar point or tapercut (needle body is round and tapered, but ends in a small triangular cutting point)
blunt points for sewing friable tissues
side cutting or spatula points (flat on top and bottom with a cutting edge along the front to one side) for eye surgery
Finally, atraumatic needles may be permanently swaged to the suture or may be designed to come off the suture with a sharp straight tug. These "pop-offs" are commonly used for interrupted sutures, where each suture is only passed once and then tied.
Sizes of sutures
Suture sizes are defined by the United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.). Sutures were originally manufactured ranging in size from #1 to #6, with #1 being the smallest. A #4 suture would be roughly the diameter of a tennis racquet string. The manufacturing techniques, derived at the beginning from the production of musical strings, did not allow thinner diameters. As the procedures improved, #0 was added to the suture diameters, and later, thinner and thinner threads were manufactured, which were identified as #00 (#2-0 or #2/0) to #000000 (#6-0 or #6/0).
Modern sutures range from #5 (heavy braided suture for orthopedics) to #11-0 (fine monofilament suture for ophthalmics). Atraumatic needles are manufactured in all shapes for most sizes. The actual diameter of thread for a given U.S.P. size differs depending on the suture material class.
A wound before and after being closed by simple interrupted sutures
U.S.P.
Subcuticular
Removal of sutures
Whilst some sutures are intended to be permanent, and others in specialized cases may be kept in place for an extended period of many weeks, as a rule sutures are a short term device to allow healing of a trauma or wound. According to about.com 's article on nursing: [1]
"Different parts of the body heal at different intervals. Common time to remove stitches will vary: facial wounds 3-5 days; scalp wound 7-10 days; limbs 10-14 days; joints 14 days; trunk of the body 7-10 days.
"Not all stitches must be removed. If a small area remains unhealed, notify the health care practitioner. Then if ordered, remove sutures from the healed area only."
Suture materials
Advantages
Very high knot-pull tensile strength , good knot security due to special excellent handling features
Very high knot-pull tensile strength, good knot security due to special surface finish, improved smoothness due to the dry presentation of the thread, excellent handling features
High initial tensile strength, guaranteed holding power through the critical wound healing period. Smooth passage through tissue, easy handling, excellent knotting ability, secure knot tying
Tensile strength retention, guaranteed holding power
Indications
For all surgical procedures especially when tissues that regenerate faster are involved. General closure, ophthalmic, orthopedics, obstetrics/gynecology and gastro-intestinal tract surgery.
For all surgical procedures, especially for tissues that regenerate faster.
Subcutaneous , intracutaneous closures, abdominal and thoracic surgeries
PDS is particularly useful where the combination of an absorbable suture and extended wound support is desirable, pediatric cardiovascular surgery, ophthalmic surgery
Contraindications
Not recommended for incisions that require the sustaining of the tissues for a prolonged period of time.
Not recommended for an incision that requires sustaining of the tissues for a prolonged period of time.
This suture being absorbable should not be used where extended approximation of tissue is required.
This type of suture being absorbable is not to be used where prolonged approximation of tissues under stress is required and/ or in conjunction with prosthetic devices
Precautions
Special precautions should be taken in patients with cancer , anemia and malnutrition conditions. They tend to absorb the sutures at a higher rate. Cardiovascular surgery , due to the continued heart contractions. It is absorbed much faster when used in the mouth and in the vagina , due to the presence of microorganisms . Avoid using where long term tissue approximation is needed. Absorption is faster in infected tissues
It is absorbed much faster when used in the mouth and in the vagina, due to the presence of microorganism. Cardiovascular surgery, due to the continued heart contractions. Special precautions should be taken in patients with cancer, anemia and malnutrition conditions. They tend to absorb this suture at a higher rate.
Special precautions should be taken in elderly patients and patients with history of anemia and malnutrition conditions. As with any suture material, adequate knot security requires the accepted surgical technique of flat and square ties.
The PDS suture knots must be properly placed to be secure. Conjunctival and vaginal mucosal sutures remaining in placed for extended periods may be associated with localized irritation. Subcuticular sutures should be placed as deeply as possible in order to minimize the erythema and induration normally associated with absorption.
U.S.P. Needle Pull Specifications
Other facts
Tissue adhesives
In recent years, topical cyanoacrylate adhesives ("liquid stitches") have been used in combination with, or as an alternative to, sutures in wound closure. The adhesive remains liquid until exposed to water or water-containing substances/tissue, after which it cures ( polymerizes ) and forms a flexible film that bonds to the underlying surface. The tissue adhesive has been shown to act as a barrier to microbial penetration as long as the adhesive film remains intact. Limitations of tissue adhesives include contraindications to use near the eyes and a mild learning curve on correct usage.
Antimicrobial sutures
Another recent development in wound closure involves the use of sutures coated with antimicrobial substances to reduce the chances of wound infection . While long-term studies are not yet available, preliminary results indicate that these sutures are effective at keeping bacteria out of wounds.
See also
| Catgut |
Who first appeared to Mohammed when he was 40 on Mount Hira near Mecca? | Surgical suture - wikidoc
Surgical suture
Surgical suture on a needle holder. Packaging shown above.
A wound before and after being closed by interrupted sutures (simple and mattress).
Micrograph of a surgical suture with a Foreign-body giant cell reaction. H&E stain .
WikiDoc Resources for Surgical suture
Articles
List of terms related to Surgical suture
Overview
A suture is a medical device that doctors , embalmers, and surgeons use to hold skin , internal organs , blood vessels and all other tissues of the human body together after they have been severed by injury, incision or surgery . They must be strong so that they do not break, non-toxic, hypoallergenic (to avoid adverse reactions in the body), and flexible (so they can be tied and knotted easily). In addition, they must lack the so called "wick effect", which means that sutures must not allow fluids to penetrate the body through them from outside, which could easily cause infections.
Absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures
Sutures (also known as stitches) are divided into two kinds – those which are absorbable and will break down harmlessly in the body over time without intervention, and those which are non-absorbable and must be manually removed if they are not left indefinitely. The type of suture used varies on the operation, with the major criteria being the demands of the location and environment.
Sutures to be placed internally would require re-opening if they were to be removed. Sutures which lie on the exterior of the body can be removed within minutes, and without re-opening the wound. As a result, absorbable sutures are often used internally; non-absorbable externally.
Sutures to be placed in a stressful environment, for example the heart (constant pressure and movement) or the bladder (adverse chemical presence) may require specialized or stronger materials to perform their role; usually such sutures are either specially treated, or made of special materials, and are often non-absorbable to reduce the risk of premature degradation.
Absorbable sutures
Absorbable sutures are made of materials which are broken down in tissue after a given period of time, which depending on the material can be from ten days to eight weeks. They are used therefore in many of the internal tissues of the body. In most cases, three weeks is sufficient for the wound to close firmly. The suture is not needed any more, and the fact that it disappears is an advantage, as there is no foreign material left inside the body and no need for the patient to have the sutures removed.
Absorbable sutures were originally made of the intestines of sheep, the so called catgut . The manufacturing process was similar to that of natural musical strings for violins and guitar, and also of natural strings for tennis racquets. The inventor, a 10th century surgeon named al-Zahrawi reportedly discovered the dissolving nature of catgut when his lute's strings were eaten by a monkey. Today, gut sutures are made of specially prepared beef and sheep intestine, and may be untreated (plain gut), tanned with chromium salts to increase their persistence in the body (chromic gut), or heat-treated to give more rapid absorption (fast gut). However, the majority of absorbable sutures are now made of synthetic polymer fibers, which may be braided or monofilament; these offer numerous advantages over gut sutures, notably ease of handling, low cost, low tissue reaction, consistent performance and guaranteed non-toxicity. In Europe and Japan, gut sutures have been banned due to concerns over bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad-cow disease), although the herds from which gut is harvested are certified BSE-free. Each major suture manufacturer has its own proprietary formulations for its brands of synthetic absorbable sutures; various blends of polyglycolic acid (Biovek for example), polylactic acid or caprolactone are common.
Occasionally, absorbable sutures can cause inflammation and be rejected by the body rather than absorbed.
Non-absorbable sutures
8 nonabsorbable sutures in a person's left thumb.
Nonabsorbable sutures are made of materials which are not metabolized by the body, and are used therefore either on skin wound closure, where the sutures can be removed after a few weeks, or in some inner tissues in which absorbable sutures are not adequate. This is the case, for example, in the heart and in blood vessels, whose rhythmic movement requires a suture which stays longer than three weeks, to give the wound enough time to close. Other organs, like the bladder, contain fluids which make absorbable sutures disappear in only a few days, too early for the wound to heal. Inflammation caused by the foreign protein in some absorbable sutures can amplify scarring, so if other types of suture are less antigenic (ie, do not provoke as much of an immune response ) it would represent a way to reduce scarring.
There are several materials used for nonabsorbable sutures. The most common is a natural fiber, silk , which undergoes a special manufacturing process to make it adequate for its use in surgery. Other nonabsorbable sutures are made of artificial fibers, like polypropylene , polyester or nylon ; these may or may not have coatings to enhance their performance characteristics. Finally, stainless steel wires are commonly used in orthopedic surgery and for sternal closure in cardiac surgery .
Surgical needles for use with sutures
Surgical needles which form 3/8th of a circle, in different sizes.
Surgical needles which are semicircular, in different sizes.
Traumatic needles are needles with holes or eyes which are supplied to the hospital separate from their suture thread. The suture must be threaded on site, as is done when sewing at home. Atraumatic needles with sutures comprise an eyeless needle attached to a specific length of suture thread. The suture manufacturer swages the suture thread to the eyeless atraumatic needle at the factory. There are several advantages to having the needle pre-mounted on the suture. The doctor or the nurse or odp does not have to spend time threading the suture on the needle. More importantly, the suture end of a swaged needle is smaller than the needle body. In traumatic needles with eyes, the thread comes out of the needle's hole on both sides. When passing through the tissues, this type of suture rips the tissue to a certain extent, thus the name traumatic. Nearly all modern sutures feature swaged atraumatic needles.
There are several shapes of surgical needles, including:
straight
Needles may also be classified by their point geometry; examples include:
taper (needle body is round and tapers smoothly to a point)
cutting (needle body is triangular and has a sharpened cutting edge on the inside)
reverse cutting (cutting edge on the outside)
trocar point or tapercut (needle body is round and tapered, but ends in a small triangular cutting point)
blunt points for sewing friable tissues
side cutting or spatula points (flat on top and bottom with a cutting edge along the front to one side) for eye surgery
Finally, atraumatic needles may be permanently swaged to the suture or may be designed to come off the suture with a sharp straight tug. These "pop-offs" are commonly used for interrupted sutures, where each suture is only passed once and then tied.
Sizes of sutures
Suture sizes are defined by the United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.). Sutures were originally manufactured ranging in size from #1 to #6, with #1 being the smallest. A #4 suture would be roughly the diameter of a tennis racquet string. The manufacturing techniques, derived at the beginning from the production of musical strings, did not allow thinner diameters. As the procedures improved, #0 was added to the suture diameters, and later, thinner and thinner threads were manufactured, which were identified as #00 (#2-0 or #2/0) to #000000 (#6-0 or #6/0).
Modern sutures range from #5 (heavy braided suture for orthopedics) to #11-0 (fine monofilament suture for ophthalmics). Atraumatic needles are manufactured in all shapes for most sizes. The actual diameter of thread for a given U.S.P. size differs depending on the suture material class.
U.S.P.
Subcuticular
Removal of sutures
While some sutures are intended to be permanent, and others in specialized cases may be kept in place for an extended period of many weeks, as a rule sutures are a short term device to allow healing of a trauma or wound. According to about.com's article on nursing: [1]
"Different parts of the body heal at different intervals. Common time to remove stitches will vary: facial wounds 3–5 days; scalp wound 7–10 days; limbs 10–14 days; joints 14 days; trunk of the body 7–10 days.
"Not all stitches must be removed. If a small area remains unhealed, notify the health care practitioner. Then if ordered, remove sutures from the healed area only."
Suture materials
Advantages
Very high knot-pull tensile strength, good knot security due to special excellent handling features
Very high knot-pull tensile strength, good knot security due to special surface finish, improved smoothness due to the dry presentation of the thread, excellent handling features
High initial tensile strength, guaranteed holding power through the critical wound healing period. Smooth passage through tissue, easy handling, excellent knotting ability, secure knot tying
Tensile strength retention, guaranteed holding power
Indications
For all surgical procedures especially when tissues that regenerate faster are involved. General closure, ophthalmic, orthopedics, obstetrics/gynecology and gastro-intestinal tract surgery.
For all surgical procedures, especially for tissues that regenerate faster.
Subcutaneous , intracutaneous closures, abdominal and thoracic surgeries
PDS is particularly useful where the combination of an absorbable suture and extended wound support is desirable, pediatric cardiovascular surgery, ophthalmic surgery
Contraindications
Not recommended for incisions that require the sustaining of the tissues for a prolonged period of time.
Not recommended for an incision that requires sustaining of the tissues for a prolonged period of time.
This suture being absorbable should not be used where extended approximation of tissue is required.
This type of suture being absorbable is not to be used where prolonged approximation of tissues under stress is required and/ or in conjunction with prosthetic devices
Precautions
Special precautions should be taken in patients with cancer, anemia and malnutrition conditions. They tend to absorb the sutures at a higher rate. Cardiovascular surgery , due to the continued heart contractions. It is absorbed much faster when used in the mouth and in the vagina , due to the presence of microorganisms . Avoid using where long term tissue approximation is needed. Absorption is faster in infected tissues
It is absorbed much faster when used in the mouth and in the vagina, due to the presence of microorganism. Cardiovascular surgery, due to the continued heart contractions. Special precautions should be taken in patients with cancer, anemia and malnutrition conditions. They tend to absorb this suture at a higher rate.
Special precautions should be taken in elderly patients and patients with history of anemia and malnutrition conditions. As with any suture material, adequate knot security requires the accepted surgical technique of flat and square ties.
The PDS suture knots must be properly placed to be secure. Conjunctival and vaginal mucosal sutures remaining in place for extended periods may be associated with localized irritation. Subcuticular sutures should be placed as deeply as possible in order to minimize the erythema and induration normally associated with absorption.
U.S.P. Needle Pull Specifications
Other facts
Tissue adhesives
In recent years, topical cyanoacrylate adhesives ("liquid stitches") have been used in combination with, or as an alternative to, sutures in wound closure. The adhesive remains liquid until exposed to water or water-containing substances/tissue, after which it cures (polymerizes) and forms a flexible film that bonds to the underlying surface. The tissue adhesive has been shown to act as a barrier to microbial penetration as long as the adhesive film remains intact. Limitations of tissue adhesives include contraindications to use near the eyes and a mild learning curve on correct usage.
Cyanoacrylate is the generic name for cyanoacrylate based fast-acting glues such as methyl-2-cyanoacrylate, ethyl-2-cyanoacrylate (commonly sold under trade names like Superglue and Krazy Glue), n-butyl-cyanoacrylate. Skin glues like Indermil and Histoacryl were the first medical grade tissue adhesives to be used, and these are composed of n-butyl cyanoacrylate. These worked well but had the disadvantage of having to be stored in the refrigerator, were exothermic so they stung the patient, and the bond was brittle. Nowadays, the longer chain polymer, 2-octyl cyanoacrylate is the preferred medical grade glue encountered under various trade names, e.g. SurgiSeal, FloraSeal, and Dermabond. These have the advantage of being more flexible, stronger bond, and easier to use.
Antimicrobial sutures
Another recent development in wound closure involves the use of sutures coated with antimicrobial substances to reduce the chances of wound infection. While long-term studies are not yet available, preliminary results indicate that these sutures are effective at inhibiting bacterial growth in wounds.
See also
| i don't know |
Which country's flag contains the outline of the country? | Flags of Every Country
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This map shows Flags of every country in the world.
Flag description produced from actual flags or the best information available at the time the entry was written. The flags of independent states are used by their dependencies unless there is an officially recognized local flag. Some disputed and other areas do not have flags.
Note: Flag description from CIA Factbook and Flag image from Wikipedia.
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Abkhazia
Afghanistan
three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), red, and green, with the national emblem in white centered on the red band and slightly overlapping the other two bands; the center of the emblem features a mosque with pulpit and flags on either side, below the mosque are numerals for the solar year 1298 (1919 in the Gregorian calendar, the year of Afghan independence from the UK); this central image is circled by a border consisting of sheaves of wheat on the left and right, in the upper-center is an Arabic inscription of the Shahada (Muslim creed) below which are rays of the rising sun over the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great"), and at bottom center is a scroll bearing the name Afghanistan; black signifies the past, red is for the blood shed for independence, and green can represent either hope for the future, agricultural prosperity, or Islam
note: Afghanistan had more changes to its national flag in the 20th century than any other country; the colors black, red, and green appeared on most of them
Akrotiri
the flag of the UK is used
Albania
red with a black two-headed eagle in the center; the design is claimed to be that of 15th-century hero George Castriota SKANDERBERG, who led a successful uprising against the Turks that resulted in a short-lived independence for some Albanian regions (1443-1478); an unsubstantiated explanation for the eagle symbol is the tradition that Albanians see themselves as descendants of the eagle; they refer to themselves as "Shkypetars," which translates as "sons of the eagle"
Algeria
two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white; a red, five-pointed star within a red crescent centered over the two-color boundary; the colors represent Islam (green), purity and peace (white), and liberty (red); the crescent and star are also Islamic symbols, but the crescent is more closed than those of other Muslim countries because the Algerians believe the long crescent horns bring happiness
American Samoa
blue, with a white triangle edged in red that is based on the fly side and extends to the hoist side; a brown and white American bald eagle flying toward the hoist side is carrying two traditional Samoan symbols of authority, a war club known as a "Fa'alaufa'i" (upper; left talon), and a coconut fiber fly whisk known as a "Fue" (lower; right talon); the combination of symbols broadly mimics that seen on the US Great Seal and reflects the relationship between the United States and American Samoa
Andorra
three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red, with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; the latter band is slightly wider than the other two so that the ratio of band widths is 8:9:8; the coat of arms features a quartered shield with the emblems of (starting in the upper left and proceeding clockwise): Urgell, Foix, Bearn, and Catalonia; the motto reads VIRTUS UNITA FORTIOR (Strength United is Stronger); the flag combines the blue and red French colors with the red and yellow of Spain to show Franco-Spanish protection
note: similar to the flags of Chad and Romania, which do not have a national coat of arms in the center, and the flag of Moldova, which does bear a national emblem
Angola
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants
Anguilla
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Anguillan coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts three orange dolphins in an interlocking circular design on a white background with a turquoise-blue field below; the white in the background represents peace; the blue base symbolizes the surrounding sea, as well as faith, youth, and hope; the three dolphins stand for endurance, unity, and strength
Antarctica
Antarctica has no official flag as it is not a nation nor is it ruled by a single government or body. The Antarctic Treaty Organization adopted a flag in 2002 and is used as an unofficial symbol of the continent. Also, several unofficial designs have been proposed.
Antigua and Barbuda
red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band; the sun symbolizes the dawn of a new era, black represents the African heritage of most of the population, blue is for hope, and red is for the dynamism of the people; the "V" stands for victory; the successive yellow, blue, and white coloring is also meant to evoke the country's tourist attractions of sun, sea, and sand
Argentina
Three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May; There are multiple interpretations on the reasons for those colors: the blue colors represent the clear skies; the sun symbol commemorates the appearance of the sun through cloudy skies on 25 May 1810 during the first mass demonstration in favor of independence; the sun features are those of Inti, the Inca god of the sun. The flag was created by Manuel Belgrano.
Armenia
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, and orange; the color red recalls the blood shed for liberty, blue the Armenian skies as well as hope, and orange the land and the courage of the workers who farm it
Aruba
blue, with two narrow, horizontal, yellow stripes across the lower portion and a red, four-pointed star outlined in white in the upper hoist-side corner; the star represents Aruba and its red soil and white beaches, its four points the four major languages (Papiamento, Dutch, Spanish, English) as well as the four points of a compass, to indicate that its inhabitants come from all over the world; the blue symbolizes Caribbean waters and skies; the stripes represent the island's two main "industries": the flow of tourists to the sun-drenched beaches and the flow of minerals from the earth
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
the flag of Australia is used
Australia
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large seven-pointed star in the lower hoist-side quadrant known as the Commonwealth or Federation Star, representing the federation of the colonies of Australia in 1901; the star depicts one point for each of the six original states and one representing all of Australia's internal and external territories; on the fly half is a representation of the Southern Cross constellation in white with one small five-pointed star and four larger, seven-pointed stars
Austria
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and red; the flag design is certainly one of the oldest - if not the oldest - national banners in the world; according to tradition, in 1191, following a fierce battle in the Third Crusade, Duke Leopold V of Austria's white tunic became completely blood-spattered; upon removal of his wide belt or sash, a white band was revealed; the red-white-red color combination was subsequently adopted as his banner
Azerbaijan
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), red, and green; a crescent and eight-pointed star in white are centered in the red band; the blue band recalls Azerbaijan's Turkic heritage, red stands for modernization and progress, and green refers to Islam; the crescent moon is an Islamic symbol, while the eight-pointed star represents the eight Turkic peoples of the world
Bahamas, The
three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side; the band colors represent the golden beaches of the islands surrounded by the aquamarine sea; black represents the vigor and force of a united people, while the pointing triangle indicates the enterprise and determination of the Bahamian people to develop the rich resources of land and sea
Bahrain
red, the traditional color for flags of Persian Gulf states, with a white serrated band (five white points) on the hoist side; the five points represent the five pillars of Islam
note: until 2002 the flag had eight white points, but this was reduced to five to avoid confusion with the Qatari flag
Bangladesh
green field with a large red disk shifted slightly to the hoist side of center; the red disk represents the rising sun and the sacrifice to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush vegetation of Bangladesh
Barbados
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the band colors represent the blue of the sea and sky and the gold of the beaches; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident)
Belarus
red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears Belarusian national ornamentation in red; the red band color recalls past struggles from oppression, the green band represents hope and the many forests of the country
Belgium
three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the vertical design was based on the flag of France; the colors are those of the arms of the duchy of Brabant (yellow lion with red claws and tongue on a black field)
Belize
blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland of 50 mahogany leaves; the colors are those of the two main political parties: blue for the PUP and red for the UDP; various elements of the coat of arms - the figures, the tools, the mahogany tree, and the garland of leaves - recall the logging industry that led to British settlement of Belize
note: Belize's flag is the only national flag that depicts human beings; two British overseas territories, Montserrat and the British Virgin Islands, also depict humans
Benin
two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red (bottom) with a vertical green band on the hoist side; green symbolizes hope and revival, yellow wealth, and red courage
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Bermuda
red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (a white shield with a red lion standing on a green grassy field holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag; it was the shipwreck of the vessel, filled with English colonists originally bound for Virginia, that led to settling of Bermuda
note: the flag is unusual in that it is only British overseas territory that uses a red ensign, all others use blue
Bhutan
divided diagonally from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side; the dragon, called the Druk (Thunder Dragon), is the emblem of the nation; its white color stands for purity and the jewels in its claws symbolize wealth; the background colors represent spiritual and secular powers within Bhutan: the orange is associated with Bhuddism, while the yellow denotes the ruling dynasty
Bolivia
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; red stands for bravery and the blood of national heroes, yellow for the nation's mineral resources, and green for the fertility of the land
note: similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; in 2009, a presidential decree made it mandatory for a so-called wiphala - a square, multi-colored flag representing the country's indigenous peoples - to be used alongside the traditional flag
Bosnia and Herzegovina
a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle; the triangle approximates the shape of the country and its three points stand for the constituent peoples - Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs; the stars represent Europe and are meant to be continuous (thus the half stars at top and bottom); the colors (white, blue, and yellow) are often associated with neutrality and peace, and traditionally are linked with Bosnia
Botswana
light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center; the blue symbolizes water in the form of rain, while the black and white bands represent racial harmony
Bouvet Island
the flag of Norway is used
Brazil
green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress); the current flag was inspired by the banner of the former Empire of Brazil (1822-1889); on the imperial flag, the green represented the House of Braganza of Pedro I, the first Emperor of Brazil, while the yellow stood for the Habsburg Family of his wife; on the modern flag the green represents the forests of the country and the yellow rhombus its mineral wealth; the blue circle and stars, which replaced the coat of arms of the original flag, depict the sky over Rio de Janeiro on the morning of 15 November 1889 - the day the Republic of Brazil was declared; the number of stars has changed with the creation of new states and has risen from an original 21 to the current 27 (one for each state and the Federal District)
British Indian Ocean Territory
white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown (the symbols of the territory) centered on the outer half of the flag; the wavy stripes represent the Indian Ocean; although not officially described, the six blue stripes may stand for the six main atolls of the archipelago
British Virgin Islands
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful); the islands were named by COLUMBUS in 1493 in honor of Saint Ursula and her 11 virgin followers (some sources say 11,000) who reputedly were martyred by the Huns in the 4th or 5th century; the figure on the banner holding a lamp represents the saint, the other lamps symbolize her followers
Brunei
yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; yellow is the color of royalty and symbolizes the sultanate; the white and black bands denote Brunei's chief ministers; the emblem includes five main components: a swallow-tailed flag, the royal umbrella representing the monarchy, the wings of four feathers symbolizing justice, tranquility, prosperity, and peace, the two upraised hands signifying the government's pledge to preserve and promote the welfare of the people, and the crescent moon denoting Islam, the state religion; the state motto "Always render service with God's guidance" appears in yellow Arabic script on the crescent; a ribbon below the crescent reads "Brunei, the Abode of Peace"
Bulgaria
three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the pan-Slavic white-blue-red colors were modified by substituting a green band (representing freedom) for the blue
note: the national emblem, formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe, has been removed
Burkina Faso
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; red recalls the country's struggle for independence, green is for hope and abundance,and yellow represents the country's mineral wealth
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Burma
design consists of three equal horizontal stripes of yellow (top), green, and red; centered on the green band is a large white five-pointed star that partially overlaps onto the adjacent colored stripes; the design revives the triband colors used by Burma from 1943-45, during the Japanese occupation
Burundi
divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and fly side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below); green symbolizes hope and optimism, white purity and peace, and red the blood shed in the struggle for independence; the three stars in the disk represent the three major ethnic groups: Hutu, Twa, Tutsi, as well as the three elements in the national motto: unity, work, progress
Cambodia
three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band; red and blue are traditional Cambodian colors
note: only national flag to incorporate an actual building in its design
Cameroon
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow, with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; the vertical tricolor recalls the flag of France; red symbolizes unity, yellow the sun, happiness, and the savannahs in the north, and green hope and the forests in the south; the star is referred to as the "star of unity"
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Canada
two vertical bands of red (hoist and fly side, half width) with white square between them; an 11-pointed red maple leaf is centered in the white square; the maple leaf has long been a Canadian symbol; the official colors of Canada are red and white
Cape Verde
five unequal horizontal bands; the top-most band of blue - equal to one half the width of the flag - is followed by three bands of white, red, and white, each equal to 1/12 of the width, and a bottom stripe of blue equal to one quarter of the flag width; a circle of 10, yellow, five-pointed stars is centered on the red stripe and positioned 3/8 of the length of the flag from the hoist side; blue stands for the sea and the sky, the circle of stars represents the 10 major islands united into a nation, the stripes symbolize the road to formation of the country through peace (white) and effort (red)
Cayman Islands
a blue field, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a crest with a pineapple, representing the connection with Jamaica, and a turtle, representing Cayman's seafaring tradition, above a shield bearing a golden lion, symbolizing Great Britain, below which are three green stars (representing the three islands) surmounting white and blue wavy lines representing the sea and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS
Central African Republic
four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; a yellow five-pointed star to the hoist side of the blue band; banner combines the Pan-African and French flag colors; red symbolizes the blood spilled in the struggle for independence, blue represents the sky and freedom, white peace and dignity, green hope and faith, and yellow tolerance; the star represents aspiration towards a vibrant future
Chad
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; the flag combines the blue and red French (former colonial) colors with the red and yellow of the Pan-African colors; blue symbolizes the sky, hope, and the south of the country, which is relatively well-watered; yellow represents the sun, as well as the desert in the north of the country; red stands for progress, unity, and sacrifice
note: similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France
Chile
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red represents the blood spilled to achieve independence
note: design was influenced by the US flag
China
red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner; the color red represents revolution, while the stars symbolize the four social classes - the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, and the national bourgeoisie (capitalists) - united under the Communist Party of China
Christmas Island
territorial flag; divided diagonally from upper hoist to lower fly; the upper triangle is green with a yellow image of the Golden Bosun Bird superimposed, the lower triangle is blue with the Southern Cross constellation, representing Australia, superimposed; a centered yellow disk displays a green map of the island
note: the flag of Australia is used for official purposes
Clipperton Island
the flag of France is used
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
the flag of Australia is used
Colombia
three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double-width), blue, and red; the flag retains the three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the short-lived South American republic that broke up in 1830; various interpretations of the colors exist and include: yellow for the gold in Colombia's land, blue for the seas on its shores, and red for the blood spilled in attaining freedom; alternatively, the colors have been described as representing more elemental concepts such as sovereignty and justice (yellow), loyalty and vigilance (blue), and valour and generosity (red); or simply the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity
note: similar to the flag of Ecuador, which is longer and bears the Ecuadorian coat of arms superimposed in the center
Comoros
four equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), white, red, and blue, with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist; centered within the triangle is a white crescent with the convex side facing the hoist and four white, five-pointed stars placed vertically in a line between the points of the crescent; the horizontal bands and the four stars represent the four main islands of the archipelago - Mwali, N'gazidja, Nzwani, and Mahore (Mayotte - territorial collectivity of France, but claimed by Comoros)
note: the crescent, stars, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
sky blue field divided diagonally from the lower hoist corner to upper fly corner by a red stripe bordered by two narrow yellow stripes; a yellow, five-pointed star appears in the upper hoist corner; blue represents peace and hope, red the blood of the country's martyrs, and yellow the country's wealth and prosperity; the star symbolizes unity and the brilliant future for the country
Congo, Republic of the
divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a yellow band; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is red; green symbolizes agriculture and forests, yellow the friendship and nobility of the people, red is unexplained but has been associated with the struggle for independence
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Cook Islands
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large circle of 15 white five-pointed stars (one for every island) centered in the outer half of the flag
Coral Sea Islands
the flag of Australia is used
Costa Rica
five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white elliptical disk toward the hoist side of the red band; Costa Rica retained the earlier blue-white-blue flag of Central America until 1848 when, in response to revolutionary activity in Europe, it was decided to incorporate the French colors into the national flag and a central red stripe was added; today the blue color is said to stand for the sky, opportunity, and perseverence, white denotes peace, happiness, and wisdom, while red represents the blood shed for freedom, as well as the generosity and vibrancy of the people
note: somewhat resembles the flag of North Korea; similar to the flag of Thailand but with the blue and red colors reversed
Cote d'Ivoire
three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; orange symbolizes the land (savannah) of the north and fertility, white stands for peace and unity, green represents the forests of the south and the hope for a bright future
note: similar to the flag of Ireland, which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the flag of France
Croatia
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue - the Pan-Slav colors - superimposed by the Croatian coat of arms; the coat of arms consists of one main shield (a checkerboard of 13 red and 12 silver (white) fields) surmounted by five smaller shields that form a crown over the main shield; the five small shields represent five historic regions, they are (from left to right): Croatia, Dubrovnik, Dalmatia, Istria, and Slavonia
note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia
Cuba
five equal horizontal bands of blue (top, center, and bottom) alternating with white; a red equilateral triangle based on the hoist side bears a white, five-pointed star in the center; the blue bands refer to the three old divisions of the island: central, occidental, and oriental; the white bands describe the purity of the independence ideal; the triangle symbolizes liberty, equality, and fraternity, while the red color stands for the blood shed in the independence struggle; the white star, called La Estrella Solitaria (the Lone Star) lights the way to freedom and was taken from the flag of Texas
note: design similar to the Puerto Rican flag, with the colors of the bands and triangle reversed
Curacao
on a blue field a horizontal yellow band somewhat below the center divides the flag into proportions of 5:1:2; two five-pointed white stars - the smaller above and to the left of the larger - appear in the canton; the blue of the upper and lower sections symbolizes the sky and sea respectively; yellow represents the sun; the stars symbolize Curacao and its uninhabited smaller sister island of Klein Curacao; the five star points signify the five continents from which Curacao's people derive
Cyprus
white with a copper-colored silhouette of the island (the name Cyprus is derived from the Greek word for copper) above two green crossed olive branches in the center of the flag; the branches symbolize the hope for peace and reconciliation between the Greek and Turkish communities
note: the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" flag retains the white field of the Cyprus national flag but displays narrow horizontal red stripes positioned a small distance from the top and bottom edges between which are centered a red crescent and a red five-pointed star; the banner is modeled after the Turkish national flag but with the colors reversed
Czech Republic
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side
note: is identical to the flag of the former Czechoslovakia; uses the Pan-Slav colors inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia
Denmark
red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side; the banner is referred to as the Dannebrog (Danish flag) and is one of the oldest national flags in the world; traditions as to the origin of the flag design vary, but the best known is a legend that the banner fell from the sky during an early-13th century battle; caught up by the Danish king before it ever touched the earth, this heavenly talisman inspired the royal army to victory; in actuality, the flag may derive from a crusade banner or ensign
note: the shifted design element was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden
Dhekelia
the flag of the UK is used
Djibouti
two equal horizontal bands of light blue (top) and light green with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bearing a red five-pointed star in the center; blue stands for sea and sky and the Issa Somali people; green symbolizes earth and the Afar people; white represents peace; the red star recalls the struggle for independence and stands for unity
Dominica
green, with a centered cross of three equal bands - the vertical part is yellow (hoist side), black, and white and the horizontal part is yellow (top), black, and white; superimposed in the center of the cross is a red disk bearing a Sisserou Parrot, unique to Dominica, encircled by 10 green, five-pointed stars edged in yellow; the 10 stars represent the 10 administrative divisions (parishes); green symbolizes the island's lush vegetation; the triple-colored cross represents the Christian Trinity; the yellow color denotes sunshine, the main agricultural products (citrus and bananas), and the native Carib Indians; black is for the rich soil and the African heritage of most citizens; white signifies rivers, waterfalls, and the purity of aspirations; the red disc stands for social justice
Dominican Republic
a centered white cross that extends to the edges divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms featuring a shield supported by a laurel branch (left) and a palm branch (right) is at the center of the cross; above the shield a blue ribbon displays the motto, DIOS, PATRIA, LIBERTAD (God, Fatherland, Liberty), and below the shield, REPUBLICA DOMINICANA appears on a red ribbon; in the shield a bible is opened to a verse that reads "Y la verdad nos hara libre" (And the truth shall set you free); blue stands for liberty, white for salvation, and red for the blood of heroes
Ecuador
three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double width), blue, and red with the coat of arms superimposed at the center of the flag; the flag retains the three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the South American republic that broke up in 1830; the yellow color represents sunshine, grain, and mineral wealth, blue the sky, sea, and rivers, and red the blood of patriots spilled in the struggle for freedom and justice
note: similar to the flag of Colombia, which is shorter and does not bear a coat of arms
Egypt
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white)
note: similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars in the white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and Yemen, which has a plain white band
El Salvador
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL; the banner is based on the former blue-white-blue flag of the Federal Republic of Central America; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water, as well as peace and prosperity
note: similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which has a different coat of arms centered in the white band - it features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band
Equatorial Guinea
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red, with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice); green symbolizes the jungle and natural resources, blue represents the sea that connects the mainland to the islands, white stands for peace, and red recalls the fight for independence
Eritrea
red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle; green stands for the country's agriculture economy, red signifies the blood shed in the fight for freedom, and blue symbolizes the bounty of the sea; the wreath-olive branch symbol is similar to that on the first flag of Eritrea from 1952; the shape of the red triangle broadly mimics the shape of the country
Estonia
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), black, and white; various interpretations are linked to the flag colors; blue represents faith, loyalty, and devotion, while also reminiscent of the sky, sea, and lakes of the country; black symbolizes the soil of the country and the dark past and suffering endured by the Estonian people; white refers to the striving towards enlightenment and virtue, and is the color of birch bark and snow, as well as summer nights illuminated by the midnight sun
Ethiopia
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and red, with a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the angles between the points on a light blue disk centered on the three bands; green represents hope and the fertility of the land, yellow symbolizes justice and harmony, while red stands for sacrifice and heroism in the defense of the land; the blue of the disk symbolizes peace and the pentagram represents the unity and equality of the nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia
note: Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, and the three main colors of her flag (adopted ca. 1895) were so often adopted by other African countries upon independence that they became known as the Pan-African colors; the emblem in the center of the current flag was added in 1996
European Union
a blue field with 12 five-pointed gold stars arranged in a circle in the center; blue represents the sky of the Western world, the stars are the peoples of Europe in a circle, a symbol of unity; the number of stars is fixed
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Falkland Island coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms contains a white ram (sheep raising was once the major economic activity) above the sailing ship Desire (whose crew discovered the islands) with a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto DESIRE THE RIGHT
Faroe Islands
white with a red cross outlined in blue extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted toward the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); referred to as Merkid, meaning "the banner" or "the mark," the flag resembles those of neighboring Iceland and Norway, and uses the same three colors - but in a different sequence; white represents the clear Faroese sky as well as the foam of the waves; red and blue are traditional Faroese colors
Fiji
light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Fijian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the blue symbolizes the Pacific ocean and the Union Jack reflects the links with Great Britain; the shield - taken from Fiji's coat of arms - depicts a yellow lion above a white field quartered by the cross of Saint George; the four quarters depict stalks of sugarcane, a palm tree, bananas, and a white dove
Finland
white with a blue cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the blue represents the thousands of lakes scattered across the country, while the white is for the snow that covers the land in winter
France
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red; known as the "Le drapeau tricolore" (French Tricolor), the origin of the flag dates to 1790 and the French Revolution when the "ancient French color" of white was combined with the blue and red colors of the Parisian militia; the official flag for all French dependent areas
note: the design and/or colors are similar to a number of other flags, including those of Belgium, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, and Netherlands
French Guiana
unofficial, local flag: On 29 January 2010, the General Council (departmental council) unilaterally adopted a flag of French Guiana, but it has not been recognized by the regional council. Green represents the forests, yellow represents gold and other minerals of the region, while the red star represents socialism.[1] The flag is identical with the one of pro-independence trade union UGT and also MDES.
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
French Polynesia
two red horizontal bands encase a wide white band in a 1:2:1 ratio; centered on the white band is a disk with a blue and white wave pattern depicting the sea on the lower half and a gold and white ray pattern depicting the sun on the upper half; a stylized red, blue, and white ship rides on the wave pattern; the ship has a crew of five represented by five stars that symbolize the five island groups; red and white are traditional Polynesian colors
note: similar to the red-white-red flag of Tahiti, the largest of the islands in French Polynesia, which has no emblem in the white band; the flag of France is used for official occasions
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
the flag of France is used
Gabon
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and blue; green represents the country's forests and natural resources, gold represents the equator (which transects Gabon) as well as the sun, blue represents the sea
Gambia, The
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue with white edges, and green; red stands for the sun and the savannah, blue represents the Gambia River, and green symbolizes forests and agriculture; the white stripes denote unity and peace
Georgia
white rectangle with a central red cross extending to all four sides of the flag; each of the four quadrants displays a small red bolnur-katskhuri cross; although adopted as the official Georgian flag in 2004, the five-cross flag design appears to date back to the 14th century
Germany
three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and gold; these colors have played an important role in German history and can be traced back to the medieval banner of the Holy Roman Emperor - a black eagle with red claws and beak on a gold field
Ghana
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green, with a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; red symbolizes the blood shed for independence, yellow represents the country's mineral wealth, while green stands for its forests and natural wealth; the black star is said to be the lodestar of African freedom
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Bolivia, which has a coat of arms centered in the yellow band
Gibraltar
two horizontal bands of white (top, double width) and red with a three-towered red castle in the center of the white band; hanging from the castle gate is a gold key centered in the red band; the design is that of Gibraltar's coat of arms granted on 10 July 1502 by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain; the castle symbolizes Gibraltar as a fortress, while the key represents Gibraltar's strategic importance - the key to the Mediterranean
Greece
nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; a blue square bearing a white cross appears in the upper hoist-side corner; the cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the country; there is no agreed upon meaning for the nine stripes or for the colors; the exact shade of blue has never been set by law and has varied from a light to a dark blue over time
Greenland
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center - the top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white; the design represents the sun reflecting off a field of ice; the colors are the same as those of the Danish flag and symbolize Greenland's links to the Kingdom of Denmark
Grenada
a rectangle divided diagonally into yellow triangles (top and bottom) and green triangles (hoist side and outer side), with a red border around the flag; there are seven yellow, five-pointed stars with three centered in the top red border, three centered in the bottom red border, and one on a red disk superimposed at the center of the flag; there is also a symbolic nutmeg pod on the hoist-side triangle (Grenada is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg, after Indonesia); the seven stars stand for the seven administrative divisions, with the central star denoting the capital, St. George; yellow represents the sun and the warmth of the people, green stands for vegetation and agriculture, and red symbolizes harmony, unity, and courage
Guadeloupe
unofficial, flag the banner of the arms of Pointe-à-Pitre, the island's main city, is seldom used to represent the whole island. The flag has a black field with a yellow sun and a green sugar cane, and a blue stripe with yellow fleurs-de-lis on the top.
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
Guam
territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, a proa or outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; the proa is sailing in Agana Bay with the promontory of Punta Dos Amantes, near the capital, in the background; blue represents the sea and red the blood shed in the struggle against oppression
note: the US flag is the national flag
Guatemala
three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue, with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red quetzal (the national bird) representing liberty and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles signifying Guatemala's willingness to defend itself and a pair of crossed swords representing honor and framed by a laurel wreath symbolizing victory; the blue bands stand for the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea and the sea and sky; the white band denotes peace and purity
Guernsey
white with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) extending to the edges of the flag and a yellow equal-armed cross of William the Conqueror superimposed on the Saint George cross; the red cross represents the old ties with England and the fact that Guernsey is a British Crown dependency; the gold cross is a replica of the one used by Duke William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings
Guinea
three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; red represents the people's sacrifice for liberation and work; yellow stands for the sun, for the riches of the earth, and for justice; green symbolizes the country's vegetation and unity
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the reverse of those on the flags of neighboring Mali and Senegal
Guinea-Bissau
two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; yellow symbolizes the sun; green denotes hope; red represents blood shed during the struggle for independence; the black star stands for African unity
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the flag design was heavily influenced by the Ghanian flag
Guyana
green, with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long, yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow, black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow, white border between the yellow and the green; green represents forest and foliage; yellow stands for mineral resources and a bright future; white symbolizes Guyana's rivers; red signifies zeal and the sacrifice of the people; black indicates perseverance
Haiti
two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a centered white rectangle bearing the coat of arms, which contains a palm tree flanked by flags and two cannons above a scroll bearing the motto L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE (Union Makes Strength); the colors are taken from the French Tricolor and represent the union of blacks and mulattoes
Heard Island and McDonald Islands
the flag of Australia is used
Holy See (Vatican City)
two vertical bands of yellow (hoist side) and white with the arms of the Holy See, consisting of the crossed keys of Saint Peter surmounted by the three-tiered papal tiara, centered in the white band; the yellow color represents the pope's spiritual power, the white his worldly power
Honduras
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue, with five blue, five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band; the stars represent the members of the former Federal Republic of Central America - Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea; the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water and the peace and prosperity of its people
note: similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom, centered in the white band
Hong Kong
red with a stylized, white, five-petal Bauhinia flower in the center; each petal contains a small, red, five-pointed star in its middle; the red color is the same as that on the Chinese flag and represents the motherland; the fragrant Bauhinia - developed in Hong Kong the late 19th century - has come to symbolize the region; the five stars echo those on the flag of China
Hungary
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and green; the flag dates to the national movement of the 18th and 19th centuries, and fuses the medieval colors of the Hungarian coat of arms with the revolutionary tricolor form of the French flag; folklore attributes virtues to the colors: red for strength, white for faithfulness, and green for hope; alternatively, the red is seen as being for the blood spilled in defense of the land, white for freedom, and green for the pasturelands that make up so much of the country
Iceland
blue with a red cross outlined in white extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors represent three of the elements that make up the island: red is for the island's volcanic fires, white recalls the snow and ice fields of the island, and blue is for the surrounding ocean
India
three equal horizontal bands of saffron (subdued orange) (top), white, and green, with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; saffron represents courage, sacrifice, and the spirit of renunciation; white signifies purity and truth; green stands for faith and fertility; the blue chakra symbolizes the wheel of life in movement and death in stagnation
note: similar to the flag of Niger, which has a small orange disk centered in the white band
Indonesia
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; the colors derive from the banner of the Majapahit Empire of the 13th-15th centuries; red symbolizes courage, white represents purity
note: similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red
Iran
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red; the national emblem (a stylized representation of the word Allah in the shape of a tulip, a symbol of martyrdom) in red is centered in the white band; ALLAH AKBAR (God is Great) in white Arabic script is repeated 11 times along the bottom edge of the green band and 11 times along the top edge of the red band; green is the color of Islam and also represents growth, white symbolizes honesty and peace, red stands for bravery and martyrdom
Iraq
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great") in green Arabic script is centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); the Council of Representatives approved this flag in 2008 as a compromise temporary replacement for the Ba'athist Saddam-era flag
note: similar to the flag of Syria, which has two stars but no script, Yemen, which has a plain white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band
Ireland
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and orange; officially the flag colors have no meaning, but a common interpretation is that the green represents the Irish nationalist (Gaelic) tradition of Ireland; orange represents the Orange tradition (minority supporters of William of Orange); white symbolizes peace (or a lasting truce) between the green and the orange
note: similar to the flag of Cote d'Ivoire, which is shorter and has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter and has colors of green (hoist side), white, and red
Isle of Man
red with the Three Legs of Man emblem (triskelion), in the center; the three legs are joined at the thigh and bent at the knee; in order to have the toes pointing clockwise on both sides of the flag, a two-sided emblem is used; the flag is based on the coat-of-arms of the last recognized Norse King of Mann, Magnus III (r. 1252-1265); the triskelion has its roots in an early Celtic sun symbol
Israel
white with a blue hexagram (six-pointed linear star) known as the Magen David (Shield of David) centered between two equal horizontal blue bands near the top and bottom edges of the flag; the basic design resembles a Jewish prayer shawl (tallit), which is white with blue stripes; the hexagram as a Jewish symbol dates back to medieval times
Italy
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; design inspired by the French flag brought to Italy by Napoleon in 1797; colors are those of Milan (red and white) combined with the green uniform color of the Milanese civic guard
note: similar to the flag of Mexico, which is longer, uses darker shades of red and green, and has its coat of arms centered on the white band; Ireland, which is longer and is green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of the Cote d'Ivoire, which has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green
Jamaica
diagonal yellow cross divides the flag into four triangles - green (top and bottom) and black (hoist side and outer side); green represents hope, vegetation, and agriculture, black reflects hardships overcome and to be faced, and yellow recalls golden sunshine and the island's natural resources
Jan Mayen
the flag of Norway is used
Japan
white with a large red disk (representing the sun without rays) in the center
Jersey
white with a diagonal red cross extending to the corners of the flag; in the upper quadrant, surmounted by a yellow crown, a red shield with three lions in yellow; according to tradition, the ships of Jersey - in an attempt to differentiate themselves from English ships flying the horizontal cross of St. George - rotated the cross to the "X" (saltire) configuration; because this arrangement still resembled the Irish cross of St. Patrick, the yellow Plantagenet crown and Jersey coat of arms were added
Jordan
three equal horizontal bands of black (top), representing the Abbassid Caliphate, white, representing the Ummayyad Caliphate, and green, representing the Fatimid Caliphate; a red isosceles triangle on the hoist side, representing the Great Arab Revolt of 1916, and bearing a small white seven-pointed star symbolizing the seven verses of the opening Sura (Al-Fatiha) of the Holy Koran; the seven points on the star represent faith in One God, humanity, national spirit, humility, social justice, virtue, and aspirations; design is based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I
Kazakhstan
a gold sun with 32 rays above a soaring golden steppe eagle, both centered on a sky blue background; the hoist side displays a national ornamental pattern "koshkar-muiz" (the horns of the ram) in gold; the blue color is of religious significance to the Turkic peoples of the country, and so symbolizes cultural and ethnic unity; it also represents the endless sky as well as water; the sun, a source of life and energy, exemplifies wealth and plenitude; the sun's rays are shaped like grain, which is the basis of abundance and prosperity; the eagle has appeared on the flags of Kazakh tribes for centuries and represents freedom, power, and the flight to the future
Kenya
three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green; the red band is edged in white; a large Maasai warrior's shield covering crossed spears is superimposed at the center; black symbolizes the majority population, red the blood shed in the struggle for freedom, green stands for natural wealth, and white for peace; the shield and crossed spears symbolize the defense of freedom
Kiribati
the upper half is red with a yellow frigate bird flying over a yellow rising sun, and the lower half is blue with three horizontal wavy white stripes to represent the Pacific ocean; the white stripes represent the three island groups - the Gilbert, Line, and Phoenix Islands; the 17 rays of the sun represent the 16 Gilbert Islands and Banaba (formerly Ocean Island); the frigate bird symbolizes authority and freedom
Korea, North
three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in white; on the hoist side of the red band is a white disk with a red five-pointed star; the broad red band symbolizes revolutionary traditions; the narrow white bands stands for purity, strength, and dignity; the blue bands signify sovereignty, peace, and friendship; the red star represents socialism
Korea, South
white with a red (top) and blue yin-yang symbol in the center; there is a different black trigram from the ancient I Ching (Book of Changes) in each corner of the white field; the Korean national flag is called Taegukki; white is a traditional Korean color and represents peace and purity; the blue section represents the negative cosmic forces of the yin, while the red symbolizes the opposite postive forces of the yang; each trigram (kwae) denotes one of the four universal elements, which together express the principle of movement and harmony
Kosovo
centered on a dark blue field is the geographical shape of Kosovo in a gold color surmounted by six white, five-pointed stars arrayed in a slight arc; each star represents one of the major ethnic groups of Kosovo: Albanians, Serbs, Turks, Gorani, Roma, and Bosniaks
Kuwait
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a black trapezoid based on the hoist side; colors and design are based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I; green represents fertile fields, white stands for purity, red denotes blood on Kuwaiti swords, black signifies the defeat of the enemy
Kyrgyzstan
red field with a yellow sun in the center having 40 rays representing the 40 Kyrgyz tribes; on the obverse side the rays run counterclockwise, on the reverse, clockwise; in the center of the sun is a red ring crossed by two sets of three lines, a stylized representation of a "tunduk" - the crown of a traditional Kyrgyz yurt; red symbolizes bravery and valor, the sun evinces peace and wealth
Laos
three horizontal bands of red (top), blue (double width), and red with a large white disk centered in the blue band; the red bands recall the blood shed for liberation; the blue band represents the Mekong River and prosperity; the white disk symbolizes the full moon against the Mekong River, but also signifies the unity of the people under the Pathet Lao, as well as the country's bright future
Latvia
three horizontal bands of maroon (top), white (half-width), and maroon; the flag is one of the older banners in the world; a medieval chronicle mentions a red standard with a white stripe being used by Latvian tribes in about 1280
Lebanon
three horizontal bands consisting of red (top), white (middle, double width), and red (bottom) with a green cedar tree centered in the white band; the red bands symbolize blood shed for liberation, the white band denotes peace, the snow of the mountains, and purity; the green cedar tree is the symbol of Lebanon and represents eternity, steadiness, happiness, and prosperity
Lesotho
three horizontal stripes of blue (top), white, and green in the proportions of 3:4:3; the colors represent rain, peace, and prosperity respectively; centered in the white stripe is a black Basotho hat representing the indigenous people; the flag was unfurled in October 2006 to celebrate 40 years of independence
Liberia
11 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a white five-pointed star appears on a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner; the stripes symbolize the signatories of the Liberian Declaration of Independence; the blue square represents the African mainland, and the star represents the freedom granted to the ex-slaves; according to the constitution, the blue color signifies liberty, justice, and fidelity, the white color purity, cleanliness, and guilelessness, and the red color steadfastness, valor, and fervor
note: the design is based on the US flag
Libya
plain green; green is the traditional color of Islam (the state religion)
Liechtenstein
two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a gold crown on the hoist side of the blue band; the colors may derive from the blue and red livery design used in the principality's household in the 18th century; the prince's crown was introduced in 1937 to distinguish the flag from that of Haiti
Lithuania
three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), green, and red; yellow symbolizes golden fields, as well as the sun, light, and goodness; green represents the forests of the countryside, in addition to nature, freedom, and hope; red stands for courage and the blood spilled in defense of the homeland
Luxembourg
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and light blue; similar to the flag of the Netherlands, which uses a darker blue and is shorter; the coloring is derived from the Grand Duke's coat of arms (a red lion on a white and blue striped field)
Macau
green with a lotus flower above a stylized bridge and water in white, beneath an arc of five gold, five-pointed stars: one large in the center of the arc and two smaller on either side; the lotus is the floral emblem of Macau, the three petals represent the peninsula and two islands that make up Macau; the five stars echo those on the flag of China
Macedonia
a yellow sun (the Sun of Liberty) with eight broadening rays extending to the edges of the red field; the red and yellow colors have long been associated with Macedonia
Madagascar
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a vertical white band of the same width on hoist side; by tradition, red stands for sovereignty, green for hope, white for purity
Malawi
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), black, and green; a white sun disc is centered on the black band, its surrounding 45 white rays extend partially into the red and green bands; black represents the native peoples, red the blood shed in their struggle for freedom, and green the color of nature; the sun represents Malawi's economic progress since attaining independence
Malaysia
14 equal horizontal stripes of red (top) alternating with white (bottom); there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a yellow crescent and a yellow 14-pointed star; the flag is often referred to as Jalur Gemilang (Stripes of Glory); the 14 stripes stand for the equal status in the federation of the 13 member states and the federal government; the 14 points on the star represent the unity between these entities; the crescent is a traditional symbol of Islam; blue symbolizes the unity of the Malay people and yellow is the royal color of Malay rulers
note: the design is based on the flag of the US
Maldives
red with a large green rectangle in the center bearing a vertical white crescent moon; the closed side of the crescent is on the hoist side of the flag; red recalls those who have sacrificed their lives in defense of their country, the green rectangle represents peace and prosperity, and the white crescent signifies Islam
Mali
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the same as those of neighboring Senegal (which has an additional green central star) and the reverse of those on the flag of neighboring Guinea
Malta
two equal vertical bands of white (hoist side) and red; in the upper hoist-side corner is a representation of the George Cross, edged in red; according to legend, the colors are taken from the red and white checkered banner of Count Roger of Sicily who removed a bi-colored corner and granted it to Malta in 1091; an uncontested explanation is that the colors are those of the Knights of Saint John who ruled Malta from 1530 to 1798; in 1942, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to the islanders for their exceptional bravery and gallantry in World War II; since independence in 1964, the George Cross bordered in red has appeared directly on the white field
Marshall Islands
blue with two stripes radiating from the lower hoist-side corner - orange (top) and white; a white star with four large rays and 20 small rays appears on the hoist side above the two stripes; blue represents the Pacific Ocean, the orange stripe signifies the Ralik Chain or sunset and courage, while the white stripe signifies the Ratak Chain or sunrise and peace; the star symbolizes the cross of Christianity, each of the 24 rays designates one of the electoral districts in the country and the four larger rays highlight the principal cultural centers of Majuro, Jaluit, Wotje, and Ebeye; the rising diagonal band can also be interpreted as representing the equator, with the star showing the archipelago's position just to the north
Martinique
the flag of France is used
Mauritania
green with a yellow five-pointed star above a yellow, horizontal crescent; the closed side of the crescent is down; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam; the gold color stands for the sands of the Sahara
Mauritius
four equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, yellow, and green; red represents the blood shed for independence, blue the Indian Ocean surrounding the island, yellow has been interpreted as the new light of independence, golden sunshine, or the bright future, and green can symbolize either agriculture or the lush vegetation of the island
Mayotte
unofficial, local flag with the coat of arms of Mayotte centered on a white field, above which the name of the island appears in red capital letters; the main elements of the coat of arms are a blue upper half with white upturned crescent moon and a red lower half with two yellow ylang-ylang flowers, supported on either side by a white seahorse, and set above a scroll with the motto RA HACHIRI (We are Vigilant)
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
Mexico
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; Mexico's coat of arms (an eagle with a snake in its beak perched on a cactus) is centered in the white band; green signifies hope, joy, and love; white represents peace and honesty; red stands for hardiness, bravery, strength, and valor; the coat of arms is derived from a legend that the wandering Aztec people were to settle at a location where they would see an eagle on a catus eating a snake; the city they founded, Tenochtitlan, is now Mexico City
note: similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter, uses lighter shades of red and green, and does not have anything in its white band
Micronesia, Federated States of
light blue with four white five-pointed stars centered; the stars are arranged in a diamond pattern; blue symbolizes the Pacific Ocean, the stars represent the four island groups of Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap
Moldova
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; emblem in center of flag is of a Roman eagle of gold outlined in black with a red beak and talons carrying a yellow cross in its beak and a green olive branch in its right talons and a yellow scepter in its left talons; on its breast is a shield divided horizontally red over blue with a stylized ox head, star, rose, and crescent all in black-outlined yellow; based on the color scheme of the flag of Romania - with whom Moldova shares a history and culture - but Moldova's blue band is lighter; the reverse of the flag does not display any coat of arms
note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Paraguay and Saudi Arabia
Monaco
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; the colors are those of the ruling House of Grimaldi and have been in use since 1339, making the flag one of the world's oldest national banners
note: similar to the flag of Indonesia which is longer and the flag of Poland which is white (top) and red
Mongolia
three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), blue, and red; centered on the hoist-side red band in yellow is the national emblem ("soyombo" - a columnar arrangement of abstract and geometric representation for fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol); blue represents the sky, red symbolizes progress and prosperity
Montenegro
a red field bordered by a narrow golden-yellow stripe with the Montenegrin coat of arms centered; the arms consist of a double-headed golden eagle - symbolizing the unity of church and state - surmounted by a crown; the eagle holds a golden scepter in its right claw and a blue orb in its left; the breast shield over the eagle shows a golden lion passant on a green field in front of a blue sky; the lion is symbol of episcopal authority and harks back to the three and a half centuries that Montenegro was ruled as a theocracy
Montserrat
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Montserratian coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the arms feature a woman in green dress, Erin, the female personification of Ireland, standing beside a yellow harp and embracing a large dark cross with her right arm; Erin and the harp are symbols of Ireland reflecting the territory's Irish ancestry; blue represents awareness, trustworthiness, determination, and righteousness
Morocco
red with a green pentacle (five-pointed, linear star) known as Sulayman's (Solomon's) seal in the center of the flag; red and green are traditional colors in Arab flags, although the use of red is more commonly associated with the Arab states of the Persian gulf; the pentacle represents the five pillars of Islam and signifies the association between God and the nation; design dates to 1912
Mozambique
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), black, and yellow with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the black band is edged in white; centered in the triangle is a yellow five-pointed star bearing a crossed rifle and hoe in black superimposed on an open white book; green represents the riches of the land, white peace, black the African continent, yellow the country's minerals, and red the struggle for independence; the rifle symbolizes defense and vigilance, the hoe refers to the country's agriculture, the open book stresses the importance of education, and the star represents Marxism and internationalism
Namibia
a wide red stripe edged by narrow white stripes divides the flag diagonally from lower hoist corner to upper fly corner; the upper hoist-side triangle is blue and charged with a yellow, 12-rayed sunburst; the lower fly-side triangle is green; red signifies the heroism of the people and their determination to build a future of equal opportunity for all; white stands for peace, unity, tranquility, and harmony; blue represents the Namibian sky and the Atlantic Ocean, the country's precious water resources and rain; the yellow sun denotes power and existence; green symbolizes vegetation and agricultural resources
Nauru
blue with a narrow, horizontal, yellow stripe across the center and a large white 12-pointed star below the stripe on the hoist side; blue stands for the Pacific Ocean, the star indicates the country's location in relation to the Equator (the yellow stripe) and the 12 points symbolize the 12 original tribes of Nauru
Navassa Island
the flag of the US is used
Nepal
red with a blue border around the unique shape of two overlapping right triangles; the smaller, upper triangle bears a white stylized moon and the larger, lower triangle displays a white 12-pointed sun; the color red represents the rhododendron (Nepal's national flower) and is a sign of victory and bravery, the blue border signifies peace and harmony; the two right triangles are a combination of two single pennons (pennants) that originally symbolized the Himalaya Mountains while their charges represented the families of the king (upper) and the prime minister, but today they are understood to denote Hinduism and Buddhism, the country's two main religions; the moon represents the serenity of the Nepalese people and the shade and cool weather in the Himalayas, while the sun depicts the heat and higher temperatures of the lower parts of Nepal; the moon and the sun are also said to express the hope that the nation will endure as long as these heavenly bodies
note: Nepal is the only country in the world whose flag is not rectangular or square
Netherlands
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue; similar to the flag of Luxembourg, which uses a lighter blue and is longer; the colors were those of WILLIAM I, Prince of Orange, who led the Dutch Revolt against Spanish sovereignty in the latter half of the 16th century; originally the upper band was orange, but because it tended to fade to red over time, the red shade was eventually made the permanent color; the banner is perhaps the oldest tricolor in continuous use
Netherlands Antilles
white, with a horizontal blue stripe in the center superimposed on a vertical red band, also centered; five white, five-pointed stars are arranged in an oval pattern in the center of the blue band; the colors reflect those of the Netherlands; the five stars represent the five main islands of Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten
New Caledonia
the flag of France is used
New Zealand
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant with four red five-pointed stars edged in white centered in the outer half of the flag; the stars represent the Southern Cross constellation
Nicaragua
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on the top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; the banner is based on the former blue-white-blue flag of the Federal Republic of Central America; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water
note: similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band
Niger
three equal horizontal bands of orange (top), white, and green with a small orange disk centered in the white band; the orange band denotes the drier northern regions of the Sahara; white stands for purity and innocence; green symbolizes hope and the fertile and productive southern and western areas, as well as the Niger River; the orange disc represents the sun and the sacrifices made by the people
note: similar to the flag of India, which has a blue spoked wheel centered in the white band
Nigeria
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green; the color green represents the forests and abundant natural wealth of the country, white stands for peace and unity
Niue
yellow with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the flag of the UK bears five yellow five-pointed stars - a large star on a blue disk in the center and a smaller star on each arm of the bold red cross; the larger star stands for Niue, the smaller stars recall the Southern Cross constellation on the New Zealand flag and symbolize links with that country; yellow represents the bright sunshine of Niue and the warmth and friendship between Niue and New Zealand
Norfolk Island
three vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green with a large green Norfolk Island pine tree centered in the slightly wider white band; green stands for the rich vegetation on the island, and the pine tree - endemic to the island - is a symbol of Norfolk Island
note: somewhat reminiscent of the flag of Canada with its use of only two colors and depiction of a prominent local floral symbol in the central white band
Northern Mariana Islands
blue, with a white, five-pointed star superimposed on a gray latte stone (the traditional foundation stone used in building) in the center, surrounded by a wreath; blue symbolizes the Pacific Ocean, the star represents the Commonwealth; the latte stone and the floral head wreath display elements of the native Chamorro culture
Norway
red with a blue cross outlined in white that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors recall Norway's past political unions with Denmark (red and white) and Sweden (blue)
Oman
three horizontal bands of white, red, and green of equal width with a broad, vertical, red band on the hoist side; the national emblem (a khanjar dagger in its sheath superimposed on two crossed swords in scabbards) in white is centered near the top of the vertical band; white represents peace and prosperity, red recalls battles against foreign invaders, and green symbolizes the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountains) and fertility
Pakistan
green with a vertical white band (symbolizing the role of religious minorities) on the hoist side; a large white crescent and star are centered in the green field; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam
Palau
light blue with a large yellow disk shifted slightly to the hoist side; the blue color represents the ocean, the disk represents the moon; Palauans consider the full moon to be the optimum time for human activity; it is also considered a symbol of peace, love, and tranquility
Palestinian territories
the flag is constituted of three equal horizontal bands (black, white, and green from top to bottom) overlaid by a red chevron issuing from the hoist. The flag is almost identical to that of the Baath Party, and very similar to the flags of Jordan, and Western Sahara, all of which draw their inspiration from the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule (1916–1918).
Panama
divided into four, equal rectangles; the top quadrants are white (hoist side) with a blue five-pointed star in the center and plain red; the bottom quadrants are plain blue (hoist side) and white with a red five-pointed star in the center; the blue and red colors are those of the main political parties (Conservatives and Liberals respectively) and the white denotes peace between them; the blue star stands for the civic virtues of purity and honesty, the red star signifies authority and law
Papua New Guinea
divided diagonally from upper hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is red with a soaring yellow bird of paradise centered; the lower triangle is black with five, white, five-pointed stars of the Southern Cross constellation centered; red, black, and yellow are traditional colors of Papua New Guinea; the bird of paradise - endemic to the island of New Guinea - is an emblem of regional tribal culture and represents the emergence of Papua New Guinea as a nation; the Southern Cross, visible in the night sky, symbolizes Papua New Guinea's connection with Australia and several other countries in the South Pacific
Paraguay
three equal, horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue with an emblem centered in the white band; unusual flag in that the emblem is different on each side; the obverse (hoist side at the left) bears the national coat of arms (a yellow five-pointed star within a green wreath capped by the words REPUBLICA DEL PARAGUAY, all within two circles); the reverse (hoist side at the right) bears a circular seal of the treasury (a yellow lion below a red Cap of Liberty and the words PAZ Y JUSTICIA (Peace and Justice)); red symbolizes bravery and patriotism, white represents integrity and peace, and blue denotes liberty and generosity
note: the three color bands resemble those on the flag of the Netherlands; one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Saudi Arabia
Peru
three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), white, and red with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a shield bearing a vicuna (representing fauna), a cinchona tree (the source of quinine, signifying flora), and a yellow cornucopia spilling out coins (denoting mineral wealth); red recalls blood shed for independence, white symbolizes peace
Philippines
two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red; a white equilateral triangle is based on the hoist side; the center of the triangle displays a yellow sun with eight primary rays; each corner of the triangle contains a small, yellow, five-pointed star; blue stands for peace and justice, red symbolizes courage, the white equal-sided triangle represents equality; the rays recall the first eight provinces that sought independence from Spain, while the stars represent the three major geographical divisions of the country: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; the design of the flag dates to 1897
note: in wartime the flag is flown upside down with the red band at the top
Pitcairn Islands
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Pitcairn Islander coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the green, yellow, and blue of the shield represents the island rising from the ocean; the green field features a yellow anchor surmounted by a bible (both the anchor and the bible were items found on the HMS Bounty); sitting on the crest is a Pitcairn Island wheelbarrow from which springs a slip of miro (a local plant)
Poland
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; colors derive from the Polish emblem - a white eagle on a red field
note: similar to the flags of Indonesia and Monaco which are red (top) and white
Portugal
two vertical bands of green (hoist side, two-fifths) and red (three-fifths) with the national coat of arms (armillary sphere and Portuguese shield) centered on the dividing line; explanations for the color meanings are ambiguous, but a popular interpretation has green symbolizing hope and red the blood of those defending the nation
Puerto Rico
five equal horizontal bands of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bears a large, white, five-pointed star in the center; the white star symbolizes Puerto Rico; the three sides of the triangle signify the executive, legislative and judicial parts of the government; blue stands for the sky and the coastal waters; red symbolizes the blood shed by warriors, while white represents liberty, victory, and peace
note: design initially influenced by the US flag, but similar to the Cuban flag, with the colors of the bands and triangle reversed
Qatar
maroon with a broad white serrated band (nine white points) on the hoist side; maroon represents the blood shed in Qatari wars, white stands for peace; the nine-pointed serrated edge signifies Qatar as the ninth member of the "reconciled emirates" in the wake of the Qatari-British treaty of 1916
note: the other eight emirates are the seven that compose the UAE and Bahrain; according to some sources, the dominant color was formerly red, but this darkened to maroon upon exposure to the sun and the new shade was eventually adopted
Réunion
does not have a separate official flag.
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
Romania
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; modeled after the flag of France, the colors are those of the principalities of Walachia (red and yellow) and Moldavia (red and blue), which united in 1861 to form Romania; the national coat of arms that used to be centered in the yellow band has been removed
note: now similar to the flag of Chad, whose blue band is darker; also resembles the flags of Andorra and Moldova
Russia
three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red
note: the colors may have been based on those of the Dutch flag; despite many popular interpretations, there is no official meaning assigned to the colors of the Russian flag; this flag inspired other Slav countries to adopt horizontal tricolors of the same colors but in different arrangements, and so red, blue, and white became the Pan-Slav colors
Rwanda
three horizontal bands of sky blue (top, double width), yellow, and green, with a golden sun with 24 rays near the fly end of the blue band; blue represents happiness and peace, yellow economic development and mineral wealth, green hope of prosperity and natural resources; the sun symbolizes unity, as well as enlightenment and transparency from ignorance
Saint Barthelemy
the flag of France is used
Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Saint Helenian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the upper third of the shield depicts a white plover (wire bird) on a yellow field; the remainder of the shield depicts a rocky coastline on the left, offshore is a three-masted sailing ship with sails furled but flying an English flag
Saint Kitts and Nevis
divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a broad black band bearing two white, five-pointed stars; the black band is edged in yellow; the upper triangle is green, the lower triangle is red; green signifies the island's fertility, red symbolizes the struggles of the people from slavery, yellow denotes year-round sunshine, and black represents the African heritage of the people; the white stars stand for the islands of Saint Kitts and Nevis, but can also express hope and liberty, or independence and optimism
Saint Lucia
blue, with a gold isosceles triangle below a black arrowhead; the upper edges of the arrowhead have a white border; the blue color represents the sky and sea, gold stands for sunshine and prosperity, and white and black the racial composition of the island (with the latter being dominant); the two major triangles invoke the twin Pitons (Gros Piton and Petit Piton), cone-shaped volcanic plugs that are a symbol of the island
Saint Martin
the flag of France is used
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
a yellow three-masted sailing ship facing the hoist side rides on a blue background with scattered, white, wavy lines under the ship; a continuous black-over-white wavy line divides the ship from the white wavy lines; on the hoist side, a vertical band is divided into three parts: the top part (called ikkurina) is red with a green diagonal cross extending to the corners overlaid by a white cross dividing the rectangle into four sections; the middle part has a white background with an ermine pattern; the third part has a red background with two stylized yellow lions outlined in black, one above the other; these three heraldic arms represent settlement by colonists from the Basque Country (top), Brittany, and Normandy; the blue on the main portion of the flag symbolizes the Atlantic Ocean and the stylized ship represents the Grande Hermine in which Jacques Cartier "discovered" the islands in 1536
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold (double width), and green; the gold band bears three green diamonds arranged in a V pattern, which stands for Vincent; the diamonds recall the islands as the "Gems of the Antilles"; blue conveys the colors of a tropical sky and crystal waters, yellow signifies the golden Grenadine sands, and green represents lush vegetation
Samoa
red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side quadrant bearing five white five-pointed stars representing the Southern Cross constellation; red stands for courage, blue represents freedom, and white signifies purity
San Marino
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and light blue with the national coat of arms superimposed in the center; the main colors derive from the shield of the coat of arms, which features three white towers on three peaks on a blue field; the towers represent three castles built on San Marino's highest feature Mount Titano: Guaita, Cesta, and Montale; the coat of arms is flanked by a wreath, below a crown and above a scroll bearing the word LIBERTAS (Liberty); the white and blue colors are also said to stand for peace and liberty respectively
Sao Tome and Principe
three horizontal bands of green (top), yellow (double width), and green with two black five-pointed stars placed side by side in the center of the yellow band and a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; green stands for the country's rich vegetation, red recalls the struggle for independence, and yellow represents cocoa, one of the country's main agricultural products; the two stars symbolize the two main islands
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Saudi Arabia
green, a traditional color in Islamic flags, with the Shahada or Muslim creed in large white Arabic script (translated as "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God") above a white horizontal saber (the tip points to the hoist side); design dates to the early twentieth century and is closely associated with the Al Saud family which established the kingdom in 1932; the flag is manufactured with differing obverse and reverse sides so that the Shahada reads - and the sword points - correctly from right to left on both sides
note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Paraguay
Senegal
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red with a small green five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; green represents Islam, progress, and hope; yellow signifies natural wealth and progress; red symbolizes sacrifice and determination; the star denotes unity and hope
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the same as those of neighboring Mali and the reverse of those on the flag of neighboring Guinea
Serbia
three equal horizontal stripes of red (top), blue, and white - the Pan-Slav colors representing freedom and revolutionary ideals; charged with the coat of arms of Serbia shifted slightly to the hoist side; the principal field of the coat of arms represents the Serbian state and displays a white two-headed eagle on a red shield; a smaller red shield on the eagle represents the Serbian nation, and is divided into four quarters by a white cross; a white Cyrillic letters "S" (written like Latin "C") in each quarter stands for the phrase "Only Unity Saves the Serbs"; a royal crown surmounts the coat of arms
note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia
Seychelles
five oblique bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, red, white, and green (bottom) radiating from the bottom of the hoist side; the oblique bands are meant to symbolize a dynamic new country moving into the future; blue represents sky and sea, yellow the sun giving light and life, red the peoples' determination to work for the future in unity and love, white social justice and harmony, green the land and natural environment
Sierra Leone
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and blue; green symbolizes agriculture, mountains, and natural resources, white represents unity and justice, and blue the sea and the natural harbor in Freetown
Singapore
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; near the hoist side of the red band, there is a vertical, white crescent (closed portion is toward the hoist side) partially enclosing five white five-pointed stars arranged in a circle; red denotes brotherhood and equality; white signifies purity and virtue; the waxing crescent moon symbolizes a young nation on the ascendancy; the five stars represent the nation's ideals of democracy, peace, progress, justice, and equality
Sint Maarten
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and blue with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the center of the triangle displays the Sint Maarten coat of arms; the arms consist of an orange-bordered blue shield prominently displaying the white court house in Philipsburg, as well as a bouquet of yellow sage (the national flower) in the upper left, and the silhouette of a Dutch-French friendship monument in the upper right; the shield is surmounted by a yellow rising sun in front of which is a Brown Pelican in flight; a yellow scroll below the shield bears the motto: SEMPER PROGREDIENS (Always Progressing); the three main colors are identical to those on the Dutch flag
note: the flag somewhat resembles that of the Philippines, but with the main red and blue bands reversed; the banner more closely evokes the wartime Philippine flag
Slovakia
three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red derive from the Pan-Slav colors; the Slovakian coat of arms (consisting of a red shield bordered in white and bearing a white Cross of Lorraine surmounting three blue hills) is centered over the bands but offset slightly to the hoist side
note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia
Slovenia
three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red, derive from the medieval coat of arms of the Duchy of Carniola; the Slovenian seal (a shield with the image of Triglav, Slovenia's highest peak, in white against a blue background at the center; beneath it are two wavy blue lines depicting seas and rivers, and above it are three six-pointed stars arranged in an inverted triangle, which are taken from the coat of arms of the Counts of Celje, the great Slovene dynastic house of the late 14th and early 15th centuries) appears in the upper hoist side of the flag centered on the white and blue bands
Solomon Islands
divided diagonally by a thin yellow stripe from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle (hoist side) is blue with five white five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern; the lower triangle is green; blue represents the ocean; green the land; and yellow sunshine; the five stars stand for the five main island groups of the Solomon Islands
Somalia
light blue with a large white five-pointed star in the center; the blue field was originally influenced by the flag of the UN, but today is said to denote the sky and the neighboring Indian Ocean; the five points of the star represent the five regions in the horn of Africa that are inhabited by Somali people: the former British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland (which together make up Somalia), Djibouti, Ogaden (Ethiopia), and the Northern Frontier District (Kenya)
South Africa
two equal width horizontal bands of red (top) and blue separated by a central green band that splits into a horizontal Y, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side; the Y embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes; the flag colors do not have any official symbolism, but the Y stands for the "convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity"; black, yellow, and green are found on the flag of the African National Congress, while red, white, and blue are the colors in the flags of the Netherlands and the UK, whose settlers ruled South Africa during the colonial era
note: the South African flag is the only national flag to display six colors as part of its primary design
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms features a shield with a golden lion rampant, holding a torch; the shield is supported by a fur seal on the left and a Macaroni penguin on the right; a reindeer appears above the crest, and below the shield on a scroll is the motto LEO TERRAM PROPRIAM PROTEGAT (Let the Lion Protect its Own Land)); the lion with the torch represents the UK and discovery; the background of the shield, blue and white estoiles, are found in the coat of arms of James Cook, discoverer of the islands; all the outer supporting animals represented are native to the islands
South Ossetia
Spain
three horizontal bands of red (top), yellow (double width), and red with the national coat of arms on the hoist side of the yellow band; the coat of arms is quartered to display the emblems of the traditional kingdoms of Spain (clockwise from upper left, Castile, Leon, Navarre, and Aragon) while Granada is represented by the stylized pomegranate at the bottom of the shield; the arms are framed by two columns representing the Pillars of Hercules, which are the two promontories (Gibraltar and Ceuta) on either side of the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar; the red scroll across the two columns bears the imperial motto of "Plus Ultra" (further beyond) referring to Spanish lands beyond Europe; the triband arrangement with the center stripe twice the width of the outer dates to the 18th century
note: the red and yellow colors are related to those of the oldest Spanish kingdoms: Aragon, Castile, Leon, and Navarre
Sri Lanka
yellow with two panels; the smaller hoist-side panel has two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and orange; the other larger panel depicts a yellow lion holding a sword on a dark red rectangular field that also displays a yellow bo leaf in each corner; the yellow field appears as a border around the entire flag and extends between the two panels; the lion represents Sinhalese ethnicity, the strength of the nation, and bravery; the sword demonstrates the sovereignty of the nation; the four bo leaves - symbolizing Buddhism and its influence on the country - stand for the four virtues of kindness, friendliness, happiness, and equanimity; orange signifies Sri Lankan Tamils, green the Sri Lankan Moors; dark red represents the European Burghers, but also refers to the rich colonial background of the country; yellow denotes other ethnic groups; also referred to as the Lion Flag
Sudan
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; colors and design based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I, but the meanings of the colors are expressed as follows: red signifies the struggle for freedom, white is the color of peace, light, and love, black represents Sudan itself (in Arabic 'Sudan' means black), green is the color of Islam, agriculture, and prosperity
Suriname
five horizontal bands of green (top, double width), white, red (quadruple width), white, and green (double width); a large, yellow, five-pointed star is centered in the red band; red stands for progress and love; green symbolizes hope and fertility; white signifies peace, justice, and freedom; the star represents the unity of all ethnic groups; from its yellow light the nation draws strength to bear sacrifices patiently while working toward a golden future
Svalbard
the flag of Norway is used
Swaziland
three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in yellow; centered in the red band is a large black and white shield covering two spears and a staff decorated with feather tassels, all placed horizontally; blue stands for peace and stability, red represents past struggles, and yellow the mineral resources of the country; the shield, spears, and staff symbolize protection from the country's enemies, while the black and white of the shield are meant to portray black and white people living in peaceful coexistence
Sweden
blue with a golden yellow cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors reflect those of the Swedish coat of arms - three gold crowns on a blue field
Switzerland
red square with a bold, equilateral white cross in the center that does not extend to the edges of the flag; various medieval legends purport to describe the origin of the flag; a white cross used as identification for troops of the Swiss Confederation is first attested at the Battle of Laupen (1339)
Syria
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; two small, green, five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); identical to the former flag of the United Arab Republic (1958-1961) where the two stars represented the constituent states of Syria and Egypt; the current design dates to 1980
note: similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band
Taiwan
red field with a dark blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white sun with 12 triangular rays; the blue and white design of the canton (symbolizing the sun of progress) dates to 1895; it was later adopted as the flag of the Kuomintang Party; blue signifies liberty, justice, and democracy; red stands for fraternity, sacrifice, and nationaliam, white represents equality, frankness, and the people's livelihood; the 12 rays of the sun are those of the months and the twelve traditional Chinese hours (each ray equals two hours)
note: somewhat resembles the flag of Burma
Tajikistan
three horizontal stripes of red (top), a wider stripe of white, and green; a gold crown surmounted by seven gold, five-pointed stars is located in the center of the white stripe; red represents the sun, victory, and the unity of the nation, white stands for purity, cotton, and mountain snows, while green is the color of Islam and the bounty of nature; the crown symbolizes the Tajik people; the seven stars signify the Tajik magic word "seven" - a symbol of perfection and the embodiment of happiness
Tanzania
divided diagonally by a yellow-edged black band from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is blue; the banner combines colors found on the flags of Tanganyika and Zanzibar; green represents the natural vegetation of the country, gold its rich mineral deposits, black the native Swahili people, and blue the country's many lakes and rivers, as well as the Indian Ocean
Thailand
five horizontal bands of red (top), white, blue (double width), white, and red; the red color symbolizes the nation and the blood of life; white represents religion and the purity of Buddhism; blue stands for the monarchy
note: similar to the flag of Costa Rica but with the blue and red colors reversed
Timor-Leste
red, with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a slightly longer yellow arrowhead that extends to the center of the flag; a white star - pointing to the upper hoist-side corner of the flag - is in the center of the black triangle; yellow denotes the colonialism in Timor-Leste's past; black represents the obscurantism that needs to be overcome; red stands for the national liberation struggle; the white star symbolizes peace and serves as a guiding light
Togo
five equal horizontal bands of green (top and bottom) alternating with yellow; a white five-pointed star on a red square is in the upper hoist-side corner; the five horizontal stripes stand for the five different regions of the country; the red square is meant to express the loyalty and patriotism of the people; green symbolizes hope, fertility, and agriculture; yellow represents mineral wealth and faith that hard work and strength will bring prosperity; the star symbolizes life, purity, peace, dignity, and Togo's independence
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Tokelau
a yellow stylized Tokelauan canoe on a dark blue field sails toward the manu - the Southern Cross constellation of four, white, five-pointed stars at the hoist side; the Southern Cross represents the role of Christianity in Tokelauan culture and symbolizes the country's navigating into the future, the color yellow indicates happiness and peace, and the blue field represents the ocean on which the community relies
Tonga
red with a bold red cross on a white rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner; the cross reflects the deep-rooted Christianity in Tonga; red represents the blood of Christ and his sacrifice; white signifies purity
Trinidad and Tobago
red with a white-edged black diagonal band from the upper hoist side to the lower fly side; the colors represent the elements of earth, water, and fire; black stands for the wealth of the land and the dedication of the people; white symbolizes the sea surrounding the islands, the purity of the country's aspirations, and equality; red symbolizes the warmth and energy of the sun, the vitality of the land, and the courage and friendliness of its people
Tunisia
red with a white disk in the center bearing a red crescent nearly encircling a red five-pointed star; resembles the Ottoman flag (red banner with white crescent and star) and recalls Tunisia's history as part of the Ottoman Empire; red represents the blood shed by martyrs in the struggle against oppression, white stands for peace; the crescent and star are traditional symbols of Islam
note: the flag is based on that of Turkey, itself a succesor state to the Ottoman Empire
Turkey
red with a vertical white crescent moon (the closed portion is toward the hoist side) and white five-pointed star centered just outside the crescent opening; the flag colors and designs closely resemble those on the banner of Ottoman Empire, which preceded modern-day Turkey; the crescent moon and star serve as insignia for the Turks, as well as being traditional symbols of Islam; according to legend, the flag represents the reflection of the moon and a star in a pool of blood of Turkish warriors
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Turkmenistan
green field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five tribal guls (designs used in producing carpets) stacked above two crossed olive branches; five white stars and a white crescent moon appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe; the green color and crescent moon represent Islam; the five stars symbolize the regions or welayats of Turkmenistan; the guls reflect the national identity of Turkmenistan where carpet-making has long been a part of traditional nomadic life
note: the flag of Turkmenistan is the most intricate of all national flags
Turks and Caicos Islands
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the colonial shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the shield is yellow and displays a conch shell, a spiny lobster, and Turks Head cactus - three common elements of the islands' biota
Tuvalu
light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the outer half of the flag represents a map of the country with nine yellow, five-pointed stars on a blue field symbolizing the nine atolls in the ocean
Uganda
six equal horizontal bands of black (top), yellow, red, black, yellow, and red; a white disk is superimposed at the center and depicts a red-crested crane (the national symbol) facing the hoist side; black symbolizes the African people, yellow sunshine and vitality, red African brotherhood; the crane was the military badge of Ugandan soldiers under the UK
Ukraine
two equal horizontal bands of azure (top) and golden yellow represent grain fields under a blue sky
United Arab Emirates
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a wider vertical red band on the hoist side; the flag incorporates all four Pan-Arab colors, which in this case represent fertility (green), neutrality (white), petroleum resources (black), and unity (red); red was the traditional color incorporated into all flags of the emirates before their unification
United Kingdom
blue field with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) edged in white superimposed on the diagonal red cross of Saint Patrick (patron saint of Ireland), which is superimposed on the diagonal white cross of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland); properly known as the Union Flag, but commonly called the Union Jack; the design and colors (especially the Blue Ensign) have been the basis for a number of other flags including other Commonwealth countries and their constituent states or provinces, and British overseas territories
United States
13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies; the blue stands for loyalty, devotion, truth, justice, and friendship; red symbolizes courage, zeal, and fervency, while white denotes purity and rectitude of conduct; commonly referred to by its nickname of Old Glory
note: the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including Chile, Liberia, Malaysia, and Puerto Rico
United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
the flag of the US is used
Uruguay
nine equal horizontal stripes of white (top and bottom) alternating with blue; a white square in the upper hoist-side corner with a yellow sun bearing a human face known as the Sun of May with 16 rays that alternate between triangular and wavy; the stripes represent the nine original departments of Uruguay; the sun symbol evokes the legend of the sun breaking through the clouds on 25 May 1810 as independence was first declared from Spain (Uruguay subsequently won its independence from Brazil)
note: the banner was inspired by the national colors of Argentina and by the design of the US flag
Uzbekistan
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and green separated by red fimbriations with a white crescent moon (closed side to the hoist) and 12 white stars shifted to the hoist on the top band; blue is the color of the Turkic peoples and of the sky, white signifies peace and the striving for purity in thoughts and deeds, while green represents nature and is the color of Islam; the red stripes are the vital force of all living organisms that links good and pure ideas with the eternal sky and with deeds on earth; the crescent represents Islam and the 12 stars the months and constellations of the Uzbek calendar
Vanuatu
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) all separated by a black-edged yellow stripe in the shape of a horizontal Y (the two points of the Y face the hoist side and enclose the triangle); centered in the triangle is a boar's tusk encircling two crossed namele fern fronds, all in yellow; red represents the blood of boars and men, green the richness of the islands, and black the ni-Vanuatu people; the yellow Y-shape - which reflects the pattern of the islands in the Pacific Ocean - symbolizes the light of the Gospel spreading through the islands; the boar's tusk is a symbol of prosperity frequently worn as a pendant on the islands; the fern fronds represent peace
Venezuela
three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), blue, and red with the coat of arms on the hoist side of the yellow band and an arc of eight white five-pointed stars centered in the blue band; the flag retains the three equal horizontal bands and three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the South American republic that broke up in 1830; yellow is interpreted as standing for the riches of the land, blue for the courage of its people, and red for the blood shed in attaining independence; the seven stars on the original flag represented the seven provinces in Venezuela that united in the war of independence; in 2006, President Hugo CHAVEZ ordered an eighth star added to the star arc - a decision that sparked much controversy
Vietnam
red field with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center; red symbolizes revolution and blood, the five-pointed star represents the five elements of the populace - peasants, workers, intellectuals, traders, and soldiers - that unite to build socialism
Virgin Islands
white field with a modified US coat of arms in the center between the large blue initials V and I; the coat of arms shows a yellow eagle holding an olive branch in its right talon and three arrows in the left with a superimposed shield of seven red and six white vertical stripes below a blue panel; white is a symbol of purity, the letters stand for the Virgin Islands
Wake Island
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Flags of Every Country
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This map shows Flags of every country in the world.
Flag description produced from actual flags or the best information available at the time the entry was written. The flags of independent states are used by their dependencies unless there is an officially recognized local flag. Some disputed and other areas do not have flags.
Note: Flag description from CIA Factbook and Flag image from Wikipedia.
Last updated:
Abkhazia
Afghanistan
three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), red, and green, with the national emblem in white centered on the red band and slightly overlapping the other two bands; the center of the emblem features a mosque with pulpit and flags on either side, below the mosque are numerals for the solar year 1298 (1919 in the Gregorian calendar, the year of Afghan independence from the UK); this central image is circled by a border consisting of sheaves of wheat on the left and right, in the upper-center is an Arabic inscription of the Shahada (Muslim creed) below which are rays of the rising sun over the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great"), and at bottom center is a scroll bearing the name Afghanistan; black signifies the past, red is for the blood shed for independence, and green can represent either hope for the future, agricultural prosperity, or Islam
note: Afghanistan had more changes to its national flag in the 20th century than any other country; the colors black, red, and green appeared on most of them
Akrotiri
the flag of the UK is used
Albania
red with a black two-headed eagle in the center; the design is claimed to be that of 15th-century hero George Castriota SKANDERBERG, who led a successful uprising against the Turks that resulted in a short-lived independence for some Albanian regions (1443-1478); an unsubstantiated explanation for the eagle symbol is the tradition that Albanians see themselves as descendants of the eagle; they refer to themselves as "Shkypetars," which translates as "sons of the eagle"
Algeria
two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white; a red, five-pointed star within a red crescent centered over the two-color boundary; the colors represent Islam (green), purity and peace (white), and liberty (red); the crescent and star are also Islamic symbols, but the crescent is more closed than those of other Muslim countries because the Algerians believe the long crescent horns bring happiness
American Samoa
blue, with a white triangle edged in red that is based on the fly side and extends to the hoist side; a brown and white American bald eagle flying toward the hoist side is carrying two traditional Samoan symbols of authority, a war club known as a "Fa'alaufa'i" (upper; left talon), and a coconut fiber fly whisk known as a "Fue" (lower; right talon); the combination of symbols broadly mimics that seen on the US Great Seal and reflects the relationship between the United States and American Samoa
Andorra
three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red, with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; the latter band is slightly wider than the other two so that the ratio of band widths is 8:9:8; the coat of arms features a quartered shield with the emblems of (starting in the upper left and proceeding clockwise): Urgell, Foix, Bearn, and Catalonia; the motto reads VIRTUS UNITA FORTIOR (Strength United is Stronger); the flag combines the blue and red French colors with the red and yellow of Spain to show Franco-Spanish protection
note: similar to the flags of Chad and Romania, which do not have a national coat of arms in the center, and the flag of Moldova, which does bear a national emblem
Angola
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle); red represents liberty, black the African continent, the symbols characterize workers and peasants
Anguilla
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Anguillan coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts three orange dolphins in an interlocking circular design on a white background with a turquoise-blue field below; the white in the background represents peace; the blue base symbolizes the surrounding sea, as well as faith, youth, and hope; the three dolphins stand for endurance, unity, and strength
Antarctica
Antarctica has no official flag as it is not a nation nor is it ruled by a single government or body. The Antarctic Treaty Organization adopted a flag in 2002 and is used as an unofficial symbol of the continent. Also, several unofficial designs have been proposed.
Antigua and Barbuda
red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band; the sun symbolizes the dawn of a new era, black represents the African heritage of most of the population, blue is for hope, and red is for the dynamism of the people; the "V" stands for victory; the successive yellow, blue, and white coloring is also meant to evoke the country's tourist attractions of sun, sea, and sand
Argentina
Three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May; There are multiple interpretations on the reasons for those colors: the blue colors represent the clear skies; the sun symbol commemorates the appearance of the sun through cloudy skies on 25 May 1810 during the first mass demonstration in favor of independence; the sun features are those of Inti, the Inca god of the sun. The flag was created by Manuel Belgrano.
Armenia
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, and orange; the color red recalls the blood shed for liberty, blue the Armenian skies as well as hope, and orange the land and the courage of the workers who farm it
Aruba
blue, with two narrow, horizontal, yellow stripes across the lower portion and a red, four-pointed star outlined in white in the upper hoist-side corner; the star represents Aruba and its red soil and white beaches, its four points the four major languages (Papiamento, Dutch, Spanish, English) as well as the four points of a compass, to indicate that its inhabitants come from all over the world; the blue symbolizes Caribbean waters and skies; the stripes represent the island's two main "industries": the flow of tourists to the sun-drenched beaches and the flow of minerals from the earth
Ashmore and Cartier Islands
the flag of Australia is used
Australia
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large seven-pointed star in the lower hoist-side quadrant known as the Commonwealth or Federation Star, representing the federation of the colonies of Australia in 1901; the star depicts one point for each of the six original states and one representing all of Australia's internal and external territories; on the fly half is a representation of the Southern Cross constellation in white with one small five-pointed star and four larger, seven-pointed stars
Austria
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and red; the flag design is certainly one of the oldest - if not the oldest - national banners in the world; according to tradition, in 1191, following a fierce battle in the Third Crusade, Duke Leopold V of Austria's white tunic became completely blood-spattered; upon removal of his wide belt or sash, a white band was revealed; the red-white-red color combination was subsequently adopted as his banner
Azerbaijan
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), red, and green; a crescent and eight-pointed star in white are centered in the red band; the blue band recalls Azerbaijan's Turkic heritage, red stands for modernization and progress, and green refers to Islam; the crescent moon is an Islamic symbol, while the eight-pointed star represents the eight Turkic peoples of the world
Bahamas, The
three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side; the band colors represent the golden beaches of the islands surrounded by the aquamarine sea; black represents the vigor and force of a united people, while the pointing triangle indicates the enterprise and determination of the Bahamian people to develop the rich resources of land and sea
Bahrain
red, the traditional color for flags of Persian Gulf states, with a white serrated band (five white points) on the hoist side; the five points represent the five pillars of Islam
note: until 2002 the flag had eight white points, but this was reduced to five to avoid confusion with the Qatari flag
Bangladesh
green field with a large red disk shifted slightly to the hoist side of center; the red disk represents the rising sun and the sacrifice to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush vegetation of Bangladesh
Barbados
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the band colors represent the blue of the sea and sky and the gold of the beaches; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident)
Belarus
red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears Belarusian national ornamentation in red; the red band color recalls past struggles from oppression, the green band represents hope and the many forests of the country
Belgium
three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the vertical design was based on the flag of France; the colors are those of the arms of the duchy of Brabant (yellow lion with red claws and tongue on a black field)
Belize
blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland of 50 mahogany leaves; the colors are those of the two main political parties: blue for the PUP and red for the UDP; various elements of the coat of arms - the figures, the tools, the mahogany tree, and the garland of leaves - recall the logging industry that led to British settlement of Belize
note: Belize's flag is the only national flag that depicts human beings; two British overseas territories, Montserrat and the British Virgin Islands, also depict humans
Benin
two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red (bottom) with a vertical green band on the hoist side; green symbolizes hope and revival, yellow wealth, and red courage
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Bermuda
red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (a white shield with a red lion standing on a green grassy field holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag; it was the shipwreck of the vessel, filled with English colonists originally bound for Virginia, that led to settling of Bermuda
note: the flag is unusual in that it is only British overseas territory that uses a red ensign, all others use blue
Bhutan
divided diagonally from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side; the dragon, called the Druk (Thunder Dragon), is the emblem of the nation; its white color stands for purity and the jewels in its claws symbolize wealth; the background colors represent spiritual and secular powers within Bhutan: the orange is associated with Bhuddism, while the yellow denotes the ruling dynasty
Bolivia
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; red stands for bravery and the blood of national heroes, yellow for the nation's mineral resources, and green for the fertility of the land
note: similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; in 2009, a presidential decree made it mandatory for a so-called wiphala - a square, multi-colored flag representing the country's indigenous peoples - to be used alongside the traditional flag
Bosnia and Herzegovina
a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle; the triangle approximates the shape of the country and its three points stand for the constituent peoples - Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs; the stars represent Europe and are meant to be continuous (thus the half stars at top and bottom); the colors (white, blue, and yellow) are often associated with neutrality and peace, and traditionally are linked with Bosnia
Botswana
light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center; the blue symbolizes water in the form of rain, while the black and white bands represent racial harmony
Bouvet Island
the flag of Norway is used
Brazil
green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress); the current flag was inspired by the banner of the former Empire of Brazil (1822-1889); on the imperial flag, the green represented the House of Braganza of Pedro I, the first Emperor of Brazil, while the yellow stood for the Habsburg Family of his wife; on the modern flag the green represents the forests of the country and the yellow rhombus its mineral wealth; the blue circle and stars, which replaced the coat of arms of the original flag, depict the sky over Rio de Janeiro on the morning of 15 November 1889 - the day the Republic of Brazil was declared; the number of stars has changed with the creation of new states and has risen from an original 21 to the current 27 (one for each state and the Federal District)
British Indian Ocean Territory
white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown (the symbols of the territory) centered on the outer half of the flag; the wavy stripes represent the Indian Ocean; although not officially described, the six blue stripes may stand for the six main atolls of the archipelago
British Virgin Islands
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful); the islands were named by COLUMBUS in 1493 in honor of Saint Ursula and her 11 virgin followers (some sources say 11,000) who reputedly were martyred by the Huns in the 4th or 5th century; the figure on the banner holding a lamp represents the saint, the other lamps symbolize her followers
Brunei
yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; yellow is the color of royalty and symbolizes the sultanate; the white and black bands denote Brunei's chief ministers; the emblem includes five main components: a swallow-tailed flag, the royal umbrella representing the monarchy, the wings of four feathers symbolizing justice, tranquility, prosperity, and peace, the two upraised hands signifying the government's pledge to preserve and promote the welfare of the people, and the crescent moon denoting Islam, the state religion; the state motto "Always render service with God's guidance" appears in yellow Arabic script on the crescent; a ribbon below the crescent reads "Brunei, the Abode of Peace"
Bulgaria
three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the pan-Slavic white-blue-red colors were modified by substituting a green band (representing freedom) for the blue
note: the national emblem, formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe, has been removed
Burkina Faso
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; red recalls the country's struggle for independence, green is for hope and abundance,and yellow represents the country's mineral wealth
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Burma
design consists of three equal horizontal stripes of yellow (top), green, and red; centered on the green band is a large white five-pointed star that partially overlaps onto the adjacent colored stripes; the design revives the triband colors used by Burma from 1943-45, during the Japanese occupation
Burundi
divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and fly side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below); green symbolizes hope and optimism, white purity and peace, and red the blood shed in the struggle for independence; the three stars in the disk represent the three major ethnic groups: Hutu, Twa, Tutsi, as well as the three elements in the national motto: unity, work, progress
Cambodia
three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band; red and blue are traditional Cambodian colors
note: only national flag to incorporate an actual building in its design
Cameroon
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow, with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; the vertical tricolor recalls the flag of France; red symbolizes unity, yellow the sun, happiness, and the savannahs in the north, and green hope and the forests in the south; the star is referred to as the "star of unity"
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Canada
two vertical bands of red (hoist and fly side, half width) with white square between them; an 11-pointed red maple leaf is centered in the white square; the maple leaf has long been a Canadian symbol; the official colors of Canada are red and white
Cape Verde
five unequal horizontal bands; the top-most band of blue - equal to one half the width of the flag - is followed by three bands of white, red, and white, each equal to 1/12 of the width, and a bottom stripe of blue equal to one quarter of the flag width; a circle of 10, yellow, five-pointed stars is centered on the red stripe and positioned 3/8 of the length of the flag from the hoist side; blue stands for the sea and the sky, the circle of stars represents the 10 major islands united into a nation, the stripes symbolize the road to formation of the country through peace (white) and effort (red)
Cayman Islands
a blue field, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a crest with a pineapple, representing the connection with Jamaica, and a turtle, representing Cayman's seafaring tradition, above a shield bearing a golden lion, symbolizing Great Britain, below which are three green stars (representing the three islands) surmounting white and blue wavy lines representing the sea and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS
Central African Republic
four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; a yellow five-pointed star to the hoist side of the blue band; banner combines the Pan-African and French flag colors; red symbolizes the blood spilled in the struggle for independence, blue represents the sky and freedom, white peace and dignity, green hope and faith, and yellow tolerance; the star represents aspiration towards a vibrant future
Chad
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; the flag combines the blue and red French (former colonial) colors with the red and yellow of the Pan-African colors; blue symbolizes the sky, hope, and the south of the country, which is relatively well-watered; yellow represents the sun, as well as the desert in the north of the country; red stands for progress, unity, and sacrifice
note: similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France
Chile
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red represents the blood spilled to achieve independence
note: design was influenced by the US flag
China
red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner; the color red represents revolution, while the stars symbolize the four social classes - the working class, the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie, and the national bourgeoisie (capitalists) - united under the Communist Party of China
Christmas Island
territorial flag; divided diagonally from upper hoist to lower fly; the upper triangle is green with a yellow image of the Golden Bosun Bird superimposed, the lower triangle is blue with the Southern Cross constellation, representing Australia, superimposed; a centered yellow disk displays a green map of the island
note: the flag of Australia is used for official purposes
Clipperton Island
the flag of France is used
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
the flag of Australia is used
Colombia
three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double-width), blue, and red; the flag retains the three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the short-lived South American republic that broke up in 1830; various interpretations of the colors exist and include: yellow for the gold in Colombia's land, blue for the seas on its shores, and red for the blood spilled in attaining freedom; alternatively, the colors have been described as representing more elemental concepts such as sovereignty and justice (yellow), loyalty and vigilance (blue), and valour and generosity (red); or simply the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity
note: similar to the flag of Ecuador, which is longer and bears the Ecuadorian coat of arms superimposed in the center
Comoros
four equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), white, red, and blue, with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist; centered within the triangle is a white crescent with the convex side facing the hoist and four white, five-pointed stars placed vertically in a line between the points of the crescent; the horizontal bands and the four stars represent the four main islands of the archipelago - Mwali, N'gazidja, Nzwani, and Mahore (Mayotte - territorial collectivity of France, but claimed by Comoros)
note: the crescent, stars, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
sky blue field divided diagonally from the lower hoist corner to upper fly corner by a red stripe bordered by two narrow yellow stripes; a yellow, five-pointed star appears in the upper hoist corner; blue represents peace and hope, red the blood of the country's martyrs, and yellow the country's wealth and prosperity; the star symbolizes unity and the brilliant future for the country
Congo, Republic of the
divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a yellow band; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is red; green symbolizes agriculture and forests, yellow the friendship and nobility of the people, red is unexplained but has been associated with the struggle for independence
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Cook Islands
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large circle of 15 white five-pointed stars (one for every island) centered in the outer half of the flag
Coral Sea Islands
the flag of Australia is used
Costa Rica
five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white elliptical disk toward the hoist side of the red band; Costa Rica retained the earlier blue-white-blue flag of Central America until 1848 when, in response to revolutionary activity in Europe, it was decided to incorporate the French colors into the national flag and a central red stripe was added; today the blue color is said to stand for the sky, opportunity, and perseverence, white denotes peace, happiness, and wisdom, while red represents the blood shed for freedom, as well as the generosity and vibrancy of the people
note: somewhat resembles the flag of North Korea; similar to the flag of Thailand but with the blue and red colors reversed
Cote d'Ivoire
three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; orange symbolizes the land (savannah) of the north and fertility, white stands for peace and unity, green represents the forests of the south and the hope for a bright future
note: similar to the flag of Ireland, which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the flag of France
Croatia
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue - the Pan-Slav colors - superimposed by the Croatian coat of arms; the coat of arms consists of one main shield (a checkerboard of 13 red and 12 silver (white) fields) surmounted by five smaller shields that form a crown over the main shield; the five small shields represent five historic regions, they are (from left to right): Croatia, Dubrovnik, Dalmatia, Istria, and Slavonia
note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia
Cuba
five equal horizontal bands of blue (top, center, and bottom) alternating with white; a red equilateral triangle based on the hoist side bears a white, five-pointed star in the center; the blue bands refer to the three old divisions of the island: central, occidental, and oriental; the white bands describe the purity of the independence ideal; the triangle symbolizes liberty, equality, and fraternity, while the red color stands for the blood shed in the independence struggle; the white star, called La Estrella Solitaria (the Lone Star) lights the way to freedom and was taken from the flag of Texas
note: design similar to the Puerto Rican flag, with the colors of the bands and triangle reversed
Curacao
on a blue field a horizontal yellow band somewhat below the center divides the flag into proportions of 5:1:2; two five-pointed white stars - the smaller above and to the left of the larger - appear in the canton; the blue of the upper and lower sections symbolizes the sky and sea respectively; yellow represents the sun; the stars symbolize Curacao and its uninhabited smaller sister island of Klein Curacao; the five star points signify the five continents from which Curacao's people derive
Cyprus
white with a copper-colored silhouette of the island (the name Cyprus is derived from the Greek word for copper) above two green crossed olive branches in the center of the flag; the branches symbolize the hope for peace and reconciliation between the Greek and Turkish communities
note: the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" flag retains the white field of the Cyprus national flag but displays narrow horizontal red stripes positioned a small distance from the top and bottom edges between which are centered a red crescent and a red five-pointed star; the banner is modeled after the Turkish national flag but with the colors reversed
Czech Republic
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side
note: is identical to the flag of the former Czechoslovakia; uses the Pan-Slav colors inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia
Denmark
red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side; the banner is referred to as the Dannebrog (Danish flag) and is one of the oldest national flags in the world; traditions as to the origin of the flag design vary, but the best known is a legend that the banner fell from the sky during an early-13th century battle; caught up by the Danish king before it ever touched the earth, this heavenly talisman inspired the royal army to victory; in actuality, the flag may derive from a crusade banner or ensign
note: the shifted design element was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden
Dhekelia
the flag of the UK is used
Djibouti
two equal horizontal bands of light blue (top) and light green with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bearing a red five-pointed star in the center; blue stands for sea and sky and the Issa Somali people; green symbolizes earth and the Afar people; white represents peace; the red star recalls the struggle for independence and stands for unity
Dominica
green, with a centered cross of three equal bands - the vertical part is yellow (hoist side), black, and white and the horizontal part is yellow (top), black, and white; superimposed in the center of the cross is a red disk bearing a Sisserou Parrot, unique to Dominica, encircled by 10 green, five-pointed stars edged in yellow; the 10 stars represent the 10 administrative divisions (parishes); green symbolizes the island's lush vegetation; the triple-colored cross represents the Christian Trinity; the yellow color denotes sunshine, the main agricultural products (citrus and bananas), and the native Carib Indians; black is for the rich soil and the African heritage of most citizens; white signifies rivers, waterfalls, and the purity of aspirations; the red disc stands for social justice
Dominican Republic
a centered white cross that extends to the edges divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms featuring a shield supported by a laurel branch (left) and a palm branch (right) is at the center of the cross; above the shield a blue ribbon displays the motto, DIOS, PATRIA, LIBERTAD (God, Fatherland, Liberty), and below the shield, REPUBLICA DOMINICANA appears on a red ribbon; in the shield a bible is opened to a verse that reads "Y la verdad nos hara libre" (And the truth shall set you free); blue stands for liberty, white for salvation, and red for the blood of heroes
Ecuador
three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double width), blue, and red with the coat of arms superimposed at the center of the flag; the flag retains the three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the South American republic that broke up in 1830; the yellow color represents sunshine, grain, and mineral wealth, blue the sky, sea, and rivers, and red the blood of patriots spilled in the struggle for freedom and justice
note: similar to the flag of Colombia, which is shorter and does not bear a coat of arms
Egypt
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the national emblem (a gold Eagle of Saladin facing the hoist side with a shield superimposed on its chest above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white)
note: similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars in the white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and Yemen, which has a plain white band
El Salvador
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL; the banner is based on the former blue-white-blue flag of the Federal Republic of Central America; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water, as well as peace and prosperity
note: similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which has a different coat of arms centered in the white band - it features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band
Equatorial Guinea
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red, with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice); green symbolizes the jungle and natural resources, blue represents the sea that connects the mainland to the islands, white stands for peace, and red recalls the fight for independence
Eritrea
red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle; green stands for the country's agriculture economy, red signifies the blood shed in the fight for freedom, and blue symbolizes the bounty of the sea; the wreath-olive branch symbol is similar to that on the first flag of Eritrea from 1952; the shape of the red triangle broadly mimics the shape of the country
Estonia
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), black, and white; various interpretations are linked to the flag colors; blue represents faith, loyalty, and devotion, while also reminiscent of the sky, sea, and lakes of the country; black symbolizes the soil of the country and the dark past and suffering endured by the Estonian people; white refers to the striving towards enlightenment and virtue, and is the color of birch bark and snow, as well as summer nights illuminated by the midnight sun
Ethiopia
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and red, with a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the angles between the points on a light blue disk centered on the three bands; green represents hope and the fertility of the land, yellow symbolizes justice and harmony, while red stands for sacrifice and heroism in the defense of the land; the blue of the disk symbolizes peace and the pentagram represents the unity and equality of the nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia
note: Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, and the three main colors of her flag (adopted ca. 1895) were so often adopted by other African countries upon independence that they became known as the Pan-African colors; the emblem in the center of the current flag was added in 1996
European Union
a blue field with 12 five-pointed gold stars arranged in a circle in the center; blue represents the sky of the Western world, the stars are the peoples of Europe in a circle, a symbol of unity; the number of stars is fixed
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Falkland Island coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms contains a white ram (sheep raising was once the major economic activity) above the sailing ship Desire (whose crew discovered the islands) with a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto DESIRE THE RIGHT
Faroe Islands
white with a red cross outlined in blue extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted toward the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); referred to as Merkid, meaning "the banner" or "the mark," the flag resembles those of neighboring Iceland and Norway, and uses the same three colors - but in a different sequence; white represents the clear Faroese sky as well as the foam of the waves; red and blue are traditional Faroese colors
Fiji
light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Fijian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the blue symbolizes the Pacific ocean and the Union Jack reflects the links with Great Britain; the shield - taken from Fiji's coat of arms - depicts a yellow lion above a white field quartered by the cross of Saint George; the four quarters depict stalks of sugarcane, a palm tree, bananas, and a white dove
Finland
white with a blue cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the blue represents the thousands of lakes scattered across the country, while the white is for the snow that covers the land in winter
France
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red; known as the "Le drapeau tricolore" (French Tricolor), the origin of the flag dates to 1790 and the French Revolution when the "ancient French color" of white was combined with the blue and red colors of the Parisian militia; the official flag for all French dependent areas
note: the design and/or colors are similar to a number of other flags, including those of Belgium, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, and Netherlands
French Guiana
unofficial, local flag: On 29 January 2010, the General Council (departmental council) unilaterally adopted a flag of French Guiana, but it has not been recognized by the regional council. Green represents the forests, yellow represents gold and other minerals of the region, while the red star represents socialism.[1] The flag is identical with the one of pro-independence trade union UGT and also MDES.
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
French Polynesia
two red horizontal bands encase a wide white band in a 1:2:1 ratio; centered on the white band is a disk with a blue and white wave pattern depicting the sea on the lower half and a gold and white ray pattern depicting the sun on the upper half; a stylized red, blue, and white ship rides on the wave pattern; the ship has a crew of five represented by five stars that symbolize the five island groups; red and white are traditional Polynesian colors
note: similar to the red-white-red flag of Tahiti, the largest of the islands in French Polynesia, which has no emblem in the white band; the flag of France is used for official occasions
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
the flag of France is used
Gabon
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and blue; green represents the country's forests and natural resources, gold represents the equator (which transects Gabon) as well as the sun, blue represents the sea
Gambia, The
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue with white edges, and green; red stands for the sun and the savannah, blue represents the Gambia River, and green symbolizes forests and agriculture; the white stripes denote unity and peace
Georgia
white rectangle with a central red cross extending to all four sides of the flag; each of the four quadrants displays a small red bolnur-katskhuri cross; although adopted as the official Georgian flag in 2004, the five-cross flag design appears to date back to the 14th century
Germany
three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and gold; these colors have played an important role in German history and can be traced back to the medieval banner of the Holy Roman Emperor - a black eagle with red claws and beak on a gold field
Ghana
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green, with a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; red symbolizes the blood shed for independence, yellow represents the country's mineral wealth, while green stands for its forests and natural wealth; the black star is said to be the lodestar of African freedom
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Bolivia, which has a coat of arms centered in the yellow band
Gibraltar
two horizontal bands of white (top, double width) and red with a three-towered red castle in the center of the white band; hanging from the castle gate is a gold key centered in the red band; the design is that of Gibraltar's coat of arms granted on 10 July 1502 by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain; the castle symbolizes Gibraltar as a fortress, while the key represents Gibraltar's strategic importance - the key to the Mediterranean
Greece
nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; a blue square bearing a white cross appears in the upper hoist-side corner; the cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the country; there is no agreed upon meaning for the nine stripes or for the colors; the exact shade of blue has never been set by law and has varied from a light to a dark blue over time
Greenland
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center - the top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white; the design represents the sun reflecting off a field of ice; the colors are the same as those of the Danish flag and symbolize Greenland's links to the Kingdom of Denmark
Grenada
a rectangle divided diagonally into yellow triangles (top and bottom) and green triangles (hoist side and outer side), with a red border around the flag; there are seven yellow, five-pointed stars with three centered in the top red border, three centered in the bottom red border, and one on a red disk superimposed at the center of the flag; there is also a symbolic nutmeg pod on the hoist-side triangle (Grenada is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg, after Indonesia); the seven stars stand for the seven administrative divisions, with the central star denoting the capital, St. George; yellow represents the sun and the warmth of the people, green stands for vegetation and agriculture, and red symbolizes harmony, unity, and courage
Guadeloupe
unofficial, flag the banner of the arms of Pointe-à-Pitre, the island's main city, is seldom used to represent the whole island. The flag has a black field with a yellow sun and a green sugar cane, and a blue stripe with yellow fleurs-de-lis on the top.
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
Guam
territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, a proa or outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; the proa is sailing in Agana Bay with the promontory of Punta Dos Amantes, near the capital, in the background; blue represents the sea and red the blood shed in the struggle against oppression
note: the US flag is the national flag
Guatemala
three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue, with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red quetzal (the national bird) representing liberty and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles signifying Guatemala's willingness to defend itself and a pair of crossed swords representing honor and framed by a laurel wreath symbolizing victory; the blue bands stand for the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea and the sea and sky; the white band denotes peace and purity
Guernsey
white with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) extending to the edges of the flag and a yellow equal-armed cross of William the Conqueror superimposed on the Saint George cross; the red cross represents the old ties with England and the fact that Guernsey is a British Crown dependency; the gold cross is a replica of the one used by Duke William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings
Guinea
three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; red represents the people's sacrifice for liberation and work; yellow stands for the sun, for the riches of the earth, and for justice; green symbolizes the country's vegetation and unity
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the reverse of those on the flags of neighboring Mali and Senegal
Guinea-Bissau
two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; yellow symbolizes the sun; green denotes hope; red represents blood shed during the struggle for independence; the black star stands for African unity
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the flag design was heavily influenced by the Ghanian flag
Guyana
green, with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long, yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow, black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow, white border between the yellow and the green; green represents forest and foliage; yellow stands for mineral resources and a bright future; white symbolizes Guyana's rivers; red signifies zeal and the sacrifice of the people; black indicates perseverance
Haiti
two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a centered white rectangle bearing the coat of arms, which contains a palm tree flanked by flags and two cannons above a scroll bearing the motto L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE (Union Makes Strength); the colors are taken from the French Tricolor and represent the union of blacks and mulattoes
Heard Island and McDonald Islands
the flag of Australia is used
Holy See (Vatican City)
two vertical bands of yellow (hoist side) and white with the arms of the Holy See, consisting of the crossed keys of Saint Peter surmounted by the three-tiered papal tiara, centered in the white band; the yellow color represents the pope's spiritual power, the white his worldly power
Honduras
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue, with five blue, five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band; the stars represent the members of the former Federal Republic of Central America - Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea; the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water and the peace and prosperity of its people
note: similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom, centered in the white band
Hong Kong
red with a stylized, white, five-petal Bauhinia flower in the center; each petal contains a small, red, five-pointed star in its middle; the red color is the same as that on the Chinese flag and represents the motherland; the fragrant Bauhinia - developed in Hong Kong the late 19th century - has come to symbolize the region; the five stars echo those on the flag of China
Hungary
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and green; the flag dates to the national movement of the 18th and 19th centuries, and fuses the medieval colors of the Hungarian coat of arms with the revolutionary tricolor form of the French flag; folklore attributes virtues to the colors: red for strength, white for faithfulness, and green for hope; alternatively, the red is seen as being for the blood spilled in defense of the land, white for freedom, and green for the pasturelands that make up so much of the country
Iceland
blue with a red cross outlined in white extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors represent three of the elements that make up the island: red is for the island's volcanic fires, white recalls the snow and ice fields of the island, and blue is for the surrounding ocean
India
three equal horizontal bands of saffron (subdued orange) (top), white, and green, with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; saffron represents courage, sacrifice, and the spirit of renunciation; white signifies purity and truth; green stands for faith and fertility; the blue chakra symbolizes the wheel of life in movement and death in stagnation
note: similar to the flag of Niger, which has a small orange disk centered in the white band
Indonesia
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; the colors derive from the banner of the Majapahit Empire of the 13th-15th centuries; red symbolizes courage, white represents purity
note: similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red
Iran
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red; the national emblem (a stylized representation of the word Allah in the shape of a tulip, a symbol of martyrdom) in red is centered in the white band; ALLAH AKBAR (God is Great) in white Arabic script is repeated 11 times along the bottom edge of the green band and 11 times along the top edge of the red band; green is the color of Islam and also represents growth, white symbolizes honesty and peace, red stands for bravery and martyrdom
Iraq
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; the Takbir (Arabic expression meaning "God is great") in green Arabic script is centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); the Council of Representatives approved this flag in 2008 as a compromise temporary replacement for the Ba'athist Saddam-era flag
note: similar to the flag of Syria, which has two stars but no script, Yemen, which has a plain white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band
Ireland
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and orange; officially the flag colors have no meaning, but a common interpretation is that the green represents the Irish nationalist (Gaelic) tradition of Ireland; orange represents the Orange tradition (minority supporters of William of Orange); white symbolizes peace (or a lasting truce) between the green and the orange
note: similar to the flag of Cote d'Ivoire, which is shorter and has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter and has colors of green (hoist side), white, and red
Isle of Man
red with the Three Legs of Man emblem (triskelion), in the center; the three legs are joined at the thigh and bent at the knee; in order to have the toes pointing clockwise on both sides of the flag, a two-sided emblem is used; the flag is based on the coat-of-arms of the last recognized Norse King of Mann, Magnus III (r. 1252-1265); the triskelion has its roots in an early Celtic sun symbol
Israel
white with a blue hexagram (six-pointed linear star) known as the Magen David (Shield of David) centered between two equal horizontal blue bands near the top and bottom edges of the flag; the basic design resembles a Jewish prayer shawl (tallit), which is white with blue stripes; the hexagram as a Jewish symbol dates back to medieval times
Italy
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; design inspired by the French flag brought to Italy by Napoleon in 1797; colors are those of Milan (red and white) combined with the green uniform color of the Milanese civic guard
note: similar to the flag of Mexico, which is longer, uses darker shades of red and green, and has its coat of arms centered on the white band; Ireland, which is longer and is green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of the Cote d'Ivoire, which has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green
Jamaica
diagonal yellow cross divides the flag into four triangles - green (top and bottom) and black (hoist side and outer side); green represents hope, vegetation, and agriculture, black reflects hardships overcome and to be faced, and yellow recalls golden sunshine and the island's natural resources
Jan Mayen
the flag of Norway is used
Japan
white with a large red disk (representing the sun without rays) in the center
Jersey
white with a diagonal red cross extending to the corners of the flag; in the upper quadrant, surmounted by a yellow crown, a red shield with three lions in yellow; according to tradition, the ships of Jersey - in an attempt to differentiate themselves from English ships flying the horizontal cross of St. George - rotated the cross to the "X" (saltire) configuration; because this arrangement still resembled the Irish cross of St. Patrick, the yellow Plantagenet crown and Jersey coat of arms were added
Jordan
three equal horizontal bands of black (top), representing the Abbassid Caliphate, white, representing the Ummayyad Caliphate, and green, representing the Fatimid Caliphate; a red isosceles triangle on the hoist side, representing the Great Arab Revolt of 1916, and bearing a small white seven-pointed star symbolizing the seven verses of the opening Sura (Al-Fatiha) of the Holy Koran; the seven points on the star represent faith in One God, humanity, national spirit, humility, social justice, virtue, and aspirations; design is based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I
Kazakhstan
a gold sun with 32 rays above a soaring golden steppe eagle, both centered on a sky blue background; the hoist side displays a national ornamental pattern "koshkar-muiz" (the horns of the ram) in gold; the blue color is of religious significance to the Turkic peoples of the country, and so symbolizes cultural and ethnic unity; it also represents the endless sky as well as water; the sun, a source of life and energy, exemplifies wealth and plenitude; the sun's rays are shaped like grain, which is the basis of abundance and prosperity; the eagle has appeared on the flags of Kazakh tribes for centuries and represents freedom, power, and the flight to the future
Kenya
three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green; the red band is edged in white; a large Maasai warrior's shield covering crossed spears is superimposed at the center; black symbolizes the majority population, red the blood shed in the struggle for freedom, green stands for natural wealth, and white for peace; the shield and crossed spears symbolize the defense of freedom
Kiribati
the upper half is red with a yellow frigate bird flying over a yellow rising sun, and the lower half is blue with three horizontal wavy white stripes to represent the Pacific ocean; the white stripes represent the three island groups - the Gilbert, Line, and Phoenix Islands; the 17 rays of the sun represent the 16 Gilbert Islands and Banaba (formerly Ocean Island); the frigate bird symbolizes authority and freedom
Korea, North
three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in white; on the hoist side of the red band is a white disk with a red five-pointed star; the broad red band symbolizes revolutionary traditions; the narrow white bands stands for purity, strength, and dignity; the blue bands signify sovereignty, peace, and friendship; the red star represents socialism
Korea, South
white with a red (top) and blue yin-yang symbol in the center; there is a different black trigram from the ancient I Ching (Book of Changes) in each corner of the white field; the Korean national flag is called Taegukki; white is a traditional Korean color and represents peace and purity; the blue section represents the negative cosmic forces of the yin, while the red symbolizes the opposite postive forces of the yang; each trigram (kwae) denotes one of the four universal elements, which together express the principle of movement and harmony
Kosovo
centered on a dark blue field is the geographical shape of Kosovo in a gold color surmounted by six white, five-pointed stars arrayed in a slight arc; each star represents one of the major ethnic groups of Kosovo: Albanians, Serbs, Turks, Gorani, Roma, and Bosniaks
Kuwait
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a black trapezoid based on the hoist side; colors and design are based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I; green represents fertile fields, white stands for purity, red denotes blood on Kuwaiti swords, black signifies the defeat of the enemy
Kyrgyzstan
red field with a yellow sun in the center having 40 rays representing the 40 Kyrgyz tribes; on the obverse side the rays run counterclockwise, on the reverse, clockwise; in the center of the sun is a red ring crossed by two sets of three lines, a stylized representation of a "tunduk" - the crown of a traditional Kyrgyz yurt; red symbolizes bravery and valor, the sun evinces peace and wealth
Laos
three horizontal bands of red (top), blue (double width), and red with a large white disk centered in the blue band; the red bands recall the blood shed for liberation; the blue band represents the Mekong River and prosperity; the white disk symbolizes the full moon against the Mekong River, but also signifies the unity of the people under the Pathet Lao, as well as the country's bright future
Latvia
three horizontal bands of maroon (top), white (half-width), and maroon; the flag is one of the older banners in the world; a medieval chronicle mentions a red standard with a white stripe being used by Latvian tribes in about 1280
Lebanon
three horizontal bands consisting of red (top), white (middle, double width), and red (bottom) with a green cedar tree centered in the white band; the red bands symbolize blood shed for liberation, the white band denotes peace, the snow of the mountains, and purity; the green cedar tree is the symbol of Lebanon and represents eternity, steadiness, happiness, and prosperity
Lesotho
three horizontal stripes of blue (top), white, and green in the proportions of 3:4:3; the colors represent rain, peace, and prosperity respectively; centered in the white stripe is a black Basotho hat representing the indigenous people; the flag was unfurled in October 2006 to celebrate 40 years of independence
Liberia
11 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a white five-pointed star appears on a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner; the stripes symbolize the signatories of the Liberian Declaration of Independence; the blue square represents the African mainland, and the star represents the freedom granted to the ex-slaves; according to the constitution, the blue color signifies liberty, justice, and fidelity, the white color purity, cleanliness, and guilelessness, and the red color steadfastness, valor, and fervor
note: the design is based on the US flag
Libya
plain green; green is the traditional color of Islam (the state religion)
Liechtenstein
two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a gold crown on the hoist side of the blue band; the colors may derive from the blue and red livery design used in the principality's household in the 18th century; the prince's crown was introduced in 1937 to distinguish the flag from that of Haiti
Lithuania
three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), green, and red; yellow symbolizes golden fields, as well as the sun, light, and goodness; green represents the forests of the countryside, in addition to nature, freedom, and hope; red stands for courage and the blood spilled in defense of the homeland
Luxembourg
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and light blue; similar to the flag of the Netherlands, which uses a darker blue and is shorter; the coloring is derived from the Grand Duke's coat of arms (a red lion on a white and blue striped field)
Macau
green with a lotus flower above a stylized bridge and water in white, beneath an arc of five gold, five-pointed stars: one large in the center of the arc and two smaller on either side; the lotus is the floral emblem of Macau, the three petals represent the peninsula and two islands that make up Macau; the five stars echo those on the flag of China
Macedonia
a yellow sun (the Sun of Liberty) with eight broadening rays extending to the edges of the red field; the red and yellow colors have long been associated with Macedonia
Madagascar
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a vertical white band of the same width on hoist side; by tradition, red stands for sovereignty, green for hope, white for purity
Malawi
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), black, and green; a white sun disc is centered on the black band, its surrounding 45 white rays extend partially into the red and green bands; black represents the native peoples, red the blood shed in their struggle for freedom, and green the color of nature; the sun represents Malawi's economic progress since attaining independence
Malaysia
14 equal horizontal stripes of red (top) alternating with white (bottom); there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a yellow crescent and a yellow 14-pointed star; the flag is often referred to as Jalur Gemilang (Stripes of Glory); the 14 stripes stand for the equal status in the federation of the 13 member states and the federal government; the 14 points on the star represent the unity between these entities; the crescent is a traditional symbol of Islam; blue symbolizes the unity of the Malay people and yellow is the royal color of Malay rulers
note: the design is based on the flag of the US
Maldives
red with a large green rectangle in the center bearing a vertical white crescent moon; the closed side of the crescent is on the hoist side of the flag; red recalls those who have sacrificed their lives in defense of their country, the green rectangle represents peace and prosperity, and the white crescent signifies Islam
Mali
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the same as those of neighboring Senegal (which has an additional green central star) and the reverse of those on the flag of neighboring Guinea
Malta
two equal vertical bands of white (hoist side) and red; in the upper hoist-side corner is a representation of the George Cross, edged in red; according to legend, the colors are taken from the red and white checkered banner of Count Roger of Sicily who removed a bi-colored corner and granted it to Malta in 1091; an uncontested explanation is that the colors are those of the Knights of Saint John who ruled Malta from 1530 to 1798; in 1942, King George VI of the United Kingdom awarded the George Cross to the islanders for their exceptional bravery and gallantry in World War II; since independence in 1964, the George Cross bordered in red has appeared directly on the white field
Marshall Islands
blue with two stripes radiating from the lower hoist-side corner - orange (top) and white; a white star with four large rays and 20 small rays appears on the hoist side above the two stripes; blue represents the Pacific Ocean, the orange stripe signifies the Ralik Chain or sunset and courage, while the white stripe signifies the Ratak Chain or sunrise and peace; the star symbolizes the cross of Christianity, each of the 24 rays designates one of the electoral districts in the country and the four larger rays highlight the principal cultural centers of Majuro, Jaluit, Wotje, and Ebeye; the rising diagonal band can also be interpreted as representing the equator, with the star showing the archipelago's position just to the north
Martinique
the flag of France is used
Mauritania
green with a yellow five-pointed star above a yellow, horizontal crescent; the closed side of the crescent is down; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam; the gold color stands for the sands of the Sahara
Mauritius
four equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, yellow, and green; red represents the blood shed for independence, blue the Indian Ocean surrounding the island, yellow has been interpreted as the new light of independence, golden sunshine, or the bright future, and green can symbolize either agriculture or the lush vegetation of the island
Mayotte
unofficial, local flag with the coat of arms of Mayotte centered on a white field, above which the name of the island appears in red capital letters; the main elements of the coat of arms are a blue upper half with white upturned crescent moon and a red lower half with two yellow ylang-ylang flowers, supported on either side by a white seahorse, and set above a scroll with the motto RA HACHIRI (We are Vigilant)
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
Mexico
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; Mexico's coat of arms (an eagle with a snake in its beak perched on a cactus) is centered in the white band; green signifies hope, joy, and love; white represents peace and honesty; red stands for hardiness, bravery, strength, and valor; the coat of arms is derived from a legend that the wandering Aztec people were to settle at a location where they would see an eagle on a catus eating a snake; the city they founded, Tenochtitlan, is now Mexico City
note: similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter, uses lighter shades of red and green, and does not have anything in its white band
Micronesia, Federated States of
light blue with four white five-pointed stars centered; the stars are arranged in a diamond pattern; blue symbolizes the Pacific Ocean, the stars represent the four island groups of Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap
Moldova
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; emblem in center of flag is of a Roman eagle of gold outlined in black with a red beak and talons carrying a yellow cross in its beak and a green olive branch in its right talons and a yellow scepter in its left talons; on its breast is a shield divided horizontally red over blue with a stylized ox head, star, rose, and crescent all in black-outlined yellow; based on the color scheme of the flag of Romania - with whom Moldova shares a history and culture - but Moldova's blue band is lighter; the reverse of the flag does not display any coat of arms
note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Paraguay and Saudi Arabia
Monaco
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; the colors are those of the ruling House of Grimaldi and have been in use since 1339, making the flag one of the world's oldest national banners
note: similar to the flag of Indonesia which is longer and the flag of Poland which is white (top) and red
Mongolia
three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), blue, and red; centered on the hoist-side red band in yellow is the national emblem ("soyombo" - a columnar arrangement of abstract and geometric representation for fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol); blue represents the sky, red symbolizes progress and prosperity
Montenegro
a red field bordered by a narrow golden-yellow stripe with the Montenegrin coat of arms centered; the arms consist of a double-headed golden eagle - symbolizing the unity of church and state - surmounted by a crown; the eagle holds a golden scepter in its right claw and a blue orb in its left; the breast shield over the eagle shows a golden lion passant on a green field in front of a blue sky; the lion is symbol of episcopal authority and harks back to the three and a half centuries that Montenegro was ruled as a theocracy
Montserrat
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Montserratian coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the arms feature a woman in green dress, Erin, the female personification of Ireland, standing beside a yellow harp and embracing a large dark cross with her right arm; Erin and the harp are symbols of Ireland reflecting the territory's Irish ancestry; blue represents awareness, trustworthiness, determination, and righteousness
Morocco
red with a green pentacle (five-pointed, linear star) known as Sulayman's (Solomon's) seal in the center of the flag; red and green are traditional colors in Arab flags, although the use of red is more commonly associated with the Arab states of the Persian gulf; the pentacle represents the five pillars of Islam and signifies the association between God and the nation; design dates to 1912
Mozambique
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), black, and yellow with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the black band is edged in white; centered in the triangle is a yellow five-pointed star bearing a crossed rifle and hoe in black superimposed on an open white book; green represents the riches of the land, white peace, black the African continent, yellow the country's minerals, and red the struggle for independence; the rifle symbolizes defense and vigilance, the hoe refers to the country's agriculture, the open book stresses the importance of education, and the star represents Marxism and internationalism
Namibia
a wide red stripe edged by narrow white stripes divides the flag diagonally from lower hoist corner to upper fly corner; the upper hoist-side triangle is blue and charged with a yellow, 12-rayed sunburst; the lower fly-side triangle is green; red signifies the heroism of the people and their determination to build a future of equal opportunity for all; white stands for peace, unity, tranquility, and harmony; blue represents the Namibian sky and the Atlantic Ocean, the country's precious water resources and rain; the yellow sun denotes power and existence; green symbolizes vegetation and agricultural resources
Nauru
blue with a narrow, horizontal, yellow stripe across the center and a large white 12-pointed star below the stripe on the hoist side; blue stands for the Pacific Ocean, the star indicates the country's location in relation to the Equator (the yellow stripe) and the 12 points symbolize the 12 original tribes of Nauru
Navassa Island
the flag of the US is used
Nepal
red with a blue border around the unique shape of two overlapping right triangles; the smaller, upper triangle bears a white stylized moon and the larger, lower triangle displays a white 12-pointed sun; the color red represents the rhododendron (Nepal's national flower) and is a sign of victory and bravery, the blue border signifies peace and harmony; the two right triangles are a combination of two single pennons (pennants) that originally symbolized the Himalaya Mountains while their charges represented the families of the king (upper) and the prime minister, but today they are understood to denote Hinduism and Buddhism, the country's two main religions; the moon represents the serenity of the Nepalese people and the shade and cool weather in the Himalayas, while the sun depicts the heat and higher temperatures of the lower parts of Nepal; the moon and the sun are also said to express the hope that the nation will endure as long as these heavenly bodies
note: Nepal is the only country in the world whose flag is not rectangular or square
Netherlands
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue; similar to the flag of Luxembourg, which uses a lighter blue and is longer; the colors were those of WILLIAM I, Prince of Orange, who led the Dutch Revolt against Spanish sovereignty in the latter half of the 16th century; originally the upper band was orange, but because it tended to fade to red over time, the red shade was eventually made the permanent color; the banner is perhaps the oldest tricolor in continuous use
Netherlands Antilles
white, with a horizontal blue stripe in the center superimposed on a vertical red band, also centered; five white, five-pointed stars are arranged in an oval pattern in the center of the blue band; the colors reflect those of the Netherlands; the five stars represent the five main islands of Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten
New Caledonia
the flag of France is used
New Zealand
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant with four red five-pointed stars edged in white centered in the outer half of the flag; the stars represent the Southern Cross constellation
Nicaragua
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on the top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; the banner is based on the former blue-white-blue flag of the Federal Republic of Central America; the blue bands symbolize the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white band represents the land between the two bodies of water
note: similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band
Niger
three equal horizontal bands of orange (top), white, and green with a small orange disk centered in the white band; the orange band denotes the drier northern regions of the Sahara; white stands for purity and innocence; green symbolizes hope and the fertile and productive southern and western areas, as well as the Niger River; the orange disc represents the sun and the sacrifices made by the people
note: similar to the flag of India, which has a blue spoked wheel centered in the white band
Nigeria
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green; the color green represents the forests and abundant natural wealth of the country, white stands for peace and unity
Niue
yellow with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the flag of the UK bears five yellow five-pointed stars - a large star on a blue disk in the center and a smaller star on each arm of the bold red cross; the larger star stands for Niue, the smaller stars recall the Southern Cross constellation on the New Zealand flag and symbolize links with that country; yellow represents the bright sunshine of Niue and the warmth and friendship between Niue and New Zealand
Norfolk Island
three vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green with a large green Norfolk Island pine tree centered in the slightly wider white band; green stands for the rich vegetation on the island, and the pine tree - endemic to the island - is a symbol of Norfolk Island
note: somewhat reminiscent of the flag of Canada with its use of only two colors and depiction of a prominent local floral symbol in the central white band
Northern Mariana Islands
blue, with a white, five-pointed star superimposed on a gray latte stone (the traditional foundation stone used in building) in the center, surrounded by a wreath; blue symbolizes the Pacific Ocean, the star represents the Commonwealth; the latte stone and the floral head wreath display elements of the native Chamorro culture
Norway
red with a blue cross outlined in white that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors recall Norway's past political unions with Denmark (red and white) and Sweden (blue)
Oman
three horizontal bands of white, red, and green of equal width with a broad, vertical, red band on the hoist side; the national emblem (a khanjar dagger in its sheath superimposed on two crossed swords in scabbards) in white is centered near the top of the vertical band; white represents peace and prosperity, red recalls battles against foreign invaders, and green symbolizes the Jebel Akhdar (Green Mountains) and fertility
Pakistan
green with a vertical white band (symbolizing the role of religious minorities) on the hoist side; a large white crescent and star are centered in the green field; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam
Palau
light blue with a large yellow disk shifted slightly to the hoist side; the blue color represents the ocean, the disk represents the moon; Palauans consider the full moon to be the optimum time for human activity; it is also considered a symbol of peace, love, and tranquility
Palestinian territories
the flag is constituted of three equal horizontal bands (black, white, and green from top to bottom) overlaid by a red chevron issuing from the hoist. The flag is almost identical to that of the Baath Party, and very similar to the flags of Jordan, and Western Sahara, all of which draw their inspiration from the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule (1916–1918).
Panama
divided into four, equal rectangles; the top quadrants are white (hoist side) with a blue five-pointed star in the center and plain red; the bottom quadrants are plain blue (hoist side) and white with a red five-pointed star in the center; the blue and red colors are those of the main political parties (Conservatives and Liberals respectively) and the white denotes peace between them; the blue star stands for the civic virtues of purity and honesty, the red star signifies authority and law
Papua New Guinea
divided diagonally from upper hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is red with a soaring yellow bird of paradise centered; the lower triangle is black with five, white, five-pointed stars of the Southern Cross constellation centered; red, black, and yellow are traditional colors of Papua New Guinea; the bird of paradise - endemic to the island of New Guinea - is an emblem of regional tribal culture and represents the emergence of Papua New Guinea as a nation; the Southern Cross, visible in the night sky, symbolizes Papua New Guinea's connection with Australia and several other countries in the South Pacific
Paraguay
three equal, horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue with an emblem centered in the white band; unusual flag in that the emblem is different on each side; the obverse (hoist side at the left) bears the national coat of arms (a yellow five-pointed star within a green wreath capped by the words REPUBLICA DEL PARAGUAY, all within two circles); the reverse (hoist side at the right) bears a circular seal of the treasury (a yellow lion below a red Cap of Liberty and the words PAZ Y JUSTICIA (Peace and Justice)); red symbolizes bravery and patriotism, white represents integrity and peace, and blue denotes liberty and generosity
note: the three color bands resemble those on the flag of the Netherlands; one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Saudi Arabia
Peru
three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), white, and red with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a shield bearing a vicuna (representing fauna), a cinchona tree (the source of quinine, signifying flora), and a yellow cornucopia spilling out coins (denoting mineral wealth); red recalls blood shed for independence, white symbolizes peace
Philippines
two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red; a white equilateral triangle is based on the hoist side; the center of the triangle displays a yellow sun with eight primary rays; each corner of the triangle contains a small, yellow, five-pointed star; blue stands for peace and justice, red symbolizes courage, the white equal-sided triangle represents equality; the rays recall the first eight provinces that sought independence from Spain, while the stars represent the three major geographical divisions of the country: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; the design of the flag dates to 1897
note: in wartime the flag is flown upside down with the red band at the top
Pitcairn Islands
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Pitcairn Islander coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the green, yellow, and blue of the shield represents the island rising from the ocean; the green field features a yellow anchor surmounted by a bible (both the anchor and the bible were items found on the HMS Bounty); sitting on the crest is a Pitcairn Island wheelbarrow from which springs a slip of miro (a local plant)
Poland
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; colors derive from the Polish emblem - a white eagle on a red field
note: similar to the flags of Indonesia and Monaco which are red (top) and white
Portugal
two vertical bands of green (hoist side, two-fifths) and red (three-fifths) with the national coat of arms (armillary sphere and Portuguese shield) centered on the dividing line; explanations for the color meanings are ambiguous, but a popular interpretation has green symbolizing hope and red the blood of those defending the nation
Puerto Rico
five equal horizontal bands of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bears a large, white, five-pointed star in the center; the white star symbolizes Puerto Rico; the three sides of the triangle signify the executive, legislative and judicial parts of the government; blue stands for the sky and the coastal waters; red symbolizes the blood shed by warriors, while white represents liberty, victory, and peace
note: design initially influenced by the US flag, but similar to the Cuban flag, with the colors of the bands and triangle reversed
Qatar
maroon with a broad white serrated band (nine white points) on the hoist side; maroon represents the blood shed in Qatari wars, white stands for peace; the nine-pointed serrated edge signifies Qatar as the ninth member of the "reconciled emirates" in the wake of the Qatari-British treaty of 1916
note: the other eight emirates are the seven that compose the UAE and Bahrain; according to some sources, the dominant color was formerly red, but this darkened to maroon upon exposure to the sun and the new shade was eventually adopted
Réunion
does not have a separate official flag.
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
Romania
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; modeled after the flag of France, the colors are those of the principalities of Walachia (red and yellow) and Moldavia (red and blue), which united in 1861 to form Romania; the national coat of arms that used to be centered in the yellow band has been removed
note: now similar to the flag of Chad, whose blue band is darker; also resembles the flags of Andorra and Moldova
Russia
three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red
note: the colors may have been based on those of the Dutch flag; despite many popular interpretations, there is no official meaning assigned to the colors of the Russian flag; this flag inspired other Slav countries to adopt horizontal tricolors of the same colors but in different arrangements, and so red, blue, and white became the Pan-Slav colors
Rwanda
three horizontal bands of sky blue (top, double width), yellow, and green, with a golden sun with 24 rays near the fly end of the blue band; blue represents happiness and peace, yellow economic development and mineral wealth, green hope of prosperity and natural resources; the sun symbolizes unity, as well as enlightenment and transparency from ignorance
Saint Barthelemy
the flag of France is used
Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Saint Helenian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the upper third of the shield depicts a white plover (wire bird) on a yellow field; the remainder of the shield depicts a rocky coastline on the left, offshore is a three-masted sailing ship with sails furled but flying an English flag
Saint Kitts and Nevis
divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a broad black band bearing two white, five-pointed stars; the black band is edged in yellow; the upper triangle is green, the lower triangle is red; green signifies the island's fertility, red symbolizes the struggles of the people from slavery, yellow denotes year-round sunshine, and black represents the African heritage of the people; the white stars stand for the islands of Saint Kitts and Nevis, but can also express hope and liberty, or independence and optimism
Saint Lucia
blue, with a gold isosceles triangle below a black arrowhead; the upper edges of the arrowhead have a white border; the blue color represents the sky and sea, gold stands for sunshine and prosperity, and white and black the racial composition of the island (with the latter being dominant); the two major triangles invoke the twin Pitons (Gros Piton and Petit Piton), cone-shaped volcanic plugs that are a symbol of the island
Saint Martin
the flag of France is used
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
a yellow three-masted sailing ship facing the hoist side rides on a blue background with scattered, white, wavy lines under the ship; a continuous black-over-white wavy line divides the ship from the white wavy lines; on the hoist side, a vertical band is divided into three parts: the top part (called ikkurina) is red with a green diagonal cross extending to the corners overlaid by a white cross dividing the rectangle into four sections; the middle part has a white background with an ermine pattern; the third part has a red background with two stylized yellow lions outlined in black, one above the other; these three heraldic arms represent settlement by colonists from the Basque Country (top), Brittany, and Normandy; the blue on the main portion of the flag symbolizes the Atlantic Ocean and the stylized ship represents the Grande Hermine in which Jacques Cartier "discovered" the islands in 1536
note: the flag of France used for official occasions
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold (double width), and green; the gold band bears three green diamonds arranged in a V pattern, which stands for Vincent; the diamonds recall the islands as the "Gems of the Antilles"; blue conveys the colors of a tropical sky and crystal waters, yellow signifies the golden Grenadine sands, and green represents lush vegetation
Samoa
red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side quadrant bearing five white five-pointed stars representing the Southern Cross constellation; red stands for courage, blue represents freedom, and white signifies purity
San Marino
two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and light blue with the national coat of arms superimposed in the center; the main colors derive from the shield of the coat of arms, which features three white towers on three peaks on a blue field; the towers represent three castles built on San Marino's highest feature Mount Titano: Guaita, Cesta, and Montale; the coat of arms is flanked by a wreath, below a crown and above a scroll bearing the word LIBERTAS (Liberty); the white and blue colors are also said to stand for peace and liberty respectively
Sao Tome and Principe
three horizontal bands of green (top), yellow (double width), and green with two black five-pointed stars placed side by side in the center of the yellow band and a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; green stands for the country's rich vegetation, red recalls the struggle for independence, and yellow represents cocoa, one of the country's main agricultural products; the two stars symbolize the two main islands
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Saudi Arabia
green, a traditional color in Islamic flags, with the Shahada or Muslim creed in large white Arabic script (translated as "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God") above a white horizontal saber (the tip points to the hoist side); design dates to the early twentieth century and is closely associated with the Al Saud family which established the kingdom in 1932; the flag is manufactured with differing obverse and reverse sides so that the Shahada reads - and the sword points - correctly from right to left on both sides
note: one of only three national flags that differ on their obverse and reverse sides - the others are Moldova and Paraguay
Senegal
three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red with a small green five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; green represents Islam, progress, and hope; yellow signifies natural wealth and progress; red symbolizes sacrifice and determination; the star denotes unity and hope
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia; the colors from left to right are the same as those of neighboring Mali and the reverse of those on the flag of neighboring Guinea
Serbia
three equal horizontal stripes of red (top), blue, and white - the Pan-Slav colors representing freedom and revolutionary ideals; charged with the coat of arms of Serbia shifted slightly to the hoist side; the principal field of the coat of arms represents the Serbian state and displays a white two-headed eagle on a red shield; a smaller red shield on the eagle represents the Serbian nation, and is divided into four quarters by a white cross; a white Cyrillic letters "S" (written like Latin "C") in each quarter stands for the phrase "Only Unity Saves the Serbs"; a royal crown surmounts the coat of arms
note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia
Seychelles
five oblique bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, red, white, and green (bottom) radiating from the bottom of the hoist side; the oblique bands are meant to symbolize a dynamic new country moving into the future; blue represents sky and sea, yellow the sun giving light and life, red the peoples' determination to work for the future in unity and love, white social justice and harmony, green the land and natural environment
Sierra Leone
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and blue; green symbolizes agriculture, mountains, and natural resources, white represents unity and justice, and blue the sea and the natural harbor in Freetown
Singapore
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; near the hoist side of the red band, there is a vertical, white crescent (closed portion is toward the hoist side) partially enclosing five white five-pointed stars arranged in a circle; red denotes brotherhood and equality; white signifies purity and virtue; the waxing crescent moon symbolizes a young nation on the ascendancy; the five stars represent the nation's ideals of democracy, peace, progress, justice, and equality
Sint Maarten
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and blue with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the center of the triangle displays the Sint Maarten coat of arms; the arms consist of an orange-bordered blue shield prominently displaying the white court house in Philipsburg, as well as a bouquet of yellow sage (the national flower) in the upper left, and the silhouette of a Dutch-French friendship monument in the upper right; the shield is surmounted by a yellow rising sun in front of which is a Brown Pelican in flight; a yellow scroll below the shield bears the motto: SEMPER PROGREDIENS (Always Progressing); the three main colors are identical to those on the Dutch flag
note: the flag somewhat resembles that of the Philippines, but with the main red and blue bands reversed; the banner more closely evokes the wartime Philippine flag
Slovakia
three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red derive from the Pan-Slav colors; the Slovakian coat of arms (consisting of a red shield bordered in white and bearing a white Cross of Lorraine surmounting three blue hills) is centered over the bands but offset slightly to the hoist side
note: the Pan-Slav colors were inspired by the 19th-century flag of Russia
Slovenia
three equal horizontal bands of white (top), blue, and red, derive from the medieval coat of arms of the Duchy of Carniola; the Slovenian seal (a shield with the image of Triglav, Slovenia's highest peak, in white against a blue background at the center; beneath it are two wavy blue lines depicting seas and rivers, and above it are three six-pointed stars arranged in an inverted triangle, which are taken from the coat of arms of the Counts of Celje, the great Slovene dynastic house of the late 14th and early 15th centuries) appears in the upper hoist side of the flag centered on the white and blue bands
Solomon Islands
divided diagonally by a thin yellow stripe from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle (hoist side) is blue with five white five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern; the lower triangle is green; blue represents the ocean; green the land; and yellow sunshine; the five stars stand for the five main island groups of the Solomon Islands
Somalia
light blue with a large white five-pointed star in the center; the blue field was originally influenced by the flag of the UN, but today is said to denote the sky and the neighboring Indian Ocean; the five points of the star represent the five regions in the horn of Africa that are inhabited by Somali people: the former British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland (which together make up Somalia), Djibouti, Ogaden (Ethiopia), and the Northern Frontier District (Kenya)
South Africa
two equal width horizontal bands of red (top) and blue separated by a central green band that splits into a horizontal Y, the arms of which end at the corners of the hoist side; the Y embraces a black isosceles triangle from which the arms are separated by narrow yellow bands; the red and blue bands are separated from the green band and its arms by narrow white stripes; the flag colors do not have any official symbolism, but the Y stands for the "convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity"; black, yellow, and green are found on the flag of the African National Congress, while red, white, and blue are the colors in the flags of the Netherlands and the UK, whose settlers ruled South Africa during the colonial era
note: the South African flag is the only national flag to display six colors as part of its primary design
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands coat of arms centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms features a shield with a golden lion rampant, holding a torch; the shield is supported by a fur seal on the left and a Macaroni penguin on the right; a reindeer appears above the crest, and below the shield on a scroll is the motto LEO TERRAM PROPRIAM PROTEGAT (Let the Lion Protect its Own Land)); the lion with the torch represents the UK and discovery; the background of the shield, blue and white estoiles, are found in the coat of arms of James Cook, discoverer of the islands; all the outer supporting animals represented are native to the islands
South Ossetia
Spain
three horizontal bands of red (top), yellow (double width), and red with the national coat of arms on the hoist side of the yellow band; the coat of arms is quartered to display the emblems of the traditional kingdoms of Spain (clockwise from upper left, Castile, Leon, Navarre, and Aragon) while Granada is represented by the stylized pomegranate at the bottom of the shield; the arms are framed by two columns representing the Pillars of Hercules, which are the two promontories (Gibraltar and Ceuta) on either side of the eastern end of the Strait of Gibraltar; the red scroll across the two columns bears the imperial motto of "Plus Ultra" (further beyond) referring to Spanish lands beyond Europe; the triband arrangement with the center stripe twice the width of the outer dates to the 18th century
note: the red and yellow colors are related to those of the oldest Spanish kingdoms: Aragon, Castile, Leon, and Navarre
Sri Lanka
yellow with two panels; the smaller hoist-side panel has two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and orange; the other larger panel depicts a yellow lion holding a sword on a dark red rectangular field that also displays a yellow bo leaf in each corner; the yellow field appears as a border around the entire flag and extends between the two panels; the lion represents Sinhalese ethnicity, the strength of the nation, and bravery; the sword demonstrates the sovereignty of the nation; the four bo leaves - symbolizing Buddhism and its influence on the country - stand for the four virtues of kindness, friendliness, happiness, and equanimity; orange signifies Sri Lankan Tamils, green the Sri Lankan Moors; dark red represents the European Burghers, but also refers to the rich colonial background of the country; yellow denotes other ethnic groups; also referred to as the Lion Flag
Sudan
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; colors and design based on the Arab Revolt flag of World War I, but the meanings of the colors are expressed as follows: red signifies the struggle for freedom, white is the color of peace, light, and love, black represents Sudan itself (in Arabic 'Sudan' means black), green is the color of Islam, agriculture, and prosperity
Suriname
five horizontal bands of green (top, double width), white, red (quadruple width), white, and green (double width); a large, yellow, five-pointed star is centered in the red band; red stands for progress and love; green symbolizes hope and fertility; white signifies peace, justice, and freedom; the star represents the unity of all ethnic groups; from its yellow light the nation draws strength to bear sacrifices patiently while working toward a golden future
Svalbard
the flag of Norway is used
Swaziland
three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in yellow; centered in the red band is a large black and white shield covering two spears and a staff decorated with feather tassels, all placed horizontally; blue stands for peace and stability, red represents past struggles, and yellow the mineral resources of the country; the shield, spears, and staff symbolize protection from the country's enemies, while the black and white of the shield are meant to portray black and white people living in peaceful coexistence
Sweden
blue with a golden yellow cross extending to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag); the colors reflect those of the Swedish coat of arms - three gold crowns on a blue field
Switzerland
red square with a bold, equilateral white cross in the center that does not extend to the edges of the flag; various medieval legends purport to describe the origin of the flag; a white cross used as identification for troops of the Swiss Confederation is first attested at the Battle of Laupen (1339)
Syria
three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black; two small, green, five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; the band colors derive from the Arab Liberation flag and represent oppression (black), overcome through bloody struggle (red), to be replaced by a bright future (white); identical to the former flag of the United Arab Republic (1958-1961) where the two stars represented the constituent states of Syria and Egypt; the current design dates to 1980
note: similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band, Iraq, which has an Arabic inscription centered in the white band, and that of Egypt, which has a gold Eagle of Saladin centered in the white band
Taiwan
red field with a dark blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white sun with 12 triangular rays; the blue and white design of the canton (symbolizing the sun of progress) dates to 1895; it was later adopted as the flag of the Kuomintang Party; blue signifies liberty, justice, and democracy; red stands for fraternity, sacrifice, and nationaliam, white represents equality, frankness, and the people's livelihood; the 12 rays of the sun are those of the months and the twelve traditional Chinese hours (each ray equals two hours)
note: somewhat resembles the flag of Burma
Tajikistan
three horizontal stripes of red (top), a wider stripe of white, and green; a gold crown surmounted by seven gold, five-pointed stars is located in the center of the white stripe; red represents the sun, victory, and the unity of the nation, white stands for purity, cotton, and mountain snows, while green is the color of Islam and the bounty of nature; the crown symbolizes the Tajik people; the seven stars signify the Tajik magic word "seven" - a symbol of perfection and the embodiment of happiness
Tanzania
divided diagonally by a yellow-edged black band from the lower hoist-side corner; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is blue; the banner combines colors found on the flags of Tanganyika and Zanzibar; green represents the natural vegetation of the country, gold its rich mineral deposits, black the native Swahili people, and blue the country's many lakes and rivers, as well as the Indian Ocean
Thailand
five horizontal bands of red (top), white, blue (double width), white, and red; the red color symbolizes the nation and the blood of life; white represents religion and the purity of Buddhism; blue stands for the monarchy
note: similar to the flag of Costa Rica but with the blue and red colors reversed
Timor-Leste
red, with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a slightly longer yellow arrowhead that extends to the center of the flag; a white star - pointing to the upper hoist-side corner of the flag - is in the center of the black triangle; yellow denotes the colonialism in Timor-Leste's past; black represents the obscurantism that needs to be overcome; red stands for the national liberation struggle; the white star symbolizes peace and serves as a guiding light
Togo
five equal horizontal bands of green (top and bottom) alternating with yellow; a white five-pointed star on a red square is in the upper hoist-side corner; the five horizontal stripes stand for the five different regions of the country; the red square is meant to express the loyalty and patriotism of the people; green symbolizes hope, fertility, and agriculture; yellow represents mineral wealth and faith that hard work and strength will bring prosperity; the star symbolizes life, purity, peace, dignity, and Togo's independence
note: uses the popular Pan-African colors of Ethiopia
Tokelau
a yellow stylized Tokelauan canoe on a dark blue field sails toward the manu - the Southern Cross constellation of four, white, five-pointed stars at the hoist side; the Southern Cross represents the role of Christianity in Tokelauan culture and symbolizes the country's navigating into the future, the color yellow indicates happiness and peace, and the blue field represents the ocean on which the community relies
Tonga
red with a bold red cross on a white rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner; the cross reflects the deep-rooted Christianity in Tonga; red represents the blood of Christ and his sacrifice; white signifies purity
Trinidad and Tobago
red with a white-edged black diagonal band from the upper hoist side to the lower fly side; the colors represent the elements of earth, water, and fire; black stands for the wealth of the land and the dedication of the people; white symbolizes the sea surrounding the islands, the purity of the country's aspirations, and equality; red symbolizes the warmth and energy of the sun, the vitality of the land, and the courage and friendliness of its people
Tunisia
red with a white disk in the center bearing a red crescent nearly encircling a red five-pointed star; resembles the Ottoman flag (red banner with white crescent and star) and recalls Tunisia's history as part of the Ottoman Empire; red represents the blood shed by martyrs in the struggle against oppression, white stands for peace; the crescent and star are traditional symbols of Islam
note: the flag is based on that of Turkey, itself a succesor state to the Ottoman Empire
Turkey
red with a vertical white crescent moon (the closed portion is toward the hoist side) and white five-pointed star centered just outside the crescent opening; the flag colors and designs closely resemble those on the banner of Ottoman Empire, which preceded modern-day Turkey; the crescent moon and star serve as insignia for the Turks, as well as being traditional symbols of Islam; according to legend, the flag represents the reflection of the moon and a star in a pool of blood of Turkish warriors
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Turkmenistan
green field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five tribal guls (designs used in producing carpets) stacked above two crossed olive branches; five white stars and a white crescent moon appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe; the green color and crescent moon represent Islam; the five stars symbolize the regions or welayats of Turkmenistan; the guls reflect the national identity of Turkmenistan where carpet-making has long been a part of traditional nomadic life
note: the flag of Turkmenistan is the most intricate of all national flags
Turks and Caicos Islands
blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the colonial shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the shield is yellow and displays a conch shell, a spiny lobster, and Turks Head cactus - three common elements of the islands' biota
Tuvalu
light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the outer half of the flag represents a map of the country with nine yellow, five-pointed stars on a blue field symbolizing the nine atolls in the ocean
Uganda
six equal horizontal bands of black (top), yellow, red, black, yellow, and red; a white disk is superimposed at the center and depicts a red-crested crane (the national symbol) facing the hoist side; black symbolizes the African people, yellow sunshine and vitality, red African brotherhood; the crane was the military badge of Ugandan soldiers under the UK
Ukraine
two equal horizontal bands of azure (top) and golden yellow represent grain fields under a blue sky
United Arab Emirates
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a wider vertical red band on the hoist side; the flag incorporates all four Pan-Arab colors, which in this case represent fertility (green), neutrality (white), petroleum resources (black), and unity (red); red was the traditional color incorporated into all flags of the emirates before their unification
United Kingdom
blue field with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) edged in white superimposed on the diagonal red cross of Saint Patrick (patron saint of Ireland), which is superimposed on the diagonal white cross of Saint Andrew (patron saint of Scotland); properly known as the Union Flag, but commonly called the Union Jack; the design and colors (especially the Blue Ensign) have been the basis for a number of other flags including other Commonwealth countries and their constituent states or provinces, and British overseas territories
United States
13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies; the blue stands for loyalty, devotion, truth, justice, and friendship; red symbolizes courage, zeal, and fervency, while white denotes purity and rectitude of conduct; commonly referred to by its nickname of Old Glory
note: the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including Chile, Liberia, Malaysia, and Puerto Rico
United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
the flag of the US is used
Uruguay
nine equal horizontal stripes of white (top and bottom) alternating with blue; a white square in the upper hoist-side corner with a yellow sun bearing a human face known as the Sun of May with 16 rays that alternate between triangular and wavy; the stripes represent the nine original departments of Uruguay; the sun symbol evokes the legend of the sun breaking through the clouds on 25 May 1810 as independence was first declared from Spain (Uruguay subsequently won its independence from Brazil)
note: the banner was inspired by the national colors of Argentina and by the design of the US flag
Uzbekistan
three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and green separated by red fimbriations with a white crescent moon (closed side to the hoist) and 12 white stars shifted to the hoist on the top band; blue is the color of the Turkic peoples and of the sky, white signifies peace and the striving for purity in thoughts and deeds, while green represents nature and is the color of Islam; the red stripes are the vital force of all living organisms that links good and pure ideas with the eternal sky and with deeds on earth; the crescent represents Islam and the 12 stars the months and constellations of the Uzbek calendar
Vanuatu
two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) all separated by a black-edged yellow stripe in the shape of a horizontal Y (the two points of the Y face the hoist side and enclose the triangle); centered in the triangle is a boar's tusk encircling two crossed namele fern fronds, all in yellow; red represents the blood of boars and men, green the richness of the islands, and black the ni-Vanuatu people; the yellow Y-shape - which reflects the pattern of the islands in the Pacific Ocean - symbolizes the light of the Gospel spreading through the islands; the boar's tusk is a symbol of prosperity frequently worn as a pendant on the islands; the fern fronds represent peace
Venezuela
three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), blue, and red with the coat of arms on the hoist side of the yellow band and an arc of eight white five-pointed stars centered in the blue band; the flag retains the three equal horizontal bands and three main colors of the banner of Gran Columbia, the South American republic that broke up in 1830; yellow is interpreted as standing for the riches of the land, blue for the courage of its people, and red for the blood shed in attaining independence; the seven stars on the original flag represented the seven provinces in Venezuela that united in the war of independence; in 2006, President Hugo CHAVEZ ordered an eighth star added to the star arc - a decision that sparked much controversy
Vietnam
red field with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center; red symbolizes revolution and blood, the five-pointed star represents the five elements of the populace - peasants, workers, intellectuals, traders, and soldiers - that unite to build socialism
Virgin Islands
white field with a modified US coat of arms in the center between the large blue initials V and I; the coat of arms shows a yellow eagle holding an olive branch in its right talon and three arrows in the left with a superimposed shield of seven red and six white vertical stripes below a blue panel; white is a symbol of purity, the letters stand for the Virgin Islands
Wake Island
| i don't know |
Gary Lightbody is the lead singer with which band? | Gary Lightbody | Game of Thrones Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
" Walk of Punishment "
Gary Lightbody with producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss in Belfast.
Gary Lightbody (born 15 June 1976) is a Northern Irish singer, musician and songwriter. Since 1994 he has been the lead singer and rhythm guitarist in the band Snow Patrol . He is credited with writing " Chasing Cars ", their biggest-selling and most famous song.
On 23 July 2012, Lightbody announced via Facebook that he was cameoing in the third season of Game of Thrones , including a picture of himself in costume [1] . He told fans it was not a particularly large or notable role. Lightbody had previously revealed himself to be a huge fan of the series, hanging out with some of the actors in Belfast and even engaging in a Twitter dispute with a BBC Radio 1 DJ over spoilers for the series.
He played the Bolton soldier who sings "The Bear and the Maiden Fair".
Contents
| Snow Patrol |
Which member of the 2009 Team GB won this year's Milan-San Remo cycle race? | SGN - Seattle Gay News - Page 38 - Snow Patrol frontman Lightbody on his band, books, and Belfast - Friday, October 16, 2009 - Volume 37 Issue 42
Snow Patrol frontman Lightbody on his band, books, and Belfast
by Albert Rodriguez - SGN A&E Writer
You'd think the lead singer of a band that opened shows for both U2 and Coldplay this year would be an egotistical jerk. You'd think, as attractive and well-schooled as he is, having studied at the reputable University of Dundee in Scotland, that he'd be a bit of a snob, that the number of magazine covers he and his bandmates have appeared on, many overseas and several on US soil, would perch him on a pedestal too high for a regional Gay newspaper to reach. But nope, Gary Lightbody is nothing like this. The lead singer of Grammy-nominated act Snow Patrol is the friendliest, coolest, and most interesting frontman I've had the pleasure of interviewing - a pleasure indeed, because each word from his mouth, coated in an Irish farmboy accent, made it feel as if my ears were being swabbed with Twizzlers. Residing once again in his childhood home of Belfast, this dreamily handsome rock star is fantasy material to as many Gay men as straight women - he packs brains, talent, charm, and everything else, into a lean 6-foot-4 frame, and lucky for us he squeezes it all into a pair of skinny jeans these days. Snow Patrol performs October 14 at the Paramount Theatre - visit www.stgpresents.org for tickets, and check out the group's newest video, "Just Say Yes," on YouTube.
On a recent tour break somewhere in the Midwest, here's what Gary Lightbody of Snow Patrol got off his washboard torso when he stepped into The Music Lounge.
Albert Rodriguez: Why did it take so long for Snow Patrol to play Seattle on this tour? We feel abandoned.
Gary Lightbody: You feel abandoned? Oh dear, I'm sorry about that. We don't want to make you feel abandoned. We haven't done it on purpose, that's for sure. We love Seattle, we really do. A lot of the impetus, a lot of the inspiration for us - all of us in the band becoming musicians in the first place - came from the city of Seattle and the music scene. It's not a slight on Seattle itself, it's just tour itineraries that are not made by the band, they're made by agents and management. So please don't take it personally.
Rodriguez: What comes to mind when you see Seattle as the next stop on your tour?
Lightbody: Well, excitement. We love that part of the world. We love playing Portland, we love playing Seattle. Those are two places we very much look forward to. People are extraordinarily friendly and the city is a lot of fun, and there are a lot of things you can actually do in Seattle [rather] than in parts of the tour where there's a little less to do.
Rodriguez: Is there a good Gay scene in Belfast?
Lightbody: I don't think so, to be honest. I know there are definitely a few Gay bars and clubs because I've been to them. I have a very good friend, a chef at a bar I used to work in when I was 18, who is Gay, and would take us to bars in Belfast, like the Parliament, that were Gay bars. It's not so much a scene, but they are really cool. They always play the best dance music, which is something I've always loved about going to those places.
Rodriguez: Do you just to listen to the music or do you dance?
Lightbody: Oh, I dance & like crazy. [Laughs.] [Keyboardist] Tom [Simpson] was a DJ when I first met him, and I would go to his clubs where he played music and I'd be the one creating quite a lot of space for myself on the dance floor with people looking at me, going, "What the hell is this guy on?" But I wasn't really on anything at the time, I was more just high on the music. I dance energetically and enthusiastically.
Rodriguez: Are you comfortable being a sex symbol to both women and men?
Lightbody: I didn't realize I was a sex symbol for either. [Laughs.] But I'm certainly comfortable with it, if that's the case.
Rodriguez: You used to strip your shirt off during live shows in the early days, but it hasn't happened recently.
Lightbody: [Laughs.] I've been drinking too much beer and I've got a little potbelly. If I get in the gym and get fit again, I'll take my shirt off.
Rodriguez: Here's a compliment: I've seen recent live photos of you wearing skinny jeans, as compared to baggy Levi's and T-shirts you've worn at previous shows. I'm glad to see you wearing clothes that actually fit you.
Lightbody: Thank you very much. You're not the first person who's said that to me. I have U2's management to thank for that. One of their managers, Susan Hunter, would always complain about the shirts I was wearing at the start of the tour - she basically badgered me until I wore clothes that actually fit me, like you just said.
Rodriguez: If I were to visit you in Belfast, where would you take me?
Lightbody: I like places that have no frills, so I'm maybe not the best guide to take people around to the nicer places. My favorite bar in Belfast is the Duke of York. The Crown Bar is a beautiful bar in the old stint of the city, it's got little closed-off compartments you can sit in. The city has completely changed in the last 10 years, it's really prospered in that time. I didn't spend too much time in the city growing up because of the curfews, armored trucks, and people fighting. But these days it's the opposite; it's a brilliant, metropolitan European city. It's vibrant.
Rodriguez: Do you tune into Gay culture, such as political events, overseas or here in the US?
Lightbody: Yes and no. I'm quite a political person, so if there was a Gay rights parade or a Gay issue in the national consciousness of the time, then of course I would know about it - I'm not blinkered in that sort of way. But in terms of everyday things that affect Gay people, I don't really know that much. I have a few Gay friends, so it's only when I see them that I realize what the issues are.
Rodriguez: You're an avid book reader, and I wondered if there were any books you'd personally recommend to us?
Lightbody: I would be delighted. There's a book called Winkie by Clifford Chase. It's about a teddy bear that comes to life - I'm not giving anything away because it's right on the first page. He gets accused of being a terrorist - again, right on the first page - and it starts with the trial of this teddy bear. It is fantasy, obviously, and sounds completely ridiculous. But it's fantastic and a mirror to the whole ridiculousness of the Patriot Act and the ludicrous political situation we were in with the last president - I mean "we" as in you Americans. The other book is The Invention of Everything Else by Samantha Hunt. It's about Nikola Tesla, who is a genius inventor, and it's just really, really wonderful.
Rodriguez: Do you think fans got the last album [A Hundred Million Suns]? It's more complex than the band's previous records, and I admit not understanding it the first time I listened to it.
Lightbody: It wasn't our intention to confuse, but it was our intention to do something new and that would maybe be a bit more challenging. I wish it was given a better chance across the board, by critics and a lot of people. It was an experiment and I guess it was successful to us, because we think it's our strongest record. But not everybody got it, you're right about that.
Rodriguez: Those of us who've followed Snow Patrol for years know that about the changes in the band's lineup, sound and style. So, what's the future of Snow Patrol?
Lightbody: To quote the great Joe Strummer, "The future is unwritten." With the new single "Just Say Yes," which is our most adventurous single to date, it shows we can go anywhere or do anything with our next album, and I can't wait to get stuck into it. Most of the writing we're doing now will be thrown out the window to approach it completely fresh. We never have a problem with writing; it's only with finishing songs.
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| i don't know |
Which company makes 'Angel' perfume? | Angel Perfume | FragranceNet.com®
Angel Perfume
For Men
Since 1992, Angel perfume from Thierry Mugler has provided women with an intriguing fragrance that is filled with possibilities. Its vanilla, sandalwood and patchouli scent is mixed with a number of fruit fragrances, including peach and melon, to give you the right perfume for your next daytime adventure. It's the perfect fragrance to go with your favorite outfit, allowing you to smell and look fabulous for your upcoming day on the town with your family and friends.
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Since 1996, Angel cologne by Thierry Mugler has offered the casual male a scent that is perfect for any occasion. Its intriguing mix of mint and coffee combined with lavender and caramel makes this a fantastic scent for your next social event. Whether it is a dinner with family or a get together with friends, this scent is the perfect complement for your next event. Angel is great for the man who likes things a bit laid back.
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I have been wearing Angel by Thierry Mugler for a long time and still have people stop me and say "WHAT IS THAT YOU ARE WEARING". I always smile because I've become used to wearing it and happy to share. I don't shop anywhere except this site and share this as well.
Written by Romelia on December 05, 2016
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Angel by Thierry Mugler - Love Angle, always admired the fragrance on a friend so finally bought one for myself. Always get compliments.
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Angel is great fragrance, but a little goes a long way.
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I bought angel shower gel and angel body cream. Get website and great price. Got product in great time. I would and have used this web site again. And I also would tell my friends to go to this website
Written by Judie Condon on November 30, 2016
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Angel perfume Excellent product. Great scent Love it!
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| Thierry Mugler |
Great Britain was given which strategic possession in 1713 by the Treaty of Utrecht? | MUGLER ® Official Website | Fragrances & Fashion
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| i don't know |
By what name is the flower Campanula better known? | Bellflower
Bellflower
Campanula
Romantic, usually bobbing, often blue bellflowers are classic cottage garden plants. Tall types look like something straight out of a fairy tale garden, while ground-hugging types are good in rock gardens, more formal gardens, and many other situations. Most are perennial, but a notable exception is Canterbury bells, a stately biennial (it takes two years to bloom). Flowers come in blue, purple, white, or pink.
Shown above: Campanula carpatica
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Under 6 inches to 3 feet
Width:
more varieties for Bellflower
'Birch Hybrid' campanula
Campanula 'Birch Hybrid' is a groundcover that bears 1-inch-long fluted lavender-blue flowers from late spring through late summer if deadheaded. It makes a great rock garden plant. Zones 4-7
Blue Canterbury bells
Campanula medium 'Caerulea' is an old-fashioned cottage-garden biennial that sends up towering spikes of clear blue flowers. Zones 5-8
Campanula raddeana
Campanula raddeana grows 1 foot tall and produces 1-inch-diameter bell-shape flowers midsummer. Zones 5-8
Clustered bellflower
Campanula glomerata sports tight clusters of purple blooms on 2-foot-tall stalks in early summer. It quickly spreads to form a large mat. Zones 3-8
Dalmation bellflower
Campanula portenschlagiana is a tidy little groundcover or rock-garden plant that grows 4-8 inches tall and 2 feet wide. Violet-blue blooms adorn the plant in late spring to early summer. Zones 4-7
'Elizabeth' hybrid bellflower
Campanula 'Elizabeth', sometimes called Korean bellflower (Campanula takesimana), is an upright clump-former that grows 2 feet tall. It produces drooping pale pink flowers in summer. Zones 5-8
Peach-leaf bellflower
Campanula persicifolia grows a foot tall and wide with fine foliage. In early summer it sends up wiry stems with violet, blue-violet, pink, or white flowers. Zones 3-8
'Pearl Light Blue' Carpathian bellflower
Campanula carpatica 'Pearl Light Blue' has 2-inch-wide, cup-shape flowers that are light blue with a white center. It reblooms all summer if deadheaded regularly. Zones 4-7
'Pink Octopus' campanula
Campanula 'Pink Octopus' has unique flowers that look like a creature from the depths of the sea or outer space. Flowers with straplike pink petals rise a foot above the foliage on plants that spread to 18 inches wide. Zones 5-8
'Sarastro' bellflower
Campanula 'Sarastro' is completely covered in long, bell-shape, deep purple flowers on 18-inch-tall stems in early summer. It reblooms throughout the summer if faded flowers stalks are removed. It spreads to form a large clump. Zones 4-8
Serbian bellflower
Campanula poscharskyana grows 4-8 inches tall and produces flaring lilac-blue flowers in late spring and early summer. It's perfect for growing in walls or between flagstones. Zones 4-7
White Canterbury bells
Foxglove
The tall spires of a stand of foxglove, rising up in the garden in early summer, is a sight to behold. Most are biennials, that is, they need two years to bloom and then die in the fall. But if you can get a stand going, they'll reseed so prolifically it will seem they're perennials.To be successful with foxgloves, they must have rich, moist, well-drained soil and light shade, especially in the afternoon. (They'll do fine in full sun in the northern third of the country.) These tall plants also need to be out of any wind. Plants may rebloom if deadheaded after the first flush of bloom.
Phlox
Phlox are one of those bounteous summer flowers any large sunny flowerbed or border shouldn't be without. There are several different kinds of phlox. Garden and meadow phlox produce large panicles of fragrant flowers in a wide assortment of colors. They also add height, heft, and charm to a border. Low-growing wild Sweet William, moss pinks, and creeping phlox are effective as ground covers, at the front of the border, and as rock and wild garden plants, especially in light shade. These native gems have been hybridized extensively especially to toughen the foliage against mildew problems; many recent selections are mildew-resistant. Phlox need amply moist soil for best overall health.
| Campanula medium |
Gaberone is the capital of which African state? | Campanula the Bellflower - Growing and care
CAMPANULA: THE BELLFLOWER
Fascinating Hardy Plants for Flower Borders, Wild Gardens and Rock Gardens
(Campan'ula). Annual, biennial and perennial plants, found wild in many countries of the Northern Hemisphere; these plants give their name to the Bellflower family, Campanulaceae. They vary greatly in height and habit of growth, bloom in summer, and bear blue, violet, lavender, white or, in rare instances, yellow or pink flowers. The name Campanula is derived from the Latin campanula, meaning a little bell.
For gardening purposes the Campanulas may be divided into two chief groups, consisting of those which are suitable for the flower border, wild garden and woodland, and others which are grown in the rock garden. Some kinds in each group are suitable for cultivation as pot plants in the greenhouse and window garden.
Bellflowers for the Border. Some of the Campanulas are splendid hardy plants for the per
ennial border, providing a wealth of bloom during the summer months. They thrive in ordinary well-cultivated soil and may be planted in fall or spring. If the garden soil is clayey it should be well broken up, sand and compost being mixed with it before the plants are put in. These Bellflowers will flourish in a sunny or partly shady place.
Planting and Summer Management. They should be set from 12-18 in. apart according to the vigor and ultimate height of the different kinds. The flower stems must be supported with stakes or brushwood, if necessary. It is of the greatest importance to pick off all flowers as soon as they have faded; if this is done the plants will continue to bloom throughout many summer weeks, but if seed pods are allowed to form, flowering will soon cease.
When to Sow Seeds. The hardy border Camp anulas are easily raised from seeds sown in a greenhouse or frame in early spring. Artificial warmth is not necessary, but it is an advantage as it encourages earlier germination. A tempera ture of 50-55 degrees is high enough. As the seeds of Campanula are small they should be sown in flowerpots or flats filled with finely sifted, light, sandy soil; the merest sprinkling of similar soil provides sufficient covering. Pieces of glass and brown paper are placed over the pots of seed to keep the soil moist. The soil must not be allowed to become dry; the best way to water the seeds or seedlings is to immerse the flowerpot almost to the rim in a vessel of water.
Managing the Seedlings. When the seedlings are an inch or so high the pots containing them may be placed in a cold frame. Before they be come unduly crowded the seedlings are potted separately in small pots or are set about 2 in. apart in flats filled with a compost of loam, two thirds, leaf mold and sand, one third. When well rooted, they may be planted in a nursery border out of doors.
A Simple Method of Propagation. Certain kinds of Campanula, e.g., C. latiloba (grandis) and C. persicifolia, form rosettes of leaves; the simplest and best method of propagating them is to detach the small rosettes, each with a few
roots attached, in late summer or early autumn, and plant them in the border where they are to remain or, if the garden soil is clayey, to set them singly in flowerpots of suitable size and keep them in a cold frame for the winter, anti plant them out of doors in spring.
Those kinds that form a large rootstock, for instance C. latifolia and C. versicolor and their varieties, should not be disturbed unnecessarily. It is better to raise a fresh stock of plants by sowing seeds.
The annual Campanillas are, of course, raised from seeds; these are sown in the border early in spring where the plants are to bloom in sum mer; the seedlings should not be transplanted.
The chief annual kinds are C. macrostyla and C. ramosissima. Campanula ramosissima (Loreyi) is excellent when grown in hanging baskets. Seeds are sown in the soil in the basket when the latter is filled in April.
C. macrostyla is a branching hardy annual, 18 in. tall, with broad, solitary, purple, pink or white flowers; the leaves are small and the whole pla nt is bristly.
The Chief Kinds of Hardy Border Bellflowers. C. alliariaefolia is a handsome Caucasian plant, with tall branching stems 18 in. high, large, heart-shaped leaves and a profusion of cream white bells. It succeeds in ordinary soil.
C. carpatica, the Carpathian Bellflower, and its varieties are suitable for planting at the front of the border; they bear saucer-shaped, blue or white flowers on stems 6 in. high. Beautiful varieties include Isabel, violet-blue; Blue Carpet, deep blue; Riverslea, violet-blue and White Star, white.
C. glomerata, the Clustered Bellflower, makes an excellent border plant; it bears a large cluster of violet-purple blooms on stems 18 in. high. Variety dahurica, 1 ft., deep purple, is a specially good form; acaulis is a dwarf variety.
C. lactiflora has tall leafy stems, 3-5 ft. high, which bear loose panicles of star-shaped flowers, white slightly tinged with blue, or entirely blue; this is rather a short-lived plant but sows itself
quite freely and thrives in semishade.
C. latifolia, the Broad-leaved Bellflower, is a handsome plant, 4 ft. high, with stout, leafy spikes of lilac-purple, funnel-shaped flowers. There are several handsome varieties: eriocarpa is violet-purple, alba has fine white flowers and macrantha has large purplish-blue blooms. C. latifolia and. its varieties are chiefly suitable for the wild garden, woodland and shady border.
C. latiloba is a fine border plant with large, blue, saucer-shaped flowers on stems 1-2 ft. high above a thick carpet of leaves. Only the largest rosettes of leaves should be planted in the show border, the smaller rosettes being grown in a nursery bed for a year. Highcliffe variety, 3 ft., intense deep blue, is a grand border plant; so is Six Hills Giant, 21/2-3 ft., pale blue.
The Popular Peach-leaved Bellflower. C. persicifolia, the Peach-leaved Bellflower, is a beautiful border plant with blue or white cup-shaped flowers borne in June, July and August, on leafy stems, 2-3 ft. high, which rise from a rosette of smooth narrow leaves. This plant has given rise to many beautiful varieties with double or single flowers. The finest of these are grandiflora alba
and Backhousei, single white; Boule de Neige, double, white; Moerheimii, semidouble. white; Telham Beauty, single, china blue; Pride of Exmouth, semidouble, medium blue; and Wirral Belle, semidouble, violet.
C. Trachelium is more suitable for the wild garden than the flower border; it has loose racemes of blue or white bell-shaped flowers, which are erect at first and afterwards droop. There are double blue and white varieties.
The Canterbury Bell. C. Medium, the Canterbury Bell, is a biennial 2-4 ft. high, with large loose racemes of inflated bell-shaped violet-blue, lavender, pink, rose or white flowers, borne during June—July. Apart from these colored varieties there are several others, notably calycanthema, known as the Cup and Saucer Canterbury Bell, with an enlarged colored spreading petallike calyx (a fair percentage of these plants will come true from seed): Wiegandii, which has yellow leaves, and imperialis, a floriferous variety.
The Cup and Saucer varieties are great favorites.
When to Sow Seeds of Canterbury Bell. Seeds of Canterbury Bells should be sown in May or June, preferably, as the seeds are very small, in finely sifted soil in a cold frame. If the seeds are sown out of doors, a half-shady spot, where the soil is light, should be chosen; heavy soil must be lightened by the addition of sand. The seeds are sown in drills 1/2 in. deep and 6 in. apart. Before they become crowded, the seedlings must be transplanted 6 in. apart in a nursery border, there to remain during the summer. In October, or in early spring, they are planted 15 in. apart where they are to flower the following summer. In the North they should be given some winter protection; where winters are severe they should be carried over in a cold frame.
Almost all Canterbury Bells will bloom the year after seed sowing, but those that do not will make magnificent plants the following summer and will then bear a profusion of bloom. They flourish in ordinary garden ground; if the soil lacks lime, this should be added. If the flowers are picked from the spikes as they fade, a second crop of smaller bells will be produced.
Canterbury Bells may be grown in pots for greenhouse or porch or terrace display in sum mer. The plants are lifted from the nursery bor der in September-October and are potted in 8-in. flowerpots in sandy, loamy soil. They may be kept in a cold frame or in a slightly heated frame or greenhouse, temperature 45-50 degrees, dur ing the winter.
The Chimney Bellflower. C. pyramidalis, the Chimney Bellflower, is a vigorous plant with a thick, fleshy stem rising to a height of 4-5 feet, bearing, along the greater part of its length, blue flowers, which open in succession during July, August and September. This old-fashioned European plant is one of the handsomest of the whole genus; where winters are not excessively severe it may be grown out of doors in the bor der, elsewhere in pots in the greenhouse. There are several varieties: alba, white, and compacta, a plant of lower growth with large white flowers. C. Fergusonii (a hybrid between C. pyramidalis and C. carpatica), 2 ft., has lilac-blue flowers.
Seed of C. pyramidalis is sown in March in pots of sifted sandy soil in a greenhouse, tem perature 50 degrees, or in a cold frame. The · seedlings are placed singly in small pots and sub sequently in those 5-6 in. wide, care being taken not to bury the crowns or centers of the plants: the best potting soil consists of loam with a little thoroughly decayed manure and a sprinkling of sand. In February they are repotted in 8or 9-in. pots in which they will bloom. If required for the border out of doors in mild climate gardens, the plants should be planted there in October or in March. C. pyramidalis, although a perennial, is better treated as a biennial.
Bellflowers for the Rock Garden. The miniature Bellflowers are very beautiful rock garden plants and most of them are easy to cultivate. Most of them succeed in well-drained, sandy, loamy soil with which some leaf mold, sand and grit have been mixed. The choice and difficult kinds are planted in the moraine. October and early spring are the chief planting periods.
The plants are raised from seed sown as soon as ripe, or in March, in pots of light, sifted soil; the seedlings are potted separately in small pots and are kept in a cold frame until large enough to be planted in the rock garden. The vigorous kinds may be set in flats of sandy, loamy soil instead of being potted separately. They may be propagated by cuttings taken in spring and placed in pots of sandy soil in a frame kept close for a few weeks or under a bell jar. Division of the plants may also be done in spring. When the choicer kinds are divided, or increased by cuttings, it is advisable to grow them in small pots in a frame until they are established.
C. abietina, from eastern Europe, has loose branching spikes of light blue, star-shaped flowers on slender, erect stems about 6 in. high. This kind is apt to dwindle after a year or two; when it shows signs of deterioration it should be lifted in September and separated into pieces for replanting.
C. Allionii, a plant for the moraine or very gritty soil, is one of the more difficult kinds. It is found wild in the Piedmont Alps of Savoy and is also known as C. alpestris. This Campanula is one of the few kinds that dislike lime, and should be planted in a mixture of peat and granite chips. The blue bell-shaped flowers, which are the largest of any Campanula in proportion to the size of the plant, are borne in July, singly on slender stems, 6 in. high. This Campanula requires abundant moisture during the growing season. There is a white-flowered variety, alba, and variety grandiflora has rather larger flowers.
The Alpine Bellflower. C. alpina, from the Alps of Lombardy and Transylvania, bears erect spikes, 6-8 in. high, of dark-blue, pendulous, tube-shaped flowers, and has rather long, grayish, downy leaves. It thrives best in loamy soil containing lime, but is often not long-lived.
C. arvatica, a dainty little plant from the Cantabrian mountains, has slender, leafy stems, 6 in. high, each bearing one or two purple star-shaped flowers. This is an ideal plant for the moraine, although not so hardy as some other kinds.
C. barbata, a beautiful Bellflower from the European Alps, in May bears loose racemes of four or five pendulous, pale blue flowers fringed at the mouth with hairs. This plant, which grows
12 in. high, should be set in a well-drained posi tion as it dislikes excessive damp; although really a perennial it is short-lived, and is best treated as a biennial. It seeds quite freely. The variety alba is also a very attractive plant. Seeds should be sown annually in pots of light soil in a frame in September.
For Planting in Dry Walls. C. caespitosa, a dwarf spreading plant 4-5 in. high from the Dol omites, has lovely blue nodding flowers. It is suitable for setting in dry walls and in crevices between flagstones, and is increased by divisions in the spring, or by seeds sown in pots in Septem ber or in March.
C. cenisia has solitary, deep-blue funnel-shaped flowers, on erect stems 3-5 in. high. It succeeds in deep, very gritty loam and leaf soil, and is an exquisite rock garden plant.
C. cochlearifolia (pusilla), widespread through out the European Alps, is a dainty little plant, with drooping solitary blue bells on 4to 6-in. stems. It thrives in gritty, loamy soil and is one of the easiest to grow. There are several varieties, notably alba, white; pallida, pale blue; and Mi randa, silver-blue, 2 in.
C. collina, a Caucasian plant, 12 in. high, with deep blue, pendulous, funnel-shaped flow ers, is one of the best. It will flourish on a hot, dry bank.
C. Elatines, from the Cottian Alps, is of trail ing growth with blue starry flowers. It should be planted in gritty soil in a sunny crevice.
C. Formanekiana, from the Balkans, has gray
hairy leaves and bears large white or violet-tinted flowers in June. It dies after flowering, but is easily raised from seed.
C. excisa, from Mont Rosa, is an er ct plant with stems 3-4 in. high and pale, solitary, violet colored flowers. It is distinguished from other Bellflowers by a small hole at the base of each lobe, from which its name is derived. It should be planted in gritty loam and peat in the mo raine.
Very Free Blooming. C. Elatines garganica, a compact free-growing plant, 3 in. high, is cov ered during most of the summer with a profusian of starry blue flowers with white centers. It is one of the best and most easily managed of the rock garden Bellflowers. The variety alba is a lovely white-flowered plant, hirsuta has china blue flowers, and the variety W. H. Paine bears large violet, white-centered flowers.
C. haylogensis, a beautiful hybrid Bellflower with large clear blue flowers and yellowish-green leaves, is one of the easiest to cultivate. The double-flowered variety is an attractive plant.
C. macrorrhiza bears cluster's of blue flowers on slender stems. It seems to be always in bloom, and does best in rock fissures in full sun. This plant grows very freely among rocks and on walls in the Riviera.
Flowers for a Long Time. C. Portenschlagiana (muralis), 6 in. high, is one of the best of all alpine Bellflowers. It has bluish-purple flowers, and blooms for a long period. It grows very freely, forming large, dense cushions, and is eas ily increased by division. It is also useful as an edging.
C. Poscharskyana, a trailing Bellflower of vig orous growth, bears masses of pale lavender-blue flowers in June-August.
C. pulla, a miniature Bellflower only 3 in. high, from the Syrian Alps, has solitary, pendu lous, deep violet-blue flowers. It should be planted in a sunny position in well-drained soil free of lime.
C. pulloides, somewhat resembles C. pulla, but is taller and stronger and stronger growing.
C. Raineri, a rare dwarf Bellflower, found wild on limestone in the mountains above the Italian Lakes, bears large, solitary, dark blue flowers on stems 2-3 in. high. This plant should be put in a sunny chink in gritty loam, or in the moraine.
C. rotundifolia, the native Harebell of England and the Bluebell of Scotland, has deep blue flowers. It occurs as a native in North America. It is worth cultivation in the less important parts of the rock garden, as are its varieties—alba, with white flowers, and soldanellaeflora with semidouble, pale blue flowers.
C. Saxifraga, from the Caucasus, grows to a height of 3-4 in. and bears violet-colored blooms. It somewhat resembles C. alpestris and requires the same conditions.
C. Stansfieldii, a compact plant with clear blue flowers and hairy yellowish leaves, is supposed to be a hybrid between C. Waldsteiniana and C. carpatica. It is quite one of the best, and is readily increased by division.
C. Tommasiniana, a bushy little plant 6-8 in. high, bears spikes of pale blue, pendulous tubular flowers. It increases slowly and can be propagated by taking off the outside pieces in August and placing them in sandy soil in a frame kept close for a few weeks.
C. Waldsteiniana, from the Dalmatian mountains, is a neat little plant, 5-6 in. high, with star-shaped blue flowers with white eye. It succeeds in light, well-drained, loamy soil.
C. Zoysii, one of the most distinctive, as well as one of the smallest of all Campanulas, has drooping, blue, tubular flowers, curiously contracted at the mouth. It is quite easy to grow in perfectly drained loam abounding in stone chips (crushed stone) and lime rubble.
For Window and Greenhouse. C. isophylla is a trailing, free-growing plant with lovely blue, salver-shaped flowers during July and August. It should be planted in a well-drained sunny position, or in a dry wall, and is a first-rate plant to grow in pots or hanging baskets in a window. It is not hardy in the North. The variety alba with white flowers is a very attractive plant; variety Mayi has hairy leaves and blue flowers. These plants are called Star of Bethlehem in New England.
| i don't know |
David Clayton Thomas was the lead singer with which 1960's formed rock band? | David Clayton-Thomas | Biography, Albums, Streaming Links | AllMusic
David Clayton-Thomas
Biography by John Bush
The lead singer for Blood, Sweat & Tears' most popular incarnation was born in Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, England, in 1941, the son of a Canadian soldier who served in World War II. David Clayton-Thomas…
| Blood, Sweat & Tears |
Who wrote the poem 'The Eve of St. Agnes'? | Plain and Fancy: David Clayton Thomas - David Clayton Thomas (1972 canada / uk, magnificent jazz rock, Repertoire digi pack remaster)
Saturday, December 28, 2013
David Clayton Thomas - David Clayton Thomas (1972 canada / uk, magnificent jazz rock, Repertoire digi pack remaster)
David Clayton-Thomas (born David Henry Thomsett), singer, songwriter, producer (born 13 September 1941 in Surrey, England). An aggressive yet sensitive singer with a robust, soulful voice, Juno and Grammy Award winner David Clayton Thomas was a pioneer on the Canadian music scene in the 1960s and maintained a long solo career, but is perhaps best-known as the lead singer of the American jazz-rock group Blood, Sweat & Tears. He has been inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame, the Canadian Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame and Canada’s Walk of Fame. His work has been recognized by the Grammy Hall of Fame and the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame.
David Clayton-Thomas had decided that enough was enough and split with Blood, Sweat and Tears to go the solo route with 1972's David Clayton-Thomas. Aided and abetted by wide ranges of studio help, including some of his former bandmates, much of what lies within these grooves sounds very much like his old band. It includes "Magnificent Sanctuary Band" and "Sing a Song," and with it sounding so similar to BS&T, one might wonder why Thomas chose the solo route, but by doing so, he is in charge and doesn't have to rely on others to choose which songs he sings. A competent addition to the big-band rock sound so popular in the early and mid-'70s.
by James Chrispell
| i don't know |
The ship that brought 'Dracula' to England docked in which English town? | SparkNotes: Dracula: Chapters V–VII
Chapters V–VII
Chapters V–VII, page 2
page 1 of 3
Summary: Chapter V
Chapter V consists of several letters and a diary entry. In England, Mina Murray and her friend, Lucy Westenra, exchange letters about their respective romances. Mina is an assistant schoolmistress whose desire to be useful to her future husband has led her to study shorthand and typewriting. She happily reports that her fiancé, Jonathan Harker, has written that he is on his way home. Lucy replies with tales of her own marriage prospects. She has entertained proposals from several men, including Dr. John Seward—the director of a lunatic asylum in London—and a rich American named Quincey Morris. Her heart, however, belongs to a gentleman named Arthur Holmwood, whose proposal she has accepted.
The women’s correspondence is followed by a diary entry, on phonograph, by Dr. Seward. The doctor admits his unhappiness at Lucy’s rebuff, but occupies himself with an interesting new patient, a man named Renfield. Following this entry is a congratulatory letter from Quincey Morris to Arthur Holmwood.
Summary: Chapter VI
In her journal, Mina describes her visit with Lucy in the picturesque town of Whitby, on the northeast coast of England, and the ruined abbey there that is reputed to be haunted. Mr. Swales, an elderly resident who befriends the two girls and tells them stories about the town, scoffs at such legends. Mr. Swales asserts that most of the graves in the Whitby churchyard are empty, as their supposed occupants were lost at sea. After Swales departs, Mina listens to Lucy’s wedding plans and notes sadly that she has not heard from Jonathan for a month.
John Seward continues to report the curious case of Renfield in his diary. The patient has the curious habit of consuming living creatures. He uses sugar to trap flies, uses flies to trap spiders, and uses spiders to trap sparrows. He delights as one creature consumes another and believes that he himself draws strength by eating these creatures. Seward classifies Renfield as a “zoöphagous”—or life-eating—maniac who desires to “absorb as many lives as he can.”
Meanwhile, Mina expresses anxiety over her missing fiancé and over Lucy, who has begun to sleepwalk during the night. Although she seems healthy, Lucy exhibits an “odd concentration” that Mina does not understand. While out walking one day, Mina encounters Mr. Swales, who tells her that he senses his own death is likely not far off. He assures her that he is not afraid of dying and that death is “all that we can rightly depend on.” Mina and Mr. Swales see a ship drifting about offshore as if no one were at the helm. Guessing the vessel to be “Russian, by the look of her,” Mr. Swales assures Mina that they will surely hear more about it.
Summary: Chapter VII
Two newspaper clippings indicate that the ship Mina and Mr. Swales have seen, a vessel called the Demeter, later washes up on the shore at Whitby during a terrific storm. Its crew is nowhere to be found, while its captain, dead and clasping a crucifix, is discovered tied to the wheel. When the ship runs aground, a huge dog leaps from the hold and disappears into the countryside. The Demeter’s only cargo is a number of large wooden boxes, which are delivered to a Whitby solicitor.
1
| The Whitby |
Who was the unlikely European correspondent of The New York Tribune in 1853? | Gill Davies - London in Dracula; Dracula in London (Literary London Journal)
Literary London: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Representation of London, Volume 2 Number 1 (March 2004)
London in Dracula; Dracula in London
Gill Davies
1 From Transylvania to London
<1> The critical discussion of Dracula has emphasised the importance of place in structuring the narrative and developing the themes of the novel. Stephen Arata and others have shown how the geography of the novel echoes contemporary fears about global economic competition and builds on racial anxieties, particularly in its opposition of East and West. Dracula is a novel about crossing borders, encountering the alien and driving it back; it is also about dangerous, unrestrained movement and the need for confinement of the threatening 'other'. In this article, I will concentrate on the way in which the detailed geography of London is deployed to highlight a number of imperial and national anxieties. These anxieties are mapped on to some of the key places in the fin de siecle / modern metropolis. The location map and the four detailed maps at the end of this article show the key movements and locations in the text.
<2> There are references throughout the novel to the four compass points, but especially to east and west. This opposition is a familiar one in the construction of London and it had gathered particular ideological and emotional force by the time Dracula was published. Social explorers, novelists, philanthropists and sociologists had developed this discursive opposition since the 1880s. The West End was the centre of government, wealthy residences and leisure, while the East End was 'unknown England', 'the nether world', 'outcast London', 'the abyss'. In addition,
West End with its government offices served as a site for imperial spectacle: during her Golden Jubilee in 1887, Queen Victoria... was carted around the major thoroughfares, escorted by an Indian cavalry troop. Meanwhile, another kind of imperial spectacle was staged in the East End. The docks and railway termini of the East End were international entrepots for succeeding waves of immigrants, most recently poor Jews fleeing the pogroms of Eastern Europe.[ 1 ]
In Dracula, Stoker reiterates this sense of London as both heart and image of the Empire, using its familiar locations to heighten fears of invasion, contamination and disease. Dracula is, of course, from the east, and regularly associated with it. He comes ashore on the east coast at Whitby and takes a house at Purfleet on the Thames at the eastern edge of London. As several critics have shown, Dracula's association with the East End links him with foreigners, especially Jews from eastern Europe and 'oriental' foreigners, as well as with an area associated in the public mind with crime and violence. Indeed, the novel gives us a band of sturdy western Europeans along with the American, Quincy, combining to reject the eastern Other. The broad locations of the novel match the moral authority and destiny of the main characters and can be schematically represented as:
WEST
Seward
Renfield
There is a clear spectrum of value, moving from west to east. Jonathan and Mina share a basic innocence and moral superiority with Quincy. Arthur's family home is the Godalming estate at Ring, presumably south-west of the capital, and he stays in the West End at the Albemarle in Piccadilly when in London. Dracula's chief antagonist, Van Helsing has to come from the continent, though from a neighbouring and protestant country, since the 'innocence' of England is critical to the dramatic exegesis: Van Helsing is a bulwark against Dracula because he has an understanding of the supernatural and vampire lore that is not possible for an Englishman. The extensive movement that we find in the novel (from the provinces, across Europe, from America) is all to and from London, the 'world city'.[ 2 ] London is the heart of the novel, but also of the empire and the nation. Dracula threatens to consume its blood and cut off the circulation of its capital. Although he is linked to the East End and the moral panics associated with it, Dracula is at his most dangerous in the West End.
<3> The concentration on London is contextualised by the opening sections of the novel in which Jonathan Harker travels east across Europe. His account highlights the border between the civilised west and the dangerous orient. (Even his train is one hour late, as civilisation is left behind.) Budapest is seen as the dividing point between east and west: he crosses the Danube into "the traditions of Turkish rule".[ 3 ] Castle Dracula is "in the extreme east of the country, just on the borders of three states" so that Dracula's liminality is emphasised. In addition, Transylvania is uncharted and Jonathan cannot get "the exact locality of the Castle Dracula as there are no maps of this country as yet to compare with our own Ordnance Survey maps" (10). By contrast, the count makes good use of the modern communications and maps that are the product of the great imperial project. For Victorian readers the lateness of the trains demonstrates the backward and primitive nature of this country - "the further east you go the more unpunctual are the trains" (11). And only a few pages later, Jonathan finds Dracula "lying on the sofa, reading, of all things in the world, an English Bradshaw's Guide" (34) which will guarantee his easy movement around the country. Also on the table is "an atlas which I found opened naturally at England, as if that map had been much used" (36). The places Dracula has marked in the atlas are very significant: Purfleet, Exeter, and Whitby. In the plot, they are the places where he will live and find his first victims (Lucy at Whitby, Renfield in the asylum next to the house at Purfleet) and the address of his solicitor (Exeter) which is also the town where Mina is working as schoolteacher. It is important that Dracula has already planned these locations, basing himself in London at the centre and spreading his influence out north east and south west. Most of the main characters are brought together by Dracula, in his plot, before they join together to try to defeat him.
<4> Dracula's desire for economic power is affirmed when he asks Jonathan about legal transactions; how many solicitors he can have for "banking" and "shipping" (43). His will be a business empire, though the goods he will ship initially are boxes of soil plus himself. We are told (45) that he is writing, among others, to Coutts & Co. London, a bank with very rich and important customers, including the royal family -- another sign of Dracula's ambition and his threat to the symbols of national power. The house that Jonathan has found for Dracula is called Carfax. He explains this as deriving from the fact that "the house is four-sided, agreeing with the cardinal points of the compass" (34). This is another reference to mapping and to Dracula's plans to use the geography of London to conquer it. According to Leonard Wolf, another derivation is not "quatre face" but "carrefour", a crossroads, "a place where four roads meet",[ 4 ] reinforcing Dracula's position at the centre and his plan to access each corner of the city.
<5> Soon after, Jonathan finds the Count in his coffin, recently fed, and comments that "This was the being I was helping to transfer to London, where, perhaps for centuries to come, he might, amongst its teeming millions, satiate his lust for blood, and create a new and ever widening circle of semi-demons to batten on the helpless" (67). Of course, this provokes fear for the empire and the race, but the key word here is "transfer". Dracula himself is represented as goods or money to be transferred legally by this English solicitor to the heart of London, an extended analogy between Dracula and the threat of foreign capital. (Compare Moretti's very useful discussion of the vampire and capital where he points out that Dracula was published after "twenty long years of recession".)[ 5 ] The novel thus indirectly expresses contemporary concerns about the state of the British economy and competition from abroad. Dracula is the parasite (the speculator, represented so often as a Jew)[ 6 ] waiting to benefit from England's decline.
<6> Then, in the library, Jonathan finds,
. . . a vast number of English books, whole shelves full of them... all relating to England and English life and customs and manners. There were even such books of reference as the London Directory, the 'Red' and 'Blue' books, Whitaker's Almanack, the Army and Navy Lists, and . . . the Law List. (30)
The London Directory is a business list; the Red Books listed all the state pensioners from the courts and civil service; the Blue Books were Parliamentary records and reports; Whitaker's had been since 1868 a directory of information on the British government and social structure; and the Army, Navy and Law lists included the names of officers, qualified solicitors, barristers, judges and so on. What Dracula has accumulated, like a terrorist, is a compendium of the institutions and people involved in all the important areas of British society: business; government; the civil service; the armed forces; the legal system . As Dracula himself says,
Through them I have come to know your great England; ... I long to go through the crowded streets of your mighty London, to be in the midst of the whirl and rush of humanity, to share its life, its change, its death and all that make it what it is.' (31)
Dracula's interest in the centres of power (financial, political, legal, military) is threatening because of his total knowledge of the institutions and practices of the modern imperial state. Stoker marshals discourses and imagery similar to those we are familiar with now in the 'war against terrorism' and the 'axis of evil': the threat of shape-changing terrorists from the east, among us and invisible, countered by an Anglo-American alliance. In 1897, it is an image of what Arata calls 'reverse colonisation':
In the marauding invasive Other, British culture sees its own imperial practices mirrored back in monstrous forms. Stoker's Count Dracula ... frightens[s] not least because [his] characteristic actions -- appropriation and exploitation -- uncannily reproduce those of the colonising Englishman.[ 7 ]
Dracula's journey west to the financial capital of the empire is thus a literal transgression of boundaries and a frightening reversal of imperial expansion. Even before the action of the novel moves to London, a powerful set of oppositions and images has been established. Once in London, the spatial meanings are elaborated and intensified.
2 Dracula in London
<7> Various characters converge on London at the same time as the Count. The maps and key (see end) illustrate how important the geography of London is to the representation of Dracula's growing power. The Hon.Arthur Holmwood stays at the Albemarle Hotel in Piccadilly when he is in town ( See Piccadilly map ). His and Quincy's "old pal" (79) Jack Seward is now running the asylum at Purfleet (the west/east axis). Lucy, having written to Mina from an address in Chatham Street, Southwark (presumably a town house near to her father's business) has returned to Hillingham, the family home in north London, with her mother (the north/south axis). It is near Hampstead Heath, scene of Lucy's later vampiric outings, and the churchyard where she is buried, at 'Kingstead'( See Hampstead map ). The proximity of the characters to each other, and the ease of modern communication by train and telegraph make it easy for Seward to drop over for an afternoon from Purfleet, or for Van Helsing to come over quickly from the Great Eastern Hotel at Liverpool Street in the east of the city to Hillingham, or from the Berkeley Hotel in Piccadilly in the west ( See East End map ). Small details, which would be known to many readers, are used to build the sense of Dracula's monstrous invasion of a familiar space. For example, when Seward arranges to meet Lucy away from her house so as not to worry her ailing mother, they go to Harrods -- 'the Stores' (138), already a popular place for a respectable woman to be seen.
<8> From early on, Dracula causes disturbance in the west end of the city, where wealth, fashion and leisure are based. First of all, Berserker, a Norwegian wolf in the Zoo in Regents Park, escapes after an encounter with Dracula, then returns with a cut on the head but docile (165). The wolf gets as far as Hillingham where it frightens Lucy and her mother, appearing at the broken window (173-4) (See Regent's Park and Hampstead maps). This disturbance in the north western reaches of the city is the first indication that Dracula's influence is spreading from the east. (It is echoed in Lucy's name, Westenra.) There may be further significance in the introduction of Regent's Park Zoo. In plot terms, it would have been sufficient to have a wolf escape, but Stoker gives us the lengthy Pall Mall Gazette interview with a keeper (165-171) in his cottage 'in the enclosure behind the elephant-house.' Why so much detail? Jonathan Schneer points out that the Zoo was a conscious emblem of Britain's imperial victories, with animals from every corner of the globe. By the end of the century, 'visiting the zoo had become a common form of popular recreation. More than half a million people attended annually.'[ 8 ] Thus to locate Dracula in the zoo is not only to identify his animalistic and dangerous drives, but also to point up his threat by placing him in relation to a popular imperial signifier.
<9> A more serious disturbance occurs when Dracula begins to "go through the crowded streets of your mighty London" (31) as he had earlier anticipated. Mina and Jonathan have returned to London, after his lengthy period of convalescence in Exeter. Almost immediately Jonathan suffers a relapse after seeing Dracula in Piccadilly (206ff.). This area has become the focal point of the action and represents the high point of Dracula's power as he achieves his expressed wish to blend into the crowd, to be undetectable as a foreigner ( See Piccadilly map ). From this point in the novel, Dracula acquires the characteristics of the figure of the flaneur and moves through the city with the powerful freedom associated with that figure. In adopting many of the features of the flaneur, Stoker links Dracula with the quintessential European city type, rather than with the primitive, decadent aristocrat from Transylvania. At the opening of the novel, Dracula is firmly placed as part of 'old' Europe, now in terminal decline: associated with peasants, superstition, primitive transport and so on. He is " a tall old man, clean-shaven save for a long white moustache, and clad in black from head to foot "(25). But once in London he looks quite different: " a tall, thin man with a beaky nose and black moustache and pointed beard" (207). As well as 'modernising' the vampire by associating him with the metropolis, Stoker may be tapping into the prejudices of his readers by linking him to the flaneur. By the end of the nineteenth century, the flaneur's point of view in the city was firmly established as that of "a man walking, as if alone, in its streets."[ 9 ] The flaneur has a freedom, separateness and protection in the anonymous, complex life of the city and, as a lone figure, is able to penetrate and understand the city because of his detachment. For a largely conservative readership, unable through work and domestic responsibilities to access such freedom, this is a dangerous image. It is also, we may assume, a threatening one. Benjamin stressed the alienation of the flaneur, describing his point of view as,
. . . the gaze of the alienated man. It is the gaze of the flaneur, whose way of life still conceals behind a mitigating nimbus the coming desolation of the big-city dweller. The flaneur still stands on the threshold -- of the metropolis, as of the middle class. Neither has him in its power yet. In neither is he at home. He seeks refuge in the crowd.[ 10 ]
If we examine the episode in Piccadilly in more detail, it seems clear that this is a pivotal moment in the text. Jonathan and Mina have been strolling, after Mr Hawkins's funeral, visiting the fashionable and safest parts of the city. They have taken a bus to Hyde Park Corner, visited Rotten Row, and then they walk down Piccadilly. Mina sees Jonathan staring at a man looking at a girl:
I was looking at a very beautiful girl in a big cart-wheel hat, sitting in a victoria outside Giuliano's, when I felt Jonathan clutch my arm so tight that he hurt me . . . . He was very pale, and his eyes seemed bulging out as, half in terror and half in amazement, he gazed at a tall, thin man ... who was also observing the pretty girl. He was looking at her so hard that he did not see either of us, and so I had a good view of him. His face was not a good face; it was hard, and cruel, and sensual . . . . He kept staring; a man came out of the shop with a small parcel, and gave it to the lady, who then drove off. The dark man kept his eyes fixed on her, and when the carriage moved up Piccadilly he followed in the same direction, and hailed a hansom. (206-8)
Dracula demonstrates the flaneur's freedom to stare, and to follow. He is, in a sense, 'above' the small preoccupations of urban life, shopping and so forth. He is directly contrasted with Jonathan whose gaze is powerless and who nearly faints and has to go and sit down in Green Park where he falls into a feminine sleep. Dracula's movement through London, having access to "the helpless" and in particular to beautiful young women, suggests that the growth of the metropolis, its huge gathering of people, and the introduction of greater freedom for women, only makes the work of evil, pollution and vice easier. He is very far west now and operating in the fashionable heart of London. Piccadilly, Rotten Row and Green Park are traditional locations for the rich, near to the home of the Royal Family, and the centre of Government. In addition, as Walkowitz points out, by this time,
the West End of Mayfair and St James had undergone considerable renovation; from a wealthy residential area it had been transformed and diversified into the bureaucratic center of empire, the hub of communications, transportation, commercial display, entertainment and finance. In the process, a modern landscape had been constructed - of office buildings, shops, department stores, museums, opera, concert halls, music halls, restaurants and hotels - to service not only the traditional rich of Mayfair but a new middle class of civil servants and clerks living in such areas as Bayswater and the nearby suburbs.[ 11 ]
These civil servants and clerks, reading Dracula, would get a particular frisson from their awareness of the significance of this location. The flaneur is, of course, specifically a bohemian or upper class figure; a man with leisure and income and as such is quite threatening to the bourgeois work ethic and the ideology of Stoker's wage-earning readers. Untrammelled by family and responsibilities, he is suspiciously 'free'. Taken along with Dracula's foreignness (not to mention his monstrosity), this makes him a troubling figure for a lower middle and middle class readership. In a later note, Benjamin refers to the "case in which the flaneur completely distances himself from the type of the philosophical promenader, and takes on the features of the werewolf restlessly roaming a social wilderness".[ 12 ] This insight is a fascinating link with the figure of the vampire, not very different from the werewolf. And it fits Dracula very well when we remember his animal teeth and the predatory and animalistic way in which he looks at the woman. (He also of course has an affinity with Berserker, the wolf in the Zoo.)
<10> The next major shock in the novel is Lucy's becoming a predator on children. London is beginning to be encircled by Dracula's creations and familiars: the wolf in the west, Renfield in the east, and now Lucy in the north (Hampstead Heath (213ff)). This is reinforced by the pattern of distribution of Dracula's fifty boxes of soil. At the chapel in Carfax, van Helsing and company find only twenty nine boxes left (300). Where are the twenty one boxes that were taken away from Carfax by the carters who live in the east and south of the city (Snelling in Bethnal Green, Smollett in Walworth)? It becomes clear that they are meant to encircle London. As Harker says,
If then the Count meant to scatter these ghastly refuges of his over London, these places were chosen as the first of delivery, so that he might later distribute more fully. The systematic manner in which this was done made me think that he could not mean to confine himself to two sides of London. He was now fixed on the far east of the northern shore, on the east of the southern shore, and on the south. The north and west were surely never meant to be left out of his diabolical scheme -- let alone the City itself and the very heart of fashionable London in the south-west and west. (311)
And so it turns out: he discovers nine boxes have been taken to a house in Piccadilly. If Piccadilly is the "very heart of fashionable London", now only the City, the north and the west remain to be colonised and that is already being accomplished. Is there any significance beyond the broad compass points of the places that Stoker chooses for Dracula's imperial conquest? Chapter 20 is very specific about where the boxes are taken, including reference to the deeds to houses that Dracula has bought (358). He sends six boxes to 197 Chicksand St., Mile End New Town. This fictional address in Whitechapel / Stepney would have had particular resonance in 1897. Not only was it one of the working class areas that had been the focus of concerns about poverty and crime, it was also associated with immigrants who came in through the docks, especially Jewish and other people from the East. Since the 1870s, the East End had been a site for panics about working class degradation, crime and disease. It was also the focus for fears of immigration, expressed in anti-semitic and orientalist discourses.
<11> Moreover, Whitechapel would be remembered by Stoker's readers for the 1888 Jack the Ripper murders (four women were murdered in Whitechapel and Spitalfields, the fifth nearby in the City). In Judith Walkowitz's discussion of the journalistic construction of the Ripper murders, she comments that it constitutes " a male-directed fantasy, [close] in tone and perspective to the literature of urban exploration and the male Gothic."[ 13 ] The representation of London in Dracula and the location of some of its key moments draws significantly on the discourses that surrounded the Whitechapel murders, adding a contemporary frisson to the figure of the vampire. Newspapers described Whitechapel as,
a notorious, poor locale, adjacent to the financial district (the City) and easily accessible from the West End . . . . To middle-class observers, Whitechapel was an alien place, a center of cosmopolitan culture and entrepot for foreign immigrants and refugees . . . . [T]he middle classes of London were far less concerned with the material problems of Whitechapel than with the pathological symptoms they spawned, such as street crime, prostitution, and epidemic disease.[ 14 ]
The Times saw Whitechapel and the East End as a source of contamination, using an analogy with organic material that echoes Stoker's choice of boxes of soil for Dracula's self-reproduction:
We have long ago learned that organic refuse breeds pestilence. Can we doubt that neglected human refuse as inevitably breeds crime, that crime reproduces itself like germs in an infected atmosphere, and becomes at each successive cultivation more deadly.[ 15 ]
The remaining places where boxes are deposited also have significance. Six are taken to Jamaica Lane, Bermondsey, suggesting a foothold for Dracula in a commercial and small scale industrial working class area close to the river and the docks. This fictional address -- 'Jamaica' -- signifies its colonial links and financial importance. The remaining nine boxes are taken to a house in Piccadilly at the heart of the fashionable West End. This house, which Dracula has bought, gives him a commanding position adjacent to political and gentlemen's clubs (it is just "beyond the Junior Constitutional" (316), probably based on the Junior Athenaeum on the corner of Down Street and Piccadilly) and overlooking Green Park (356). It is also significantly at the west end of Piccadilly, near to Buckingham Palace Gardens. In the contrasting locations for Dracula's boxes we can perhaps also see the lingering influence of the panics about, and mythologising of, the Ripper. Amongst various suspects and scapegoats (including the figure of the fanatical and violent Jew) was the theory that the Ripper was a respectable professional West End man with a divided personality - a Jekyll and Hyde figure. Stevenson's novella, The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde had been published in 1886 with a stage version in 1888. Journalists used the literary reference to promote the idea of the Ripper as an alternative West End monster. Thus we can perhaps see the juxtaposition of Whitechapel and Piccadilly in the novel as Stoker borrowing from fiction and from recent events to centre anxieties on Dracula. Certainly, contemporary speculation about the identity of the Ripper - a mad doctor, an aristocrat, a Jew - has some striking parallels with the cast of Dracula. Dracula himself is an aristocrat, linked physiognomically and ideologically with Jews, and closely associated with the mad house at Purfleet. It takes a team including an English aristocrat and two doctors to defeat him. The estate agents tell Arthur (now Lord Godalming) that a 'Count de Ville'[ 16 ] bought the house "paying the purchase money in notes 'over the counter', if your lordship will pardon us using so vulgar an expression" (326). The '"vulgar expression" suggests that we should read Dracula as counter-jumper, rather than an English gentleman, and not one of us. As well as indicating Dracula's aristocratic origins, if we translate the French literally it also suggests that he is 'man of the town or city' . Dracula is perfectly at home in London in ways that none of his opponents can ever be. Jonathan is a provincial solicitor, Arthur belongs in Surrey (Godalming), Van Helsing in Holland, and Quincy in the American west. It takes their concerted efforts to force him out of London and back to Transylvania.
Links to Maps
Key to maps (numbered east to west)
1. Purfleet, Essex. Dr Seward's asylum and Dracula's house, Carfax
2. '197 Chicksand Street, Mile End New Town' ( Mile End Road, Whitechapel) - location of 6 boxes from Carfax
3. 'Jamaica Lane', Bermondsey - location of 6 boxes
4. Fenchurch Street Station (trains from Purfleet)
5. Liverpool Street Station (boat trains from Holland)
6. Great Eastern Hotel, Liverpool Street (Van Helsing stays here)
7. 'Chatham Street' Southwark (Lucy staying here p.71)
8. King's Cross Station (unloading of boxes from the Whitby train)
9. Regent's Park and Zoological Gardens
10. Hampstead Heath (site of Lucy's attacks on children)
11. 'Kingstead' churchyard (Lucy buried here)
12. 'Hillingham' - Lucy's family home
13. ABC caf� near Piccadilly Circus (Jonathan p.318)
14. Sackville Street (estate agent)
15. Albemarle Hotel, Piccadilly (Arthur writes from here p.134)
16. Berkeley Hotel, Piccadilly (Van Helsing stays here, and Jonathan p.317)
17. 'Giuliano's', Piccadilly (first London sighting of Dracula p.206-7)
18. Dracula's house, Piccadilly
19. Jonathan and Mina's walk from Hyde Park Corner, in Rotten Row, then down Piccadilly p.206
20. 'The Stores', Knightsbridge (Lucy meets Dr Seward p.138)
Endnotes
[1 ] Judith R Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian London Virago 1992 p.26. [ ^ ]
[2 ] 'London, the World City' is the title of Asa Briggs's chapter in Victorian Cities, 1963 [ ^ ]
[3 ] Bram Stoker, Dracula 1897; Penguin 1979 p.9. All other references are to this edition. [ ^ ]
[4 ] Leonard Wolf (ed.), The Essential Dracula, Plume 1993 p.31 [ ^ ]
[5 ] Franco Moretti, Signs Taken For Wonders: Essays in the Sociology of Literary Forms 1983 (in Glennis Byron (ed.), Dracula - Contemporary Critical Essays, Macmillan New Casebooks 1999 p.46) [ ^ ]
[6 ] Even by association. His return travel arrangements are made in Galatz by "a Hebrew of rather the Adelphi type, with a nose like a sheep, and a fez" (415). [ ^ ]
[7 ] Stephen Arata, Fictions of Loss in the Victorian Fin de Si�cle: Identity and Empire, Cambridge UP 1996 p.108. [ ^ ]
[8 ] Jonathan Schneer, London 1900: The Imperial Metropolis, Yale UP 1999; 2001 p.99 [ ^ ]
[9 ] Raymond Williams, The Country and the City, Paladin 1973 p.280. [ ^ ]
[10 ] Walter Benjamin, 'Baudelaire, or the streets of Paris', The Arcades Project, trans.H. Eiland & K McLaughlin Harvard UP 1999 p.10. [ ^ ]
[11 ] Walkowitz, 1992 p.24. [ ^ ]
[12 ] The Arcades Project, p. 417-8. [ ^ ]
[13 ] Walkowitz, p.192 [ ^ ]
[15 ] The Times, 2 October 1888 quoted in Walkowitz p. 195 [ ^ ]
[16 ] A generic name for an aristocrat, see Wolf's note in The Essential Dracula p.326 [ ^ ]
To Cite This Article:
Gill Davies, �London in Dracula; Dracula in London�. Literary London: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Representation of London, Volume 2 Number 1 (March 2004). Online at http://www.literarylondon.org/london-journal/march2004/davies.html.
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This page is at http://www.literarylondon.org/london-journal/march2004/davies.html | ISSN: 1744-0807 | Last updated 21 August 2014
All material published in The Literary London Journal (material within the directory www.literarylondon.org/london-journal/) is copyright © the identified author. If no author is identified in relation to content, that content is copyright � The Literary London Society, 2003-2014.
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Which pair of British aviators made the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic in 1919? | June 15, 1919: First Nonstop Flight Crosses Atlantic | WIRED
June 15, 1919: First Nonstop Flight Crosses Atlantic
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Author: Jason Paur. Jason Paur
Date of Publication: 06.15.10.
Time of Publication: 12:00 am.
12:00 am
June 15, 1919: First Nonstop Flight Crosses Atlantic
1919: John Alcock and Arthur Brown land their Vickers Vimy airplane in a bog in Clifden, Ireland, marking the end of the first nonstop flight across the Atlantic.
It’s a good bet to win a drink at a bar: “Do you know who was the first person to fly across the Atlantic in an airplane, nonstop?” Most takers think it’s Charles Lindbergh.
But the true answer is the kind of knowledge only the most die-hard aviation geeks would know: Alcock and Brown.
In 1913, the British newspaper the Daily Mail offered a prize of 10,000 pounds sterling (about $1.1 million in today’s money) to the first aviator to cross the Atlantic. But World War I intervened the following year before anybody could make an attempt, and the competition was suspended.
In reality, it was unlikely anybody could have made the crossing in 1913. But by the end of the war, aviation technology had improved significantly. In late 1918, the competition to fly across the Atlantic resumed and stipulated the flight must be made in less than 72 hours. With fighting still fresh in the minds of the British, a new rule prevented teams of “enemy origin” to enter.
By the spring of 1919, several teams had gathered in St. Johns, Newfoundland, vying to be the first to cross the Atlantic and collect the prize. There were so many teams that Alcock and Brown had a difficult time finding a suitable field they could use as a runway for their flight.
There were no airports in the area. The Vickers Vimy airplane they had prepared for the attempt back in England was still en route by steamship, and other teams had already set up camp at the best locations.
The Vickers Vimy was a large airplane for the time. The twin engine bomber was developed for use in World War I, but it wasn’t ready until after the war had ended, and it never saw combat over Europe. With a wingspan of more than 67 feet, the biplane was powered by a pair of 12-cylinder Rolls-Royce engines producing 360 horsepower each.
The airplane used for the record-setting attempt was modified by removing the bomb racks and adding extra fuel tanks, so it could carry 865 gallons for the flight. The pilot and navigator sat in an open cockpit at the front of the airplane.
By mid-May, one of the rival teams had flown nearly 20 hours east across the ocean before engine troubles forced the crew to ditch at sea. Fortunately, the plane crashed near a ship that was able to rescue the two-man crew. Another attempt at the prize ended in a crash before the airplane was even able to get airborne.
The Vickers Vimy arrived in Newfoundland on May 26. Two teams had failed to make the crossing, and the prize was still up for grabs, as was some good real estate for a suitable runway. The team was allowed to use a small field to assemble the airplane, but it was not long enough for the heavily fuel-laden airplane to take off.
The Vimy arrived in 13 crates and was assembled in a large canvas tent in just two weeks. At the same time the airplane was being assembled, Alcock had found a suitable takeoff field. Groups of people worked to clear rocks and fill ditches to make it smooth enough for use as a runway.
After a few days waiting out bad weather, the decision was made to fuel the airplane at its new field and make an attempt for the first nonstop crossing of the Atlantic. (A U.S. Navy Curtiss seaplane had flown from Newfoundland to Portugal in May, after a 10-day stop in the Azores.) After a few last-minute repairs to fix a broken landing gear that failed under the weight of the fuel, Alcock and Brown lifted off from Lester’s Field on the afternoon of June 14.
Brown radioed the message, “All well and started,” to announce they had begun their journey. Unfortunately, it would be the first and last radio message the crew would make. The wind-powered generator failed shortly after, and the duo was left without a radio for the remainder of the flight.
Using a sextant and a drift-bearing plate, Brown was able to determine their position as they flew. Shortly after the radio went out, fog covered the sea, so he could not determine their drift. A haze developed, and he was unable to use the sextant to determine their location.
At night approached, Brown urged Alcock to climb above the clouds so he could use the stars to get a fix on their position. It was good news: He calculated they were averaging 106 miles per hour, faster than they had planned.
But soon they flew into another bank of clouds, and Alcock became disoriented and lost control of the aircraft. The airspeed indicator had been stuck and Alcock didn’t realize the airplane was slowing down. Eventually it stalled and entered a spin .
They lost more than 4,000 feet as they spiraled toward the North Atlantic. Breaking out of the clouds at around 100 feet, Alcock was able to recover from the spin and with very little room to spare, leveled off and continued flying east toward Ireland.
The weather did not improve, and rain turned to snow as they flew farther east. Ice covered the airplane, and Brown had to frequently stand up in the open cockpit and clear ice and snow from the instrument sensors which were outside the cockpit.
Eventually, the ice covered the air intake of one of the engines. Alcock decided to shut the engine down before the backfiring could destroy it. Descending into warmer air, the duo hoped the ice would melt before they hit the water. At around 500 feet, they broke into clear skies and were able to restart the engine.
It seemed nothing more could go wrong with their flight, and sure enough less than half an hour after restarting the engine, Alcock and Brown spotted solid land. They had reached Ireland.
In a less-than-ceremonious landing, Alcock put the plane down in a bog he had mistaken for a smooth field. The wheels dug in, and the plane tipped onto its nose.
With a gentle crash at 8:40 a.m., they completed the first nonstop flight across the Atlantic. Accounts vary, but the flight of approximately 1,890 miles across the shortest part of the Atlantic had taken around 16 hours, averaging roughly 118 mph.
They were awarded the prize money in London by the British Secretary of State for War and Air, Winston Churchill. They were later knighted by King George V.
Over the course of the next several years, many more pilots would fly airplanes across the Atlantic, and even more would cross in airships . Different teams flew different routes between North America and Europe.
Eventually in 1927, Charles Lindbergh would make his historic flight between New York and Paris to win the Orteig Prize. It was the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic and the first to link the two major cities. Lindbergh was, however, the 19th person to cross the Atlantic in an airplane.
Pilots Steve Fossett and Mark Rebholz recreated the flight of Alcock and Brown in a replica Vickers Vimy in 2005.
Source: Various
| Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown |
In which city were the American shows 'Ally McBeal' and 'St. Elsewhere' set? | Across the South Atlantic in 1922 | Daily Planet | Air & Space Magazine
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Across the South Atlantic in 1922
On this day in 1922, a pair of Portuguese aviators, Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho, set off on the first flight across the southern Atlantic
airspacemag.com
March 30, 2009
On this day in 1922, a pair of Portuguese aviators, Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho, set off on the first flight across the southern Atlantic , from Lisbon to Recife, Brazil. They made it, but with plenty of down time for repairs and waiting on replacement aircraft. They finally finished the 5,100-mile voyage at Rio de Janeiro on June 17, after a total of 62 hours flying.
Along the way they lost two airplanes—their original Fairey III D hydroplane, "Lusitania," which sank in the ocean off the tiny rocks of St. Peter and St. Paul , and a second Fairey, "Portugal" which didn't get much farther before it, too, ditched in the sea (the pilots bobbed in the water for hours before being rescued by a passing freighter). The final leg of the trip, from the islands of Fernando Noronha to Brazil, was in a Fairey 17 named "Santa Cruz."
Cabral, a Naval aviator, had been inspired by two Atlantic crossings three years earlier—a U.S. Navy journey from New York to England in a Curtiss NC-4 flying boat, and John Alcock and Arthur Brown's first non-stop crossing from Newfoundland to Ireland, accomplished in only 16 hours on June 15, 1919.
At Cabral's suggestion, the Portuguese and Brazilian governments started planning a South Atlantic crossing within days of Alcock and Brown's trip. But first, they had to figure out how to navigate to a hard-to-find refueling stop like Fernando Noronha (the biggest island is just six miles long) after crossing 1,450 miles of open ocean. Cabral's friend Gago Coutinho, a Naval commander and cartographer, developed a new kind of sextant that used a water bubble to create an artificial horizon, and it was this use of internal navigation that made the trip possible.
At the time, Charles Lindbergh was 20 years old. And though he probably hadn't heard of Cabral and Coutinho at the time, the man who five years later would make the most famous Atlantic crossing in history took his first airplane ride on April 9, when the Portuguese aviators were already halfway across the ocean.
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The 'Eduskunta' is the name given to the national parliament of which European country? | EUROPP – The European Parliament elections in Finland are unlikely to see a significant swing in support toward the Eurosceptic Finns Party
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With Finland due to hold parliamentary elections in 2015, the European elections in May will be viewed as an indicator of where the major parties stand with the electorate. Tapio Raunio gives an overview of the campaign, noting that European Parliament (EP) elections in Finland are traditionally highly ‘candidate centred’ due to the use of open party lists. Nevertheless one of the main areas of interest in the campaign is the performance of the Eurosceptic ‘Finns Party’, who had a breakthrough in the last parliamentary elections in 2011. He writes that while the Finns Party are still holding firm in the polls, the fact that their charismatic leader, Timo Soini, is not standing for an EP seat leaves them without a much needed leading candidate in the election.
Finnish integration policy can be characterised as flexible and constructive and has sought to consolidate Finland’s position in the inner core of the EU. Consecutive governments have constantly underlined the importance of being present where decisions that concern Finland are taken. According to the political elite, national interests can be best pursued through active and constructive participation in EU decision-making. Underlying this stance is a conviction that a strong and efficient EU can best protect the rights and interests of smaller member states, as intergovernmental processes tend to favour the larger member states.
Finland used to have a relatively broad consensus about Europe among its political parties. However, in the run-up to the 2011 Eduskunta (the unicameral national parliament) elections, the problems affecting the Eurozone triggered heated debates about the EU – or more precisely the role of Finland in the bailout measures – which became the main campaign issue. The election result was nothing short of extraordinary, producing major changes in the national party system and attracting considerable international media attention.
As shown in Table 1 below, the Eurosceptic and populist The Finns Party (previously known as True Finns) won 19.1 per cent of the votes, a staggering increase of 15 per cent from the 2007 elections and the largest ever increase in support achieved by a single party in Eduskunta elections. All the other parties represented in the Eduskunta lost votes. The election campaign also affected national EU policy. Since entering office in June 2011, the ‘six pack’ cabinet led by the National Coalition has taken a tougher stance on EU negotiations. The government has demanded bilateral guarantees for its bailout payments; attempted, on its own, to reject the 85 per cent decision-making majority needed in the European Stability Mechanism, demanding unanimity instead, and blocked, together with the Netherlands, the entry of Bulgaria and Romania into the Schengen area.
Table 1: Vote share and seats in 2011 Finnish Parliamentary elections and change from 2007 elections
Note: The Åland Coalition, which represents the Åland Islands , is not shown in the table above. The islands have a single seat in the Finnish parliament which the Åland coalition has held in every election since 1948.
Whether this signals a more long-term change to national integration policy remains to be seen, but at least for now the government is under considerable domestic pressure not to make too many concessions in Brussels. More broadly, it appears that the emphasis on national interests and the role of smaller member states has become more pronounced in Finland in recent years. The success of The Finns Party has clearly pushed the remaining political parties in the direction of more cautious EU policies.
Influence of the electoral system on European Parliament elections
Finnish European Parliament (EP) elections are strongly influenced by the open list candidate-centred system, with the programmes and discourses of political parties overshadowed by the campaigns of individual candidates. Under the open list electoral system the most efficient strategy for the candidates is to focus on their personal qualities. Indeed, as in Eduskunta elections, the electoral system leads to more competition within, rather than between, parties. Considering the focus on individual candidates, it is no surprise that it is quite difficult to identify any real topics that would have dominated the campaigns in previous EP elections. Voters seem to be more concerned about the ability of MEPs to defend national and regional interests in Brussels than about wider issues related to European integration. This is surely understandable given that only 13 MEPs are elected from Finland.
The whole country forms one single constituency and the maximum number of candidates per party is 20. While the votes of candidates and elected MEPs are often regionally concentrated, parties prefer to recruit candidates that can pull votes across the country. Voters choose between individual candidates from non-ordered party lists. As most Finnish parties are internally divided over Europe, party leaders have an incentive to support the existing rules of the electoral game, as protest or dissenting opinions get channelled through individual candidates.
Parties also try to make sure that these internal differences are reflected in the composition of the lists. In addition to recruiting candidates from across the country, party lists also include candidates with different views on Europe. This applies particularly to parties that are less cohesive on integration, most notably the Centre and the Left Alliance. While this obviously causes problems for the party leaderships, it controls tensions within the parties and probably increases their vote totals.
Weak government afraid of further embarrassments
As shown in the Chart below, in terms of party competition, the Finnish party system has in recent decades been remarkably stable, with the vote shares of the individual parties changing very little between elections. The three core parties – the Social Democratic Party, the Centre Party and the National Coalition – have largely held on to their vote shares, winning collectively around 65-70 per cent of votes. Hence, the recent rise of the Finns Party has certainly enlivened the party system, adding an element of unpredictability to elections and political discourse. It also means that the four largest parties, in particular, are already thinking ahead to the 2015 Eduskunta election, which is their main target, but parties know well enough that success in European elections can spill over into national elections.
Chart: Vote share for major parties in Finnish European elections (1996-2009)
Note: As Finland joined the European Union in 1995 it held its first European Parliament election in 1996.
The governing parties have good reason to approach the elections with considerable apprehension. It is broadly acknowledged that the cabinet – which brings together six parties, including the most right-wing and most leftist party in Eduskunta – has failed and is basically content with just surviving until the spring 2015 Eduskunta elections. However, the leading government party National Coalition has normally performed well in EP elections, and in addition to its three MEPs, two ministers are also on the list – including Alexander Stubb, a famous Europhile who was the second most popular candidate in the 2004 EP elections.
In striking contrast, the Social Democrats are in severe turmoil. The party is doing extremely badly in the polls, and the leader and finance minister Jutta Urpilainen is facing a leadership contest in the party congress to be held just two weeks before the European elections. Whilst the Social Democratic list contains a rather strong slate of names, including many senior party figures, the party has a history of defeats in previous EP elections. Much of the discussion at European level has in recent years focused on the need to make the EU more competitive, and when this discourse is combined with Finnish domestic measures aiming at making the public sector and the national economy in general more cost efficient and competitive, it is understandable that leftist voters may find it hard to identify themselves with European integration. In short, the left and particularly the Social Democrats may like to portray Europe as a possibility, but large sections of the leftist electorate view integration as a threat.
There are only 13 seats up for grabs, and hence the smaller parties in the coalition need to do well in order to win seats. The Green League and the Swedish People’s Party have clearly benefited from the second-order nature of the EP elections in the past, and the Greens, in particular, have put together a balanced list. The Left Alliance is hoping to win back the seat it lost in 2009, and this may not be an unrealistic goal. The Christian Democrats won a seat the last time around thanks to the electoral alliance with The Finns Party, but now the party would need a small miracle to hold on to their only MEP. Table 2 below shows predicted vote shares and seats based on polls up to the end of January.
Table 2: Predicted vote share and seats in the 2014 Finnish European elections
Note: Predictions are from Pollwatch2014 based on polls up to the end of January 2014.
Divided opposition parties
All eyes, however, are on the opposition – which currently comprises only two Eduskunta parties. The Centre suffered a humiliating defeat in the 2011 Eduskunta elections, but according to opinion polls the party has been the largest political party in Finland for about a year now. This revival is in no small measure thanks to the Laestadian IT-millionaire Juha Sipilä who was elected as the party chair in 2012. But Sipilä has been facing health issues of late and may feel some further unease about his party’s candidate list.
The Centre is internally badly divided over integration, and the party leadership has always taken this into account when putting together its team of candidates. This time around the competition inside the party can turn unusually interesting, with the Eurosceptic former MEP and long-standing minister Paavo Väyrynen, and the Commissioner for Economic and Monetary Affairs Olli Rehn, representing different views on Europe. While Rehn’s candidacy has not been confirmed yet, ALDE decided in early February that the federalist Guy Verhofstadt and Rehn would be its ‘lead’ candidates for major EU posts. Rehn has only once before served as a candidate in EP elections – in 1996 when he failed to get elected.
European media has speculated for some time about the breakthrough of populist or nationalist parties in the May elections, and the Finns Party is certainly still going strong in the polls. Timo Soini, the charismatic party leader who has steered the party from basically zero support to its present position as the third largest party in Finland, announced that he would concentrate on domestic politics and will not try to re-enter the European Parliament where he served from 2009 to 2011. Soini was the clear vote king of the 2009 EP elections and his candidacy both boosted turnout and brought at least some excitement to the campaign. Without Soini, the Finns Party lacks an attractive lead candidate and, in fact, the party list is a very diverse mix of people representing the centre-leftist and moderate side as well as the more xenophobic camp of the party.
In terms of European policy, The Finns Party offers a clear choice to Finnish voters. Not content with simply criticising the bailout measures, Soini and his party claim to provide a genuine alternative to the pro-EU policies of the government and the main parties, calling for an end to ‘one truth’ politics. As the party name implies, The Finns emphasise very much the value of ‘Finnishness’ and national ways of doing things, including the protection of the Nordic welfare state.
At the European level, Soini is happy to rub shoulders with UKIP leader Nigel Farage whilst distancing his party from the more outright nationalist parties. The Finns Party does not call for Finland’s exit from the EU or the Eurozone, believing instead that in the long run the EU will prove unworkable and will thus inevitably disintegrate. At least the rising fortunes of The Finns Party have resulted in a larger debate about Europe, as the mainstream parties have needed to explain and defend their more pro-EU policies. This is certainly a highly positive development when considering that Europe as an issue that had remained depoliticised in Finland for such a long time.
Note: This article gives the views of the author, and not the position of EUROPP – European Politics and Policy, nor of the London School of Economics.
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About the author
Tapio Raunio – University of Tampere
Tapio Raunio is professor of political science at the University of Tampere. His research interests include the role of national legislatures and parties in European integration, the European Parliament and Europarties, Nordic legislatures and the Finnish political system.
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In which city is the American t.v. show 'ER' set? | Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2015 - Finland | ecoi.net - European Country of Origin Information Network
ecoi.net - European Country of Origin Information Network
Freedom in the World 2015 - Finland
Publication date:
ecoi.net summary: Annual report on political rights and civil liberties in 2014 [ID 310321]
Countries:
Freedom House: Freedom in the World 2015 - Finland, 28 January 2015 (available at ecoi.net)
http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/310321/434260_en.html (accessed 20 January 2017)
Freedom in the World 2015 - Finland
2015 Scores
1
Overview:
In September 2014, the Greens left the six-party government coalition over a disagreement on nuclear power policy. The government had granted a license to a Russian consortium aiming to build a new megaplant even though the application was plagued by irregularities.
A continued slump in the economy and significant layoffs in the two main sectors of technology and paper/forestry fueled public dissatisfaction with political leadership, allowing the nationalist Finns Party to continue its political ascent.
Political Rights and Civil Liberties:
Political Rights: 40 / 40 [ Key ]
A. Electoral Process: 12 / 12
The president, whose role is mainly ceremonial, is directly elected for a six-year term. The president appoints the prime minister and deputy prime minister from the majority party or coalition after elections; the selection must be approved by parliament. Representatives in the 200-seat unicameral Eduskunta are elected to four-year terms. Finland joined the European Union (EU) in 1995 and is the only Nordic country to have adopted the euro as its currency.
The 2011 parliamentary elections resulted in a dramatic shift in Finnish politics. The KOK and SDP took 44 seats and 42 seats, respectively, while the ruling Center Party captured 35 seats and was ousted from power. The populist, nationalist party the True Finns gained an unprecedented 19 percent of the popular vote, increasing its seats from 5 to 39 and becoming the third-largest party in the legislature. The governing coalition at the end of 2014 comprised the moderate conservative National Coalition Party (KOK), the Social Democratic Party (SDP), the Left Alliance, the Swedish People’s Party, and the Christian Democrats.
Pro-EU and pro-euro former finance minister Sauli Niinistö of the KOK handily won the presidency in 2012, defeating the Green League candidate, Pekka Haavisto, with 63 percent of the vote. Elections are free and fair.
Prime Minister Jyrka Kaitainaen of the KOK left the government in June 2014 for a new post as EU commissioner. Minister of Foreign Trade Alexander Stubb replaced him as prime minister.
B. Political Pluralism and Participation: 16 / 16
Finland boasts a robustly free political environment with a strong opposition.
The political identity of the Finns Party on the subject of immigration remains a controversial subject, both within and outside the party. While leader Timo Soini has sought to maintain a more moderate stance on immigration, several high-profile party members who serve in parliament also belong to the nationalist group Suomen Sisu. This faction has expressed fierce disagreement with the party leadership on immigration. Controversial parliamentarian James Hirvisaari was expelled from the True Finns in 2013 for posting pictures online of a friend performing a Nazi salute in parliament; his expulsion was interpreted by some as an effort to shift the party’s image toward the political mainstream. The Finns’ main political focus in 2014 continued to be euroskepticism.
There is comprehensive political protection of minorities. The Åland Islands—an autonomous region located off the southwestern coast whose inhabitants speak Swedish—have their own 30-seat Parliament, as well as a seat in the national legislature. The indigenous Sami of northern Finland have their own legislature, the Sameting, but are not represented in the Eduskunta.
C. Functioning of Government: 12 / 12
Corruption is not a significant problem in Finland, which was ranked 3 out of 175 countries and territories surveyed in Transparency International’s 2014 Corruption Perceptions Index. A 2009 law was amended the following year to require candidates and parties to report campaign donations of more than €800 ($1,030) in local elections or €1,500 ($1,930) in parliamentary elections.
In September 2014, the Green League left the government over disagreements on domestic nuclear energy policy as well as concerns over a conflict of interest for Minister of Economic Affiars Vapaavuori. The minister had signed a nuclear plant–supply contract with Russian company Rusatom in 2013 and approved permits for a new plant in northern Finland to be partly owned by the company. The process was plagued by irregularities. There were also concerns over the extent of Russian ownership, given the developing political situation in Ukraine.
Civil Liberties: 60 / 60
D. Freedom of Expression and Belief: 16 / 16
Finnish law provides for freedom of speech, which is respected in practice. Finland has a large variety of newspapers and magazines and protects the right to reply to public criticism. Newspapers are privately owned but publicly subsidized. Many are controlled by or support a particular political party. Since 2012, a value added tax on subscriptions to newspapers and magazines has contributed to financial difficulties for the sector.
In June 2014, the case of a photographer convicted in 2007 for disobeying the police while covering a 2006 demonstration in Helsinki was referred to the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). A February ECHR ruling was in favor of the Finnish Supreme Court, which had upheld that the journalist was guilty of disobeying police orders. However, because two dissenting opinions in the February ruling cited concerns over a “chilling effect on press freedom,” the Grand Chamber heard the case in December; it had not published its judgment by year’s end.
Finns enjoy freedom of religion. The Evangelical Lutheran Church and the Orthodox Church are both state churches and receive public money from the income taxes of members; citizens may exempt themselves from contributing to those funds, but must renounce their membership. Religious communities other than the state churches may also receive state funds. Religious education is part of the curriculum in all secondary public schools, but students may opt out in favor of more general instruction in ethics.
Academic freedom is respected. In October 2014, the national parliament scheduled a public hearing for spring 2015 on abolishing Swedish as Finland’s second official language; this would mean an end to compulsory Swedish in comprehensive schools.
E. Associational and Organizational Rights: 12 / 12
Freedoms of association and assembly are upheld in law and in practice. Workers have the right to organize and bargain collectively, though public-sector workers who provide services deemed essential may not strike. In October 2014, the Trade Union for the Public and Welfare Sectors called for a 24-hour work stoppage in Helsinki involving 9,000 metro and tram workers in protest against the planned privatization of county provider Palmia; the privatization ultimately went through. Approximately 70 percent of workers belong to trade unions.
F. Rule of Law: 16 / 16
The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. The president appoints Supreme Court judges, who in turn appoint lower-court judges. Finland has been criticized by the European Court of Human Rights for slow trial procedures. The Ministry of the Interior controls police and Frontier Guard forces.
Ethnic minorities and asylum seekers report occasional police discrimination. The criminal code covers ethnic agitation and penalizes anyone who threatens a racial, national, ethnic, or religious group. A 2012 ruling by the country’s Supreme Administrative Court led to a new interpretation of Finland’s immigration law that could allow several hundred rejected asylum seekers to stay in Finland and receive residency permits if their countries of origin refuse to receive forcible deportations. The number of asylum seekers in this position increased tenfold in 2014. In September, Interior Minister Räsänen announced plans to offer rejected asylum seekers a lump sum to return to their homelands; however by year’s end no specific details of the amendment were available. A little over half of all the asylum applications ruled on in 2014 were rejected. Immigration issues remained divisive in 2014, in part fueled by the rapid political ascent of the Finns Party.
The constitution guarantees the Sami people (who constitute less than 1 percent of the population) cultural autonomy and the right to pursue their traditional livelihoods, which include fishing and reindeer herding. Their language and culture are also protected through public financial support. However, representatives of the community have complained that they cannot exercise their rights in practice and that they do not have the right to self-determination with respect to land use. While Roma also make up a very small percentage of the Finnish population, they are more significantly disadvantaged and marginalized.
G. Personal Autonomy and Individual Rights: 16 / 16
Finland has one of the most expansive legal definitions of “freedom to roam” in the world. Provided the privacy of a private residence is not violated and no environmental damage is incurred, anybody is free to use any land, public and private, for outdoor recreation purposes, without having to seek permission beforehand. Intellectual and physical property rights are upheld in Finland. There are no major obstacles to establish a business, and the country boasts a well-regulated, transparent, and open economy.
Women enjoy equal rights in Finland. Women hold approximately 43 percent of the seats in parliament. Despite a law stipulating equal pay for equal work, women earn only about 85 percent as much as men with the same qualifications. Domestic violence is an ongoing concern. An amendment to the constitution in 2012 allowed for citizens’ initiatives, which require parliament to consider petitions with more than 50,000 signatures.
Parliament passed a bill legalizing same-sex marriage in November 2014, after it was submitted by citizens’ initiative. However, the bill remains controversial in Finland will not be in effect until 2016, giving opponents a chance to overturn it after the parliamentary elections slated for April 2015.
Finland remains a destination and a transit country for trafficked men, women, and children. Amendments to the Alien Act in 2006 allow trafficked victims to stay in the country and qualify for employment rights.
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Running form the lower back down through the leg, which is the longest nerve in the human body? | Sciatic Nerve Anatomy Video
Video Transcript
The sciatic nerve is the longest and largest nerve in the human body, running from the lower back through the back of the leg, and down to the toes.
The sciatic nerve starts as a collection of nerve fibers in the lower spine. These nerve fibers, or roots, exit the spinal canal through a number of openings in the bones at each level of the lower spine called foramen.
These lumbar nerve roots then combine to form one large nerve. The sciatic nerve is about as thick as a man's thumb at its largest point.
The sciatic nerve travels through an opening in the pelvis called the greater sciatic foramen, and typically runs below the piriformis muscle. This is why piriformis muscle problems or spasm can lead to leg pain sciatica symptoms.
The sciatic nerve then travels down the back of the upper thigh.
Above the back of the knee, the sciatic nerve divides into two nerves, the tibial and the common peroneal nerve, both of which serve the lower leg and foot.
Certain conditions in the lower back can irritate the sciatic nerve, causing pain to radiate along the nerve. These symptoms are called sciatica , or lumbar radiculopathy.
The complex anatomy of the sciatic nerve means that symptoms of sciatica vary depending on where this irritation occurs.
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Sciatica
Article by John Miller
What is Sciatica?
Sciatica describes pain felt along the sciatic nerve, which runs from your lower back, down through the buttock, hamstrings and into the lower leg. The sciatic nerve is the longest nerve in the body. The spinal sections it originates from include L4, L5 or S1.
Sciatica is commonly misdiagnosed, which can result is either slow or non-responsive treatment. Leg pain can have various sources. It can be a local leg injury or it may even be referred from your lower back. The main nerve that travels from your lower back to your leg is your sciatic nerve. Irritation or pinching of your sciatic nerve can cause severe leg pain known as sciatica.
Common Causes of Sciatica
Pressure on the sciatic nerve from a herniated disc usually causes sciatica. Otherwise joint inflammation, compression of the nerve from bony arthritic growths or a locked facet joint in the lower spine can commonly cause sciatica.
Leg pain can have various sources. Pain can be a local leg injury or it may even be referred from your lower back and travel along the sciatic nerve. The main nerve that travels from your lower back to your leg is your sciatic nerve.
Injury that irritates or pinching of your sciatic nerve can cause severe leg pain known as sciatica. You're most likely to get sciatica when you're 30 to 50 years old. It may happen due to the effects of general wear and tear, plus any sudden pressure on the discs that cushion the vertebrae of your lower (lumbar) spine.
While there are numerous causes of sciatica, the most common are:
sacroiliac dysfunction
You're most likely to get sciatica when you're 30 to 50 years old. It may happen due to the effects of general spine wear and tear ( spondylosis ) or a traumatic injury that sudden pressure on the lumbar discs eg lifting, bending or sneezing.
What are Sciatica Symptoms?
Sciatica causes pain that usually begins in the lower back and spreads through the buttock, leg, calf and, occasionally, the foot. The pain can vary between dull, aching or burning sensations and sharp, shooting pains.
Sciatica can also cause tingling, numbness or muscle weakness in the affected leg. It is very important to seek medical attention in these situations as long-term nerve compression can permanently damage the nerve and its function. In these cases your symptoms may become permanent.
One or more of the following sensations may occur because of Sciatica:
Pain in the rear or leg that is worse when sitting
Burning or tingling down the leg
Weakness, numbness or difficulty moving the leg or foot
A constant pain on one side of the rear calf
A shooting pain that makes it difficult to stand up.
How is Sciatica Diagnosed?
Sciatica is a clinical diagnosis based upon your symptom description, the behaviour of your pain and a thorough physical examination.
While the diagnosis of sciatica is reasonably simple, the primary cause of your sciatica may require further investigations to eliminate or confirm its origin. It is also important to determine how significant your sciatic nerve has been compressed.
Your physiotherapist will examine you, paying special attention to your spine and legs. In addition to asking you if you have low back pain that spreads to the leg and calf, your physiotherapist will test you for muscle weakness, sensation deficits and altered reflexes in your leg or foot.
They will also want to know if you've had an injury, fever, problems controlling your bowels or bladder, previous cancers and whether you've been losing weight without trying. The answers to these questions are important because if these symptoms are present, the cause of sciatica could be a serious condition, such as a bone fracture, infection or cancer.
Your physiotherapist or doctor may send you for X-rays, or arrange for a computed tomography (CT) scan or a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan to check for problems in the spinal vertebrae (backbones) that may be irritating or compressing your sciatic nerve. Most cases of sciatica affect the L5 or S1 nerve roots.
Sciatica Treatment
PHASE I - Pain Relief & Protection
Managing your pain. Pain is the main reason that you seek treatment for sciatica. In truth, it was actually the final symptom that you developed and should be the first symptom to improve.
Managing your inflammation. Inflammation is a normal part of your healing process post-injury. But, excessive inflammation can be the main cause of your sciatica.
Please contact your physiotherapist or doctor for their professional opinion.
PHASE II - Restoring Normal Flexibility, Posture & Strength
As your pain and inflammation settles, your physiotherapist will turn their attention to restoring your normal back joint range of motion and resting muscle tension, lower limb muscle flexibility and posture.
Your physiotherapist will assess your muscle recruitment pattern and prescribe the best exercises for you specific to your needs. They may recommend that you undertake an ultrasound guided exercise program where you can view your deep core muscle contractions on a monitor.
PhysioWorks has developed a Back Pain Core Stabilisation Program to assist their sciatica patients to regain normal core muscle control. Other more advanced programs can include stability exercises and equipment such as a Swiss exercise ball. Please ask your physio for their advice.
Swimming and hydrotherapy exercises are beneficial in early injury repair due to lesser body-weight in the buoyancy of water. This allows more movement without causing pain.
PHASE III - Restoring Full Function & Dynamic Control
The next stage of your rehabilitation is aimed at safely returning you to your desired activities. Everyone has different demands will determine what specific treatment goals you need to achieve. Your physiotherapist is the best person to guide your rehabilitation.
PHASE IV - Preventing a Recurrence
Sciatica does have a tendency to return. The main reason it is thought to recur is due to insufficient rehabilitation.
Fine tuning your back mobility and core control and learning self-management techniques will ultimately help you to achieve your goal of safely returning to your previous sporting or leisure activities without sciatica.
Exercise is like cleaning your teeth. Exercise prevents problems.
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Surgery for Sciatica
Surgery is occasionally required when your leg pain does not settle with a conservative (non-operative) approach. Persisting symptoms over six months may require the attention of a surgeon who specialises in treating back pain and sciatica. If you have some severe symptoms such as bowel or bladder dysfunction or extreme muscle weakness you may require emergency surgery.
Please check with your physiotherapist or doctor for their professional opinion.
What is the Prognosis for Sciatica?
Fortunately, sciatica usually eases after a short period of rest and avoiding aggravating activities. Everyone is different because of the various pathologies that cause sciatica, but 90% plus of sciatica suffers will be asymptomatic within six weeks.
About one in every 50 people experiences sciatica as a result of a herniated disc. Of these, 10-25 percent has symptoms lasting more than six weeks. About 80-90 percent of people with sciatica get better, over time.
All sciatica patients who suffer pain that lasts longer than six weeks should undertake a specific exercise regime to regain control of their symptoms in an effort to avoid spinal surgery.
Other Treatment Options
Back Brace
A back brace or corset can provide excellent relief for most sciatica sufferers. Those who gain the most benefit are those who find their pain eases when they wrap/bind a towel or sheet (folded-lengthwise) tightly around their stomach and back. If this simple test eases your pain, you should use a back brace in the short-term. Back braces and strong deep core muscles help to avoid a recurrence in the future.
Back braces are available from PhysioWorks or via the following web link: Back Brace
Massage Therapy
Your spinal muscles will often present in muscle spasm, which responds favourably to soft tissue techniques such as massage therapy. You should seek the assistance of a quality remedial massage therapist to assist your sciatica treatment.
Discover more about: Massage .
Acupuncture
Acupuncture has been an effective source of pain relief for over 5000 years. While we do not fully understand how it works, acupuncture can assist you pain relief. Ask your physiotherapist for advice as most of our PhysioWorks physiotherapists have acupuncture training.
Find out more about: Acupuncture .
TENS Machine
TENS machines are an electronic pain relieving device that will reduce your pain and your need for pain relieving drugs. More information can be found here: Tens Machine
Swiss Exercise Ball
The unstable surface that your Swiss Exercise Ball provides can help awaken your deep core stability muscles. Your physiotherapist can advise you specific exercises or you can download some exercise plans from the following web link: Ball Exercises
Posture Supports
Poor sitting posture is a common cause of sciatica. To assist the support of your lower back many simple and effective products have been developed over time. These include:
Yoga
When Should You Contact Your Physiotherapist?
Contact your Physiotherapist if sciatica pain grows worse over a few days, or if it begins to interfere significantly with your daily activities.
Call your physiotherapist or doctor immediately if you experience sudden, extreme weakness in a leg, numbness in the groin or rectum, or difficulty controlling bladder or bowel function. Patients with these symptoms may have cauda equina syndrome and should seek immediate medical attention. This condition can cause permanent damage if not quickly treated.
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How to Prevent Sciatica?
If your life involves a lot of sitting, a back brace or an external ergonomic support such as a Lumbar Roll or Bassett Frame can be very useful in avoiding future bouts.
Following treatment for sciatica, you will probably be able to resume your normal lifestyle and keep your pain under control. However, it's always possible for your disk to rupture again. This happens to about five percent of people with sciatica.
Once the pain of sciatica passes, there are strengthening and postural exercises, stretches and other measures that help prevent its return. Please contact your physiotherapist for specific advice. Here are some steps you can take in the meantime:
Practice Good Posture.
Stand up straight and stretch yourself upwards “trying to grow as tall as you can”. This will help to turn on your deep abdominal muscles that open the spaces in your spine where your nerves are vulnerable to pinching.
Avoid Postures that Hurt.
Depending on where your nerve is pinched, you may experience pain when sitting, standing, walking or even lying down. It is important to avoid whichever postures aggravate your pain. If it’s painful to sit for more than 5 minutes, limit your sitting to 4 minutes. Take regular breaks to stand and walk around. If you must be on your feet, prop one foot on a small block or footrest, and then switch feet throughout the day. Your body provides heaps of painful hints. Listen carefully and you will recover quicker.
Walk/Swim.
Walking and swimming can help to strengthen your lower back. Lift objects safely. Always lift from a squatting position, using your hips and legs to do the heavy work. Never bend over and lift with a straight back. Look up as you lift.
Use Proper Sleeping Posture.
Take pressure off your back by sleeping on your side or on your back with a pillow under your knees. If you don’t feel pain, you are in the right position.
Avoid Wearing High Heels.
Shoes with heels that are more than 1½ inches high shift your weight forward, excessively arches your back and can further pinch the sciatic nerve.
For more advice about Sciatica, please contact your physiotherapist.
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Why does Pinching a Nerve Hurt?
Nerves have many functions, transmitting messages around the body, rather like a telephone system. They allow us to feel things that happen to us, such as things we touch or that touch us, hot and cold, and pain, and they cause our body to do things, eg making your leg muscles contract when you want to walk.
When a nerve is squashed, it may malfunction, and we might feel pain, numbness, pins and needles, and we might find our limbs are weak or do not work in the way they should. The nerve may also get inflamed and irritated by chemicals from the disc's nucleus, without surgery.
Pressure on the sciatic nerve from a herniated disc usually causes sciatica. The problem is also termed a radiculopathy, meaning that a disc has protruded from its normal position in the vertebral column and is pinching the root (origin) of the sciatic nerve.
The degree of pain is often "ridiculously" high as well. Less direct nerve pinching e.g. swelling around the nerve is usually a less severe dull ache. However, this can progress into a radiculopathy as swelling increases.
Other things can cause irritation of or pressure on a nerve in the spine. Sometimes this may be a rough and enlarged part of one of the bony vertebrae, brought about by ageing. Rarely, infections and tumours are to blame. Most times the cause is nothing too serious, but one of the reasons for seeing your physiotherapist or doctor if the pain persists is to exclude these serious and treatable causes.
FAQs about Sciatica
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Who was the first woman to fly solo across both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans? | Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart
Famous Female Aviator
Studio headshot portrait of American aviator Amelia Earhart, the first woman to complete a solo transatlantic flight, wearing a leather jacket. (circa 1932). (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
By Dani Alexis Ryskamp, Contributing Writer
Updated November 02, 2015.
Who Was Amelia Earhart?
As a pilot, Amelia Earhart set many world flying records. She became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean and the first person to make a solo flight across both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Earhart also set several height and speed records in an airplane.
Despite all these records, Amelia Earhart is perhaps best remembered for her mysterious disappearance, which has become one of the enduring mysteries of the 20th century. While attempting to become the first woman to fly around the world, she disappeared on July 2, 1937 while heading toward Howland's Island.
Dates: July 24, 1897 -- July 2, 1937(?)
Also Known As: Amelia Mary Earhart, Lady Lindy
Amelia Earhart’s Childhood
Amelia Mary Earhart was born in her maternal grandparents’ home in Atchison, Kansas, on July 24, 1897 to Amy and Edwin Earhart. Although Edwin was a lawyer, he never earned the approval of Amy’s parents, Judge Alfred Otis and his wife, Amelia.
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What are the Seven Wonders of the World
In 1899, two-and-a-half years after Amelia’s birth, Edwin and Amy welcomed another daughter, Grace Muriel, into the world.
Amelia Earhart spent much of her early childhood living with her Otis grandparents in Atchison during the school months and then spending her summers with her parents. Earhart’s early life was filled with outdoor adventures combined with the etiquette lessons expected of upper-middle-class girls of her day.
Amelia (known as “Millie” in her youth) and her sister Grace Muriel (known as “Pidge”) loved to play together, especially outdoors. After visiting the World’s Fair in St. Louis in 1904 , Amelia decided she wanted to build her own mini roller coaster in her backyard. Enlisting Pidge to help, the two built a homemade roller coaster on the roof of the tool shed, using planks, a wooden box, and lard for grease. Amelia took the first ride, which ended with a crash and some bruises – but she loved it.
By 1908, Edwin Earhart had closed his private law firm and was working as a lawyer for a railroad in Des Moines, Iowa; thus, it was time for Amelia to move back in with her parents. That same year, her parents took her to the Iowa State Fair where 10-year-old Amelia saw an airplane for the very first time. Surprisingly, the airplane didn’t interest her.
Problems at Home
At first, life in Des Moines seemed to be going well for the Earhart family; however, it soon became obvious that Edwin had started to heavily drink alcohol. When his alcoholism got worse, Edwin eventually lost his job in Iowa and had trouble finding another.
In 1915, with the promise of a job with the Great Northern Railway in St. Paul, Minnesota, the Earhart family packed up their belongings and moved. However, the job fell through once they got there. Tired of her husband’s alcoholism and the family’s increasing money troubles, Amy Earhart moved herself and her daughters to Chicago, leaving their father behind in Minnesota. Edwin and Amy eventually divorced in 1924.
Due to her family’s frequent moves, Amelia Earhart switched high schools six times, making it hard for her to make or keep friends during her teen years. She did well in her classes, but preferred sports. She graduated from Chicago’s Hyde Park High School in 1916 and is listed in the school’s yearbook as “the girl in brown who walks alone.” Later in life, however, she was known for her friendly and outgoing nature.
After high school, Earhart went to the Ogontz School in Philadelphia, but she soon dropped out to become a nurse for returning World War I soldiers and for victims of the influenza epidemic of 1918 .
First Flights
It wasn’t until 1920, when Earhart was 23 years old, that she developed an interest in airplanes. While visiting her father in California, she attended an air show and the stunt-flying feats she watched convinced her that she had to try flying for herself.
Earhart took her first flying lesson on January 3, 1921. According to her instructors, Earhart wasn’t a “natural” at piloting an airplane; instead, she made up for a lack of talent with plenty of hard work and a passion for flying. Earhart received her “Aviator Pilot” certification from the Federation Aeronautique Internationale on May 16, 1921 -- a major step for any pilot at the time.
Since her parents could not afford to pay for her lessons, Earhart worked several jobs to raise the money herself. She also saved up the money to buy her own airplane, a small Kinner Airster she called the Canary. In the Canary, she broke the women’s altitude record on October 22, 1922 by becoming the first woman to reach 14,000 feet in an airplane.
Earhart Becomes the First Woman to Fly Over the Atlantic
In 1927, aviator Charles Lindbergh made history by becoming the first person to fly non-stop across the Atlantic, from the U.S. to England. A year later, Amelia Earhart was asked to make a non-stop flight across the same ocean. She had been discovered by publisher George Putnam, who had been asked to look for a suitable female pilot to complete this feat. Since this was not to be a solo flight, Earhart joined a crew of two other aviators, both men.
On June 17, 1928, the journey began when the Friendship, a Fokker F7 specially outfitted for the trip, took off from Newfoundland bound for England. Ice and fog made the trip difficult and Earhart spent much of the flight scribbling notes in a journal while her co-pilots, Bill Stultz and Louis Gordon, handled the plane.
On June 18, 1928, after 20 hours and 40 minutes in the air, the Friendship landed in South Wales. Although Earhart said she did not contribute any more to the flight than “a sack of potatoes” would have, the press saw her accomplishment differently. They started calling Earhart “Lady Lindy,” after Charles Lindbergh. Shortly after this trip, Earhart published a book about her experiences, titled 20 Hours 40 Minutes.
Before long, Amelia Earhart was looking for new records to break in her own airplane. A few months after publishing 20 Hours 40 Minutes, she flew solo across the United States and back -- the first time a female pilot had made the journey alone. In 1929, she founded and participated in the Woman’s Air Derby, an airplane race from Santa Monica, California to Cleveland, Ohio with a substantial cash prize. Flying a more powerful Lockheed Vega, Earhart finished third, behind noted pilots Louise Thaden and Gladys O’Donnell.
On February 7, 1931, Earhart married publisher George Putnam, the man who had discovered her. Also in 1931, Earhart and several other female aviators banded together to start a professional international organization for female pilots, of which Earhart became the first president. The Ninety-Niners, named because it originally had 99 members, still represents and supports female pilots today. Earhart published a second book about her accomplishments, The Fun of It, in 1932.
Solo Across the Ocean
Having won multiple competitions, flown in air shows, and set new altitude records, Amelia Earhart began looking for a bigger challenge. In 1932, she decided to become the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic. On May 20, 1932, she took off again from Newfoundland, piloting a small Lockheed Vega.
It was a dangerous trip: clouds and fog made it difficult to navigate, her plane’s wings became covered with ice, and the plane developed a fuel leak about two-thirds of the way across the ocean. Worse, the altimeter stopped working, so Earhart had no idea how far above the ocean’s surface her plane was -- a situation that nearly resulted in her crashing into the Atlantic Ocean.
In serious danger, Earhart abandoned her plans to land at Southampton, England, and made for the first bit of land she saw. She touched down in a sheep pasture in Ireland on May 21, 1932, becoming the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic and the first-ever person to fly across the Atlantic twice.
The solo Atlantic crossing was followed by more book deals, meetings with heads of state, and a lecture tour, as well as more flying competitions. In 1935, Earhart also made a solo flight from Hawaii to Oakland, California, becoming the first person to fly solo from Hawaii to the U.S. mainland. This trip also made Earhart the first person to fly solo across both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
Amelia Earhart’s Last Flight
Not long after making her Pacific flight in 1935, Amelia Earhart decided she wanted to try flying around the entire world. A U.S. Army Air Force crew had made the trip in 1924 and male aviator Wiley Post flew around the world by himself in 1931 and 1933.
But Earhart had two new goals. First, she wanted to be the first woman to fly solo around the world. Second, she wanted to fly around the world at or near the equator, the planet’s widest point. The previous flights had both circled the world much closer to the North Pole , where the distance was shortest. Earhart wanted to make the longest possible flight around the globe.
Planning and preparation for the trip was difficult, time-consuming, and expensive. Her plane, a Lockheed Electra, had to be completely re-fitted with additional fuel tanks, survival gear, scientific instruments, and a state-of-the-art radio. A 1936 test flight ended in a crash that destroyed the plane’s landing gear. Several months passed while the plane was fixed.
Meanwhile, Earhart and her navigator, Frank Noonan, plotted their course around the world. The most difficult point in the trip would be the flight from Papua New Guinea to Hawaii because it required a fuel stop at Howland’s Island, a small coral island about 1,700 miles west of Hawaii. Aviation maps were poor at the time and the island would be difficult to find from the air.
However, the stop at Howland’s Island was unavoidable because the plane could only carry about half the fuel needed to fly from Papua New Guinea to Hawaii, making a fuel stop essential if Earhart and Noonan were to make it across the South Pacific. As difficult as it might be to find, Howland’s Island seemed like the best choice for a stop since it is positioned approximately half way between Papua New Guinea and Hawaii.
Once their course had been plotted and their plane readied, it was time for the final details. It was during this last minute preparation that Earhart decided not to take the full-sized radio antenna that Lockheed recommended, instead opting for a smaller antenna. The new antenna was lighter, but it also could not transmit or receive signals as well, especially in bad weather.
On May 21, 1937, Amelia Earhart and Frank Noonan took off from Oakland, California, on the first leg of their trip. The plane landed first in Puerto Rico and then in several other locations in the Caribbean before heading to Senegal. They crossed Africa, stopping several times for fuel and supplies, then went on to Eritrea, India, Burma, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. There, Earhart and Noonan prepared for the toughest stretch of the trip -- the landing at Howland’s Island.
Since every pound in the plane meant more fuel used, Earhart removed every non-essential item -- even the parachutes. The plane was checked and re-checked by mechanics to ensure it was in top condition. However, Earhart and Noonan had been flying for over a month straight by this time and both were tired.
On July 2, 1937, Earhart’s plane left Papua New Guinea heading toward Howland’s Island. For the first seven hours, Earhart and Noonan stayed in radio contact with the airstrip in Papua New Guinea. After that, they made intermittent radio contact with the U.S.S. Itsaca, a Coast Guard ship patrolling the waters below. However, reception was poor and messages between the plane and the Itsaca were frequently lost or garbled.
Two hours after Earhart’s scheduled arrival at Howland’s Island, at about 10:30 a.m. local time on July 2, 1937, the Itsaca received a last static-filled message that indicated Earhart and Noonan could not see the ship or the island and they were almost out of fuel. The crew of the Itsaca tried to signal the ship’s location by sending up black smoke, but the plane did not appear. Neither the plane, Earhart, nor Noonan were ever seen or heard from again.
The Mystery Continues
The mystery of what happened to Earhart, Noonan, and the plane has not yet been solved. In 1999, British archaeologists claimed to have found artifacts on a small island in the South Pacific that contained Earhart’s DNA, but the evidence is not conclusive.
Near the plane’s last known location, the ocean reaches depths of 16,000 feet, well below the range of today’s deep-sea diving equipment. If the plane sank into those depths, it may never be recovered.
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What is the name of the small sponge cake soaked in Rum and syrup said to have been invented by King Stanislaus of Poland? | What are some facts about Amelia Earhart? | Reference.com
What are some facts about Amelia Earhart?
A:
Quick Answer
One of the most well-known facts about Amelia Earhart is that she vanished on July 2, 1937 while attempting the first around-the-world flight to take place along the equator. Earhart left for the trip in June 1937 and vanished along with her navigator, Frederick Noonan.
Full Answer
Other facts about Amelia Earhart include that she was the first person to fly solo over both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, that she was a female career consultant at Purdue University, and that prior to becoming involved in aviation, she worked as both a nurse's aide and a social worker. Amelia also enrolled as a premed student at Columbia University before moving to California.
Earhart was the first female to receive the Air Force Distinguished Flying Cross, and the U.S. Post office issued an airmail stamp in her honor. George Putnam, the man who later became Earhart's husband, chose her as the first female passenger to cross the Atlantic. Earhart took up aviation as a hobby while living in California and purchased her first airplane in 1922.
Another interesting fact about Amelia Mary Earhart is that she was named after her two grandmothers: Amelia Harres Otis and Mary Wells Earhart. This was a tradition in her family.
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Which Greek astronomer was the first person to formally propose the heliocentric model of the solar system? | * Heliocentric (Astronomy) - Definition,meaning - Online Encyclopedia
This entry contributed by Dana Romero
Astronomical coordinates which use the center of the Sun as their origin.
10 Interesting Heliocentric Solar System Quotes
Heliocentrism is the astro nomical model which places a stationary Sun at the center of the Solar System while the Earth , planet s and other bodies revolve around it.
Heliocentric theory[edit]
Teaching around 150 BC, he is known to have been a follower of the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus of Samos, which stated that the Earth rotate d around its own axis which in turn revolve d around the Sun .
heliocentric model A mode of the solar system which is centered on the Sun , with the Earth in motion about the Sun .
helioseismology The study of conditions far below the Sun 's surface through the analysis of internal "sound" waves that repeatedly cross the solar interior.
Heliocentric
Refers to a reference system centered at the sun . For example, the heliocentric distance to an object is the distance between the object and the sun 's center.
Heliocentric With the Sun at the center.
Heliopause The gradual boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar gas outside our solar system . See the diagram with the definition of " heliosphere " below.
heliocentric having the Sun as the centre
I
inferior conjuction when an inferior planet passes between the Sun and the Earth so that they are lined up in the order Sun , inferior planet , Earth inferior planet a planet whose orbit is inside the Earth 's orbit around the Sun , namely, ...
HELIOCENTRIC
Having the Sun as a center, such as a heliocentric solar system .
I
IMPACT CRATER S
Crater s which are the result of a collision between a large body, such as a planet or satellite , and a smaller body such as an asteroid or meteorite .
Heliocentric. Centered on the Sun .
Heliopause . The region in space where the Sun 's atmosphere merges with interstellar space . The position of the heliopause depends both on the strength of the solar wind and on the properties of the local interstellar medium .
Heliocentric. Referring to the sun . A heliocentric orbit is one based on the sun as one of the two foci of the ( elliptical ) orbit (or as the center of a circular orbit ); ...
Heliocentric
Helioseismology ...
heliocentric universe (35) A model of the universe with the sun at the center, such as the Copernican universe.
helioseismology (91) The study of the interior of the sun by the analysis of its modes of vibration.
Heliocentric. Meaning: As seen from the centre of the Sun . A system of co-ordinates.
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram . A diagram in which stars are plotted according to their spectral type and their absolute magnitude .
Heliocentric - Centered on the Sun . In the heliocentric model of the solar system , the planet s move about the Sun
Heliopause - The boundary of the heliosphere , where the solar wind merges into the interstellar gas ...
heliocentric - (n.)
Sun -centered; using the sun rather than the earth as the point to which we refer. A heliocentric measurement, for example, omits the effect of the Doppler shift caused by the earth 's orbit al motion.
heliocentric parallax Alternative name for annual parallax . See also diurnal parallax ; trigonometric ...
Heliocentric model that replaced the geocentric Ptolemaic model , and was thus a considerable improvement. The model , however, still involved epicycle s and the spheres. [A84]
Copernican Principle
Copernican Revolution ...
In the heliocentric model the 6 angles that just happened to always be the same in the geocentric model are all a reflection of the motion of the Earth around the Sun . This is a considerable simplification of the model .
In his heliocentric theory, Copernicus found himself able to describe the movements of the Moon and planet s in a more elegant way than Ptolemy in his geocentric system .
Both model s employed perfect circular motion with epicycle s, equant s ...
Nikolas Kopernig ( Copernicus , 1473-1543) ...
Copernicus ' heliocentric model
Heliocentrism
In astronomy , heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe. The word came from the Greek language . Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the earth at the center....
Copernicus - heliocentric theory of the universe
Roman Empire
Julian calendar ( solar calendar ) ...
Figure 2-1. Heliocentric Orbit s of Mars and Earth showing the relative positions of both planet s in their respective orbit s around the Sun measured in degrees. The inner rings are the season of Earth and the outer ring is the season s for Mars . ...
heliocentric Relative to the sun as a center, as a heliocentric orbit . heliocentric parallax The difference in the apparent positions of a celestial body outside the solar system , as observed from the earth and sun . Also called stellar parallax . See parallax .
heliocentric (universe): model of the universe with the Sun at the center and all other objects moving around it. helioseismology the study of the Sun 's interior from observations of the Sun 's pulsations on its surface.
heliocentric Sun centered; see Copernicus , Kepler , Galileo. heliopause The point at which the solar wind meets the interstellar medium or solar wind from other stars. heliosphere The space within the broundary of the heliopause containing the Sun and solar system .
The Greeks also tried to derive the distance of the Sun , starting the road to heliocentric theory, with roles by Ptolemy, Copernicus , Galileo and Kepler .
However, it did put heliocentric views out in the restricted open, and it was useful to people such as Galileo to help revolution ize astronomy in Europe.
ISEE C was launched into a heliocentric orbit and will make observations in the solar wind up stream of the Earth . Used for International Comet ary Explorer.
Copernicus , Nicolaus 1473-1543 Polis h astronomer who advanced the heliocentric theory that the Earth and other planet s revolve around the Sun .
His observations helped consolidate the Copernican concept of a heliocentric model . He also made valuable contributions to the phsyics of motion. galaxy A huge collection of stars - often many thousands of millions - and associated dust and gas.
A topocentric datum is measured from the surface of the Earth , and a heliocentric one is measured from the center of the Sun . Get Ax.0 data Shift-F11 If you have the ten-CD set of USNO A1.0 disks, or the eleven-CD set of A2.0 disks, or the single-CD SA1.0 or SA2.
R: The alphabetic letter ("variable") used to denote the distance between the sun and the object being discussed, also called the object's heliocentric distance; in most ephemerides of objects such as comet s and minor planet s, r is given in AU.
Aphelion distance Abbreviation Q, distance of greatest heliocentric separation for a body in an eccentric orbit ; Q=a(1+e). Apollo asteroids Asteroids having semimajor axes a1.
Heliocentric Universe - The 3rd Century B.C. Greek astronomer and mathematician Aristarchus of Samos was the first to present an explicit argument for a heliocentric model of the Solar System , placing the Sun , not the Earth , at the center of the known universe.
There matter s might have stood were it not for the fact that that object was located at the heliocentric distance predicted by Bode's law of planet ary distances proposed in 1766 by the German astronomer Johann D. Titius and popularized by his compatriot Johann E.
Annual parallax , the greatest value of the heliocentric parallax , or the greatest annual apparent change of place of a body as seen from the earth and sun ; as, the annual parallax of a fixed star .
Galilei (Galileo) Italian physicist and astronomer (1564-1642 A.D.), reported the first astro nomical observations using a telescope he made himself, studied the laws of motion, and was a fervent defender of Copernicus ' heliocentric system . Gaseous planet Also known as Jovian planets .
He knew that talking about a heliocentric model was not only bad philosophically (since it went against Aristotle) and religiously (since the church preferred a geocentric model ), but promoting a heliocentric model could also be fatal.
he rejected the possibility of interpenetrating spheres, but for some reason thought Martian parallax at opposition is greater than solar parallax , whereby Mars must then be nearer the Earth than the sun is, but also whereby the Martian and solar spheres must intersect on all geocentric and geoheliocentric ...
The 681 million km heliocentric cruise to Mars will take approximately 10 month s, with landing on Mars on 25 May 2008. Nominal times are given, these are subject to change by up to about a minute.
Tycho G moves at -108 km/sec (heliocentric) in the radial direction. In contrast, all other stars with distances compatible with that of SN 1572 have radial velocitites within the velocity dispersion as compared with the average of all stars at the same location in the Galaxy (see Figure 4).
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Aristarchus of S�mos (310?BC-250?BC) was an ancient Greek astronomer who was the first person to propose a heliocentric model of the Solar System . Aristarchus realized that the Earth rotate s on its axis and revolve s around the Sun .
Both spacecraft comprising the mission carry a Heliocentric Imager (HI) with cameras (HI-1 and HI-2I) built and developed at the STFC's Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and the University of Birmingham.
The Heliocentric System
In a book called On the Revolution s of the Heavenly Bodies (that was published as Copernicus lay on his deathbed), Copernicus proposed that the Sun , not the Earth , was the center of the Solar System . Such a model is called a heliocentric system .
German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) also helped to refine the heliocentric model with his introduction of elliptical orbit s.
In the 16th century Nicholas Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system in which the Earth rotate d on its axis , and along with the other planet s, orbit ed the Sun . But the observational evidence of the time favoured the epicycle -based Ptolemaic system .
Often some form of spherical or rectangular system is used (although phase space coordinates and null-geodesic lattices are popular in some regions), with heliocentric, local or planet ary origins and wildly different ideas about measurement scales and ca libration directions.
Copernicus is most famous for inventing the Copernican system , which is also known as the heliocentric theory. The Copernican system is a model for our Solar System in which the Earth and all other planet s orbit around the Sun and the Sun is the center of the universe.
So in the 1540s we had Copernicus publishing his heliocentric theory of the universe. Then in the 1570s we had Tycho Brahe building a new observatory and working very carefully to mark positions, to map the sky , to study planet ary motions with greater precision than had previously ever been done.
" The idea of a heliocentric or sun -centered system is considered so important to history that it is often referred to as the " Copernican Revolution ." Once we accept that the Sun is a star , we immediately are confronted with the possibility that the galaxy is filled with suns and planet s.
Sun -centered. The first to suggest the Heliocentric theory of gravitation was the Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos in the 4th century B.C. who put forth the then-radical view that Earth and other planet s revolve around the Sun .
Nicolaus Copernicus , who was the first to propose a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology , displacing the Earth from the centre of the universe, also made numerous observations of Spica while researching precession .
Let's reduce the problem to two dimensions and ask wh ether all the planet s can have the same heliocentric longitude (they can never line up in three dimensions because their orbit al planes are all slightly different).
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543): He was a Polis h physician and lawyer by trade, but is now regarded as the father of the current heliocentric model of the solar system .
An interesting historical fact, is that the phases of Venus were discovered by Galileo with what was at the time among the first telescope s. And that was a major argument for the heliocentric model of the solar system ...
When German theologian David Fabricius discovered it in 1596, this put a new dent in the notion of unchangeability of the heavens, undermining the Ptolemaic model and shifting in favour of the Copernican Revolution and the heliocentric model . Mira was named by Polis h astronomer Johannes Hevelius.
Many believed the sun revolve d around the Earth , with ancient Greek scholar Ptolemy formalizing this " geocentric " model in 150 B.C. Then, in 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus described a heliocentric, sun -centered model of the solar system , and in 1610, Galileo Galilei 's discovery of Jupiter ' ...
recount the life of Copernicus , including his sometimes mundane day job as a Catholic church administrator and physician to the Bishop of Varmia. Sobel shows how, despite his duties, Copernicus patiently measured motions of the moon and planet s for decade s, slowly building evidence for his heliocentric theory ...
Claudius Ptolemaeus or Ptolemy (about 87-150) was a Greek astronomer and mathematician who wrote about his belief that all celestial bodies revolve d around the Earth . His writings influenced people's ideas about the universe for over a thousand years, until the Copernican System (with a heliocentric solar ...
Inferior conjunction s taking place in March always find Venus far north of the Sun . Yes, even though Venus ' greatest heliocentric latitude is only 3.4o, it's geocentric latitude at inferior conjunction can exceed 8o 50'. The diagram below helps to illustrate.
Parsec (pc) The distance an object would haveto be from the earth so that its heliocentric parallax would be 1 second of arc; equal to 3.26 light year s; a kiloparsec is 1000 parsec s.
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Aristarchus
Aristarchus of Samos lived from approximately 310 BCE to 230 BCE. He was a Greek mathematician and astronomer. He is best known today as the first person known to propose a heliocentric model of the Solar System (effectively the Universe for ancient times).
Aristarchus believed that the angle made between the center of the Earth, the center of the Sun, and the terminator of the First Quarter Moon was about 87 degrees. Since the Sun and Moon had about the same angular size (witness the Moon covering the Sun perfectly during a Total Solar Eclipse), this angle could be used to gemetrically determine the ratio of the Earth-Moon distance to the Earth-Sun distance.
Using the angle of 87 degrees, Aristarchus concluded that this distance ratio is about 19, thereby suggesting that the Sun's diameter must be at least seven times greater than the Earth's.
Today we know that this distance ratio is actually close to 400 (and that the above mentioned angle is about 89.5 degrees), and that the Sun's diameter is almost 110 times greater than Earth's.
It was from this "distance ratio reasoning" that Aristarchus correctly concluded that the Sun must be the most massive object in the Solar System, and that it must therefore be at the center of the Solar System. Unfortunately, a lack of understanding amongst his contemporaries of how truly far away the so-called "fixed" stars were, and why they therefore did not exhibit at least some visible parallax relative to each other, caused them to reject Aristarchus' heliocentric explanation of the Solar System. It would be another 1800 years before the Polish cleric Copernicus would revisit his idea.
To the left is a drawing that illustrates Aristarchus' idea of how the "Sun to Earth to First Quarter Moon" angle could be used to find the above mentioned distance ratio. Click on the image to enlarge it, so that you can study it.
Note that the inverse of the sine of 3 degrees is about 19.
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The 'Pio Quinto' is a cake, drenched in Rum and topped with custard and Cinnamon, which originated in which Central American country? | 1000+ images about Nicaraguan food and recipes on Pinterest | Nicaraguan food, Muslim ramadan and Managua
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Pio Quinto from Madrono Nicaraguan Restaurant in Miami. Pio Quinto is a Nicaraguan dessert consisting of cake drenched in rum, topped with a custard, and dusted with cinnamon. Some recipes also include raisins. Pio Quinto is eaten after meals or during Christmas time.
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What was the name of the Liberian oil tanker that was wrecked off the coast of the Isles of Scilly in 1967? | 1000 idées sur le thème Nicaraguan Recipes sur Pinterest | Gâteaux À 3 Étages, Tamales et Trois Gâteaux Au Lait
Pour en savoir plus : whats4eats.com.
Baho, or vaho, is one of the cornerstones of Nicaraguan cuisine. Beef, plantains and yuca (cassava) are wrapped in banana leaves and steamed over water in a large pot. Baho is food for a Sunday afternoon. Start the recipe on Saturday by marinating the meat. Vaho means "mist" in Spanish and evokes the unique cooking method for this hearty meal.
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What is the capital city of Southern Sudan? | New capital for Southern Sudan - Sudan Tribune: Plural news and views on Sudan
New capital for Southern Sudan
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By Jacob K. Lupai
April 27, 2009 — Suggesting a new capital for Southern Sudan is most likely to raise a number of questions. One is about the feasibility of such a project and of course the imagined enormous cost that may be prohibitive. The other question is why a new capital when there is already one. The last but not the least by all means is who is that somebody suggesting a new capital. If that somebody happens to be an Equatorian there may be uproar. However, a place called Ramceil was proposed as the location of the new capital of Southern Sudan. It is assumed to be equidistant from the three regions of greater Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria and Upper Nile. One interesting feature of Ramceil is that it is considered to be located where the three greater regions meet. This may mean that the area of Ramceil is made up of a piece of land from each of the greater regions. It is therefore likely that none will claim that Ramceil is specifically located in one region. The strategic location of Ramceil as a capital demonstrates the wisdom of the choice of a capital that is all embracing for a nation in progress and hopefully Southern Sudan is.
The feasibility of the location of a new capital may best be left to experts in urban planning. However, suggesting the transfer of a capital to another location may not after all depend on urban planners but on local politics. For example, suggesting that the capital city of Southern Sudan should relocate somewhere else may be received with mixed feelings by those who may assume they are the target. Twenty-six year ago the then Southern Region was decentralised into three regions of Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria and Upper Nile. The majority of people of Equatoria welcome the decentralisation of the Southern Region but not so for the many people from Bahr el Ghazal and Upper Nile. The non-Equatorians perceived that they were the target to remove them from Juba and from Equatoria altogether. However, that was not the case. Many remained in Juba and in Equatoria. We are a people that cannot be divided by imaginary boundaries.
On 27 February 1972 in Addis Ababa the capital of Ethiopia an agreement was concluded between the Government of the Democratic Republic of the Sudan and South Sudan Liberation Movement, ending a 17-year old protracted civil war that sparked off on 18 August 1955 in Equatoria against the perceived northern domination. The agreement that became known as the Addis Ababa Agreement gave what were known as the southern provinces of Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria and Upper Nile a regional self-government. The geographical Southern Sudan that was composed of the three southern provinces became known as the Southern Region. For the capital of the Southern Region nowhere in the Addis Ababa Agreement was Juba mentioned specifically as the capital. The closest Juba was ever mentioned and it was more or less an allusion when on Resettlement, Article I, the Addis Ababa Agreement said, “There shall be established a Special Commission for Relief and Resettlement under the President of the Interim High Executive Council with headquarters in Juba and provincial branches in Juba, Malakal and Wau”. Juba was assumed to be the capital of the Southern Region without a formal endorsement by the Addis Ababa Agreement. Probably Juba gained prominence in people’s minds as the capital of Southern Sudan because of that historic conference supposed to map the way forward for Southern Sudan. The conference was held in Juba in 1947 and became famously known as the 1947 Juba Conference. Unfortunately the1947 Juba Conference was cunningly used as a rubber stamp for the unity of Sudan after gaining independence from Britain. It is not also clear whether the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) of 9 January 2005 has mentioned anything specifically about Juba being the capital of Southern Sudan. I couldn’t gather any evidence. I would appreciate if anybody could point out the evidence in the CPA that Juba was the proposed capital of Southern Sudan or in the Addis Ababa Agreement for that matter and that the Government of Southern Sudan (GOSS) of the CPA has local jurisdiction over Juba to appoint a mayor.
The people of Equatoria and indeed southerners of all walks of life welcome the Addis Ababa Agreement and having Juba as the capital of the Southern Region. For the first time southerners enjoyed freedom their forefathers probably didn’t. All started well although some southerners considered the Addis Ababa Agreement a sell-out. However, towards the end of the 10-year period of the Addis Ababa Agreement cracks began to appear in the southern leadership. Ethno-centricism or tribalism, political intrigues and the suspicion of the North of having a strong united region south of the border were contributing factors to the cracks in the Southern Region. However, I would lay the blame squarely on southerners for being utter naive and reactionaries in mismanaging the little freedom that was won through the sacrifice of precious lives and blood. Instead of being progressive and concentrating on fairness for all tribalism and political intrigues took the better of the Government of the Southern Region. The victims were mostly the people of Equatoria who found themselves at the receiving end. It was natural that there would be a reaction of some sort at any moment in time. Tribalism and arrogance in one’s backyard as it were became unbearable, hence the agitation for a fairer system of decentralisation. This was, however, seen as a challenge to the recently acquired hegemony by those who had assumed too much. It was interesting that people had just come out of a civil war fought against domination of the South by the North yet they turned completely ignorant of what a reaction to domination could be.
The argument for the decentralisation of the Southern Region seemed to have won the day. Naturally it was a joy to those in the North who were anyway suspicious of the South. It was also a joy to those southerners who had rejected the Addis Ababa Agreement from day one but for different reasons. It is not necessary here to narrate how the proponents of decentralisation of the Southern Region had to justify their demand. What is clear is that mistakes were definitely made. Unfortunately in our arrogance we hardly consider apology as a solution of some sort. Partly as a result of our arrogance the Addis Ababa Agreement was abrogated but then we turned around to cry as a child over spilt milk. Instead of addressing what were seen as legitimate grievances of those agitating for decentralisation the response was further intimidation. However, I would consider the abrogation of the Addis Ababa Agreement as a blessing in disguise because those who agitated for the decentralisation of the Southern Region unknowingly helped in the liberation effort. The abrogation of the Addis Ababa Agreement helped the nascent and emerging Sudan People’s Liberation Movement and Army (SPLM/A) with massive manpower that sustained the war effort for the last twenty-two years and of course the crowning with the CPA that has in theory brought self-determination to the South through a referendum. We will have to wait to see the reality of self-determination in the South.
When the CPA was signed in January and the GOSS was established in July 2005 Equatorians regardless of politics welcome the GOSS to be headquartered in Juba. In fact when the hero of the CPA died untimely in a helicopter crash the people of Equatoria mourned him more than in any part of Southern Sudan and of course the grave of the fallen hero is in Juba. As a gesture of good will the Government of Central Equatoria State vacated its buildings to relocate to some derelict buildings that have housed the former government of the Addis Ababa Agreement in the 1970s in the interest of the GOSS. In normal business circumstances the Government of Central Equatoria State should have been compensated or remunerated for the buildings now occupied by the GOSS. However, there seemed to have been no agreement on the conditions for the GOSS to occupy what had belonged to the Central Equatoria State. It should be noted that when the Southern Region of the Addis Ababa Agreement was decentralised all the assets were equally divided among the three regions of Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria and Upper Nile. As a matter of business the GOSS should have rented buildings form Central Equatoria until such time that the GOSS was able to construct and occupy its own buildings. Alternatively Central Equatoria State would have refused to rent the GOSS any building. However, by all accounts that would have appeared non-nationalistic. This may explain why Central Equatoria in good faith surrendered its buildings to accommodate the GOSS. Nonetheless, as the Government of Central Equatoria State was not generous enough it was instead asked to relocate from Juba. The response should have been reciprocal.
Southerners seem to have not learned much from the abrogation of the Addis Ababa Agreement. Southern leaders always emphasised the unity of Southern Sudan for fear of the North intrigues for domination of the South but yet there is no evidence that unity of Southern Sudan is really being promoted. The proponents of decentralisation of the Southern Region of the Addis Ababa Agreement said, “Northern exploitation of a divided South is a fear being emphasised by the very people whose political records in the short period since the Addis Ababa Agreement, have shown more regard for their tribal affiliations than for the unity of the South and the Agreement itself”. One would have expected the CPA to be a little different from the Addis Ababa Agreement because of the SPLM and the GOSS publicly expressed commitment to democracy, equality, justice and fairness for all. However, looking at a sample of Ministries in the GOSS of strategic importance, reminds one of the Southern Region era. The Ministers in the five Ministries of SPLA Affairs, of the Police and Security Forces, of Finance and Economic Planning, of Regional Cooperation and of Legal Affairs and Constitutional Development all seem to be coming from only one tribe and are from greater Bahr el Ghazal and greater Upper Nile. None is from greater Equatoria. This speaks volumes and I do not want to waste time elaborating further on what may have been already public knowledge. This may only be the tip of the iceberg.
The choice of Ramceil was reflective of a nation in progress. Dr John Garang de Mabior one visionary leader the South had ever produced was second to none in the Sudan. He clearly wanted to show the world how pragmatic he was by taking towns to villages as a nation in progress. The choice of a new capital for the GOSS is ideal. Juba has become a contested capital. It should be clear that there was no mention in the CPA of any town in the South to become the capital of the GOSS. However, the GOSS could have occupied any town but temporarily until it was ready to relocate to a permanent site. Juba was not meant for the GOSS but Ramceil was. Instead of grabbing existing buildings the GOSS should have taken the initiative to construct a new capital for its sake as the government of a nation in progress. As an Equatorian I am aware that I may be labelled as a divisive individual. A non-Equatortian calling for a new capital for Southern Sudan may not suffer name calling as an Equatorian. However, it should be understood that I have not said Juba belongs to a particular ethnic group or tribe and so the rest must get out of Juba. Juba may remain as a commercial or business centre or city that all southerners or people of different colours, tribes and cultures will intermingle. How on earth could I think of a fellow southerner to get out of Juba. I would only wish that people should not live in the past. We have to move on with better ideas to create a paradise on earth in Southern Sudan to meet the aspirations for a decent life in contrast to insecurity and century old services or none at all.
I saw a hotel in Juba by the name of Paradise. I was amused by the name. However, when I went into Paradise hotel I said to myself well southerners could create something better than containers as hotel rooms. The ball is in our court for us to make a meaningful contribution to a prosperous Southern Sudan.
The author is a regular contributor to Sudan Tribune and can be reached at [email protected]
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29 April 2009 05:27, by Joseph lago
that is very good in deed, there is no need for capital city to be located at equartoria land because they did not contributed anything in the freedom of southern sudan from Arab dominate Khartoum.
people who suffered most in the struggle should be fully compensated by locating south capital city in their place because they deserved it. they will have every rights and entitlements to local jobs, land, government positions etc
thank for foolish equartorian who refuse the offer.
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What was the name of the oil tanker that split into three after running aground off the coast of Brittany in 1978? | Juba, city, South Sudan
Encyclopedia > > >
Juba
Juba (jōˈbə) [ key ], city (1993 pop. 114,980), capital and largest city of South Sudan, a port on the White Nile in the southern part of the country. It is the southern terminus of river traffic in South Sudan and is a highway hub, with roads radiating into Uganda, Kenya, and Congo (Kinshasa). The Univ. of Juba is in the city.
A unification agreement arranged in Juba in 1947 joined the northern and southern parts of Sudan, which dashed Britain's hopes of adding the south to Uganda. Juba became the center of southern resistance to alleged northern dominance of the country. In 1955, a mutiny of southern troops at Juba caused a Sudanese civil war, which was settled in 1969. Civil war broke out again in 1983; a peace settlement was signed in 2005.
Under the settlement, Juba became the capital of autonomous S Sudan, and many former refugees subsequently crowded into the city and the surrounding area. In 2011, following a referendum on independence for the south, Juba became the capital of the Republic of South Sudan, but there are plans to move the capital ultimately to a more central location N of Juba.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2011, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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Also the name of the dominant ethnic group, what is the most commonly spoken language in Southern Sudan? | Sudan - SOCIETY
Sudan - SOCIETY
Sudan
THE FIRST AND OVERWHELMING impression of Sudan is its physical vastness and ethnic diversity, elements that have shaped its regional history from time immemorial. The country encompasses virtually every geographical feature, from the harsh deserts of the north to the rain forests rising on its southern borders. Like most African countries, Sudan is defined by boundaries that European powers determined at the end of the nineteenth century. The British colonial administration in Sudan, established in 1899, emphasized indirect rule by tribal shaykhs and chiefs, although tribalism had been considerably weakened as an administrative institution during the Mahdist period (1884- 98). This loosening of loyalties exacerbated problems in governmental structure and administration and in the peoples' identification as Sudanese. To this day, loyalty remains divided among family, clan, ethnic group, and religion, and it is difficult to forge a nation because the immensity of the land permits many of Sudan's ethnic and tribal groups to live relatively undisturbed by the central government.
The Nile is the link that runs through Sudan, and influences the lives of Sudan's people, even though many of them farm and herd far from the Nile or its two main tributaries, the Blue Nile and the White Nile. Not only do nomads come to the river to water their herds and cultivators to drain off its waters for their fields, but the Nile facilitates trade, administration, and urbanization. Consequently, the confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile became the administrative center of a vast hinterland because the area commanded the river, its commerce, and its urban society. This location enabled the urban elites to control the scattered and often isolated population of the interior while enjoying access to the peoples of the outside world.
Although linked by dependence on the Nile, Sudan's population is divided by ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences. Many Sudanese in the north claim Arab descent and speak Arabic, but Sudanese Arabs are highly differentiated. Over many generations, they have intermingled in varying degrees with the indigenous peoples. Arabic is Sudan's official language (with Arabic and English the predominant languages in the south), but beyond Khartoum and its two neighboring cities of Omdurman and Khartoum North a variety of languages is spoken. A more unifying factor is Islam, which has spread widely among the peoples of northern Sudan. But, once again, the Sunni Muslims of northern Sudan form no monolithic bloc. Some, especially in the urban centers, are strictly orthodox Muslims, while others, mostly in the rural areas, are attracted more to Sufism, an Islamic mystical tendency, in their search for Allah. Within this branch and tendency of Islam are a host of religious sects with their own Islamic rituals and syncretistic adaptations.
The Sudanese of the south are of African origin. Islam has made only modest inroads among these followers of traditional religions and of Christianity, which was spread in the twentieth century by European missionaries, and Arabic has not replaced the diverse languages of the south. The differences between north and south have usually engendered hostility, a clash of cultures that in the last 150 years has led to seemingly endless violence. The strong regional and cultural differences have inhibited nation building and have caused the civil war in the south that has raged since independence, except for a period of peace between 1972 and 1983. The distrust between Sudanese of the north and those of the south--whether elite or peasants--has deepened with the long years of hostilities. And the cost of war has drained valuable national resources at the expense of health, education, and welfare in both regions.
Sudan
Population information for Sudan has been limited, but in 1990 it was clear that the country was experiencing a high birth rate and a high, but declining, death rate. Infant mortality was high, but Sudan was expected to continue its rapid population growth, with a large percentage of its people under fifteen years of age, for some time to come. The trends indicated an overall low population density. However, with famine affecting much of the country, internal migration by hundreds of thousands of people was on the increase. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees reported that in early 1991, approximately 1,800,000 people were displaced in the northern states, of whom it was estimated that 750,000 were in Al Khartum State, 30,000 each in Kurdufan and Al Awsat states, 300,000 each in Darfur and Ash Sharqi states, and 150,000 in Ash Shamali State. Efforts were underway to provide permanent sites for about 800,000 of these displaced people. The civil war and famine in the south was estimated to have displaced up to 3.5 million southern Sudanese by early 1990.
In addition to uncertainties concerning the number of refugees, population estimates were complicated by census difficulties. Since independence there have been three national censuses, in 1955-56, 1973, and 1983. The first was inadequately prepared and executed. The second was not officially recognized by the government, and thus its complete findings have never been released. The third census was of better quality, but some of the data has never been analyzed because of inadequate resources.
The 1983 census put the total population at 21.6 million with a growth rate between 1956 and 1983 of 2.8 percent per year. In 1990, the National Population Committee and the Department of Statistics put Sudan's birthrate at 50 births per 1,000 and the death rate at 19 per 1,000, for a rate of increase of 31 per 1,000 or 3.1 percent per year. This is a staggering increase; compared with the world average of 1.8 percent per year and the average for developing countries of 2.1 percent per annum, this percentage made Sudan one of the world's fastest growing countries. The 1983 population estimate was thought to be too low, but even accepting it and the pre-1983 growth rate of 2.8 percent, Sudan's population in 1990 would have been well over 25 million. At the estimated 1990 growth rate of 3.1 percent, the population would double in twenty-two years. Even if the lower estimated rate were sustained, the population would reach 38.6 million in 2003 and 50.9 million by 2013.
Both within Sudan and among the international community, it was commonly thought that with an average population density of nine persons per square kilometer, population density was not a major problem. This assumption, however, failed to take into account that much of Sudan was uninhabitable and its people were unevenly distributed, with about 33 percent of the nation's population occupying 7 percent of the land and concentrated around Khartoum and in Al Awsat. In fact, 66 percent of the population lived within 300 kilometers of Khartoum. In 1990 the population of the Three Towns (Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) was unknown because of the constant influx of refugees, but estimates of 3 million, well over half the urban dwellers in Sudan, may not have been unrealistic. Nevertheless, only 20 percent of Sudanese lived in towns and cities; 80 percent still lived in rural areas.
The birthrate between the 1973 census and the 1987 National Population Conference appeared to have remained constant at from 48 to 50 births per 1,000 population. The fertility rate (the average number of children per woman) was estimated at 6.9 in 1983. Knowledge of family planning remained minimal. During the period, the annual death rate fell from 23 to 19 per 1,000, and the estimated life expectancy rose from 43.5 years to 47 years.
For more than a decade the gross domestic product ( GDP) of Sudan had not kept pace with the increasing population, a trend indicating that Sudan would have difficulty in providing adequate services for its people. Moreover, half the population were under eighteen years of age and therefore were primarily consumers not producers. Internal migration caused by civil war and famine created major shifts in population distribution, producing overpopulation in areas that could provide neither services nor employment. Furthermore, Sudan has suffered a continuous "brain drain" as its finest professionals and most skilled laborers emigrated, while simultaneously there has been an influx of more than 1 million refugees, who not only lacked skills but required massive relief. Droughts in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s have undermined Sudan's food production, and the country would have to double its production to feed its expected population within the next generation. In the absence of a national population policy to deal with these problems, they were expected to worsen.
Moreover, throughout Sudan continuous environmental degradation accompanied the dearth of rainfall. Experts estimated that desertification caused by deforestation and drought had allowed the Sahara to advance southward at the rate of ten kilometers per year. About 7.8 million Sudanese were estimated to be at risk from famine in early 1991, according to the United Nations World Food Program and other agencies. The Save the Children Fund estimated that the famine in Darfur would cost the lives of "tens of thousands" of people in the early 1990s. Analysts believed that the lack of rainfall combined with the ravages of war would result in massive numbers of deaths from starvation in the 1990s.
<>Ethnicity
Sudan
Sudan's ethnic and linguistic diversity remained one of the most complex in the world in 1991. Its nearly 600 ethnic groups spoke more than 400 languages and dialects, many of them intelligible to only a small number of individuals. In the 1980s and 1990s some of these small groups became absorbed by larger groups, while migration often caused individuals reared in one tongue to converse only in the dominant language of the new area. Such was the case with migrants to the Three Towns. There Arabic was the lingua franca despite the use of English by many of the elite. Some linguistic groups had been absorbed by accommodation, others by conflict. Most Sudanese were, of necessity, multilingual. Choice of language played a political role in the ethnic and religious cleavage between the northern and southern Sudanese. English was associated with being non-Muslim, as Arabic was associated with Islam. Thus language was a political instrument and a symbol of identity.
<>Language
Sudan
Language differences have served as a partial basis for ethnic classification and as symbols of ethnic identity. Such differences have been obstacles to the flow of communication in a state as linguistically fragmented as Sudan. These barriers have been overcome in part by the emergence of some languages as lingua francas and by a considerable degree of multilingualism in some areas.
Most languages spoken in Africa fall into four language superstocks. Three of them--Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Kurdufanian, and Nilo-Saharan--are represented in Sudan. Each is divided into groups that are in turn subdivided into sets of closely related languages. Two or more major groups of each superstock are represented in Sudan, which has been historically both a northsouth and an east-west migration crossroad.
The most widely spoken language in the Sudan is Arabic, a member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Cushitic, another major division of the Afro-Asiatic language, is represented by Bedawiye (with several dialects), spoken by the largely nomadic Beja. Chadic, a third division, is represented by its most important single language, Hausa, a West African tongue used by the Hausa themselves and employed by many other West Africans in Sudan as a lingua franca.
Niger-Kurdufanian is first divided into Niger-Congo and Kurdufanian. The widespread Niger-Congo language group includes many divisions and subdivisions of languages. Represented in Sudan are Azande and several other tongues of the Adamawa-Eastern language division, and Fulani of the West Atlantic division. The Kurdufanian stock comprises only thirty to forty languages spoken in a limited area of Sudan, the Nuba Mountains and their environs.
The designation of a Nilo-Saharan superstock has not been fully accepted by linguists, and its constituent groups and subgroups are not firmly fixed, in part because many of the languages have not been well studied. Assuming the validity of the category and its internal divisions, however, eight of its nine major divisions and many of their subdivisions are well represented in Sudan, where roughly seventy-five languages, well over half of those named in the 1955-56 census, could be identified as Nilo-Saharan. Many of these languages are used only by small groups of people. Only six or seven of them were spoken by 1 percent or more of Sudan's 1956 population. Perhaps another dozen were the home languages of 0.5 to 1 percent. Many other languages were used by a few thousand or even a few hundred people.
The number of languages and dialects in Sudan is assumed to be about 400, including languages spoken by an insignificant number of people. Moreover, languages of smaller ethnic groups tended to disappear when the groups assimilated with more dominant ethnic units.
Several lingua francas have emerged and many peoples have become genuinely multilingual, fluent in a native language spoken at home, a lingua franca, and perhaps other languages. Arabic is the primary lingua franca in Sudan, given its status as the country's official language and as the language of Islam. Arabic, however, has several different forms, and not all who master one are able to use another. Among the varieties noted by scholars are classical Arabic, the language of the Quran (although generally not a spoken language and only used for printed work and by the educated in conversation); Modern Standard Arabic, derived from classical Arabic; and at least two kinds of colloquial Arabic in the Sudan--that spoken in roughly the eastern half of the country and called Sudanese colloquial Arabic and that spoken in western Sudan, closely akin to the colloquial Arabic spoken in Chad. There are other colloquial forms. A pidgin called Juba Arabic is peculiar to southern Sudan. Although some Muslims might become acquainted with classical Arabic in the course of rudimentary religious schooling, very few except the most educated know it except by rote.
Modern Standard Arabic is in principle the same everywhere in the Arab world and presumably permits communication among educated persons whose mother tongue is one or another form of colloquial Arabic. Despite its international character, however, Modern Standard Arabic varies from country to country. It has been, however, the language used in Sudan's central government, the press, and Radio Omdurman. The latter also broadcast in classical Arabic. One observer, writing in the early 1970s, noted that Arabic speakers (and others who had acquired the language informally) in western Sudan found it easier to understand the Chadian colloquial Arabic used by Chad Radio than the Modern Standard Arabic used by Radio Omdurman. This might also be the case elsewhere in rural Sudan where villagers and nomads speak a local dialect of Arabic.
Despite Arabic's status as the official national language, English was acknowledged as the principal language in southern Sudan in the late 1980s. It was also the chief language at the University of Khartoum and was the language of secondary schools even in the north before 1969. The new policy for higher education announced by the Sudanese government in 1990 indicated the language of instruction in all institutions of higher learning would be Arabic.
Nevertheless, in the south, the first two years of primary school were taught in the local language. Thereafter, through secondary school, either Arabic or English could become the medium of instruction (English and Arabic were regarded as of equal importance); the language not used as a medium was taught as a subject. In the early 1970s, when this option was established, roughly half the general secondary classes (equivalent to grades seven through nine) were conducted in Arabic and half in English in Bahr al Ghazal and Al Istiwai provinces. In early 1991, with about 90 percent of the southern third of the country controlled by the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA), the use of Arabic as a medium of instruction in southern schools remained a political issue, with many southerners regarding Arabic as an element in northern cultural domination.
Juba (or pidgin) Arabic, developed and learned informally, had been used in southern towns, particularly in Al Istiwai, for some time and had spread slowly but steadily throughout the south, but not always at the expense of English. The Juba Arabic used in the marketplace and even by political figures addressing ethnically mixed urban audiences could not be understood by northern Sudanese.
Sudan
The definition and boundaries of ethnic groups depend on how people perceive themselves and others. Language, cultural characteristics, and common ancestry may be used as markers of ethnic identity or difference, but they do not always define groups of people. Thus, the people called Atuot and the much larger group called Nuer spoke essentially the same language, shared many cultural characteristics, and acknowledged a common ancestry, but each group defined itself and the other as different. Identifying ethnic groups in Sudan was made more complicated by the multifaceted character of internal divisions among Arabic-speaking Muslims, the largest population that might be considered a single ethnic group.
The distinction between Sudan's Muslim and non-Muslim people has been of considerable importance in the country's history and provides a preliminary ordering of the ethnic groups. It does not, however, correspond in any simple way to distinctions based on linguistic, cultural, or racial criteria nor to social or political solidarity. Ethnic group names commonly used in Sudan and by foreign analysts are not always used by the people themselves. That is particularly true for non-Arabs known by names coined by Arabs or by the British, who based the names on terms used by Arabs or others not of the group itself. Thus, the Dinka and the Nuer, the largest groups in southern Sudan, call themselves, respectively, Jieng and Naath.
Sudan
Arabs
In the early 1990s, the largest single category among the Muslim peoples consisted of those speaking some form of Arabic. Excluded were a small number of Arabic speakers originating in Egypt and professing Coptic Christianity. In 1983 the people identified as Arabs constituted nearly 40 percent of the total Sudanese population and nearly 55 percent of the population of the northern provinces. In some of these provinces (Al Khartum, Ash Shamali, Al Awsat), they were overwhelmingly dominant. In others (Kurdufan, Darfur), they were less so but made up a majority. By 1990 Ash Sharqi State was probably largely Arab. It should be emphasized, however, that the acquisition of Arabic as a second language did not necessarily lead to the assumption of Arab identity.
Despite common language, religion, and self-identification, Arabs did not constitute a cohesive group. They were highly differentiated in their modes of livelihood and ways of life. Besides the major distinction dividing Arabs into sedentary and nomadic, there was an old tradition that assigned them to tribes, each said to have a common ancestor.
The two largest of the supratribal categories in the early 1990s were the Juhayna and the Jaali (or Jaalayin). The Juhayna category consisted of tribes considered nomadic, although many had become fully settled. The Jaali encompassed the riverine, sedentary peoples from Dunqulah to just north of Khartoum and members of this group who had moved elsewhere. Some of its groups had become sedentary only in the twentieth century. Sudanese saw the Jaali as primarily indigenous peoples who were gradually arabized. Sudanese thought the Juhayna were less mixed, although some Juhayna groups had become more diverse by absorbing indigenous peoples. The Baqqara, for example, who moved south and west and encountered the Negroid peoples of those areas were scarcely to be distinguished from them.
A third supratribal division of some importance was the Kawahla, consisting of thirteen tribes of varying size. Of these, eight tribes and segments of the other five were found north and west of Khartoum. There people were more heavily dependent on pastoralism than were the segments of the other five tribes, who lived on either side of the White Nile from south of Khartoum to north of Kusti. This cluster of five groups (for practical purposes independent tribes) exhibited a considerable degree of self-awareness and cohesion in some circumstances, although that had not precluded intertribal competition for local power and status.
The ashraf (sing., sharif), who claim descent from the Prophet Muhammad, were found in small groups (lineages) scattered among other Arabs. Most of these lineages had been founded by religious teachers or their descendants. A very small group of descendants of the Funj Dynasty also claimed descent from the Ummayyads, an early dynasty of caliphs based in present- day Syria. That claim had little foundation, but it served to separate from other Arabs a small group living on or between the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The term ashraf was also applied in Sudan to the family of Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah, known as the Mahdi (1848-85).
The division into Jaali and Juhayna did not appear to have significant effect on the ways in which individuals and groups regarded each other. Conflicts between tribes generally arose from competition for good grazing land, or from the competing demands of nomadic and sedentary tribes on the environment. Among nomadic and recently sedentary Arabs, tribes and subtribes competed for local power.
Membership in tribal and subtribal units is generally by birth, but individuals and groups may also join these units by adoption, clientship, or a decision to live and behave in a certain way. For example, when a sedentary Fur becomes a cattle nomad, he is perceived as a Baqqara. Eventually the descendants of such newcomers are regarded as belonging to the group by birth.
Tribal and subtribal units divide the Arab ethnic category vertically, but other distinctions cut across Arab society and its tribal and subtribal components horizontally by differences of social status and power. Still another division is that of religious associations.
Nubians
In the early 1990s, the Nubians were the second most significant Muslim group in Sudan, their homeland being the Nile River valley in far northern Sudan and southern Egypt. Other, much smaller groups speaking a related language and claiming a link with the Nile Nubians have been given local names, such as the Birqid and the Meidab in Darfur State. Almost all Nile Nubians speak Arabic as a second language; some near Dunqulah have been largely arabized and are referred to as Dunqulah.
In the mid-1960s, in anticipation of the flooding of their lands after the construction of the Aswan High Dam, 35,000 to 50,000 Nile Nubians resettled at Khashm al Qirbah on the Atbarah River in what was then Kassala Province. It is not clear how many Nubians remained in the Nile Valley. Even before the resettlement, many had left the valley for varying lengths of time to work in the towns, although most sought to maintain a link with their traditional homeland. In the 1955-56 census, more Nile Nubians were counted in Al Khartum Province than in the Nubian country to the north. A similar pattern of work in the towns was apparently followed by those resettled at Khashm al Qirbah. Many Nubians there retained their tenancies, having kin oversee the land and hiring non-Nubians to work it. The Nubians, often with their families, worked in Khartoum, the town of Kassala, and Port Sudan in jobs ranging from domestic service and semi-skilled labor to teaching and civil service, which required literacy. Despite their knowledge of Arabic and their devotion to Islam, Nubians retained a considerable self-consciousness and tended to maintain tightly knit communities of their own in the towns.
Beja
The Beja probably have lived in the Red Sea Hills since ancient times. Arab influence was not significant until a millennium or so ago, but it has since led the Beja to adopt Islam and genealogies that link them to Arab ancestors, to arabize their names, and to include many Arabic terms in their language. Although some Arabs figure in the ancestry of the Beja, the group is mostly descended from an indigenous population, and they have not become generally arabized. Their language (Bedawiye) links them to Cushitic-speaking peoples farther south.
In the 1990s, most Beja belonged to one of four groups--the Bisharin, the Amarar, the Hadendowa, and the Bani Amir. The largest group was the Hadendowa, but the Bisharin had the most territory, with settled tribes living on the Atbarah River in the far south of the Beja range and nomads living in the north. A good number of the Hadendowa were also settled and engaged in agriculture, particularly in the coastal region near Tawkar, but many remained nomads. The Amarar, living in the central part of the Beja range, seemed to be largely nomads, as were the second largest group, the Bani Amir, who lived along the border with northern Ethiopia. The precise proportion of nomads in the Beja population in the early 1990s was not known, but it was far greater relatively than the nomadic component of the Arab population. The Beja were characterized as conservative, proud, and aloof even toward other Beja and very reticent in relations with strangers. They were long reluctant to accept the authority of central governments.
Fur
The Fur, ruled until 1916 by an independent sultanate and oriented politically and culturally to peoples in Chad, were a sedentary, cultivating group long settled on and around the Jabal Marrah. Although the ruling dynasty and the peoples of the area had long been Muslims, they have not been arabized. Livestock has played a small part in the subsistence of most Fur. Those who acquired a substantial herd of cattle could maintain it only by living like the neighboring Baqqara Arabs, and those who persisted in this pattern eventually came to be thought of as Baqqara.
Zaghawa
Living on the plateau north of the Fur were the seminomadic people calling themselves Beri and known to the Arabs as Zaghawa. Large numbers of the group lived in Chad. Herders of cattle, camels, sheep, and goats, the Zaghawa also gained a substantial part of their livelihood by gathering wild grains and other products. Cultivation had become increasingly important but remained risky, and the people reverted to gathering in times of drought. Converted to Islam, the Zaghawa nevertheless retain much of their traditional religious orientation.
Masalit, Daju, and Berti
Of other peoples living in Darfur in the 1990s who spoke Nilo-Saharan languages and were at least nominally Muslim, the most important were the Masalit, Daju, and Berti. All were primarily cultivators living in permanent villages, but they practiced animal husbandry in varying degrees. The Masalit, living on the Sudan-Chad border, were the largest group. Historically under a minor sultanate, they were positioned between the two dominant sultanates of the area, Darfur and Wadai (in Chad). A part of the territory they occupied had been formerly controlled by the Fur, but the Masalit gradually encroached on it in the first half of the twentieth century in a series of local skirmishes carried out by villages on both sides, rather than the sultanates. In 1990-91 much of Darfur was in a state of anarchy, with many villages being attacked. There were many instances in which Masalit militias attacked Fur and other villages.
The Berti consisted of two groups. One lived northeast of Al Fashir; the other had migrated to eastern Darfur and western Kurdufan provinces in the nineteenth century. The two Berti groups did not seem to share a sense of common identity and interest. Members of the western group, in addition to cultivating subsistence crops and practicing animal husbandry, gathered gum arabic for sale in local markets. The Berti tongue had largely given way to Arabic as a home language.
The term Daju was a linguistic designation that was applied to a number of groups scattered from western Kurdufan and southwestern Darfur states to eastern Chad. These groups called themselves by different names and exhibited no sense of common identity.
West Africans
Living in Sudan in 1990 were nearly a million people of West African origin. Together, West Africans who have become Sudanese nationals and resident nonnationals from West Africa made up 6.5 percent of the Sudanese population. In the mid-1970s, West Africans had been estimated at more than 10 percent of the population of the northern provinces. Some were descendants of persons who had arrived five generations or more earlier; others were recent immigrants. Some had come in self-imposed exile, unable to accommodate to the colonial power in their homeland. Others had been pilgrims to Mecca, settling either en route or on their return. Many came over decades in the course of the great dispersion of the nomadic Fulani; others arrived, particularly after World War II, as rural and urban laborers or to take up land as peasant cultivators.
Nearly 60 percent of people included in the West African category were said to be of Nigerian origin (locally called Borno after the Nigerian emirate that was their homeland). Given Hausa dominance in northern Nigeria and the widespread use of their language there and elsewhere, some non-Hausa might also be called Hausa and describe themselves as such. But the Hausa themselves, particularly those long in Sudan, preferred to be called Takari. The Fulani, even more widely dispersed throughout West Africa, may have originated in states other than Nigeria. Typically, the term applied to the Fulani in Sudan was Fallata, but Sudanese also used that term for other West Africans.
The Fulani nomads were found in many parts of central Sudan from Darfur to the Blue Nile, and they occasionally competed with indigenous populations for pasturage. In Darfur groups of Fulani origin adapted in various ways to the presence of the Baqqara tribes. Some retained all aspects of their culture and language. A few had become much like Baqqara in language and in other respects, although they tended to retain their own breeds of cattle and ways of handling them. Some of the Fulani groups in the eastern states were sedentary, descendants of sedentary Fulani of the ruling group in northern Nigeria.
Sudan
In the 1990s, most of Sudan's diverse non-Muslim peoples lived in southern Sudan, but a number of small groups resided in the hilly areas south of the Blue Nile on or near the border with Ethiopia. Another cluster of peoples commonly called the Nuba, but socially and culturally diverse, lived in the Nuba Mountains of southern Kurdufan State.
Nilotes
Nilote is a common name for many of the peoples living on or near the Bahr al Jabal and its tributaries. The term refers to people speaking languages of one section of the Nilotic subbranch of the Eastern Sudanic branch of Nilo-Saharan and sharing a myth of common origin. They are marked by physical similarity and many common cultural features. Many had a long tradition of cattlekeeping, including some for whom cattle were no longer of practical importance. Because of their adaptation to different climates and their encounters, peaceful and otherwise, with other peoples, there was also some diversity among the Nilotes.
Despite the civil war and famine, the Nilotes still constituted more than three-fifths of the population of southern Sudan in 1990. One group--the Dinka--made up roughly two-thirds of the total category, 40 percent or more of the population of the area and more than 10 percent of Sudan's population. The Dinka were widely distributed over the northern portion of the southern region, particularly in Aali an Nil and Bahr al Ghazal. The next largest group, only one-fourth to one-third the size of the Dinka, were the Nuer. The Shilluk, the third largest group, had only about one-fourth as many people as the Nuer, and the remaining Nilotic groups were much smaller.
The larger and more dispersed the group, however, the more internally varied it had become. The Dinka and Nuer, for example, did not develop a centralized government encompassing all or any large part of their groups. The Dinka are considered to have as many as twenty-five tribal groups. The Nuer have nine or ten separately named groups.
Armed conflict between and within ethnic groups continued well into the twentieth century. Sections of the Dinka fought sections of the Nuer and each other. Other southern groups also expanded and contracted in the search for cattle and pasturage. The Nuer absorbed some of the Dinka, and some present-day sections of the Nuer have significant Dinka components.
Relations among various southern groups were affected in the nineteenth century by the intrusion of Ottomans, Arabs, and eventually the British. Some ethnic groups made their accommodation with the intruders and others did not, in effect pitting one southern ethnic group against another in the context of foreign rule. For example, some sections of the Dinka were more accommodating to British rule than were the Nuer. These Dinka treated the resisting Nuer as hostile, and hostility developed between the two groups as result of their differing relationships to the British. The granting of Sudanese independence in 1956, and the adoption of certain aspects of Islamic law or the sharia, by the central government in 1983 greatly influenced the nature of relations among these groups in modern times.
The next largest group of Nilotes, the Shilluk (self-named Collo), were not dispersed like the Dinka and the Nuer, but settled mainly in a limited, uninterrupted area along the west bank of the Bahr al Jabal, just north of the point where it becomes the White Nile proper. A few lived on the eastern bank. With easy access to fairly good land along the Nile, they relied much more heavily on cultivation and fishing than the Dinka and the Nuer did, and had fewer cattle. The Shilluk had truly permanent settlements and did not move regularly between cultivating and cattle camps.
Unlike the larger groups, the Shilluk, in the Upper Nile, were traditionally ruled by a single politico-religious head (reth), believed to become at the time of his investiture as king the representative, if not the reincarnation, of the mythical hero Nyiking, putative founder of the Shilluk. The administrative and political powers of the reth have been the subject of some debate, but his ritual status was clear enough: his health was believed to be closely related to the material and spiritual welfare of the Shilluk. It is likely that the territorial unity of the Shilluk and the permanence of their settlements contributed to the centralization of their political and ritual structures. In the late 1980s, the activities against the SPLA by the armed militias supported by the government seriously alienated the Shilluk in Malakal.
Bari, Kuku, Kakwa, and Mandari
Several peoples living mainly to the south and east of the Nilotes spoke languages of another section of the Nilotic subbranch of Eastern Sudanic. Primary among them were the Bari and the closely related Kuku, Kakwa, and Mandari. The Bari and Mandari who lived near the Nilotes had been influenced by them and had sometimes been in conflict with them in the past. The more southerly Kuku and Kakwa lived in the highlands, where cultivation was more rewarding than cattle-keeping or where cattle diseases precluded herding.
Murle, Didinga, and Others
Two other tribes, the Murle and the Didinga, spoke Eastern Sudanic languages of subbranches other than Nilotic. The Murle had dwelt in southern Ethiopia in the nineteenth century and some were still there in the 1990s. Others had moved west and had driven out the local Nilotes, whom they reportedly regarded with contempt, and acquired a reputation as warriors. Under environmental pressure, the Murle raided other groups in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Along the mountainous border with Ethiopia in Al Awsat State lived several small heterogeneous groups. Some, like the Uduk, spoke languages of the Koman division of Nilo-Saharan and were believed to have been in the area since antiquity. Others, like the Ingessana, were refugees driven into the hills by the expansion of other groups. Most of these peoples straddling the Sudan-Ethiopia border had experienced strife with later-arriving neighbors and slave-raiding by the Arabs. All adapted by learning the languages of more dominant groups.
Azande
In western Al Istiwai and Bahr al Ghazal states lived a number of small, sometimes fragmented groups. The largest of these groups were the Azande, who comprised 7 to 8 percent of the population of southern Sudan and were the dominant group in western Al Istiwai.
The Azande had emerged in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when groups of hunters, divided into aristocrats and commoners, entered the northeastern past of present-day Zaire (and later southwestern Sudan) and conquered the peoples already there. Although the aristocrats provided ruling kings and nobles, they did not establish an inclusive, centralized state. The means of succession to kingship, however, encouraged Azande expansion. A man succeeded to his father's throne only when he had vanquished those of his brothers who chose to compete for it. The brothers--princes without land or people but with followers looking for the fruits of conquest--would find and rule hitherto unconquered groups. Thus, the Azande became a heterogeneous people.
Their earlier military and political successes notwithstanding, the Azande in the twentieth century were poor, largely dependent on cultivation (hunting was no longer a feasible source of food), and afflicted by sleeping sickness. The British colonial authorities instituted a project, known as the Azande Scheme, involving cotton growing and resettlement in an effort to deal with these problems. The program failed, however, for a variety of reasons, including an inadequate understanding of Azande society, economy, and values on the part of the colonial planners. Azande society deteriorated still further, a deterioration reflected in a declining birthrate. Azande support of the Anya Nya guerrilla groups, as well as conflicts with the Dinka, also served to worsen the Azande's situation. In the early 1980s, there was talk of resurrecting a revised Azande project but the resumption of the civil war in 1983 prevented progress.
Bviri and Ndogo
Several other groups of cultivators in southwestern Sudan spoke languages closely akin to that of the Azande but lacked a dominant group. The most important seemed to be the Bviri. They and a smaller group called Ndogo spoke a language named after the latter; other, smaller communities spoke dialects of that tongue. These communities did not share a sense of common ethnic identity, however.
Others
The other groups in southwestern Sudan spoke languages of the central branch of Nilo-Saharan and were scattered from the western Bahr al Ghazal (the Kreish) to central Al Istiwai (the Moru and the Avukaya) to eastern Al Istiwai (the Madi). In between, in Al Istiwai, were such peoples as the Bongo and the Baka. The languages of Moru and Madi were so close, as were aspects of their cultures, that they were sometimes lumped together. The same was true of the Bongo and the Baka, but there was no indication that either pair constituted a self-conscious ethnic group.
Nuba
Living in the Nuba Mountains of southern Kurdufan State were perhaps three dozen small groups collectively called the Nuba but varying considerably in their culture and social organization. For example, some were patrilineally organized, others adhered to matrilineal patterns, and a very few--the southeastern Nuba--had both patrilineal and matrilineal groupings in the same community. The Kurdufanian languages these people spoke were not generally mutually intelligible except for those of some adjacent communities.
Despite the arabization of the people around them, only small numbers of Nuba had adopted Arabic as a home language, and even fewer had been converted to Islam. Some had, however, served in the armed forces and police. Most remained cultivators; animal husbandry played only a small part in their economy.
Sudan
One of the most important and complicating factors in defining ethnicity is the dramatic increase in the internal migration of Sudanese within the past twenty years. It has been estimated that in 1973 alone well over 10 percent of the population moved away from their ethnic groups to mingle with other Sudanese in the big agricultural projects or to work in other provinces. Most of the migrants sought employment in the large urban areas, particularly in the Three Towns, which attracted 30 percent of all internal migrants. The migrants were usually young; 60 percent were between the ages of fifteen and forty-four. Of that number, 46 percent were females. The number of migrants escalated greatly in the latter 1980s because of drought and famine, the civil war in the south, and Chadian raiders in the west. Thus, as in the past, the migrants left their ethnic groups for economic, social, and psychological reasons, but now with the added factor of personal survival.
Another ethnic group involved in migration was that of the Falashas, who were Ethiopian Jews. In January 1985 it was revealed that the Sudanese government had cooperated with Ethiopia, Israel, and the United States in transporting several thousand Falashas through Sudan to Israel. Their departure occurred initially on a small scale in 1979 and 1982 and in larger numbers between 1983 and 1985. In Sudan, the Falashas had been placed in temporary refugee settlements and reception centers organized by the Sudanese government.
In addition to the problems of employment, housing, and services that internal migration created, it had an enormous impact on ethnicity. Although migrants tended to cluster with their kinsfolk in their new environments, the daily interaction with Sudanese from many other ethnic groups rapidly eroded traditional values learned in the villages. In the best of circumstances, this erosion might lead to a new sense of national identity as Sudanese, but the new communities often lacked effective absorptive mechanisms and were weak economically. Ethnic divisions were thus reinforced and at the same time social anomie was perpetuated.
Refugees from other countries, like internal migrants, were a factor that further complicated ethnic patterns. In 1991 Sudan was host to about 763,000 refugees from neighboring countries, such as Ethiopia (including about 175,000 soldiers, most of whom fled following the overthrow of the Ethiopian government in May 1991) and Chad. Approximately 426,000 Sudanese had fled their country, becoming refugees in Kenya and Ethiopia. Many of them began returning to Sudan in June 1991. Incoming refugees were at first hospitably received but they gradually came to be regarded as unwelcome visitors. The refugees required many social services, a need only partially met by international humanitarian agencies, which also had to care for Sudanese famine victims. The presence of foreign refugees, with little prospect of returning to their own countries, thus created not only social but also political instability.
Sudan
The long war in Sudan had a profound effect not only on ethnic groups but also on political action and attitudes. With the exception of a fragile peace established by negotiations between southern Sudanese insurgents (the Anya Nya) and the Sudan government at Addis Ababa in 1972, and lasting until the resumption of the conflict in 1983, southern Sudan has been a battlefield. The conflict has deeply eroded traditional ethnic patterns in the region, and it has extended northward, spreading incalculable political and economic disruption. It has, moreover, caused the dislocation and often the obliteration of the smaller, less resistant ethnic groups.
The north-south distinction and the hostility between the two regions were grounded in religious conflict as well as a conflict between peoples of differing culture and language. The language and culture of the north were based on Arabic and the Islamic faith, whereas the south had its own diverse, mostly non-Arabic languages and cultures. It was with few exceptions non-Muslim, and its religious character was indigenous (traditional or Christian). Adequate contemporary data were lacking, but in the early 1990s possibly no more than 10 percent of southern Sudan's population was Christian. Nevertheless, given the missions' role in providing education in the south, most educated persons in the area, including the political elite, were nominally Christians (or at least had Christian names). Several African Roman Catholic priests figured in southern leadership, and the churches played a significant role in bringing the south's plight to world attention in the civil war period. Sudan's Muslim Arab rulers thus considered Christian mission activity to be an obstacle to the full arabization and Islamization of the south.
Occasionally, the distinction between north and south has been framed in racial terms. The indigenous peoples of the south are blacks, whereas those of the north are of Semitic stock. Northern populations fully arabized in language and culture, such as the Baqqara, however, could not be distinguished physically from some of the southern and western groups. Many sedentary Arabs descended from the pre-Islamic peoples of that area who were black, as were the Muslim but nonarabized Nubians and the Islamized peoples of Darfur.
It is not easy to generalize about the importance of physical attributes in one group's perceptions of another. But physical appearance often has been taken as an indicator of cultural, religious, and linguistic status or orientation. Arabs were also likely to see southerners as members of the population from which they once took slaves and to use the word for slave, abd, as a pejorative in referring to southerners.
North-south hostilities predate the colonial era. In the nineteenth century and earlier, Arabs saw the south as a source of slaves and considered its peoples inferior by virtue of their paganism if not their color. Organized slave raiding ended in the late nineteenth century, but the residue of bitterness remained among southerners, and the Arab view of southerners as pagans persisted.
During British rule, whatever limited accommodation there may have been between Arabs and Africans was neither widespread nor deep enough to counteract a longer history of conflict between these peoples. At the same time, for their own reasons, the colonial authorities discouraged integration of the ethnically different north and south.
Neither Arab attitudes of superiority nor British dominance in the south led to loss of self-esteem among southerners. A number of observers have remarked that southern peoples, particularly Nilotes, such as the Dinka, Nuer, and Shilluk, naturally object to the assumption by the country's Arab rulers that the southern peoples ought to be prepared to give up their religious orientation and values.
Interethnic tensions also have occurred in the north. Disaffection in Darfur with the Arab-dominated Khartoum government led in the late 1980s to Darfur becoming a virtually autonomous province. There has also been a history of regionallybased political movements in the area. The frustrations of a budding elite among the Fur, the region's largest ethnic group, and Fur-Arab competition may account for that disaffection and for Darfur regionalism. After World War II, many educated Fur made a point of mastering Arabic in the hope that they could make their way in the Arab-dominated political, bureaucratic, and economic world; they did not succeed in their quest. Further, by the late 1960s, as cash crops were introduced, land and labor were becoming objects of commercial transactions. As this happened, the Arabs and the Fur competed for scarce resources and, given their greater prominence and power, the Arabs were regarded by the Fur as exploiters. The discovery of oil in the late 1970s (not appreciably exploited by 1991 because of the civil war leading to the departure of Chevron Overseas Petroleum Corporation personnel) added another resource and further potential for conflict. Opposition to the imposition by Nimeiri of the sharia in 1983, and the later attempts at Islamization of the country in the late 1980s, as well as the government's poor handling of the devastating famine of 1990 deeply alienated the Fur from the national government.
There were other tensions in northern Sudan generated not by traditional antipathies but by competition for scarce resources. For example, there was a conflict between the Rufaa al Huj, a group of Arab pastoralists living in the area between the Blue Nile and the White Nile, and Fallata (Fulani) herders. The movements of the Fallata intersected with the seasonal migrations of the Rufaa al Huj. Here ethnic differences aggravated but did not cause competition.
The reluctance of southern groups to accept Arab domination did not imply southern solidarity. The opportunities for power and wealth in the new politics and bureaucracy in southern Sudan were limited; some groups felt deprived of their shares by an ethnic group in power. Moreover, ethnic groups at one time or another competed for more traditional resources, contributing to a heritage of hostility toward one another.
In the early 1990s, one of the main sources of ethnic conflict in the south was the extent to which the Dinka dominated southern politics and controlled the allocation of rewards, whether of government posts or of other opportunities. In the 1955-56 census, the Dinka constituted a little more than 40 percent of the total population of the three provinces that in 1990 constituted southern Sudan: Bahr al Ghazal, Aali an Nil, and Al Istiwai. Because no other group approached their number, if their proportion of the regional total had not changed appreciably, the Dinka would be expected to play a large part in the new politics of southern Sudan. Some of the leading figures in the south, such as Abel Alier, head of southern Sudan's government until 1981, and SPLA leader John Garang, were Dinka (although the SPLA made an effort to shed its Dinka image by cultivating supporters in other groups). It is not known whether the twenty-five Dinka tribal groups were equally represented in the alleged Dinka predominance. Some groups, such as the Nuer, a comparable Nilotic people, and traditional rivals of the Dinka, had been deprived of leadership opportunities in colonial times, because they were considered intractable, were then not numerous, and lived in inaccessible areas (various small groups in Bahr al Ghazal and northern Aali an Nil provinces). In contrast, some small groups in Al Istiwai Province had easier access to education and hence to political participation because of nearby missions. The first graduating class of the university in Juba, for example, had many more Azande students from Al Istiwai Province than from Bahr al Ghazal and Aali an Nil.
Sudan
Local ethnic communities remained in the early 1990s the fundamental societies in rural Sudan, whether they were fully settled, semisedentary, or nomadic. Varying in size but never very large, such communities formerly interacted with others of their kind in hostile or symbiotic fashion, raiding for cattle, women, and slaves or exchanging products and sometimes intermarrying. In many cases, particularly in the north, local communities were incorporated into larger political systems, paying taxes to the central authority and adapting their local political arrangements to the needs of the central government. Even if they were not incorporated into major tribes or groups, many people considered themselves part of larger groupings, such as the Juhayna, the Jaali, or the Dinka, which figured in a people's system of ideas and myths but not their daily lives. In the north the Muslim religious orders were important. They brought religion to the people, and their leaders acted as mediators between local communities. Despite these connections, however, the local village or nomadic community was the point of reference for most individuals.
Most of these communities were based on descent, although occupation of a common territory became increasingly important in long-settled communities. Descent groups varied in hierarchical arrangement. In some, the people were essentially equal. In others, various lineages held political power, with their members filling certain offices. Lineage groups might also control religious ritual in the community. On the one hand, people who held ritual or political offices often had privileged access to economic resources. On the other hand, many communities granted formal or informal authority to those who were already wealthy and who used their wealth generously and with tactical skill.
Theoretically, descent-group societies are cohesive units whose members act according to group interests. In practice, however, individuals often had their own interests, and these interests sometimes became paramount. An individual might, however, use the ideal of descent-group solidarity to justify his behavior, and an ambitious person might use the descent-group framework to organize support for himself. Sudanese communities always have experienced a good deal of change, either because of forces like the Muslim orders, or as a result of dynamics within the groups themselves, like the expansion of Nuer communities.
The Anglo-Egyptian condominium (1899-1955) weakened the role of hitherto autonomous communities and created a more stable social order. Warfare and raiding between communities largely ended. Leadership in raids was no longer a way to acquire wealth and status. Although many local communities remained subsistence oriented, they became more aware of the world economy. Their members were introduced to new resources and opportunities, however scarce, that reoriented their notions of power, status, and wealth and of the ways they were acquired. If one invested in a truck rather than in a camel and engaged in trading rather than herding, one's relationship to kin and community changed.
The central authorities--links with the world economy and with services like education and communications--were located in the cities and large towns. Urban centers therefore became the sources of change in the condominium era, and it was there that new occupations emerged. These new occupations had not yet changed the social strata, however.
In rural areas several large-scale development projects were introduced, resulting in major rearrangements of communities and authority structures. The most significant example was the Gezira Scheme, located between the Blue Nile and the White Nile, and considered the world's largest single-management farming enterprise (about 790 hectares were covered by the project). The scheme involved small-scale farmer tenants producing cotton under the administration of the Sudan Gezira Board, a state subsidiary.
<>Northern Arabized Communities
Sudan
Distinctions may be drawn among long-settled arabized communities, those settled in the past half century, and those-- the minority--that remained nomadic. Recently settled groups might still participate in nomadic life or have close connections with nomadic kin.
Formerly, where long-settled and nomadic or beduin communities came in contact with each other, relations were hostile or cool, reflecting earlier competition for resources. More recently, a degree of mutual dependency had developed, usually involving exchanges of foodstuffs.
Along the White Nile and between the White Nile and Blue Nile, sections of nomadic tribes had become sedentary. This transition occurred either because of the opportunities for profitable cultivation or because nomads had lost their animals and turned to cultivation until they could recoup their fortunes and return to nomadic life. Having settled, some communities found sedentary life more materially rewarding. Sometimes nomads lacking livestock worked for sedentary Arabs, and where employer and employee were of the same or similar tribes, the relationship could be close. It was understood that when such a laborer acquired enough livestock, he would return to nomadic life. In other cases, a fully settled former nomad with profitable holdings allowed his poorer kin to maintain his livestock, both parties gaining from the transaction.
Arab nomads in Sudan in the early 1990s were generally camel or cattle herders. They might own sheep and goats also for economic reasons, but these animals were not otherwise valued. Typically, camel herders migrated to the more arid north, whereas cattle herders traveled farther south where camel herding was not feasible.
The ancestors of the Baqqara tribes began as nomadic camel herders. When they moved south to raid for slaves, they found camel travel inappropriate, and took cattle as well as people from the southerners. They have been cattle herders since the eighteenth century. Their environment permitted cultivation also, and most Baqqara grew some of their food. Camel herders, in contrast, rarely sowed a crop, although they might gather wild grain and obtain grains from local cultivators.
In the 1990s, the communities of arabized nomads were similar. In principle, all units from the smallest to the largest were based on patrilineal descent. The largest entity was the tribe. A tribe was divided into sections, and each of these, into smaller units. If a tribe were small, it became a naziriyah (administrative unit); if large, its major sections became naziriyat. The sections below the naziriyah became umudiyat (sing., umudiyah). Below that were lineages, often headed by a shaykh, which had no formal position in the administrative hierarchy. The smallest unit, which the Baqqara called usrah, was likely to consist of a man, his sons, their sons, and any daughters who had not yet married. (Patrilineal cousins were preferred marriage partners.) The usrah and the women who married into it constituted an extended family.
All divisions had rights to all tribal territory for grazing purposes as long as they stayed clear of cultivated land; however, through frequent use, tribal sections acquired rights to specific areas for gardens. Members of an usrah, for example, returned year after year to the same land, which they regarded as their home.
The constant subdividing of lineages gave fluidity to nomadic society. Tribal sections seceded, moved away, and joined with others for various reasons. The composition and size of even the smallest social units varied according to the season of the year and the natural environment. Individuals, families, and larger units usually moved in search of a more favorable social environment, but also because of quarrels, crowding, or personal attachments. The size and composition of various groups, and ultimately of the tribe itself, depended on the amount of grazing land available and on the policies and personalities of the leaders.
Traditionally, a man rich in cattle always had been sure to attract followers. The industry, thrift, and hardiness needed to build a large herd have been considered highly desirable qualities. At the same time, a rich man would be expected to be generous. If he lived up to that expectation, his fame would spread, and he would attract more followers. But wealth alone did not gain a nomad power beyond the level of a camp or several related camps. Ambition, ability to manipulate, hardheaded shrewdness, and attention to such matters as the marriage of his daughters to possible allies were also required.
In the precondominium era, leaders of various sections of a tribe had prestige but relatively little authority, in part because those who did not like them could leave. The colonial authorities stabilized the floating power positions in the traditional system. For purposes of taxation, justice, and public order, the new government needed representative authorities over identifiable groups. Locality could not serve as a basis in a nomadic society, so the government settled on the leaders of patrilineal descent groups and gave them a formal power they had previously lacked.
Among the nomadic Kababish camel herders (a loose confederation of tribes fluctuating in size, composition, and location), the definition of the tribe as a single unit by the colonial authorities and the appointment of an ambitious and capable individual as nazir led to a major change in social structure. Tribal sections and subsections were gradually eroded, leaving the individual household as the basic unit, ruled by the nazir and his primitive bureaucracy. The ruling lineage developed a concept of aristocracy, became very wealthy, and in effect spoke for its people in all contexts.
The administrative structure of the naziriyah and umudiyah ended shortly after the establishment of President Jaafar an Nimeiri's government in 1969, but the families of those who had held formal authority retained a good deal of local power. This authority or administrative structure was officially revived in 1986 by the coalition government of Sadiq al Mahdi.
Of continuing importance in economic and domestic matters and often in organizing political factions were minimal lineages, each comprehending three (at best four) generations. The social status of these lineages depended on whether they stemmed from old settler families or from newer ones. In villages composed of families or lineages of several tribes, marriage would likely take place within the tribe.
A class structure existed within villages. Large holdings were apt to be in the hands of merchants or leaders of religious brotherhoods, whose connections were wider and who did not necessarily live in the villages near their land. Although no longer nomadic, the ordinary villager preferred not to cultivate the land himself, however. Before the abolition of slavery, slaves did much of the work. Even after emancipation some ex- slaves or descendants of slaves remained as servants of their former masters or their descendants. Some villagers hired West Africans to do their work. Ex-slaves and seminomads or gypsies (halabi, usually smiths) living near the village were looked down on, and marriage with them by members of other classes was out of the question. A descendant of slaves could acquire education and respect, but villagers did not consider him a suitable partner for their daughters. Slave women had formerly been taken as concubines by villagers, but it was not clear that they were acceptable as wives.
Landholders in government-sponsored projects did not own the property but were tenants of the government. The tenants might be displaced Nubians, settled non-Arab nomads--as in Khashm al Qirbah--settled or nomadic Arabs, or West Africans. Many of these people used hired labor, either West Africans or nomads temporarily without livestock. In many instances, the original tenant remained a working farmer even if he used wage labor. In others, however, the original tenant might leave management in the hands of a kinsman and either live as a nomad or work and live in a city, a lifestyle typical of Nubians.
Although all settled communities were linked to the government, the projects involved a much closer relation between officials and villagers, because officials managed the people as well as the enterprise. In effect, however, officials were outsiders, dominating the community but not part of it. They identified with the civil service rather than the community.
West Africans working in Arab settled communities formed cohesive communities of their own, and their relations with Arab tenants appeared to be restricted to their work agreements, even though both groups were Muslims. Cotton cultivation, practiced on most of the farms, was labor intensive, and because available labor was often scarce, particularly during the picking season, the West African laborers could command good wages. Their wages were set by agreements between the tenants who held the land and the headmen of the West African communities, and these agreements tended to set the wage scale for Arab laborers as well.
In the White Nile area, more recently settled by nomadic groups, aspects of nomadic social organization persisted through the condominium era. As among the nomads, leadership went to those who used their wealth generously and judiciously to gain the support of their lineages. In this case, however, wealth often took the form of grain rather than livestock. Most major lineages had such leaders, and those that did not were considered at a disadvantage. In addition to the wealthy, religious leaders (shaykhs) also had influence in these communities, particularly as mediators, in contrast to secular leaders who were often authoritarian.
The establishment of the naziriyah and umudiyah system tended to fix leadership in particular families, but there were often conflicts over which members should hold office. In the case of the Kawahla tribes of the White Nile, the ruling family tended to settle these differences in order to maintain its monopoly of important positions, and it took on the characteristics of a ruling lineage. Other lineages, however, tended to decline in importance as the system of which they had been a part changed. The ruling lineage made a point of educating its sons, so that they could find positions in business or in government. Although the Nimeiri government abolished the older system of local government, it appears that the former ruling lineage continued to play a leading role in the area.
Sudan
In preindependence Sudan, most southern communities were small, except for the large conglomerate of Nilotes, Dinka, and Nuer who dominated the Bahr al Ghazal and the Aali an Nil provinces and the Azande people of Al Istiwai Province. During the condominium, the colonial administration imposed stronger local authority on the communities. It made local leaders chiefs or headmen and gave them executive and judicial powers--tempered by local councils, usually of elders--to administer their people, under the scrutiny of a British district commissioner. As in the north, the relatively fluid relationships and boundaries among southern Sudanese became more stabilized.
There is no systematic record of how independence, civil war, and famine have affected the social order of southern peoples. The gradual incorporation of southerners into the national system--if only as migrant laborers and as local craftpeople--and increased opportunities for education have, however, affected social arrangements, ideas of status, and political views.
An educated elite had emerged in the south, and in 1991, some members of this elite were important politicians and administrators at the regional and national levels; however, other members had emigrated to escape northern discrimination. How the newer elite was linked to the older one was not clear. Secular chieftainships had been mostly gifts of the colonial authorities, but the sons of chiefs took advantage of their positions to get a Western education and to create family ties among local and regional elites.
Southern Sudan's development of an elite based on education and government office was facilitated by the absence of an indigenous trading and entrepreneurial class, who might have challenged the educated elite. Southern merchants were mostly Arabs or others of nonsouthern origin. In addition, the south lacked the equivalent of the northern Muslim leaders of religious orders, who also might have claimed a share of influence. Instead of several elites owing their status and power to varied sources and constituencies, the south developed an elite that looked for its support to persons of its own ethnic background and to those who identified with the south's African heritage. It was difficult to assess in the early 1990s, however, whether the civil war still allowed any elite southerners to gain much advantage.
In traditional Nilotic society clans were of two kinds. One kind, a minority but a large one, consisted of clans whose members had religious functions and furnished the priests of subtribes, sections, and sometimes of tribes. These priests have been called chiefs or masters of the fishing spear, a reference to the ritual importance of that instrument. Clans of the other kind were warrior groupings. The difference was one of function rather than rank. A spearmaster prayed for his people going to war or in other difficult situations and mediated between quarreling groups. He could function as a leader, but his powers lay in persuasion, not coercion. A spearmaster with a considerable reputation for spiritual power was deferred to on many issues. In rare cases--the most important was that of the Shilluk--one of the ritual offices gained influence over an entire people, and its holder was assigned the attributes of a divine king.
A special religious figure--commonly called a prophet--has arisen among some of the Nilotic peoples from time to time. Such prophets, thought to be possessed by a sky spirit, often had much wider influence than the ritual officeholders, who were confined to specific territorial segments. They gained substantial reputations as healers and used those reputations to rally their people against other ethnic groups and sometimes against the Arabs and the Europeans. The condominium authorities considered prophets subversive even when their message did not apparently oppose authority, and suppressed them.
Another social pattern common to the Nilotes was the age-set system. Traditionally, males were periodically initiated into sets according to age; with the set, they moved through a series of stages, assuming and shedding rights and responsibilities as the group advanced in age. The system was closely linked to warfare and raiding, which diminished during the condominium. In modern times the civil war and famine further undermined the system, and its remnants seemed likely to fade as formal education became more accessible.
Historically, the Dinka have been the most populous Nilotic people, so numerous that social and political patterns varied from one tribal group to another. Among the Dinka, the tribal group was composed of a set of independent tribes that settled in a continuous area. The tribe, which ranged in size from 1,000 to 25,000 persons, traditionally had only two political functions. First, it controlled and defended the dry season pastures of its constituent subtribes; second, if a member of the tribe killed another member, the issue would be resolved peacefully. Homicide committed by someone outside the tribe was avenged, but not by the tribe as a whole. The colonial administration, seeking equitable access to adequate pasturage for all tribes, introduced a different system and thus eliminated one of the tribe's two responsibilities. In postindependence Sudan, the handling of homicide as a crime against the state made the tribe's second function also irrelevant. The utilization and politicization of ethnic groups as units of local government have supported the continuation of tribal structures into the 1990s; however, the tribal chiefs lacked any traditional functions, except as sage advisers to their people in personal and family matters. In the contemporary period, some attempts have been made to transform these ethnic tribal structures in order to produce a national or at least a greater subnational identity. For instance, in the early formation of the Sudanese People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), one of the main ideological tenets was the need to produce a new nonnorthern riverine area solidarity based on the mobilization of diverse ethnic groups in deprived areas. Although its success has been limited, to achieve this new sense of solidarity it has attempted to recruit not only southerners, but also the Fur, Funj, Nuba, and Beja communities.
The subtribes were the largest significant political segments, and they were converted into subchiefdoms by the colonial government. Although the subchiefs were stripped of most of their administrative authority during the Nimeiri regime (1969-85) and replaced by loyal members of the Sudan Socialist Union, the advice of subchiefs was sought on local matters. Thus, a three-tiered system was created: the traditional authorities, the Sudanese civil service, and the political bureaucrats from Khartoum. During the 1980s, this confused system of administration dissolved into virtual anarchy as a result of the replacement of one regime by another, civil war, and famine. In the south, however, the SPLM created new local administrative structures in areas under its control. In general, thus, although severely damaged, the traditional structure of Nilotic society remained relatively unchanged. Loyalties to one's rural ethnic community were deeply rooted and were not forgotten even by those who fled for refuge to northern urban centers.
Sudan
In this regionally and ethnically differentiated country, peoples and communities have been identified as Sudanese only by virtue of orientation to and control by a common government. They seemed not to share significant elements of a common value system, and economic ties among them were tenuous. If a national society and elites were emerging, it was in the Three Towns constituting the national capital area. It was in Khartoum, Khartoum North, and Omdurman that the national politicians, highlevel bureaucrats, senior military, educated professionals, and wealthy merchants and entrepreneurs lived, worked, and socialized. Even those who had residences elsewhere maintained second homes in Omdurman.
These elites had long recognized the usefulness of maintaining a presence in the capital area, invariably living in Omdurman, a much more Arab city than Khartoum. The other, truly urban elites also tended to live in Omdurman, but the concentration of northern Sudan's varied elites in one city did not necessarily engender a common social life. As in many Arab and African cities, much of Omdurman's population lived in separate if not wholly isolated quarters.
Two components of the elite structure were not dominantly urban, however, although they were represented in the cities. These were the heads of important religious groups, whose constituencies and sources of power and wealth were largely rural, and what may be termed tribal elites, who carried some weight on the national level by virtue of their representing regional or sectional interests.
To the extent that the elites were Muslim and Arab--most were both--they shared a religion and language, but they were otherwise marked by differences in interest and outlook. Even more divergent were the southerners. Most elite southerners were non-Muslims, few spoke Arabic fluently, and they were regarded - and saw themselves, not primarily as a professional or bureaucratic elite, but as a regional one. Many were said to prefer a career in the south to a post in Khartoum. These southern elites exercised political power directly or gave significant support to those who did. But so diverse and sometimes conflicting were their interests and outlooks that they did not constitute a cohesive class.
Changing Sudanese society had not developed a consensus on what kinds of work, talents, possessions, and background were more worthy than others and therefore conferred higher status. There had long been merchants, entrepreneurs, and religious leaders in Sudan. The latter had a special status, but wealth and the influence and power it generated had come to carry greater status in the Sudan of 1991 than did religious position. The educated secular elite was a newer phenomenon, and some deference was given its members by other elites. In the Muslim north, the educated ranged from devotees of Islamic activism to Islamic reformers and a few avowed secularists. Despite the respect generally given the educated, those at either extreme were likely to make members of other elites uncomfortable.
The younger, larger generation of the educated elite were not all offspring of the older, smaller educated elite. Many were sons (and sometimes daughters) of businessmen, wealthy landowners, and the tribal elite. It had not been established where the interests of first-generation educated persons lay, whether with a growing educated elite or with their families of very different backgrounds. A peculiar feature of the educated Sudanese was the fact that large numbers lived outside Sudan for years at a time, working in Middle Eastern oil-producing states, Europe, or North America. Some of their earnings came back to Sudan, but it was not clear that they had much to do with the formation or characteristics of a specifically Sudanese elite.
Tribal and ethnic elites carried weight in specific localities and might be significant if the states were to achieve substantial autonomy; however, their importance on the national scene was questionable.
Socializing and intermarriage among members of the different elites would have been significant in establishing a cohesive upper class. But that had not happened yet, and movement in that direction had suffered a severe blow when the government of Colonel Umar Hassan Ahmad al Bashir that came to power on June 30, 1989 imprisoned and executed leaders of the elite. Until the Bashir government displaced it in favor of Islamists, the elite regarded itself as the arbiter of social acceptance into the company of those riverine Arab families who had long lived in the Omdurman-Khartoum area, had substantial income from landholding, and had participated in the higher reaches of government during the condominium or engaged in the professions of medicine, law, and the university. Men from these families were well educated. Few engaged in business, which tended to be in the hands of families of at least partial Egyptian ancestry.
Beginning in the late 1960s, northern Muslims of non-Egyptian background began to acquire substantial wealth as businessmen, often as importers and exporters. By the early 1980s, perhaps twenty of them were millionaires. These men had been relatively young when they began their entrepreneurial activity, and unlike members of the older elite families, they were not well educated. By the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, many of these businessmen had started sending their children to Britain or the United States for their education. Reflecting trends in other societies, whereas the sons of the older elite had been educated mainly for government careers, by the 1980s business education was increasingly emphasized. In contrast to the more secular elites in the professions, the civil service, and the military, however, many members of these newer economic elites gravitated toward religion and the Muslim Brotherhood.
Typically, the older elite intermarried and excluded those whose backgrounds they did not know, even if the families were wealthy and successful in business, religion, or education. Gradually, after independence, Arabic speakers of other sedentary families acquired higher education, entered the bureaucracy or founded lucrative businesses, and began to participate to a limited degree in the social circle of the older families. The emphasis on "good family" persisted, however, in most marriages. Sedentary Arabs were acceptable, as were some persons of an older mixture of Arab and Nile Nubian ancestry, for example, the people around Dunqulah. But southern and western Sudanese--even if Muslims--and members of nomadic groups (particularly the darker Baqqara Arabs) were not. A southern Sudanese man might be esteemed for his achievements and other qualities, but he was not considered an eligible husband for a woman of a sedentary Arab family. There were some exceptions, as there had been decades ago, but they were generally perceived as such.
Sudan
In Sudan, the extended family provided social services. Traditionally, the family was responsible for the old, the sick, and the mentally ill, although many of these responsibilities had been eroded by urbanization. Whether in rural or urban society, however, the burden of these social services fell upon the women.
Except for a small number of liberated, educated young women from families of the elite, girls remained within the household and were segregated at all festivities, eating after the men. This was particularly the case with Muslim households. Men entertained in their own quarters, and males of an extended family ate together. In a small family, the husband ate alone or, more frequently, took his bowl to join his male neighbors.
A young university couple might live much as in the West, in a house without relatives, and might live, eat, and entertain together. Nevertheless, traditional patterns were deeply rooted, and the husband would often be away visiting his male friends in the market and caf�s. At home a servant helped with the children. Although the educated young married or unmarried woman had greater mobility because of her job, she was not exempt from the traditional restrictions and the supremacy of the Muslim husband. She was aware that her education and job were not a license to trespass upon male-dominated social norms.
In some respects, the uneducated woman had greater freedom so long as it was with her peers; but even among well-to-do families, a young woman was restricted to her household and female friends until transferred to similar seclusion in the house of her husband. Paradoxically, this segregation could create a spirit of independence, particularly among educated women, for there were a host of aunts, cousins, and grandmothers to look after the children and allow the mothers to work outside the home. Nevertheless, social traditions governed the way of life of Sudanese women. The segregation and subordination of women in Sudanese society should not obscure the fact that women dominated the household just as their men commanded public life. The home and the rearing of children were their domains--so long as they upheld male-oriented social norms.
Two traditional customs among Sudanese women had an enormous impact upon their private and social relationships--the zar cult and female "circumcision." Zar was the name given to the ceremony conducted only by women practitioners required to pacify evil spirits and to cleanse women of afflictions caused by demons or jinn. Zar cults were numerous throughout Muslim Africa. Illnesses, including depression, infertility, and other organic and psychological disorders, were attributed to possession by hostile spirits. Although zar ceremonies varied widely, they not only freed the one possessed but were great social occasions where women could communicate together as men did within male circles.
Female circumcision, or infibulation (excising the external genitalia and sewing the vagina shut) was widely practiced throughout Muslim Africa, and especially among Sudan's northern Arab population. Enormous pressure was put on the twelve-year-old or younger girl, as well as older women and their families, to observe these ceremonies and practices.
The issue of female circumcision was controversial, however, because of the physical and psychological problems they caused women. Midwives performed the operations, which often led to shock, hemorrhage, and septicemia. They created innumerable obstetrical problems before and after childbirth and throughout life. Despite international conferences, legislation, and efforts to eradicate these practices, however, in the early 1990s they appeared to be on the increase, not only in Sudan but in Africa, generally. At the same time, the adoption of Western medicine by growing educated classes was increasingly promoting awareness of the harmful effects of infibulation on women; the spread of Islam, however, inhibited the eradication of this practice.
In southern Sudan, the role of women differed dramatically from that in the north. Although women were subordinate to men, they enjoyed much greater freedom within southern Sudan's societies. Female circumcision was not practiced and no zar cult existed, although the spirits were regularly consulted about private and public affairs through practitioners. Women had greater freedom of movement, and indeed participated to a limited degree in the councils of lineage. Husbands consulted their wives on matters pertaining to public affairs. Many women also played important roles in the mediation of disputes.
Sudan
Somewhat more than half Sudan's population was Muslim in the early 1990s. Most Muslims, perhaps 90 percent, lived in the north, where they constituted 75 percent or more of the population. Data on Christians was less reliable; estimates ranged from 4 to 10 percent of the population. At least one-third of the Sudanese were still attached to the indigenous religions of their forebears. Most Christian Sudanese and adherents of local religious systems lived in southern Sudan. Islam had made inroads into the south, but more through the need to know Arabic than a profound belief in the tenets of the Quran. The SPLM, which in 1991 controlled most of southern Sudan, opposed the imposition of the sharia (Islamic law).
Islam: Tenets and Practice
Sudanese Muslims are adherents of the Sunni branch of Islam, sometimes called orthodox, by far the larger of the two major branches; the other is Shia, which is not represented in Sudan. Sunni Islam in Sudan is not marked by a uniform body of belief and practice, however. Some Muslims opposed aspects of Sunni orthodoxy, and rites having a non-Islamic origin were widespread, being accepted as if they were integral to Islam, or sometimes being recognized as separate. Moreover, Sunni Islam in Sudan (as in much of Africa) has been characterized by the formation of religious orders or brotherhoods, each of which made special demands on its adherents.
Sunni Islam requires of the faithful five fundamental obligations that constitute the five pillars of Islam. The first pillar, the shahada or profession of faith is the affirmation "There is no god but God (Allah) and Muhammad is his prophet." It is the first step in becoming a Muslim and a significant part of prayer. The second obligation is prayer at five specified times of the day. The third enjoins almsgiving. The fourth requires fasting during daylight hours in the month of Ramadan. The fifth requires a pilgrimage to Mecca for those able to perform it, to participate in the special rites that occur during the twelfth month of the lunar calendar.
Most Sudanese Muslims who are born to the faith meet the first requirement. Conformity to the second requirement is more variable. Many males in the cities and larger towns manage to pray five times a day--at dawn, noon, midafternoon, sundown, and evening. Only one of these prayer times occurs during the usual working day of an urban dweller. A cultivator or pastoralist may find it more difficult to meet the requirements. Regular prayer is considered the mark of a true Muslim; it is usually accomplished individually or in small groups. Congregational prayer takes place at the Friday mosque when Muslims (usually men, but occasionally women separately located) gather, not only for the noon prayer, but to hear readings and a sermon by the local imam. Muslims fast during the ninth month of the Muslim calendar, Ramadan, the time during which the first revelations to Muhammad occurred. It is a period during which most Muslims must abstain from eating, drinking, smoking, and sexual activity during the daylight hours. The well-to-do perform little work during this period, and many businesses close or operate on reduced schedules. Because the months of the lunar calendar revolve through the solar year, Ramadan occurs during various seasons over a period of a decade or so. In the early 1990s, observance appeared to be widespread, especially in urban areas and among sedentary Sudanese Muslims.
Historically, in the Muslim world almsgiving meant both a special tax for the benefit of the poor and voluntary giving to the needy, but its voluntary aspect alone survives. Alms may be given at any time, but there are specific occasions in the Islamic year or in the life of the donor when they are more commonly dispensed. Gifts, whether of money or food, may be made on such occasions as the feasts that end Ramadan and the pilgrimage to Mecca, or in penance for some misdeed. These offerings and others are typically distributed to poor kin and neighbors.
The pilgrimage to Mecca is less costly and arduous for the Sudanese than it is for many Muslims. Nevertheless, it takes time (or money if travel is by air), and the ordinary Sudanese Muslim has generally found it difficult to accomplish, rarely undertaking it before middle age. Some have joined pilgrimage societies into which members pay a small amount monthly and choose one of their number when sufficient funds have accumulated to send someone on the pilgrimage. A returned pilgrim is entitled to use the honorific title hajj or hajjih for a woman.
Another ceremony commonly observed is the great feast Id al Adha (also known as Id al Kabir), representing the sacrifice made during the last days of the pilgrimage. The centerpiece of the day is the slaughter of a sheep, which is distributed to the poor, kin, neighbors, and friends, as well as the immediate family.
Islam imposes a standard of conduct encouraging generosity, fairness, and honesty. Sudanese Arabs, especially those who are wealthy, are expected by their coreligionists to be generous.
In accordance with Islamic law most Sudanese Muslims do not eat pork or shellfish. Conformity to the prohibitions on gambling and alcohol is less widespread. Usury is also forbidden by Islamic law, but Islamic banks have developed other ways of making money available to the public.
Sunni Islam insists on observance of the sharia, which governs not only religious activity narrowly conceived but also daily personal and social relationships. In principle, the sharia stems not from legislative enactment or judicial decision but from the Quran and the hadith--the accepted sayings of Muhammad. That principle has given rise to the conventional understanding, advocated by Islamists, that there is no distinction between the religious and the secular in a truly Islamic society. In Sudan (until 1983) modern criminal and civil, including commercial, law generally prevailed. In the north, however, the sharia, was expected to govern what is usually called family and personal law, i.e., matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. In the towns and in some sedentary communities sharia was accepted, but in other sedentary communities and among nomads local custom was likely to prevail--particularly with respect to inheritance.
In September 1983, Nimeiri imposed the sharia throughout the land, eliminating the civil and penal codes by which the country had been governed in the twentieth century. Traditional Islamic punishments were imposed for theft, adultery, homicide, and other crimes. The zealousness with which these punishments were carried out contributed to the fall of Nimeiri. Nevertheless, no successor government, including that of Bashir, has shown inclination to abandon the sharia.
Islam is monotheistic and insists that there can be no intercessors between an individual and God. Nevertheless, Sudanese Islam includes a belief in spirits as sources of illness or other afflictions and in magical ways of dealing with them. The imam of a mosque is a prayer leader and preacher of sermons. He may also be a teacher and in smaller communities combines both functions. In the latter role, he is called a faqih (pl., fuqaha), although a faqih need not be an imam. In addition to teaching in the local Quranic school ( khalwa), the fagih is expected to write texts (from the Quran) or magical verses to be used as amulets and cures. His blessing may be asked at births, marriages, deaths, and other important occasions, and he may participate in wholly non-Islamic harvest rites in some remote places. All of these functions and capacities make the faqih the most important figure in popular Islam. But he is not a priest. His religious authority is based on his putative knowledge of the Quran, the sharia, and techniques for dealing with occult threats to health and well- being. The notion that the words of the Quran will protect against the actions of evil spirits or the evil eye is deeply embedded in popular Islam, and the amulets prepared by the faqih are intended to protect their wearers against these dangers.
In Sudan as in much of African Islam, the cult of the saint is of considerable importance, although some Muslims would reject it. The development of the cult is closely related to the presence of the religious orders; many who came to be considered saints on their deaths were founders or leaders of religious orders who in their lifetimes were thought to have baraka, a state of blessedness implying an indwelling spiritual power inherent in the religious office. Baraka intensifies after death as the deceased becomes a wali (literally friend of God, but in this context translated as saint). The tomb and other places associated with the saintly being become the loci of the person's baraka, and in some views he or she becomes the guardian spirit of the locality. The intercession of the wali is sought on a variety of occasions, particularly by those seeking cures or by barren women desiring children. A saint's annual holy day is the occasion of a local festival that may attract a large gathering.
Better-educated Muslims in Sudan may participate in prayer at a saint's tomb but argue that prayer is directed only to God. Many others, however, see the saint not merely as an intercessor with and an agent of God, but also as a nearly autonomous source of blessing and power, thereby approaching "popular" as opposed to orthodox Islam.
<>Islamic Movements and Religious Orders
<>Christianity
Sudan
Islam made its deepest and longest lasting impact in Sudan through the activity of the Islamic religious brotherhoods or orders. These orders emerged in the Middle East in the twelfth century in connection with the development of Sufism, a mystical current reacting to the strongly legalistic orientation of orthodox Islam. The orders first came to Sudan in the sixteenth century and became significant in the eighteenth. Sufism seeks for its adherents a closer personal relationship with God through special spiritual disciplines. The exercises (dhikr) include reciting prayers and passages of the Quran and repeating the names, or attributes, of God while performing physical movements according to the formula established by the founder of the particular order. Singing and dancing may be introduced. The outcome of an exercise, which lasts much longer than the usual daily prayer, is often a state of ecstatic abandon.
A mystical or devotional way (sing., tariqa; pl., turuq) is the basis for the formation of particular orders, each of which is also called a tariqa. The specialists in religious law and learning initially looked askance at Sufism and the Sufi orders, but the leaders of Sufi orders in Sudan have won acceptance by acknowledging the significance of the sharia and not claiming that Sufism replaces it.
The principal turuq vary considerably in their practice and internal organization. Some orders are tightly organized in hierarchical fashion; others have allowed their local branches considerable autonomy. There may be as many as a dozen turuq in Sudan. Some are restricted to that country; others are widespread in Africa or the Middle East. Several turuq, for all practical purposes independent, are offshoots of older orders and were established by men who altered in major or minor ways the tariqa of the orders to which they had formerly been attached.
The oldest and most widespread of the turuq is the Qadiriyah founded by Abd al Qadir al Jilani in Baghdad in the twelfth century and introduced into Sudan in the sixteenth. The Qadiriyah's principal rival and the largest tariqa in the western part of the country was the Tijaniyah, a sect begun by Ahmad at Tijani in Morocco, which eventually penetrated Sudan in about 1810 via the western Sahel. Many Tijani became influential in Darfur, and other adherents settled in northern Kurdufan. Later on, a class of Tijani merchants arose as markets grew in towns and trade expanded, making them less concerned with providing religious leadership. Of greater importance to Sudan was the tariqa established by the followers of Sayyid Ahmad ibn Idris, known as Al Fasi, who died in 1837. Although he lived in Arabia and never visited Sudan, his students spread into the Nile Valley establishing indigenous Sudanese orders, the Majdhubiyah, the Idrisiyah, the Ismailiyah, and the Khatmiyyah.
Much different in organization from the other brotherhoods is the Khatmiyyah (or Mirghaniyah after the name of the order's founder). Established in the early nineteenth century by Muhammad Uthman al Mirghani, it became the best organized and most politically oriented and powerful of the turuq in eastern Sudan. Mirghani had been a student of Sayyid Ahmad ibn Idris and had joined several important orders, calling his own order the seal of the paths (Khatim at Turuq--hence Khatmiyyah). The salient features of the Khatmiyyah are the extraordinary status of the Mirghani family, whose members alone may head the order; loyalty to the order, which guarantees paradise; and the centralized control of the order's branches.
The Khatmiyyah had its center in the southern section of Ash Sharqi State and its greatest following in eastern Sudan and in portions of the riverine area. The Mirghani family were able to turn the Khatmiyyah into a political power base, despite its broad geographical distribution, because of the tight control they exercised over their followers. Moreover, gifts from followers over the years have given the family and the order the wealth to organize politically. This power did not equal, however, that of the Mirghanis' principal rival, the Ansar, or followers of the Mahdi, whose present-day leader was Sadiq al Mahdi, the great-grandson of Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah, al Mahdi, who drove the Egyptian administration from Sudan in 1885.
Most other orders were either smaller or less well organized than the Khatmiyyah. Moreover, unlike many other African Muslims, Sudanese Muslims did not all seem to feel the need to identify with one or another tariqa, even if the affiliation were nominal. Many Sudanese Muslims preferred more political movements that sought to change Islamic society and governance to conform to their own visions of the true nature of Islam.
One of these movements, Mahdism, was founded in the late nineteenth century. It has been likened to a religious order, but it is not a tariqa in the traditional sense. Mahdism and its adherents, the Ansar, sought the regeneration of Islam, and in general were critical of the turuq. Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah, a faqih, proclaimed himself to be Al Mahdi al Muntazar ("the awaited guide in the right path," usually seen as the Mahdi), the messenger of God and representative of the Prophet Muhammad, not simply a charismatic and learned teacher, an assertion that became an article of faith among the Ansar. He was sent, he said, to prepare the way for the second coming of the Prophet Isa (Jesus) and the impending end of the world. In anticipation of Judgment Day, it was essential that the people return to a simple and rigorous, even puritanical Islam. The idea of the coming of a Mahdi has roots in Sunni Islamic traditions. The issue for Sudanese and other Muslims was whether Muhammad Ahmad was in fact the Mahdi.
In the century since the Mahdist uprising, the neo-Mahdist movement and the Ansar, supporters of Mahdism from the west, have persisted as a political force in Sudan. Many groups, from the Baqqara cattle nomads to the largely sedentary tribes on the White Nile, supported this movement. The Ansar were hierarchically organized under the control of Muhammad Ahmad's successors, who have all been members of the Mahdi family (known as the ashraf). The ambitions and varying political perspectives of different members of the family have led to internal conflicts, and it appeared that Sadiq al Mahdi, putative leader of the Ansar since the early 1970s, did not enjoy the unanimous support of all Mahdists. Mahdist family political goals and ambitions seemed to have taken precedence over the movement's original religious mission. The modern-day Ansar were thus loyal more to the political descendants of the Mahdi than to the religious message of Mahdism.
A movement that spread widely in Sudan in the 1960s, responding to the efforts to secularize Islamic society, was the Muslim Brotherhood (Al Ikhwan al Muslimin), founded by Hasan al Banna in Egypt in the 1920s. Originally it was conceived as a religious revivalist movement that sought to return to the fundamentals of Islam in a way that would be compatible with the technological innovations introduced from the West. Disciplined, highly motivated, and well financed, the Muslim Brotherhood, known as the Brotherhood, became a powerful political force during the 1970s and 1980s, although it represented only a small minority of Sudanese. In the government that was formed in June 1989, following a bloodless coup d'�tat, the Brotherhood exerted influence through its political expression, the National Islamic Front (NIF) party, which included several cabinet members among its adherents.
Sudan
Christianity was most prevalent among the peoples of Al Istiwai State--the Madi, Moru, Azande, and Bari. The major churches in the Sudan were the Roman Catholic and the Anglican. Southern communities might include a few Christians, but the rituals and world view of the area were not in general those of traditional Western Christianity. The few communities that had formed around mission stations had disappeared with the dissolution of the missions in 1964. The indigenous Christian churches in Sudan, with external support, continued their mission, however, and had opened new churches and repaired those destroyed in the continuing civil conflict. Originally, the Nilotic peoples were indifferent to Christianity, but in the latter half of the twentieth century many people in the educated elite embraced its tenets, at least superficially. English and Christianity have become symbols of resistance to the Muslim government in the north, which has vowed to destroy both. Unlike the early civil strife of the 1960s and 1970s, the insurgency in the 1980s and the 1990s has taken on a more religiously confrontational character.
Sudan
Each indigenous religion is unique to a specific ethnic group or part of a group, although several groups may share elements of belief and ritual because of common ancestry or mutual influence. The group serves as the congregation, and an individual usually belongs to that faith by virtue of membership in the group. Believing and acting in a religious mode is part of daily life and is linked to the social, political, and economic actions and relationships of the group. The beliefs and practices of indigenous religions in Sudan are not systematized, in that the people do not generally attempt to put together in coherent fashion the doctrines they hold and the rituals they practice.
The concept of a high spirit or divinity, usually seen as a creator and sometimes as ultimately responsible for the actions of lesser spirits, is common to most Sudanese groups. Often the higher divinity is remote, and believers treat the other spirits as autonomous, orienting their rituals to these spirits rather than to the high god. Such spirits may be perceived as forces of nature or as manifestations of ancestors. Spirits may intervene in people's lives, either because individuals or groups have transgressed the norms of the society or because they have failed to pay adequate attention to the ritual that should be addressed to the spirits.
The Nilotes generally acknowledge an active supreme deity, who is therefore the object of ritual, but the beliefs and rituals differ from group to group. The Nuer, for example, have no word corresponding solely and exclusively to God. The word sometimes so translated refers not only to the universal governing spirit but also to ancestors and forces of nature whose spirits are considered aspects of God. It is possible to pray to one spirit as distinct from another but not as distinct from God. Often the highest manifestation of spirit, God, is prayed to directly. God is particularly associated with the winds, the sky, and birds, but these are not worshiped. The Dinka attribute any remarkable occurrence to the direct influence of God and will sometimes mark the occasion with an appropriate ritual. Aspects of God (the universal spirit) are distinguished, chief of which is Deng (rain). For the Nuer, the Dinka, and other Nilotes, human beings are as ants to God, whose actions are not to be questioned and who is regarded as the judge of all human behavior.
Cattle play a significant role in Nilotic rituals. Cattle are sacrificed to God as expiatory substitutes for their owners. The function is consistent with the significance of cattle in all aspects of Nilotic life. Among the Nuer, for example, and with some variations among the Dinka, cattle are the foundation of family and community life, essential to subsistence, marriage payments, and personal pride. The cattle shed is a shrine and meeting place, the center of the household; a man of substance, head of a family, and a leading figure in the community is called a "bull." Every man and the spirits themselves have ox names that denote their characteristic qualities. These beliefs and institutions give meaning to the symbolism of the rubbing of ashes on a sacrificial cow's back in order to transfer the burden of the owner's sins to the animal.
The universal god of the Shilluk is more remote than that of the Nuer and Dinka and is addressed through the founder of the Shilluk royal clan. Nyiking, considered both man and god, is not clearly distinguished from the supreme deity in ritual, although the Shilluk may make the distinction in discussing their beliefs. The king (reth) of the Shilluk is regarded as divine, an idea that has never been accepted by the Nuer and Dinka.
All of the Nilotes and other peoples as well pay attention to ancestral spirits, the nature of the cult varying considerably as to the kinds of ancestors who are thought to have power in the lives of their descendants. Sometimes it may be the founding ancestors of the group whose spirits are potent. In many cases it is the recently deceased ancestors who are active and must be placated.
Of the wide range of natural forces thought to be activated by spirits, perhaps the most common is rain. Although southern Sudan does not suffer as acutely as northern Sudan from lack of rain, there has sometimes been a shortage, particularly during the 1970s and 1980s and in 1990; this lack has created hardship, famine, and death amidst the travail of civil war. For this reason, rituals connected with rain have become important in many ethnic groups, and ritual specialists concerned with rain or thought to incarnate the spirit of rain are important figures.
The distinction between the natural and the supernatural that has emerged in the Western world is not relevant to the traditional religions. Spirits may have much greater power than human beings, but their powers are perceived not as altering the way the world commonly works but as explaining occurrences in nature or in the social world.
Some men and women are also thought to have extraordinary powers. How these powers are believed to be acquired and exercised varies from group to group. In general, however, some people are thought to have inherited the capacity to harm others and to have a disposition to do so. Typically they are accused of inflicting illnesses on specific individuals, frequently their neighbors or kin. In some groups, it is thought that men and women who have no inherent power to harm may nevertheless do damage to others by manipulating images of the victim or items closely associated with that person.
Occasionally an individual may be thought of as a sorcerer. When illness or some other affliction strikes in a form that is generally attributed to a sorcerer, there are ways (typically some form of divination) of confirming that witchcraft was used and identifying the sorcerer.
The notions of sorcery are not limited to the southern Sudanese, but are to be found in varying forms among peoples, including nomadic and other Arabs, who consider themselves Muslims. A specific belief widespread among Arabs and other Muslim peoples is the notion of the evil eye. Although a physiological peculiarity of the eye (walleye or cross-eye) may be considered indicative of the evil eye, any persons expressing undue interest in the private concerns of another may be suspected of inflicting deliberate harm by a glance. Unlike most witchcraft, where the perpetrator is known by and often close to the victim, the evil eye is usually attributed to strangers. Children are thought to be the most vulnerable.
Ways exist to protect oneself against sorcery or the evil eye. Many magico-religious specialists--diviners and sorcerers-- deal with these matters in Sudanese societies. The diviner is able to determine whether witchcraft or sorcery is responsible for the affliction and to discover the source. He also protects and cures by providing amulets and other protective devices for a fee or by helping a victim punish (in occult fashion) the sorcerer in order to be cured of the affliction. If it is thought that an evil spirit has possessed a person, an exorcist may be called in. In some groups these tasks may be accomplished by the same person; in others the degree of specialization may be greater. In northern Sudan among Muslim peoples, the faqih may spend more of his time as diviner, dispenser of amulets, healer, and exorcist than as Quranic teacher, imam of a mosque, or mystic.
Sudan
The public and private education systems inherited by the government after independence were designed more to provide civil servants and professionals to serve the colonial administration than to educate the Sudanese. Moreover, the distribution of facilities, staff, and enrollment was biased in favor of the needs of the administration and a Western curriculum. Schools tended to be clustered in the vicinity of Khartoum and to a lesser extent in other urban areas, although the population was predominantly rural. This concentration was found at all levels but was most marked for those in situations beyond the four-year primary schools where instruction was in the vernacular. The north suffered from shortages of teachers and buildings, but education in the south was even more inadequate. During the condominium, education in the south was left largely to the mission schools, where the level of instruction proved so poor that as early as the mid-1930s the government imposed provincial education supervisors upon the missionaries in return for the government subsidies that they sorely needed. The civil war and the ejection of all foreign missionaries in February 1964 further diminished education opportunities for southern Sudanese.
Since World War II the demand for education had exceeded Sudan's education resources. At independence in 1956, education accounted for only 15.5 percent of the Sudanese budget, or �Sd45 million, to support 1,778 primary schools (enrollment 208,688), 108 intermediate schools (enrollment 14,632), and 49 government secondary schools (enrollment 5,423). Higher education was limited to the University of Khartoum, except for less than 1,000 students sent abroad by wealthy parents or on government scholarships. The adult literacy rate in 1956 was 22.9 percent, and, despite the efforts of successive governments, by 1990 it had risen only to about 30 percent in the face of a rapidly expanding population.
The philosophy and curriculum beyond primary school followed the British educational tradition. Although all students learned Arabic and English in secondary and intermediate schools, the language of instruction at the University of Khartoum was English. Moreover, the increasing demand for intermediate, secondary, and higher education could not be met by Sudanese teachers alone, at least not by the better educated ones graduated from the elite teacher-training college at Bakht ar Ruda. As a result, education in Sudan continued to depend upon expensive foreign teachers.
When the Nimeiri-led government took power in 1969, it considered the education system inadequate for the needs of social and economic development. Accordingly, an extensive reorganization was proposed, which would eventually make the new six-year elementary education program compulsory and would pay much more attention to technical and vocational education at all levels. Previously, primary and intermediate schools had been preludes to secondary training, and secondary schools prepared students for the university. The system produced some well- trained university graduates, but little was done to prepare for technical work or skilled labor the great bulk of students who did not go as far as the university or even secondary school.
By the late 1970s, the government's education system had been largely reorganized. There were some preprimary schools, mainly in urban areas. The basic system consisted of a six-year curriculum in primary schools and three-year curriculum in junior secondary schools. From that point, qualified students could go on to one of three kinds of schools: the three-year upper secondary, which prepared students for higher education; commercial and agricultural technical schools; and teacher- training secondary schools designed to prepare primary-school teachers. The latter two institutions offered four-year programs. Postsecondary schools included universities, higher technical schools, intermediate teacher-training schools for junior secondary teachers, and higher teacher-training schools for upper-secondary teachers.
Of the more than 5,400 primary schools in 1980, less than 14 percent were located in southern Sudan, which had between 20 and 33 percent of the country's population. Many of these southern schools were established during the Southern Regional administration (1972-81). The renewal of the civil war in mid- 1983 destroyed many schools, although the SPLA operated schools in areas under its control. Nevertheless, many teachers and students were among the refugees fleeing the ravages of war in the south.
In the early 1980s, the number of junior (also called general) secondary schools was a little more than one-fifth the number of primary schools, a proportion roughly consistent with that of general secondary to primary-school population (260,000 to 1,334,000). About 6.5 percent of all general secondary schools were in the south until 1983.
There were only 190 upper-secondary schools in the public system in 1980, but it was at this level that private schools of varying quality proliferated, particularly in the three cities of the capital area. Elite schools could recruit students who had selected them as a first choice, but the others took students whose examination results at the end of junior secondary school did not gain them entry to the government's upper secondary schools.
In 1980, despite the emphasis on technical education proposed by the government and encouraged by various international advisory bodies, there were only thirty-five technical schools in Sudan, less than one-fifth the number of academic upper secondary schools. In 1976-77 eight times as many students entered the academic stream as entered the technical schools, creating a profound imbalance in the marketplace. Moreover, prospective employers often found technical school graduates inadequately trained, a consequence of sometimes irrelevant curricula, low teacher morale, and lack of equipment. Performance may also have suffered because of the low morale of students, many of whom tended to see this kind of schooling as second choice at best, a not surprising view given the system's past emphasis on academic training, and the low status of manual labor, at least among much of the Arab population. The technical schools were meant to include institutions for training skilled workers in agriculture, but few of the schools were directed to that end, most of them turning out workers more useful in the urban areas.
The hope for universal and compulsory education had not been realized by the early 1980s, but as a goal it led to a more equitable distribution of facilities and teachers in rural areas and in the south. During the 1980s, the government established more schools at all levels and with them, more teacher-training schools, although these were never sufficient to provide adequate staff. But the process was inherently slow and was made slower by limited funds and by the inadequate compensation for staff; teachers who could find a market for their skills elsewhere, including places outside Sudan, did not remain teachers within the Sudanese system.
The proliferation of upper-level technical schools has not dealt with what most experts saw as Sudan's basic education problem: providing a primary education to as many Sudanese children as possible. Establishing more primary schools was, in this view, more important that achieving equity in the distribution of secondary schools. Even more important was the development of a primary-school curriculum that was geared to Sudanese experience and took into account that most of those who completed six years of schooling did not go further. The realistic assumption was that Sudan's resources were limited and that expenditures on the postprimary level limited expenditures on the primary level, leaving most Sudanese children with an inadequate education. In the early 1990s this situation had not significantly changed.
In the mid-1970s, there were four universities, eleven colleges, and twenty-three institutes in Sudan. The universities were in the capital area, and all of the institutions of higher learning were in the northern provinces. Colleges were specialized degree-granting institutions. Institutes granted diplomas and certificates for periods of specialized study shorter than those commonly demanded at universities and colleges. These postsecondary institutions and universities had provided Sudan with a substantial number of well-educated persons in some fields but left it short of technical personnel and specialists in sciences relevant to the country's largely rural character.
By 1980 two new universities had opened, one in Al Awsat Province at Wad Madani, the other in Juba in Al Istiwai Province, and in 1981 there was talk of opening a university in Darfur, which was nearly as deprived of educational facilities as the south. By 1990 some institutes had been upgraded to colleges, and many had become part of an autonomous body called the Khartoum Institute of Technical Colleges (also referred to as Khartoum Polytechnic). Some of its affiliates were outside the capital area, for example, the College of Mechanical Engineering at Atbarah, northeast of Khartoum, and Al Jazirah College of Agriculture and Natural Resources at Abu Naamah in Al Awsat.
The oldest university was the University of Khartoum, which was established as a university in 1956. In 1990 it enrolled about 12,000 students in degree programs ranging from four to six years in length. Larger but less prestigious was the Khartoum branch of the University of Cairo with 13,000 students. The size of the latter and perhaps its lack of prestige reflected the fact that many if not most of its students worked to support themselves and attended classes in the afternoon and at night, although some day classes were introduced in 1980. Tuition only at the Khartoum branch was free, whereas all costs at the fully residential University of Khartoum were paid for by the government. At the Institute of Higher Technical Studies, which had 4,000 students in 1990, tuition was free, and a monthly grant helped to defray but did not fully cover other expenses. The smallest of the universities in the capital area was the specialized Islamic University of Omdurman, which existed chiefly to train Muslim religious judges and scholars.
The University of Juba, established in 1977, graduated its first class in 1981. It was intended to provide education for development and for the civil service for southern Sudan, although it was open to students from the whole country. In its first years, it enrolled a substantial number of civil servants from the south for further training, clearly needed in an area where many in the civil service had little educational opportunity in their youth. After the outbreak of hostilities in the south in 1983, the university was moved to Khartoum, a move that had severely curtailed its instructional programs, but the university continued to operate again in Juba in the late 1980s. Al Jazirah College of Agriculture and Natural Resources was also intended to serve the country as a whole, but its focus was consistent with its location in the most significant agricultural area in Sudan.
Of particular interest was the dynamic growth and expansion of Omdurman Ahlia University. It was established by academics, professionals, and businesspeople in 1982 upon the hundredth anniversary of the founding of the city of Omdurman and was intended to meet the ever-growing demand for higher education and training. The university was to be nongovernmental, job oriented, and self-supporting. Support came mainly from private donations, foreign foundations, and the government, which approved the allotment of thirty acres of prime land on the western outskirts of Omdurman for the campus. Its curriculum, taught in English and oriented to job training pertinent to the needs of Sudan, had attracted more than 1,800 students by 1990. Its emphasis on training in administration, environmental studies, physics and mathematics, and library science had proven popular.
Girls' Education
Traditionally, girls' education was of the most rudimentary kind, frequently provided by a khalwa, or religious school, in which Quranic studies were taught. Such basic schools did not prepare girls for the secular learning mainstream, from which they were virtually excluded. Largely through the pioneering work of Shaykh Babikr Badri, the government had provided five elementary schools for girls by 1920. Expansion was slow, however, given the bias for boys and the conservatism of Sudanese society, with education remaining restricted to the elementary level until 1940. It was only in 1940 that the first intermediate school for girls, the Omdurman Girls' Intermediate School, opened. By 1955, ten intermediate schools for girls were in existence. In 1956, the Omdurman Secondary School for Girls, with about 265 students, was the only girls' secondary school operated by the government. By 1960, 245 elementary schools for girls had been established, but only 25 junior secondary or general schools and 2 upper-secondary schools. There were no vocational schools for girls, only a Nurses' Training College with but eleven students, nursing not being regarded by many Sudanese as a respectable vocation for women. During the 1960s and 1970s, girls' education made considerable gains under the education reforms that provided 1,086 primary schools, 268 intermediate schools, and 52 vocational schools for girls by 1970, when girls' education claimed approximately one-third of the total school resources available. Although by the early 1990s the numbers had increased in the north but not in the war-torn south, the ratio had remained approximately the same.
This slow development of girls' education was the product of the country's tradition. Parents of Sudanese girls tended to look upon girls' schools with suspicion if not fear that they would corrupt the morals of their daughters. Moreover, preference was given to sons, who by education could advance themselves in society to the pride and profit of the family. This girls could not do; their value was enhanced not at school but at home, in preparation for marriage and the dowry that accompanied the ceremony. The girl was a valuable asset in the home until marriage, either in the kitchen or in the fields. Finally, the lack of schools has discouraged even those who desired elementary education for their daughters.
This rather dismal situation should not obscure the successful efforts of schools such as the Ahfad University College in Omdurman, founded by Babikr Badri as an elementary school for girls in the 1920s. By 1990 it had evolved as the premier women's university college in Sudan with an enrollment of 1,800. It had a mixture of academic and practical programs, such as those that educated women to teach in rural areas.
Education Reform
The revolutionary government of General Bashir announced sweeping reforms in Sudanese education in September 1990. In consultation with leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood and Islamic teachers and administrators, who were the strongest supporters of his regime, Bashir proclaimed a new philosophy of education. He allocated �Sd400 million for the academic year 1990-91 to carry out these reforms and promised to double the sum if the current education system could be changed to meet the needs of Sudan.
The new education philosophy was to provide a frame of reference for the reforms. Education was to be based on the permanence of human nature, religious values, and physical nature. This could only be accomplished by a Muslim curriculum, which in all schools, colleges, and universities would consist of two parts: an obligatory and an optional course of study. The obligatory course to be studied by every student was to be based on revealed knowledge concerning all disciplines. All the essential elements of the obligatory course would be drawn from the Quran and the recognized books of the hadith. The optional course of study would permit the student to select certain specializations according to individual aptitudes and inclinations. Whether the government could carry out such sweeping reforms throughout the country in the face of opposition from within the Sudanese education establishment and the dearth of resources for implementing such an ambitious project remained to be seen. Membership in the Popular Defence Forces, a paramilitary body allied to the National Islamic Front, became a requirement for university admission. By early 1991, Bashir had decreed that the number of university students be doubled and that Arabic replace English as the language of instruction in universities. He dismissed about seventy faculty members at the University of Khartoum who opposed his reforms.
Sudan
The high incidence of debilitating and sometimes fatal diseases that persisted in the 1980s and had increased dramatically by 1991 reflected difficult ecological conditions and inadequate diets. The diseases resulting from these conditions were hard to control without substantial capital inputs, a much more adequate health care system, and the education of the population in preventive medicine.
By 1991 health care in Sudan had all but disintegrated. The civil war in southern Sudan destroyed virtually all southern medical facilities except those that the SPLA had rebuilt to treat their own wounded and the hospitals in the three major towns controlled by government forces--Malakal, Waw, and Juba. These facilities were virtually inoperable because of the dearth of the most basic medical supplies. A similar situation existed in northern Sudan, where health care facilities, although not destroyed by war, had been rendered almost impotent by the economic situation. Sudan lacked the hard currency to buy the most elementary drugs, such as antimalarials and antibiotics, and the most basic equipment, such as syringes. Private medical care in the principal towns continued to function but was also hampered by the dearth of pharmaceuticals. In addition, harassed the Bashir government, the private sector particularly the Sudan Medical Association, which was dissolved and many of its members were jailed. Compounding the rapid decline in health care have been the years of famine during most of the 1980s, culminating in the great famine of 1991, which was caused by drought and widespread crop failures in Bahr al Ghazal State and in Darfur and Kurdufan. The famine was so widespread that, according to various estimates, 1.5 million to 7 million Sudanese would perish.
Widespread malnutrition also made the people more vulnerable to the many debilitating and fatal diseases present in Sudan. The most common illnesses were malaria, prevalent throughout the country; various forms of dysentery or other intestinal diseases, also widely prevalent; and tuberculosis, more common in the north but also found in the south. More restricted geographically but affecting substantial portions of the population in the areas of occurrence were schistosomiasis (snail fever), found in the White Nile and Blue Nile areas and in irrigated zones between the two Niles, and trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), originally limited to the southern borderlands but spreading rapidly in the 1980s in the forested regions of southern Sudan. It was estimated that by 1991 nearly 250,000 persons had been affected by sleeping sickness. Not uncommon were such diseases as cerebrospinal meningitis, measles, whooping cough, infectious hepatitis, syphilis, and gonorrhea.
Even in years of normal rainfall, many Sudanese in the rural areas suffered from temporary undernourishment on a seasonal basis, a situation that worsened when drought, locusts, or other disasters struck crops or animals. More dangerous was malnutrition among children, defined as present when a child's body weight was less than 80 percent of the expected body weight for the age. The weight criterion in effect stood for a complex of nutritional deficiencies that might lead directly to death or make the child susceptible to diseases from which he or she could not recover. A Sudanese government agency estimated that half the population under fifteen--roughly one-fourth of the total population--suffered from malnutrition in the early 1980s. This figure increased substantially during the famine of 1991.
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) was present in Sudan, primarily in the southern states bordering Uganda and Zaire, where the disease had reached epidemic proportions. There had been a steady increase in AIDS in Khartoum, because of the hundreds of thousands of people emigrating to the capital to escape the civil war and famine. The use of unsterile syringes and untested blood by health care providers clearly contributed to its spread. In spite of the increase in the spread of AIDS, the Sudanese government in 1991 lacked a coherent national AIDS control policy.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the government undertook programs to deal with specific diseases in limited areas, with help from the World Health Organization and other sources. It also initiated more general approaches to the problems of health maintenance in rural areas, particularly in the south. These efforts began against a background of inadequate and unequal distribution of medical personnel and facilities, and events of the late 1980s and early 1990s caused an almost complete breakdown in health care. In 1982 there were nearly 2,200 physicians in Sudan, or roughly one for each 8,870 persons. Most physicians were concentrated in urban areas in the north, as were the major hospitals, including those specializing in the treatment of tuberculosis, eye disorders, and mental illness. In 1981 there were 60 physicians in the south for a population of roughly 5 million or 1 for approximately 83,000 persons. In 1976 there were 2,500 medical assistants, the crucial participants in a system that could not assume the availability of an adequate number of physicians in the foreseeable future. After three years of training and three to four years of supervised hospital experience, medical assistants were expected to be able to diagnose common endemic diseases and to provide simple treatments and vaccinations. There were roughly 12,800 nurses in 1982 and about 7,000 midwives, trained and working chiefly in the north.
In principle, medical consultation and therapeutic drugs were free. There were, however, private clinics and pharmacies, and they were said to be growing in number in the capital area in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The ever worsening shortage of medical personnel and of pharmacenticals had, however, limited the effectiveness of free treatment. In urban areas, physicians and medical assistants could be seen only after a long wait at the hospitals or clinics at which they served. In rural areas, extended travel as well as long waits were common. In urban and rural areas, the drugs prescribed were often not obtainable from hospital pharmacies. In the Khartoum area, they could be obtained at considerable cost from private pharmacies. In addition to the problems of cost, however, were those posed by difficulties of transportation and inadequate storage facilities. In the south, especially during the rainy season, the roads were often impassable. There and elsewhere, the refrigeration necessary for many pharmaceuticals was not available. All of these difficulties were compounded by inadequacies of stock rotation and inspection. Members of the country's elite overcame these problems by taking advantage of medical treatment abroad.
In the mid-1970s, the Ministry of Health began a national program to provide primary health care with emphasis on preventive medicine. The south was expected to be the initial beneficiary of the program, given the dearth of health personnel and facilities there, but other areas were not to be ignored. The basic component in the system was the primary health care center staffed by community health workers and expected to serve about 4,000 persons. Community health care workers received six months of formal training followed by three months of practical work at an existing center, after which they were assigned to a new center. Refresher courses were also planned. The workers were to provide health care information and certain medicines and would refer cases they could not deal with to dispensaries and hospitals. In principle, there would be one dispensary for every 24,000 persons. Of the forty primary health care centers and dispensaries to be completed by 1984, about half were in place by 1981. In addition, local (district) hospitals were to be improved. The program in the south was supported by the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), which also provided medical advisers. In 1981 the program was most advanced in eastern Al Istiwai Province, but it was too early to assess the effects on the health of the people, and the program had virtually disappeared by 1991.
Two local programs for the control of endemic disease were also undertaken in the late 1970s and early 1980s. One was in the area of the Gezira Scheme, where it was estimated that 50 to 70 percent of the people suffered from schistosomiasis, a health problem aggravated by the presence of malaria and dysentery. The Blue Nile Health Care Project, a ten-year program inaugurated in early 1980, was intended to deal with all of these waterborne diseases simultaneously. Because people bathed in and drank the water in the irrigation canals, which were contaminated by human waste, a major change in their habits was required, as well as the provision of healthful drinking water and sanitary facilities that did not drain into the canals. Diarrheal diseases were to be treated with rehydration salts that should diminish considerably the very high rate of infant deaths. As of the 1991, the persistent civil war and the collapse of the Sudanese economy made the inauguration of these projects doubtful. Other programs to provide relief to disease and famine victims in Sudan were organized by foreign aid agencies' such as the World Food Program, the Save the Children Fund, Oxford Committee for Famine Relief, and the French medical group, M�decins sans Fronti�res (Doctors Without Borders).
| Dinka people |
What was the name of the former Taoiseach of Ireland who died in May 2011? | Sudan - Civil War and Genocide: Disappearing Christians of the Middle East :: Middle East Quarterly
Sudan - Civil War and Genocide
Disappearing Christians of the Middle East
by Francis M. Deng
http://www.meforum.org/22/sudan-civil-war-and-genocide
John Garang, commander of the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA).
The great challenge for Christianity in the Sudan, especially in the southern part of the country, is closely linked to the civil war between Sudan's North and South. This war has raged intermittently since 1955, making it possibly the longest civil conflict in the world. It continues unabated, mostly outside the focus of diplomacy or the attention of international media, taking a huge and terrible human toll. Over two million people have died as a result of the war and related causes, such as war-induced famine. About five million people have been displaced, while half a million more have fled across an international border. Tens of thousands of women and children have been abducted and subjected to slavery. By all accounts, it appears to be the worst humanitarian disaster in the world today.
Religion is the pivotal factor in the conflict. The North, with roughly two-thirds of Sudan's land and population, is Muslim and Arabic-speaking; the Northern identity is an inseparable amalgamation of Islam and the Arabic language. The South is more indigenously African in race, culture, and religion; its identity is indigenously African, with Christian influences and a Western orientation.
Although Christianity predated Islam in northern Sudan, it was effectively eradicated and replaced by Islam by the early sixteenth century. It was then introduced to the southern part of the country through missionary work that was associated with British colonialism. Since independence, the South has been threatened by the policies of Arabization and Islamization. Paradoxically, the religious persecution of non-Muslims has the effect of promoting Christianity; Southerners now see Christianity as the most effective means of counteracting the imposition of Islam, especially as traditional religions cannot withstand the forces of spiritual and religious globalization.
Paradoxically, the religious persecution of non-Muslims has the effect of promoting Christianity, which Southerners now see as the most effective means of counteracting the imposition of Islam.
Background: The North
The civil war culminates a long history in which the North has tried to spread its religion and language to the South, which has resisted these efforts.
The North's identification with the Middle East is an ancient one, going back several thousand years, to the time when Egyptians and Arabians expanded southward in the search for slaves, gold, ivory, and taxation revenue. Christianity entered the scene in the sixth century A.D. and became the religion of three kingdoms (Nubia, Magarra, and Alwa) that survived for a thousand years. The introduction of Islam a century later, primarily by traders, then led to descent groups in Sudan tracing their genealogy back to Arabia; in the case of politically or religiously prominent families, they claim to have roots going back to the Prophet Muhammad himself. Islamization set in motion a process of gradual decline for Christianity in northern Sudan, culminating in the overthrow of the Christian kingdoms in 1504 by an alliance of Arabs and the Muslim kingdom of Funj. In due course, Islam and Arabic gained hold in the North and overshadowed the indigenous and Christian cultures. Islam in northern Sudan was later reinforced by every successive regime, from the Ottoman-Egyptian administration that invaded the country in 1821 to the Mahdist Islamic revolution that overthrew it in 1885, and even to the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium that ruled the country from 1898 until Sudanese independence in 1956.
In the nineteenth century, the Turkish rulers of Egypt and the Mahdist government in Khartoum invaded the South in hopes of extending their own boundaries, as well as to gain access to more slaves. Indeed, to Southerners their actions were indistinguishable from one another; they were all slave hunters. Southern memory associates them with nothing less than the total destruction of their society. Oral history in Sudan refers to this period as the time when the world was spoiled.1
While Arabs could invade the South to capture slaves, they never penetrated deeply and did not settle. Swamps, flies, mosquitoes, tropical humidity, and the fierce resistance of the people kept contact to a minimum, even as it was devastatingly violent. Arabs were interested in the material value of blacks as slaves and so had no wish to integrate with them (in contrast to their pattern of settling down with Northerners); had the southern Sudanese converted to Islam, it bears noting, Arabs could no longer have engaged in legal slave raids against them (given that Islam prohibits the enslavement of fellow Muslims).
Background: The South
In sharp contrast, the identity of southern Sudan has been shaped primarily by the prolonged resistance to the imposition of Arab and Islamic culture from the North. This has had the effect of unifying the Southerners as black Africans and has geared them toward Christianity and the English language as means of combating Islam and Arabism.
The identity of southern Sudan has been shaped primarily by the prolonged resistance to the imposition of Arab and Islamic culture from the North.
In contrast to the Arabs, the British were associated with the redemption of the South from the Arab slave raids. The British sought first to suppress the trade in slaves through their influence on the Turko-Egyptian administration, then, after the re-conquest of the Sudan in 1898, to abolish it; also, British occupation meant that the North's efforts to spread Islam southwards were confined to urban centers and in the end were significantly frustrated. In sharp contrast to the Muslims, Christian missionaries came to southern Sudan peacefully. They arrived with the British conquest of Sudan, encouraged by London to spread the Christian gospel through pacific means, largely by providing education, health services, and other social services. To avoid sectarian competition, the British administration allotted each sect spheres of influence for its missionaries. Over the next century, Christian missionary activity came to be associated with personal well-being and socio-economic development, positive incentives which won over many new converts.
This official favoritism toward Christian missions in the South, notwithstanding, the British authorities in Sudan sought to keep religion and state apart. Thus, the Reverend Wilson Cash, secretary of the Church Missionary Society, observed in 1930:
The government is scrupulously fair to Muslims and pagans, and in religious matters adopts a strictly neutral attitude. The task of evangelization is no part of the government's work and it falls to the mission alone to decide whether these southern pagan tribes shall be left to be captured for Islam or whether they shall be won for Jesus Christ.2
Some missionaries worried that this neutrality would in the long term benefit Islam, for the latter in many ways better accommodated the African way of life and was therefore more likely to appeal to the pagans. For example, whereas the Christian proselytizer is interested in intensive religious instruction as a prerequisite to baptism, the Islamizer is more interested in the recital by the convert of the words, "There is no divinity but God, and Muhammad is His Prophet." As Charles D'Oliver Farran observed, "No other test is necessary, and it would not matter if he had never heard of Mecca or even the Koran."3 Among other factors which, according to northern Sudanese scholar Mahgoub Ahmed Kurdi, appear to favor Islam are
The Arabic language, the equal status practiced among Muslims, the ease with which the Islamic creed was understood, the comprehensive determination by Islam of all the aspects of personal, social, and religious life, the similarities between Islam and African traditional religions, and Islam's orientation of its converts towards Islamization in southern Sudan.4
In the Sudanese context, the Arabic language had special importance, for it
gave the Southerners the ability to communicate with all the inhabitants of the Sudan, especially the Northerners and the government whose daily language was Arabic. Having no common language of their own, the members of various tribes took recourse to Arabic as lingua franca to understand one another. Those who mastered the language immediately found themselves in an advantaged position over those who did not. Commonly the Arabic language therefore served the religious as well as the mundane purposes.5
Despite this, southern Sudanese tended to receive Christianity favorably, for they associated it with peaceful preaching and the benefits of modern education and medical services. Christianity also benefited from the sense that Europeans had come to rescue the Southerners from enslavement by Arabs. This understanding was, of course, a bit innocent, for some nineteenth-century Europeans were in fact engaged in the slave trade, but their involvement was hidden by their reliance on Egyptian or northern Sudanese middlemen whom southern Sudanese saw as the sole culprits.
Civil War since Independence
With independence in 1956, the northern-dominated government in Khartoum sought to Arabize and Islamize the South. It had two motives: a belief that homogenizing the country would ensure national unity and a desire to spread what they considered to be a superior civilization. Some Southerners did convert, whether out of conviction or for other reasons, but most resisted.
A civil war between North and South had already begun a year before independence, in 1955, continuing until the Addis Ababa agreement of 1972 granted regional autonomy to the South. Although the issue of a constitution in conformity with Islam had been debated since independence, President Ja'far Muhammad Numayri's presidential decree of September 1983, imposing Shari'a (the sacred law of Islam) on the country placed the issue squarely on the public agenda, leading to increased tensions and eventual conflict between the government and rebels in the South. The conflict resumed in 1983 when the Khartoum government unilaterally abrogated the Addis Ababa agreement, divided the South into three regions, reduced the powers of the regional governments, and imposed Shari'a on the whole country, including the non-Muslim South.
The South fought under the leadership of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement and its military wing, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLM/SPLA). The rebellion was triggered when the government attempted to transfer southern battalions to the North, thereby removing their capacity to resist. The rebels fled to Ethiopia, where they received strong support which helped them organize themselves and equipped them militarily, turning them into a strong force against the government. Although the SPLM/SPLA is composed largely of Southerners under Christian leadership, it was later joined by non-Arab ethnic groups from the North and liberal-minded Northerners who share with the movement a vision of a secular, democratic Sudan.
Then, after Numayri's ouster in 1985, the Muslim Brethren, an elite Islamist group, metamorphosed into a broader-based political party, the National Islamic Front (NIF). The NIF shot to prominence in the parliamentary elections of 1986, winning the third largest number of seats. The group's Islamic agenda was endorsed and reinforced by General 'Umar Hasan al-Bashir, who seized power on June 30, 1989, in the name of the "Revolution for National Salvation." Initially, Bashir projected himself as independent from the NIF, although he shared its Islamist agenda. In due course, however, it became clear that the coup d'état was in fact engineered by the NIF and that Hasan at-Turabi, the NIF's leader, wielded the real power with Bashir not much more than the executor of his will. Recently, however, a conflict over power has ensued between Bashir, supported by young hawks from Turabi's camp, and Turabi, joined by some loyal NIF members and new supporters. While the struggle continues, Bashir appears to have the upper-hand while Turabi is significantly marginalized within the system. Their conflict has limited importance for the South, being internal to the Islamist agenda; both parties still agree that the South will only receive limited accommodation within an Islamic state.
Since the resumption of hostilities in 1983, the relationship between religion and the state, in particular the role of Shari'a, has emerged as the central factor in the conflict. Religion on both sides defines identity. For Northerners, Islam is not only a faith and a way of life, it is also culture and ethnic identity associated with Arabism. For Southerners, Islam is not just a religion, but also Arabism as a racial, ethnic, and cultural phenomenon that excludes them as black Africans and adherents of Christianity and indigenous religions. Race in the Sudan is not so much a function of color or features, but a state of mind, a case of self-perception; the North identifies as Arab, no matter how dark its people's skin color.
Religion defines identity in both the Sudan's North and the South.
The southern backlash to Islamization and Arabization boosted its Christian identity. Southerners now combine indigenous culture, Christianity, and general elements of Western culture to combat Islam and the associated imposition of Arab identity. A northern Islamic scholar, 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Affendi, articulated the religious dilemmas for the country when he wrote:
The close association between Islam and northern Sudanese nationalism would certainly rob Islam of an advantage [in the South] . . . [as] it remains beset by problems similar to those that limited the appeal of the SPLA's Africanism [in the North].
He elaborates:
Northern Sudanese, who identify strongly with their Arab heritage, are in no danger of being seduced by Africanism. . . . But equally, Islamic ideology is by definition, unacceptable to non-Muslims. Its association with Arab northern self-assertion makes it even more unpalatable to Southerners.6
The clash of these two antagonistic cultural outlooks has implications that go beyond the borders of Sudan, for the two identity groups have affinities within and beyond Africa along both religious and racial lines that could potentially widen the circles of conflict. The Arab-Islamic world sees in northern Sudan an identity that must be, and has been, supported. For it, the South serves as a dangerous rallying point for Christendom, the West, and even Zionism to combat Islam. While this is largely an exaggerated conspiratorial construct, it provides a strong basis for Arab-Islamic solidarity with the North. On the other hand, black Africa sees in the plight of the South a humiliating racist oppression that must be resisted. While the commitment to African unity without racial or cultural distinctions inhibits overt support for the South, they have discreetly and clandestinely supported the SPLM/SPLA. The potential for an Arab-African clash over the Sudan remains real. There is no doubt that Sudan is as much a link as it is potentially a point of confrontation among converging diverse identities.
The potential for an Arab-African clash over the Sudan remains real.
Northern Efforts
From the North's perspective, the South is a legitimate domain for Arab-Islamic influence which the Christian missionaries, in alliance with British colonial rulers, wrongly usurped. Northerners believe that the roots of Christian and Western influence in the South are shallow and can easily be replaced by Islam and Arabic culture. Interestingly, just one year after independence, the government nationalized all Christian missionary schools in the South, causing them to lose their Christian character while allowing missionary schools in the North to continue to provide education to mostly Muslim students, albeit without proselytizing Christianity.
The council of ministers decided in February 1960 to change the official day of rest in the South from Sunday to Friday. When southern schools went on strike in protest against that decision, the government retaliated by prosecuting the alleged ring leaders and imposing severe prison sentences on them. A native priest, Poulino Dogali, was sentenced to twelve years' imprisonment for having printed and distributed a leaflet critical of the government's decision. Two secondary-school students received ten years each for having instigated the students' protest. On April 8, 1960, several years before the expulsion of the missionaries, the daily Ra'i al-'Amm newspaper urged northern Sudanese to join efforts with the government to proselytize Islam in the South: "There is no doubt that many in this country know how much need Islam has in the South of efforts on the part of the government. The administrative authorities and men of the Ministry of Education and of the Department of Religious Affairs continue to make gigantic efforts; but this by itself is not enough."
In 1962, the government enacted the Missionary Societies Act, regulating missionary activities. No missionary society or any member of such society should do missionary work in the Sudan except in accordance with the terms of a license granted by the council of ministers. The license could impose whatever conditions the council of ministers might think fit. The council of ministers might refuse to grant or renew a license and could revoke one at its discretion. The act imposed spatial limitations and prohibited a missionary society from doing "any missionary act towards any person or persons professing any religion or sect or belief thereof other than that specified in its license." Missionaries were not allowed to "practice any social activities except within the limits and in the manner laid down from time to time by regulations." The act also stated that: "No missionary society shall bring up in any religion or admit to any religious order, any person under the age of eighteen years without the consent of his lawful guardian." Furthermore, "No missionary society shall adopt, protect, or maintain an abandoned child without the consent of the Province Authority." The formation of clubs, establishment of societies, organization of social activities, collection of money, famine and flood relief, the holding of land, and the publication and distribution of papers, pamphlets, or books were subject to ministerial regulations.7
In March 1964 the Sudan government took the final step of expelling all foreign missionaries from the South. "Foreign Missionary organizations have gone beyond the limits of their sacred mission," the government explained in a policy statement on its decision, arguing that the missionaries had
exploited the name of religion to impart hatred and implant fear and animosity in the minds of the Southerners against their fellow countrymen in the North with the clear object of encouraging the setting up of a separate political status for the southern provinces thus endangering the integrity and unity of the country.8
Since 1964, the situation has vacillated from moments of improvement to a return to confrontation and the persistent commitment of the North to the Islamic agenda. The overthrow of General Ibrahim 'Abud's dictatorship in 1965 and the assumption of power by an interim government, under Sirr al-Khatim al-Khalifa as prime minister, to coach the country back to democracy within a year seemed promising for resolving the conflict in the South. Khalifa was an educator with considerable experience in the South and sympathy for the Southern cause. His government, in which respected Southerners were members, convened a conference that laid a sound foundation for Southern autonomy. However, the return of democracy and the rule of traditional parties to government retarded the progress and plunged the country back into intensified hostilities. The military rule of Ja'far Numayri granted the South regional autonomy and ensured precarious peace for a decade. His unilateral abrogation of the peace agreement in 1983 led to the resumption of hostilities. His overthrow in 1987 brought traditional sectarian powers back to power and the war continued unabated. Indeed, with the usurpation of power by the NIF in 1989 and the intensification of the Islamic agenda, the civil war of identities reached the climax that has persisted to this day.
Southern Resistance
The condescending attitude of the North toward the South has been a subject of embittered commentary by southern Sudanese politicians and intellectuals, one of whom wrote of this attitude:
Many northern Sudanese had the notion that there were but a bunch of uncivilized tribes in the South, and very condescendingly, Northerners regarded themselves as guardians of these, their backward brethren. Finding themselves in charge of the government of an independent Sudan, northern Sudanese politicians and administrators sought to replace the colonial regime in the South with their own. Arabic was naturally to replace English and what better religion than Islam could replace Christianity?9
The North promoted Arabization and Islamization to establish national cultural unity, but their effect was in fact to widen the differences between the two parts of the country, escalating the conflict between them and giving it a racial and religious dimension that eventually reached genocidal proportions. Traditionally, the North saw the South as weak and underdeveloped, making it the raw material to be molded along the Arab-Islamic lines of the North. Accordingly, the stronger the South grows, the more Northerners feel threatened and the stronger their attachment to Arab Islamic identity becomes. The National Islamic Front represents an extremist reaction to the secular challenge posed by the South in general and by the SPLM/SPLA in particular.
The stronger the South grows, the more Northerners feel threatened and the stronger their attachment to Arab Islamic identity becomes.
Even the Ngok Dinka and the Homr Arabs, who had been a model of peaceful coexistence and cooperation on the North-South border, became pitted in a zero-sum war of identities. For historical reasons the Ngok Dinka, numbering around 100,000, a segment of the estimated several million Dinka people in the Sudan, are the only Dinka group administered in northern Sudan. This is the result of a decision made by their leaders to ensure proximity to central government protection and peaceful coexistence with Arab tribes at the North-South borders. The Homr, numerically larger than the Ngok, have cooperated with the Ngok in the past, largely due to cordial ties between their ruling families. In recent years, however, the situation has dramatically changed for the worse as Ngok Dinka youth, mostly southern-educated and Christian, have taken sides with their southern kin in the war of identities.10 Successive governments in Khartoum have recruited the Homr Arabs, trained them, armed them, and deployed them as militias, supposedly against the southern rebel movement, but in fact unleashing them against their Dinka neighbors. They killed at random, looted cattle, razed villages to the ground, and captured children and women as slaves. A leading member of the Mahdi family (that has been in the northern ruling circles for over a century) intimated that he had received inquiries from Homr Arabs, asking whether it was permitted or forbidden by Islam to kill a Dinka;11 this points to the religious intolerance and identity crisis that state intervention and the politicization of Islam have meant.
Conditions of upheaval, war-related suffering, and the threat of violent death have nudged Southerners increasingly toward religion in general and Christianity in particular as a source of salvation. The southern Sudanese have always turned to God and spirits for protection at times of disaster. But as war and ensuing famine have disrupted society on a massive scale, more universalizing concepts fill the gap. The Christian church is contributing to meeting this need by offering a universal vision and also by creating broader circles of identification and unity. For example, Christian missionary groups sponsor clubs in the North for displaced Southerners, where they are allowed to operate, although with considerable scrutiny and repression, to provide religious instruction, offer literacy classes, and other social services.
As hardships in the South multiply, the Dinka increasingly identify their plight with the biblical prophecy in Isaiah 18:6-7:
They shall be left together unto the fowls of the mountains, and to the beasts of the earth: and the fowls shall summer upon them, and all the beasts of the earth shall winter upon them. In that time shall the present be brought unto the Lord of hosts from a people vigorous and bright, from a people terrible from their beginning hitherto; a nation that meteth out and treadeth down.
In this verse, the Dinka see their tragedy and their ultimate glory, making the gospel directly relevant to their plight. Thus has the religious agenda of the National Islamic Front become a major challenge for peace and the long-term prospects of nation-building in the Sudan.
The Future of Sudan
Elite circles of Christian society in southern Sudan now promote the idea that Christianity should be consciously cultivated as a key element of modern southern identity to counter the Arab-Islamic model of the North. Although the educated Christians have reason to question the manner in which Christian missionary work undermined their indigenous spiritual and religious values and practices, they now tend to identify fully with Christianity. Going to church is encouraged as both an act of faith and a political statement. In a mirror image of the Islamic practice, Southerners now open meetings with Christian prayers invoking divine guidance and support. For Southerners, Christianity is now both a religion and a political weapon against Islamization and Arabization.
In the South, going to church is encouraged as both an act of faith and a political statement.
Notwithstanding the rhetoric of the leadership in favor of a united Sudan, most southern Sudanese favor self-determination and perhaps eventual secession. There is, however, a serious difference of opinion on the means to self-determination. Some southern political figures, among them Bona Malwal and Abel Alier, believe that the South should rally around the right of self-determination, instead of pursuing the goal of a united, secular, democratic Sudan. The leadership of the SPLM/SPLA, in particular John Garang de Mabior, believes that such a focus would be self-defeating. In the view of the SPLM/SPLA leadership, northern leaders pay only lip service to self-determination but would never concede to the South the right to secede. Only military pressure and self-preservation will force them to make that concession. Meanwhile, the SPLM/SPLA needs unity with forces from the North to maintain the military pressure against the government. And this is only possible through the objective of a unified, secular, democratic Sudan, rather than by focusing on self-determination for the South. The SPLM/SPLA leadership believes that the best way to achieve self-determination for the South is to liberate the land physically, consolidate control, and move on with reconstruction and development rather than relying on the North granting the South the right to secede.
It can, however, be argued that these two positions can be bridged. Self-determination need not be synonymous with secession; it offers an opportunity for leaders on both sides to create conditions to win and sustain unity. Given Sudan's history, this may not be possible, but it is a challenge with which the Sudanese leadership in Khartoum should be confronted. The Declaration of Principles that the mediators of the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development, whose members include the neighboring countries of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda, presented to the parties in 1994, remains the principal normative basis for a resolution of the Sudanese conflict. The declaration can be combined into three main categories: self-determination as a fundamental and inalienable right, national unity as a desirable objective, and interim arrangements confirmed by referendum.
If Sudanese unity is to be maintained, the relationship of the state and Islam is the most crucial issue to resolve. Southern Christians and believers in traditional religions will continue to struggle against any Islamic order, violently if necessary, for it by definition does not permit non-Muslims equal rights. The Islamic scholar Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im has realistically observed that under present circumstances,
At best, non-believers may be allowed to stay under the terms of a special compact which extremely restricts their civil and political rights. Believers who are not Muslims, mainly Jews and Christians, are allowed partial citizenship under Shari'a . . . and are disqualified from holding any position of authority over Muslims.12
As the South strengthens itself through education and an identity reinforced by Christianity, Western culture, and military force, its emerging parity with the North renders it less susceptible to northern disregard or manipulation. And the more seriously the South considers its grievances, the clearer it becomes that these cannot be redressed within the North's proffered Arab-Islamic framework. This means that the national framework must either be fundamentally restructured to provide for equality between North and South, or the country risks disintegration.
Sudan remains poised between these choices. One thing is, however, clear: The South has unequivocally identified itself with Christianity, which means that in a united Sudan, religious pluralism will have to be accommodated. But should the South secede, Christianity will be its dominant religion. Which way the future of the country will go remains an open question.
Conclusion
The challenge for Christianity in the Sudan is essentially political, and it has to do with the course and outcome of the war of visions that has afflicted the country for more than four decades and in which religion has become a pivotal factor and a symbol of a multi-faceted identity configuration. The crucial question is not only whether the Sudan is Islamic but also the related question of whether it is culturally and racially Arab. On both questions, the South asserts a contrasting identity that is culturally and racially black African and religiously traditional with Christianity as the dominant modern religion.
Assuming the South to have a religious or spiritual vacuum to be filled by introducing outside religions, as the Christian missionaries did, is no longer accurate. Christianity has become an established element of southern identity and a major factor in the war of identities raging in the Sudan. The question then is how the war will end or be resolved. Judging from the political and military dynamics, Sudan is about to revive Christianity as both a pivotal element of southern Sudanese identity and a significant factor in the legacy of Sudanese history, where Christianity, which once prevailed in the North, has a legitimate claim to a prominent place in the religious and cultural configuration of historic and modern Sudan.
Francis Deng, a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution, served as Sudan's ambassador to Canada, the Scandinavian countries, and the United States, and as minister of state for foreign affairs. He has taught at several major American universities and written books on law, anthropology, conflict resolution, human rights, politics, and folklore.
1 Francis Mading Deng, Africans of Two Worlds: The Dinka in Afro-Arab Sudan (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1978), pp. 130-142.
2 Wilson Cash, The Changing Sudan (London: Christian Mission Society, 1930), p. 54.
3 Charles D'Oliver Farran, Matrimonial Laws of the Sudan (London: Butterworths, 1963), p. 227.
4 Mahgoub Ahmed Kurdi, "The Encounter of Religions: An Analysis of the Problem of Religion in Southern Sudan," a Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University Graduate Board in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, June 1985 (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International and Bell and Howell Information Company, 1991), p. 183.
5 Kurdi, "The Encounter of Religions," p. 185.
6 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Affendi, "Discovering the Sudan: Sudanese Dilemmas for Islam in Africa," African Affairs, The Journal of the Royal Africa Society, July 1990, pp. 371, 387-88.
7 "The Expulsion of Foreign Missionaries and Priests from the Southern Provinces," The Black Book of the Sudan on the Expulsion of the Missionaries from the South Sudan (Verona, Italy: Verona Fathers, 1964), pp.16-17.
Francis Mading Deng, Tradition and Modernization: A Challenge for Law Among the Dinka of the Sudan (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1971), pp. 235-237.
8 "Expulsion of the Foreign Missionaries and Priests," pp. 16-17
9 Bona Malwal, People and Power in Sudan, (London: Ithaca Press, 1981), p. 17.
10 Francis Mading Deng, The Man Called Deng Majok: A Biography of Power, Polygyny, and Change (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 40-50; 223-243, 247-281; for historical relations between the Ngok and Homr, see also Kenneth D. D. Henderson, "The Migration of Missiria Arabs into South Western Kordofan," Sudan Notes and Records, no. 1, 1939, pp. 49-77; Paul P. Howell, "The Ngok Dinka," Sudan Notes and Records, 32(1951): p. 239; Michael and Anne Tibbs, A Sudan Sunset, Lynchmere, West Sussex: Michael and Anne Tibbs, 1999), chap. 14, 15, 20, and post-script.
11 Conversation with the author, in Francis M. Deng, War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
12 Abdullahi A. Na'im, "National Unity and the Diversity of Identities," ed. Francis Deng and Prosser Gifford, The Search for Peace and Unity in the Sudan (Washington D.C.: The Wilson Center Press, 1987), p. 76.
Related Topics: Anti-Christianism , North Africa | Winter 2001 MEQ receive the latest by email: subscribe to the free mef mailing list This text may be reposted or forwarded so long as it is presented as an integral whole with complete and accurate information provided about its author, date, place of publication, and original URL.
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According to Greek mythology, who was the father of Zeus? | Zeus
Zeus
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Zeus was the god of the sky and ruler of the Olympian gods. He overthrew his father, Cronus , and then drew lots with his brothers Poseidon and Hades , in order to decide who would succeed their father on the throne. Zeus won the draw and became the supreme ruler of the gods, as well as lord of the sky and rain. His weapon was a thunderbolt which he hurled at those who displeased or defied him, especially liars and oathbreakers. He was married to Hera but often tested her patience, as he was infamous for his many affairs.
Zeus , the presiding deity of the universe, ruler of the skies and the earth, was regarded by the Greeks as the god of all natural phenomena on the sky; the personification of the laws of nature; the ruler of the state; and finally, the father of gods and men.
Using his shield, the Aegis , Zeus could create all natural phenomena related to the air and the sky, such as storms, tempests, and intense darkness. At his command, mighty thunders would flash and lightnings would roll, wreaking havoc; or the skies would open to rejuvenate the earth with life-giving water.
As the personification of the operations of nature, he represented the grand laws of unchanging and harmonious order, by which both the natural and the spiritual world were governed. He was the god of regulated time as marked by the changing seasons and the regular succession of day and night, in contrast to what his father Cronus represented before him; absolute time, i.e. eternity.
As the ruler of the state, he was the source of kingly power, the upholder of all institutions connected to the state, and the friend and patron of princes, whom he guarded and assisted with his advice and counsel. He was also the protector of the people, and watched over the welfare of the whole community.
As the father of the gods, Zeus ascertained that each deity perform their individual duty, punished their misdeeds, settled their disputes, and acted towards them on all occasions as their all-knowing counsellor and mighty friend.
As the father of men, he took a paternal interest in the actions and well-being of mortals . He watched over them with tender solicitude, rewarding truth, charity, and fairness, while severely punishing perjury and cruelty. Even the poorest and most forlorn wanderer could find a powerful advocate in Zeus , for he, as a wise and merciful paternal figure, demanded that the wealthy inhabitants of the earth be attentive to the needs of their less fortunate fellow citizens.
Zeus Is also called Jupiter, Dias.
| Cronus |
Ferenc Madi, who died in May 2011, served as President of which country between 2000 and 2005? | The Creation
The Creation
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In the beginning there was only Chaos . Then out of the void appeared Erebus , the unknowable place where death dwells, and Night. All else was empty, silent, endless, dark. Then, Love was born bringing along the beginning of order. From Love emerged Light, followed by Gaea , the earth.
Erebus slept with Night, eventually giving birth to Ether , the heavenly light, and to Day, the earthly light. Then, Night alone created Doom, Fate, Death, Sleep, Dreams, Nemesis , and all things that dwell in the darkness haunting mankind.
Meanwhile, Gaea alone gave birth to Uranus , the sky. Uranus became Gaea 's husband, surrounding her on all sides. Together, they produced the three Cyclopes , the three Hecatoncheires , and twelve Titans .
However, Uranus was a cruel father and husband. He hated the Hecatoncheires and imprisoned them by pushing them into the hidden places of the earth, Gaea 's womb. This angered Gaea and she plotted against Uranus . She made a flint sickle and tried to get her children to attack Uranus . All were too afraid, except the youngest Titan, Cronus .
Gaea and Cronus set up an ambush of Uranus as he lay with Gaea at night. Cronus grabbed his father and castrated him with the sickle, throwing the severed genitals into the ocean. It is unclear as to what happened to Uranus afterwards; he either died, withdrew from the earth, or exiled himself to Italy. As he departed, he promised that Cronus and the Titans would be punished. From the blood that was spilled on the earth due to his castration, emerged the Giants , the Ash Tree Nymphs , and the Erinnyes . From the sea foam that was produced when his genitals fell in the ocean, emerged Aphrodite .
Cronus became the next ruler. He imprisoned the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires in Tartarus . He married his sister Rhea , and had many children. He ruled for many ages; however, Gaea and Uranus both had prophesied that Cronus would be eventually overthrown by a son. To avoid this, Cronus swallowed all of his children as they were born. Rhea was angry at the treatment of the children and plotted against Cronus . When it was time to give birth to her sixth child, Rhea hid herself, then she left the child to be raised by nymphs. To conceal her act she wrapped a stone in swaddling cloths and passed it off as the baby to Cronus , who swallowed it.
This child was Zeus . He grew into a handsome youth at the island of Crete . He consulted Metis on how to defeat Cronus . She prepared a drink for Cronus designed to make him vomit the other children. Rhea convinced Cronus to accept his son and Zeus was allowed to return to Mount Othrys (the base of the Titans) as Cronus 's cupbearer, giving him the opportunity to serve Metis ' potion to Cronus . The plan work perfectly and the other five children emerged out of Cronus . As gods, they were unharmed and thankful to their youngest brother, they made him their leader.
Cronus was yet to be defeated though. He and the Titans , except Prometheus , Epimetheus , and Oceanus , fought to retain their power; this led to the War between the Titans and the Olympians called Titanomachy . Atlas became their leader in battle and it looked for some time as though they would win and put the young gods down. However, Zeus was cunning; he went to Tartarus and freed the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires . Prometheus joined Zeus as well. He returned to battle with his new allies; the Cyclopes provided Zeus with lightning bolts for weapons; the Hecatoncheires were armed with boulders, waiting in an ambush. At the right time, Zeus retreated drawing the Titans into the Hecatoncheires 's ambush, who rained down hundreds of boulders with such a fury that the Titans thought the mountains were falling on them. They ran away, leaving Zeus victorious.
Zeus exiled the Titans who had fought against him into Tartarus , with the exception of Atlas , who being the leader of the opposing force, was punished to hold the universe on his shoulders.
However, even after this victory, Zeus was not safe. Gaea , angry that her children had been imprisoned, gave birth to her last child, Typhon . Typhon was the deadliest monster in Greek mythology and was known as the "Father of All Monsters". He was so fearsome that most of the gods fled; however, Zeus faced the monster and flinging his lighting bolts was able to kill it. Typhon was buried under Mount Etna in Sicily.
Much later, Zeus faced a final challenge set by the Giants . They went so far as to attempt to invade Mount Olympus , piling mountain upon mountain in an effort to reach the top. Nevertheless, the gods had already grown strong, and with the help of Heracles , the Giants were subdued and killed.
The Creation Is also called Theogony.
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Which 2010 biographical film, starring James Franco, centred on 'Aron Ralston', a mountain climber who became trapped by a boulder in Utah in April 2003? | 127 Hours - Dramastyle
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127 Hoursis a 2010 biographical survival drama film co-written, produced and directed by Danny Boyle . The film stars James Franco as mountain climber Aron Ralston , who became trapped by a boulder in Robbers Roost , Utah in April 2003.
The film, based on Ralston's autobiographyBetween a Rock and a Hard Place, was written by Boyle and Simon Beaufoy and produced by Christian Colson and John Smithson (both Beaufoy and Colson had previously worked with Boyle onSlumdog Millionaire). The music was scored by A. R. Rahman , who had also previously worked with Boyle onSlumdog Millionaire. The film was well-received by critics and was nominated for six Academy Awards including Best Picture and Best Actor (James Franco).
On April 25, 2003, Aron Ralston ( James Franco ) prepares for a day of canyoneering in Utah 's Canyonlands National Park as he drives to the trailhead at night. The next morning he bikes through the park, aiming to cut 45 minutes off the guide book's estimate for the time needed to reach his destination. He is on foot, running along a bare rock formation when he sees two hikers, Kristi ( Kate Mara ) and Megan ( Amber Tamblyn ), apparently lost. Ralston convinces the pair that he is a trail guide and offers to show them a much more interesting route than the one they had been trying to find. He leads them through narrow canyons, including a blind jump into an underground pool, where the three film themselves repeating the plunge using Ralston's video camera. As they part company, Kristi and Megan invite Ralston to a party they're holding the next night, and he promises to attend. However, they doubt he will show.
Ralston continues into Blue John Canyon , through a narrow passage where boulders are suspended, wedged between the walls of rock. As he descends, one boulder is jarred loose, falling after Ralston to the bottom of the canyon and pinning his arm against the canyon wall, trapping him. He initially yells for help, but nobody is within earshot. As he resigns himself to the fact that he is on his own, he begins recording a video diary on his camera and using his pocket multi-tool to attempt to chip away at the boulder. He also begins rationing his water and food.
As he realizes his efforts to chip away at the boulder are futile, he begins to attempt to cut into his arm, but finds his knife too dull to break his skin. He then stabs his arm, but realizes he will not be able to cut through the bone. He finds himself out of water and is forced to drink his own urine. His video logs become more and more desperate as he feels himself dying. He begins dreaming about relationships and past experiences, including a former lover ( Clémence Poésy ), family ( Lizzy Caplan , Treat Williams , Kate Burton ), and the two hikers he met before his accident. After reflecting upon his life, he comes to the realization that everything he has done has led him to this ordeal, and that he was destined to die alone in the canyon.
After five days, Ralston sees his unborn son through a premonition. He gathers the will to apply enough force to his forearm to break it and severs his arm with the dull knife, fashioning a crude tourniquet out of the insulation for his CamelBak tube and using a carabiner to tighten it. He wraps the stump of his arm and takes a picture of the boulder that trapped him as he leaves it behind. He then makes his way out of the canyon, where he is forced to rappel down a 65-foot rock face and hike several miles before, exhausted and covered in blood, he finally runs into a family on a day hike. The family sends for help and Ralston is evacuated by a UHP helicopter.
The film ends with shots of the real Aron Ralston from his life after his ordeal — including several of Ralston's further adventures in climbing and mountaineering, which he continued following the accident — and of Ralston with his wife, whom he met three years later, and their son, Leo. A title card that appears before the closing credits says that Ralston makes a point to leave a note whenever he goes anywhere alone.
| 127 Hours |
Which late 17th and early 18th century British architect designed Brighton Pavilion, Marble Arch, and the plan for London's Regents Park? | Watch 127 Hours Movie Online
Watch 127 Hours Movie Online
Watch 127 Hours Movie Online
Published 11 18, 2014
Release date : 28 January 2011
Country: USA,UK
Genres: Adventure, Biography, Drama, Thriller,
Director : Danny Boyle,
Writers: Danny Boyle, Simon Beaufoy, Aron Ralston,
Stars: James Franco, Kate Mara, Amber Tamblyn, Sean Bott, Koleman Stinger,
Time: 94 min.
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SUMMARY
127 Hours is a 2010 British-American biographical survival drama film directed, co-written and produced by Danny Boyle. The film stars James Franco as real-life canyoneer Aron Ralston, who became trapped by aboulder in an isolated slot canyon in Blue John Canyon, southeastern Utah, in April 2003.The film, based on Ralston's memoir Between a Rock and a Hard Place, was written by Boyle and Simon Beaufoy, produced by Christian Colson and John Smithson and the music was scored by A. R. Rahman. Beaufoy, Colson and Rahman had all previously worked with Boyle on Slumdog Millionaire. The film was well received by critics and audiences and it was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Actorfor Franco.A mountain climber becomes trapped under a boulder while canyoneering alone near Moab, Utah and resorts to desperate measures in order to survive.Engineer Aron Ralston (James Franco) drives to Utah's Canyonlands National Park for a day of canyoneering. On foot, he befriends hikers Kristi (Kate Mara) and Megan (Amber Tamblyn) and shows them an underground pool.After parting ways with the hikers, Ralston enters Blue John Canyon through a slot canyon. He slips and falls; a boulder falls and traps his arm against the wall. Failing to move the boulder, he calls for help, but no one is around. He begins recording a video diary on his camera and using the larger blade on his pocket multi-tool to attempt to chip away at the boulder. He also rations his water and food.As Ralston realizes his efforts to chip away at the boulder are futile, he begins to attempt to cut into his arm, but finds the knife is too blunt to break his skin. He stabs his arm, but realizes he will not be able to cut through the bone. Out of water, he is forced to drink his urine. His video logs become desperate as he feels himself dying. He hallucinates about escape, relationships and past experiences, including a former lover (Clémence Poésy), family (Lizzy Caplan, Treat Williams, Kate Burton), and the hikers. He reflects that everything he has done has led him to this ordeal. After five days, Ralston sees a vision of a little boy.
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Watch Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest Movie Online
2006, Action, Adventure, Fantasy, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest is a 2006 American fantasy swashbuckler film and the second film of the Pirates of the Caribbean film series, following Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003). It was directed by Gore Verbinski, written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio, and produced by Jerry Bruckheimer. In the film, the marriage of Will Turner (Orlando Bloom) and Elizabeth Swann (Keira Knightley) is interrupted by Lord Cutler Beckett (Tom Hollander), who wants Turner to acquire the compass of Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp) in a bid to find the Dead Man's Chest. Sparrow discovers his debt to Davy Jones(Bill Nighy) is due. Two sequels to Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl were conceived in 2004, with Elliott and Rossio developing a story arc that would span both films. Filming took place from February to September 2004 in Palos Verdes, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Dominica, and The Bahamas, as well as on sets constructed at Walt Disney Studios. It was shot back-to-back with the third film of the series, Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End. Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest was released in the United States on July 7, 2006. The film received mixed to positive reviews, with praise for its special effects and criticism for its plot and running time. Despite this, it set several records in its first three days, with an opening weekend of $136 million in the United States, and it was, at the time, the fastest film ever to gross over $1 billion in the worldwide box office.[2] As of March 2014, it ranks as the 11th highest-grossing film of all time worldwide and held the record as the highest-grossing film released by the Walt Disney Studios for nearly six years until it was surpassed by The Avengers(2012), although it remains the highest grossing live-action Walt Disney Pictures release. The film received Academy Award nominations for Best Art Direction, Sound Editing, Sound Mixing, and won the Academy Award for Visual Effects. Jack Sparrow races to recover the heart of Davy Jones to avoid enslaving his soul to Jones' service, as other friends and foes seek the heart for their own agenda as well.
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2006,USA, Action, Adventure, Fantasy,
Watch Stardust Movie Online
2007, Adventure, Family, Fantasy, Romance, Stardust is a 2007 British-American romantic fantasy film from Paramount Pictures, directed by Matthew Vaughn. The film is based on Neil Gaiman's novel Stardust and stars an ensemble cast including Charlie Cox, Ben Barnes, Michelle Pfeiffer, Claire Danes, Sienna Miller, Mark Strong, Jason Flemyng, Rupert Everett, Ricky Gervais, David Walliams, Nathaniel Parker, Peter O'Toole, David Kelly, Robert De Niro, Julian Rhind-Tutt, Mark Heap and Henry Cavill. Narration is by Ian McKellen.In a countryside town bordering on a magical land, a young man makes a promise to his beloved that he'll retrieve a fallen star by venturing into the magical realm.The English village of Wall lies near a stone wall that is the border with the magical kingdom of Stormhold. A guard is constantly posted at a break in the wall to prevent anyone from crossing. At the beginning of the story, Dunstan Thorn crosses over the wall and into the Wall Market. There, he meets an enslaved princess named Una, who offers him a glass snowdrop in exchange for a kiss. Nine months later, the Wall Guard delivers a baby to Dunstan, saying his name is Tristan.Eighteen years later, in the royal palace of Stormhold, the king is on his deathbed. He throws a ruby into the sky, decreeing that the first of his fratricidal sons to recover it will be the new king. The gem collides with a star, and they fall together and land elsewhere in Stormhold. Most of his sons have already been killed off by the others. The king's two remaining sons, Primus and Septimus independently search for the gem.
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2007,UK,USA,Iceland, Adventure, Family, Fantasy, Romance,
Watch Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End Movie Online
2007, Action, Adventure, Fantasy, Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End is a 2007 American fantasy swashbuckler film and the third film in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series. The plot follows Will Turner (Orlando Bloom), Elizabeth Swann (Keira Knightley), Hector Barbossa (Geoffrey Rush), and the crew of the Black Pearl rescuing Captain Jack Sparrow (Johnny Depp) from Davy Jones' Locker, and then preparing to fight the East India Trading Company, led byCutler Beckett (Tom Hollander) and Davy Jones (Bill Nighy), who plan to extinguish piracy forever. Gore Verbinski directed the film, as he did with the previous two. It was shot in two shoots during 2005 and 2006, the former simultaneously with the preceding film, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest. The film was released in English-speaking countries on May 25, 2007, after Walt Disney Pictures decided to move the release date a day earlier than originally planned. Critical reviews were mixed, but At World's Endwas a box office hit, becoming the most successful film of 2007, with over $960 million worldwide. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Makeup and the Academy Award for Visual Effects, which it lost to La Vie en Rose and The Golden Compass, respectively. A fourth installment, On Stranger Tides, the first to neither be directed by Verbinski nor star Bloom and Knightley, was released in cinemas on May 20, 2011. With a production budget of $300 million, Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End is the most expensive film ever made to date, even after adjusting for inflation. Captain Barbossa, Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann must sail off the edge of the map, navigate treachery and betrayal, and make their final alliances for one last decisive battle.
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2007,USA, Action, Adventure, Fantasy,
Watch The Expendables 2 Movie Online
2012, Action, Adventure, Thriller, The Expendables 2 Movie is a 2012 American ensemble action film directed by Simon West, written by Richard Wenk and Sylvester Stallone and based on a story by Ken Kaufman, David Agosto and Wenk. Brian Tyler returned to score the film. It is a sequel to the 2010 action film The Expendables, and stars Sylvester Stallone,Jason Statham, Jet Li, Dolph Lundgren, Chuck Norris, Terry Crews, Randy Couture, Liam Hemsworth, Jean-Claude Van Damme, Bruce Willis, and Arnold Schwarzenegger. The story follows the mercenary group known as "the Expendables" as they undertake a seemingly simple mission which evolves into a quest for revenge against rival mercenary Jean Vilain, who murdered one of their own and threatens the world with a deadly weapon. It is the second installment in The Expendables film series. Principal photography took place over 14 weeks (beginning in September 2011) on an estimated $100 million budget. Film locations included Bulgaria, Hong Kongand New Orleans. Controversy arose over the accidental death of a stuntman and environmental damage caused during filming in Bulgaria. The film was released in Europe on August 16, 2012 and in North America the following day. The Expendables 2 grossed over $310 million worldwide, with its greatest success outside North America. Critics generally considered the film an improvement over its predecessor (citing an increased use of humor and action scenes), but its plot and dialogue received negative reviews. A tie-in downloadable video game was released on July 31, 2012 as a prequel to the events of the film. A sequel, The Expendables 3, was released on August 15, 2014. Mr. Church reunites the Expendables for what should be an easy paycheck, but when one of their men is murdered on the job, their quest for revenge puts them deep in enemy territory and up against an unexpected threat.
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2012,USA, Action, Adventure, Thriller,
Watch Valhalla Rising Movie Online
2009, Adventure, Drama, Fantasy, Valhalla Rising is a 2009 Danish adventure drama film directed by Nicolas Winding Refn, starring Mads Mikkelsen. The film takes place in 1000 AD and follows a Norse warrior named One-Eye and a boy as they travel with a band of Christian Crusaders in pursuit of a Crusade. Instead, they find themselves in an unknown and unfamiliar land. The film was shot entirely in Scotland.Title is derived from the combination of Kenneth Anger's Scorpio Rising and Lucifer Rising with a Viking-theme.1000 AD, for years, One Eye, a mute warrior of supernatural strength, has been held prisoner by the Norse chieftain Barde...A mysterious mute Norse warrior, known only as One-Eye, is held captive in cold, windy, misty highlands by a Chieftain where he is forced to fight to the death against captives of other clans. During his imprisonment One-Eye receives his meals from a young boy. In between contests One-Eye is put to work with arduous tasks that serve to keep him physically strong. He has the ability to foresee impending events. A dream of bathing amongst large rocks leads him to discover an old iron arrowhead on the bottom of a small natural water basin. Using the arrowhead to secretly free himself from restraints during a journey to a neighboring encampment, he slaughters two men and captures a third. One-Eye disembowels this last man when he defiantly shouts that One-Eye will soon find himself back in hell. The Chieftain then has a monologue in which he predicts One-Eye's return for more vengeance. This is because it is hatred that motivates One-Eye and has allowed him to survive through all of his many ordeals. One-Eye impales the Chieftain's head on a nithing pole in a magical rite Norse Pagans used to place a curse upon someone.
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2009,Denmark,UK, Adventure, Drama, Fantasy,
Watch The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor Movie Online
2008, Action, Adventure, Fantasy, Thriller, The Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperor is a 2008 American adventure film and is the third and final installment in the Mummy series. The film starsBrendan Fraser, Maria Bello, John Hannah, Luke Ford, and Jet Li, and was released on August 1, 2008 in the United States. The film was directed by Rob Cohen, written by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar, and produced by Stephen Sommers (director of the previous two films), Bob Ducsay, Sean Daniel, and James Jacks. This film took place in China and departed from the previous Egyptian setting. In ancient China, Han, a brutal and tyrannical warlord, unites the country's kingdoms into an empire and becomes The Dragon Emperor. He orders the construction of the Great Wall of China to bury and curse his dead enemies. The Emperor's mystics teach him supernatural mastery over the Five Elements. Years later, he begins to grow fearful that all he has accomplished will be lost upon his death. He hears of a sorceress, Zi Yuan, who is said to know the secret of immortality and sends his henchman, General Ming Guo, to bring her to the palace. When Ming finds her, they fall in love. After she seemingly casts a spell on the Emperor in Ancient Tibetan, a language he does not understand, after discovering their love affair, and having feelings for her as well, the emperor has Ming executed and after she refuses his proposal, he stabs her. Revealing that she has foreseen these events, Zi Yuan immolates and detains the Emperor, transforming his army into the Terracotta Army, and the sorceress flees.
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2008,USA,China,Germany,Canada, Action, Adventure, Fantasy, Thriller,
Watch Mirror Mirror Movie Online
2012, Adventure, Comedy, Drama, Family, Fantasy, Mirror Mirror is a 2012 American comedy fantasy film based on the fairy tale "Snow White" collected by the Brothers Grimm. It is directed by Tarsem Singh and stars Lily Collins, Julia Roberts, Armie Hammer, Nathan Lane, and Sean Bean.The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Costume Design.An evil queen steals control of a kingdom and an exiled princess enlists the help of seven resourceful rebels to win back her birthright.Snow White's mother died in child birth, and her father, the King (Sean Bean), marries Clementianna (Julia Roberts), the most beautiful woman in the land and raises Snow White. One day, the king leaves to fight a great evil that has invaded the land but never returns. Queen Clementianna rules in his absence and keeps Snow White in the palace.Ten years later, Snow White (Lily Collins) having turned eighteen, desires to see her kingdom. Defying Queen Clementianna's orders, she leaves the palace. Arriving at a forest, she meets Prince Andrew Alcott (Armie Hammer) who has been robbed by thieving dwarves. She and the Prince are drawn to each other but go their separate ways. Snow White arrives in the town, and finds the once-happy townfolk are destitute due to Queen Clementianna's greed.
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2012,USA,Canada, Adventure, Comedy, Drama, Family, Fantasy,
Watch The Green Inferno Movie Online
2013, Adventure, Horror, The Green Inferno.A group of student activists travels to the Amazon to save the rain forest and soon discover that they are not alone, and that no good deed goes unpunished.
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2013,USA,Chile, Adventure, Horror,
Watch xXx: State of the Union Movie Online
2005, Action, Crime, Adventure, Thriller, xXx: State of the Union Movie, released as xXx²: The Next Level outside the United States and Canada, is a 2005 action film directed by Lee Tamahori. It is a sequel to the 2002 film xXx (pronounced "triple x"). The film was produced by Revolution Studios for Columbia Pictures. Vin Diesel and Rob Cohen, the lead actor and director of the original, had signed onto this film before xXx had opened, but both dropped out as Diesel had to work on The Pacifier while Cohen was busy making Stealth; Cohen, however, remained as an executive producer. Ice Cube took over the lead role as the new xXx and Tamahori was brought in to direct following the huge commercial success of the James Bond film Die Another Day which he directed. Two different scripts were made for this film, and the one written by Simon Kinberg was selected. The other script featured a radically different plot, possibly serving as the basis for another sequel. State of the Union under-performed at the box office, and was criticized heavily by critics (the first installment's reception was mixed)—mainly for the poor performance of its star, illogical story, and overuse of CGI-influenced visual effects for most of the action sequences as opposed to live-action stunts being filmed. As of January 2014, a sequel featuring Vin Diesel was in development. Darius Stone, a new agent in the XXX program, is sent to Washington, DC to defuse a power struggle amongst national leaders.
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2005,USA, Action, Crime, Adventure, Thriller,
Watch Interstellar Movie Online
2014, Adventure, Sci-Fi, Interstellar Movie is a 2014 science fiction adventure film directed by Christopher Nolan. Starring Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway, Jessica Chastain, and Michael Caine, the film features a team of space travelers who travel through a wormhole in search of a new habitable planet. It was written by Jonathan Nolan and Christopher Nolan; Christopher combined his idea with a script developed by his brother in 2007 for Paramount Pictures and producer Lynda Obst. He produced the film with Obst and his wife, Emma Thomas. Theoretical physicist Kip Thorne, whose work inspired the film, acted as both scientific consultant and executive producer. Warner Bros., which produced and distributed some of Nolan's previous films, negotiated with Paramount for a financial stake in Interstellar. Legendary Pictures, which formerly partnered with Warner Bros., also sought a stake. The three companies co-financed the film, and the production companies Syncopy and Lynda Obst Productions were enlisted. The director also hired cinematographer Hoyte van Hoytema since Nolan's long-time collaborator Wally Pfister was busy working on Transcendence, his directorial debut. Interstellar was filmed with a combination of anamorphic 35 mm and IMAX 70 mm film photography. Filming took place in the last quarter of 2013 in locations in the province of Alberta, Canada, in southern Iceland, and in Los Angeles, California. The visual effects company Double Negative created visual effects for Interstellar. Interstellar premiered on October 26, 2014 in Los Angeles, California. Theatrically, it received a limited release in North America (United States and Canada) on November 5, 2014 and a wide release on November 7, 2014. It was also released in Belgium, France and Switzerland on November 5, 2014 and in additional territories in the following days, including the United Kingdom on November 7, 2014. For the limited release in North America, it was released in 70 mm and 35 mm film formats in 249 theaters which still project the formats, including at least 41 70 mm IMAX theaters. For the wide release, it expanded to theaters that show it in digital format. Paramount Pictures is distributing the film in North America, and Warner Bros. distributes it in the remaining territories.
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2014,USA,UK, Adventure, Sci-Fi,
Watch Conan the Barbarian Movie Online
2011, Action, Adventure, Fantasy, Conan the Barbarian is a 2011 American-Bulgarian sword and sorcery film based on the character Conan the Barbarian created by Robert E. Howard. The film is a new interpretation of the Conan mythology, and is not related to the films featuring Arnold Schwarzenegger. It stars Jason Momoa in the title role, alongside Rachel Nichols, Rose McGowan, Stephen Lang, Ron Perlman, and Bob Sapp with Marcus Nispel directing. The film had spent seven years in development at Warner Bros. before the rights were shifted to Nu Image/Millennium Films in 2007, with a clause wishing for immediate start on production. Lionsgate and Sony Picturesentered negotiations for distribution, with the film seeing many directors, prominently Brett Ratner, before settling on Nispel in 2009 and subsequently bringing together a cast and crew. Filming began on March 15, 2010, and concluded June 5, 2010. The film was first released on August 17, 2011, in four countries: France, Belgium, Iceland, and the Philippines prior to the North American release on August 19. The film was a box office bomb and received largely negative reviews. A vengeful barbarian warrior sets off to get his revenge on the evil warlord who attacked his village and murdered his father when he was a boy.
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2011,USA, Action, Adventure, Fantasy,
Watch The Forbidden Kingdom Movie Online
2008, Action, Adventure, Fantasy, Romance, The Forbidden Kingdom (Chinese: 功夫之王: Gong Fu Zhi Wang (Mandarin) or Gung Fu Ji Wong (Cantonese) and translated is King of Kung Fu (English);Working title: The J & J Project) is a 2008 Chinese-American martial arts film written by John Fusco, and directed by Rob Minkoff, and starring Jackie Chan andJet Li. The film is loosely based on the novel Journey to the West, it is the first film to star together two of the best known names in the martial arts film genre. Theaction sequences were choreographed by Yuen Woo-ping. A discovery made by a kung fu obsessed American teen sends him on an adventure to China, where he joins up with a band of martial arts warriors in order to free the imprisoned Monkey King.South Boston teenager Jason Tripitikas (Michael Angarano) is a fan of martial arts films and he awakens from a dream of a battle between the Monkey King (Jet Li) and celestial soldiers in the clouds. He visits a pawn shop in Chinatown to buy Wuxia DVDs and discovers a golden staff. On his way home, Jason is harassed by some hooligans, whose leader Lupo attempts to use him to help them rob the shop-owner Hop. Hop tries to fight the thieves with the staff, but is shot and wounded by Lupo. He tells Jason to deliver the staff to its rightful owner and Jason flees with the staff. He is cornered on the rooftop by the hooligans and almost shot too, but he is pulled off the roof by the staff and falls backwards onto the asphalt.
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2008,USA,China, Action, Adventure, Fantasy, Romance,
Watch The Expendables Movie Online
2010, Action, Adventure, Thriller, The Expendables Movie is a 2010 American ensemble action film written by David Callaham and Sylvester Stallone, and directed by Stallone, who also starred in the lead role. The film co-stars Jason Statham, Jet Li, Dolph Lundgren, Randy Couture, Terry Crews, Steve Austin and Mickey Rourke. The film was released in the United States on August 13, 2010. It is the first installment in The Expendables film series. This was Dolph Lundgren's first theatrically released film since 1995'sJohnny Mnemonic, and Steve Austin's last theatrical release film until 2013's Grown Ups 2. The film is about a group of elite mercenaries tasked with a mission to overthrow a Latin American dictator whom they soon discover to be a mere puppet controlled by a ruthless ex-CIA officer James Munroe. It pays tribute to the blockbuster action films of the late 1980s and early 1990s. It was distributed byLionsgate. The Expendables received mixed reviews, praising the action scenes, but criticizing the lack of story. However, it was commercially successful, opening at number one at the box office in the United States, the United Kingdom, China and India. A sequel was released on August 17, 2012. A CIA operative hires a team of mercenaries to eliminate a Latin dictator and a renegade CIA agent.
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2010,USA, Action, Adventure, Thriller,
Watch Terminator Salvation Movie Online
2009, Action, Drama, Sci-Fi, Thriller, Terminator Salvation is a 2009 American/British science fiction action film directed by McG and starring Christian Bale and Sam Worthington. It is the fourth installment in the original Terminator series. In a departure from the previous installments, which were set between 1984 and 2004 and used time travel as a key plot element, Salvation is set in 2018 and focuses on the war between Skynet and humanity, with the human Resistance fighting against Skynet's killing machines. Bale portrays John Connor, a Resistance fighter and the franchise's central character, while Worthington portrays cyborg Marcus Wright. Terminator Salvation also features Anton Yelchin as a young Kyle Reese, a character first introduced in The Terminator, and depicts the origin of the T-800 Model 101 Terminator.
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2009,USA,Germany,UK,Italy, Action, Drama, Sci-Fi, Thriller,
Watch Racing Stripes Movie Online
2005, Adventure, Comedy, Drama, Family, Sport, Racing Stripes is a 2005 American family film directed by Frederik Du Chau. It is similar in the style to the 1995 movie Babe, in that the protagonist is a talking animal who lives on a farm and succeeds at an activity not expected of his species. It was filmed in Pietermaritzburg and Nottingham Road, South Africa.In a rush to pack up during a thunderstorm, the Circus Sarano (a traveling circus) accidentally leaves behind a baby zebra. The foal is rescued by Nolan Walsh, a former Thoroughbred-racehorse trainer who retired when his wife Carolyn, a jockey, died in a racing accident a few years ago. Nolan takes the zebra home to his farm and leaves it under the care of his daughter Channing, who names him "Stripes". Stripes befriends the other farmyard animals, including elderly goat Franny, dim-witted rooster Reggie, and grumpy Shetland pony Tucker, who try to educate him about life on the farm, but he becomes convinced that he is destined for the nearby racetrack, the Kentucky Open, not realizing that he is a zebra and is not qualified to race. At a fence next to the racetrack, Stripes meets two horse foals training to race; Trenton's Pride and Ruffshodd. At first, they have fun playing with Stripes but out of the stables, Trenton's Pride's father, Sir Trenton, a racehorse champion, isn't pleased to see his son and friend playing with a zebra; stating that "if he's going to be a champion, he should start acting like one."An abandoned zebra (voice of Frankie Muniz) grows up believing he is a racehorse, and, with the help of his barnyard friends and a teenage girl (Hayden Panettiere), sets out to achieve his dream of racing with thoroughbreds.
1459 2,258
2005,USA, Adventure, Comedy, Drama, Family, Sport,
Watch The Three Musketeers Movie Online
2011, Action, Adventure, Romance, The Three Musketeers is a 2011 3D adventure film directed by Paul W. S. Anderson, based on the novel of the same title by Alexandre Dumas. In Venice at the beginning of the 17th century, the Three Musketeers, Athos (Matthew Macfadyen), Porthos (Ray Stevenson), and Aramis (Luke Evans), with the help of Athos' longtime lover, Milady de Winter (Milla Jovovich), steal airship blueprints made by Leonardo da Vinci. However, they are betrayed by Milady, who gives the blueprints to the Duke of Buckingham (Orlando Bloom). Upon returning to France, the Musketeers are forced to disband by Cardinal Richelieu (Christoph Waltz) for their failure, and they end up on the streets of Paris. A year later, a young man named d'Artagnan (Logan Lerman) leaves his village in Gascony for Paris in hopes of becoming a Musketeer as his father was, only to learn that they no longer exist. At a rural bar, d'Artagnan accuses Captain Rochefort (Mads Mikkelsen), the leader of Richelieu's guard, of offending his horse, and challenges him to a duel. Rochefort shoots him while he is distracted but he is saved by Milady de Winter. Arriving in Paris, d'Artagnan by coincidence separately encounters Athos, Porthos and Aramis accidentally offending all three, then scheduling duels with each at 12:00, 1:00 and 2:00 pm respectively. The film stars Matthew Macfadyen, Logan Lerman, Ray Stevenson,Milla Jovovich, Luke Evans, Mads Mikkelsen, Orlando Bloom and Christoph Waltz. The Three Musketeers was released on 1 September 2011 for Germany, 12 October 2011 for the United Kingdom and France and 21 October 2011 for the United States, Canada and Australia. The hot-headed young D'Artagnan along with three former legendary but now down on their luck Musketeers must unite and defeat a beautiful double agent and her villainous employer from seizing the French throne and engulfing Europe in war.
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2011,Germany,France,UK,USA, Action, Adventure, Romance,
Watch The Blue Lagoon Movie Online
1980, Adventure, Drama, Romance, The Blue Lagoon is a 1980 American romantic adventure film directed by Randal Kleiser. The screenplay by Douglas Day Stewart was based on the novel The Blue Lagoon by Henry De Vere Stacpoole. The film starsBrooke Shields and Christopher Atkins. The original music score was composed by Basil Poledouris and the cinematography was by Néstor Almendros. The film is a remake of a 1949 film by the same name. The film tells the story of two young children marooned on a tropical island paradise in the South Pacific. With neither the guidance nor the restrictions of society, emotional feelings and physical changes arise as they reach puberty and fall in love.Shields was 14 years old at the time of filming and later testified before a U.S. Congressional inquiry that older body doubles were used in some of her nude scenes. Also, throughout the film in frontal shots her breasts were always covered by her long hair or in other ways. It was also stated that Shields's hair was glued to her breasts during many of her topless scenes.The film received a MPAA rating of R. In the Victorian period, two children are shipwrecked on a tropical island in the South Pacific. With no adults to guide them, the two make a simple life together, unaware that sexual maturity will eventually intervene.In the Victorian period, two young cousins, Richard and Emmeline Lestrange, and a galley cook, Paddy Button (Leo McKern), survive a shipwreck in the South Pacific and reach a lush tropical island. Paddy cares for the small children and forbids them by "law" from going to the other side of the island, as he found evidence of remains of bloody human sacrifices. He also warns them against eating a scarlet berry which is apparently deadly.
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Which 19th century French composer wrote the national anthem of the Vatican City, but is perhaps best remembered for his 'Ave Maria'? | Charles Gounod Biography - Childhood, Life Achievements & Timeline
Musicians
Charles Gounod Biography
Charles Gounod was one of the most brilliant French composers of the 19th century. Know more about his life in this biography.
Quick Facts
Conservatoire de Paris
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Charles Gounod was one of the most brilliant French composers of the 19th century, in the same league as Jules Massenet and Jacques Meyerbeer. Gounod had a bent for both music and painting, both of which he inherited from his parents. However, one fateful day, Charles Gounod went with his mother to a performance of Rossini's âOthelloâ, which fomented his passion for music and consequently tempted him into choosing music over painting. His highly acclaimed work âFaustâ gained immense popularity and became the most frequently staged operas of all time, so much so that it was performed around 2,000 at the Paris Opera alone. On the other hand, there are many operas and sacred music of Gounod that have fallen into obscurity and are seldom performed. The entire gamut of Gounodâs work includes numerous operas, oratorios, symphonies as well as several chamber music.
Charles Gounod’s Childhood And Early Life
Charles Gounod was born in Paris on 17 June 1818. He was the second son of Louis Francois Gounod, painter and draftsman, and Lemachois Victoire, a pianist and daughter of a former lawyer. He received his first lessons in piano from his mother. In 1823, his father Louis Francois Gounod died when he was just four years old. Gounod displayed talent in both art and music in his childhood. Charles Gounod once went with his mother to a performance of Rossini's “Othello”, with Malibran portraying Desdemona. The performance stirred Gounod so much that he left art for music and started composing at a tender age of twelve. He went to study at Paris Conservatoire in the year 1836 under Fromental Halévy and Pierre Zimmermann.
Personal Life
Gounod married Anna Zimmerman, daughter of Pierre-Joseph Zimmerman, a professor who taught him at the Conservatoire. Then he went to live in Saint Cloud, where he built a cottage on the property of his in-laws. He fathered two children. His son Jean was born on 8 June 1856 and his daughter Jeanne was born in the September of 1863. Later in his life, Gounod became enamored by amateur English singer Georgina Weldon. The seemingly platonic relationship ended with great bitterness and acerbic litigation.
Career
Three years later, in 1839, after joining Conservatoire, he won the highly prestigious Prix de Rome for his cantata Fernand following the footsteps of his father, François-Louis Gounod, who had won the second Prix de Rome in painting in 1783. While in Italy, Gounod developed a keen interest in Rome. On 5 December 1839, he left for Italy to study the music of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and devoted himself to the study of religious music of the 16th century. Owing to his remarkable liking for sacred music, he even contemplated joining the priesthood around 1846-47, and he was in a quandary as to whether to join church or to continue with secular music. Gounod arrived at Paris in the year 1843 and took the position of organist of Mission Etrangères. However, in the state of a persistent religious dilemma, Gounod entered the Carmelite monastery as a noviate in 1847. He was perhaps not suited for religious profession, and was often referred to by some as "the philandering monk." Later, he abandoned his religious quest and devoted himself whole-heartedly to music. On May 30 in 1852, Gounod was appointed as the Director General of the teaching of singing in schools of Paris, and director of the Brass band, choral movement of the working classes.
One of Gounod’s most significant works, “Messe Solennelle” was completed in the year 1854, which is popularly as the “Saint Cecilia Mass”. This work, which exalted Gounod’s career, established him as an illustrious composer. It was first performed in Paris on Saint Cecilia's Day, November 22 in the year 1855, for the church of Saint Eustache.
Gounod composed two symphonies in 1855. His Symphony No.1 in D major inspired 17-year-old student of Gounod Georges Bizet’s who later that year composed Symphony No. 1 in C. However, despite of the splendor of Gounod's symphonies, they were seldom performed. In month of July in 1856, Charles Gounod in honor of Napoleon III wrote "Vive l'Empereur", the official anthem of the Second Empire.
On 6 January 1856, Gounod was named Chevalier of the Legion of Honor and later, on 13 August 1866, he was promoted to the rank of officer of “Legion of Honor”. Though he composed his first opera, “Sappho” in 1851, he didn’t taste any real success until “Faust” in 1859. Although the work initially was not well appreciated, but the revised version, which was performed in the year 1862, went on to become a great success. This, even today, is supposed to be his best work. The opera was played in many other theaters, both abroad and in France. In Paris alone, “Faust” was performed 314 times on the different stages of the Lyric Theatre until April 1869, and 166 times `between 1869 and 1875. It brought Gounod great international fame. “The Romeo and Juliette” based on Shakespeare’s play, which was premiered in 1867, is also one of his much-performed work. “Faust” was controversial, as many critics believed it was far more sophisticated as compared to Gounod's prior works. Even one critic went on to say that he doubts whether Gounod composed it. However, when challenged for a duel, the critic withdrew his statement.
Gounod lived in England between 1870 and 1874. He was the first conductor of what is now called as the Royal Choral Society. During the later period of his life, Gounod yielded to his earlier religious impulses of composing sacred music. His Pontifical Anthem, “Marche Pontificale” composed in 1869, was later declared the official national anthem of Vatican City in the year 1949. He was made a Grand Officer of the “Legion of Honor” in July 1888.
Death
A few days after he completed the composition of a requiem for his grandson, Charles Gounod passed away of a stroke on the18 October 1893, in Saint Cloud, France.
Le médecin malgré lui, 1858
Faust, 1859
La reine de Saba, 1862
Mireille, 1864
Le tribut de Zamora, 1881
Jésus sur le lac de Tibériade, 1878
Christus factus est, 1883
| Charles Gounod |
As of 1st. June 2011, who is the only Swiss Tennis player, other than Roger Federer, to be ranked in the Men's top twenty? | Dolmetsch Online - Composers Biography G
1949
Soltan's son and represents the third generation of the Hajibeyov family. Ismayil works in modern music, known in Azerbaijan as "yeni musiqi" (new music). He is an assistant professor of composition in the Academy of Music
Gadzhibekov (or Hajibeyov), Niyazi
(1912
-1984
son of Zulfugar Hajibeyov and known simply by his first name Niyazi, he directed the Symphony Orchestra for about 40 years. Dmitri Shostakovich observed that Niyazi was the first world-renowned conductor of the Soviet East. Niyazi was the composer of the symphonic mugam Rast (1956) , the opera Khosro and Shirin (1940) and the ballet Chitra, for which he was awarded the Nehru prize (1971) . He was also honored as 'People's Artist of the USSR'
Gadzhibekov (or Hajibeyov), Rauf Soltan
1922
1974
the son of Ismayil Hajibeyov, Uzeyir 's uncle. Soltan was a composer who contributed greatly to the formation of national symphonic music of Azerbaijan. He is remembered for such works as Caravan, Overture and Concerto. Soltan served as rector of Azerbaijan State Conservatory (now Baku Music Academy) from 1969 to 1974
Gadzhibekov (or Hajibeyov), Uzeyir
22 Nov. 1948
Baku, Azerbaijan
author of the national anthem of Azerbaijan, Hajibeyov studied with Prokofiev in St. Petersburg and, although he became a Russian modernist, at heart he remained an Azeri sentimentalist. He single-handedly established the genre of mugham opera. His grand classics, Layla and Majnun, Koroghlu and Mashade Ibad drawn on the best of Azeri literature. The Cloth Peddler is a lighter operetta which satirizes the clash of old Azeri traditions with new ideas introduced in Baku during the first oil boom at the turn of the 20th century. The opera follows the comic twists and turns of Asker and Gulchora, the former a Westernized oil baron who scorns the customary prohibition against meeting one�s bride before the wedding day, the latter a beautiful maiden whose tradition-bound father, Sultan Bey, refuses to let her out of the house. Asker dresses himself as a lowly peddler to gain entrance to Gulchora�s room, where she immediately falls in love with the humble character of the disguise and not the cocky capitalist who wears it
Gadzhibekov (or Hajibeyov), Zulfugar
1884
1950
Uzeyir's brother, he was also a composer and was actively involved in establishing the Music Comedy Theatre. He is remembered for composing the opera Ashug Garib (1916)
Gadzhiev (or Gajiev, Gadjiyev), Rauf Soltan
Cuba
graduated from the Instituto Superior de Artes as a classical and as a modern composer. For five years he was the musical director and composer of the Ballet Folklorico de Santiago de Cuba. In the Netherlands, Jorge continued his work as choir conductor and vocals teacher and became co-founder of and teacher at the Cuban School for Dance and Music in Haarlem, The Netherlands. As a singer, pianist, dancer and percussionist he participates in numerous ensembles, besides leading, composing and arranging for his own ensembles Jorge Martinez de Cuba y Lagrimas Negras and La Sonora de Galan
Gal�s, Diamanda
composer whose main output is chamber music
Gambarini, Elisabetta de (Mrs. Chazal)
1731
Italy
1765
Italian born violinist who as a composer, wrote in various media: orchestral, chamber, vocal and keyboard. She also conducted orchestras, which was, needless to say, unusual for a woman in the eighteenth century. Between 1748 and 1750, she published in London three volumes of harpsichord pieces London
Gambaro, Vincenzo
1785
1828
Italian composer and arranger. Vincenzo Gambaro and Friedrich Beer arranged Rossini's symphonic works for winds between 1820 and 1830 with the composer's approval. The new transcription of masterpieces such as Il Barbiere di Siviglia (Gambaro), L'Italiana in Algeri (Gambaro) and Tancredi (Beer)
Gamburg, Grigori
1922
French pianist, professor, and composer who won first prize in piano from the Paris Conservatory when she was 14. She studied composition there and won the Premiere Grand Prix de Rome for harmony, fugue, and counterpoint. Her teachers included Olivier Messiaen, No�l Gallon, Henri Busser, and Darius Milhaud. She taught at the Conservatory starting in 1959 and is especially known as a performer, performing as a soloist with major orchestras in France and elsewhere. Gartenlaub has composed mostly instrumental works, especially works for orchestra, small chamber ensemble, instrument with piano, and solo piano. Thirteen of her instrumental works were composed for exams at the Paris Conservatory
Garth, John
21 Jan. 1774
Vienna, Austria
Gassmann appears to have been trained by Johann Woborschil, the chorus master in Br�x, the small town north-west of Prague which was Gassmann�s birthplace. His father was a goldsmith who appears to have opposed his son�s choice of a musical career. It seems that Gassmann ran away and after a period spent living precariously in Karlsbad made his way south to Italy, where he may have studied with the celebrated theorist Padre Martini. From 1757 until 1762, he wrote an opera every year for the carnival season in Venice, and was also made choirmaster in the girl�s conservatory in Venice in 1757. Many of the librettos he set were by the great Venetian playwright Carlo Goldoni. In 1763 he succeded Gluck as court ballet composer in Vienna, where he was held in great affection by Emperor Joseph II. In 1764, Gassmann became chamber composer to the Emperor, and in 1772 court conductor. In 1766, Gassmann met the young Antonio Salieri in Venice, whom he invited to return to Vienna with him, and who, based on Johann Joseph Fux�s textbook Gradus ad Parnassum, he taught composition. Salieri remained in Vienna, and succedeed Gassmann as chamber composer to the Emperor upon the latter�s death in 1774. Another Italian composer, Giuseppe Bonno, succeeded him as court conductor. In 1771, Gassmann founded the Tonk�nstlersoziet�t (Society of Musical Arts), which organised the first musical events for the general public in Vienna. This social institution ws particularly concerned with widows and orphans of its deceased members. He composed his oratorio La Betulia Liberata (performed 19 March 1772) because of the founding of this society. In 1774 Gassmann died of long-term consequences of an accident, a fall from a carriage he had suffered while on his final visit to Italy. Gassmann`s two daughters, Anna Fux and Therese Rosenbaum, were both famous singers trained by Salieri; the younger, Therese, made a particular name for herself as a Mozart interpreter. Charles Burney, in one of his published tours, mentions traveling to Joseph II, meeting Gassmann and finding him very obliging; Gassmann showed Burney his manuscripts, of which Burney found the chamber works distinctive and most worthy of his praise (but Burney was either not exposed to, or said nothing about, Gassmann`s orchestral music). His quartets, great favourites of Joseph II, also found favour with Dr. Charles Burney, who wrote of them: �It is but justice to say, that since my return to England, I have had this pieces tried, and have found them excellent: there is pleasing melody, free from caprice and affectation; sound harmony, and the contrivances and imitations are ingenious, without the least confusion. In short, the style is sober and sedate, without dulness; and masterly, without pedantry�. The high regard in which Gassmann was held by the imperial family is evident in the Empress Maria Theresia acting as godmother to his second daughter, born shortly after his death. Johann Baptist Vanhal is described by author Daniel Heartz as Gassmann`s �prot�g�.
informaton provided by Sergio Javier Aracri
Gastaldon, Stanislaus
Yorkshire
1954
he was educated at the Royal College of Music and Christ's College Cambridge. He soon went into the lighter end of musical theatre, being responsible for the music to many revues or musical comedies: The Charlot Show of 1926, Hold My Hand, Me and My Girl (1937, which of course included The Lambeth Walk, long popular and the subject of amusing variations by Franz Reizenstein), The Little Dog Laughed (Run, Rabbit, Run from this, was a hit and is still heard as its popularity extended into the early part of the Second War) and wartime shows like Lights Up, Present Arms, The Love Racket and Meet Mr Victoria are only a few of these. Gay also wrote many very popular songs (Round the Marble Arch, My Thanks to You and so on) independent of the stage; others were incorporated into films
Gaze, Heino
17 Aug. 1983
New York, USA
American lyricist who collaborated with his younger brother, composer George Gershwin, to create some of the most memorable songs of the 20th century
Gervaise, Claude
fl. c.1540-1560
a French composer, editor and arranger of the Renaissance, who is mainly remembered both for his association with renowned printer Pierre Attaingnant, as well as for his instrumental music. In addition to being a composer, he appears to have been an innovator in notation of instrumental music: in an instruction manual for the viol (1548, now lost), he is known to have produced the first viol tablature in France
Gervasio, Giovanni Battista
Bourney, Limousin
1215
also known as Guiraut de Bornelh and Giraut de Borneil, troubadour, born to a lower class family who is credited with the formalisation, if not the invention, of the "light" style, or trobar leu. About 90 of his poems and four of his melodies survive
Girolami, Girolamo
18th century
19th century
nothing is known of Girolami's life, except for the abbreviation Mod:se (itself almost illegible) appended to his name by the copyist of the score. This can be read as meaning Modenese, but no musician by that name has been traced in the Modena area
Girona, Cerveri de
1743
Pistioa, Italy
Lodovico Maria Giustini was born into a family of musicians in Pistoia, Italy, on December 12, 1685 -- the same year as his illustrious contemporaries Bach, Handel and Domenico Scarlatti. His father Francesco Giustini was the organist for the Congregazione dello Spirito Santo. On July 21, 1695, Lodovico was made a member of this Jesuit-affiliated group and succeeded his father in the post of organist on July 10, 1725. He held this position until his death on February 7, 1743. He also served as organist for the Jesuits and taught in their seminary, the Collegio dei Nobili. In 1724, one of his cantatas was performed there, and an oratorio in 1739. In 1726 he presented an oratorio entitled La Fuga di S. Teresia at Palazzo Melani, followed by a Pasticcio in 1727. In 1728, a performance was given of his Lamentations which he had composed with G.M.C. Clari. Giustini was named organist of the Cathedral of Pistoia in 1734 and worked there until his death under another member of his family, the choir master Francesco Manfredini. Over the years, he appeared as harpsichordist in many performances of his oratorios in his native city. His twelve Sonate da Cimbalo di Piano e Forte Dette Volgarmente di Martelletti, published in Florence in 1732, ensured his place in the history of music.
Biographical material from Drake Mabry Publishing
Giustiniani, Leonardo
15 Nov. 1787
Vienna, Austria
German operatic composer who settled in Vienna as kapellmeister in 1754. He composed his early operas in the Italian tradition, but later, became dissatisfied with mannerisms of older operas, and set out to reform them, putting text and music into a more meaningful and coherent whole. In 1762, his Orfeo ed Euridice revolutionized the 18th-century conception of opera by giving free scope to dramatic effect. In the early 1770s, Gluck decided to apply his new ideals to French opera, and in 1774 produced Iphigenie en Aulide in Paris, giving a French revision. This brought to a head the fierce debate over the future of opera in which Gluck's French style had the support of Marie Antoinette while his Italian rival Nicolo Piccinni (1728-1800) had the support of Madame du Barry. With Armide (1777) and Iphigenie en Tauride (1779), Gluck won a complete victory over Piccini. Consequently, the art of opera was reformed and operas became more realistic and effective. Gluck's ideas were said to have influenced Mozart
Gnattali, Radam�s
1837
1882
son of Charles Godfrey I, like his brothers he studied at the Royal Academy and he took over from his father as Bandmaster of the Coldstream Guards in 1863, holding the appointment until 1880. Of his many arrangements, arguably the most popular was the Marguerite Waltz, on themes from Gounod's Faust. His Recollections of Meyerbeer was in Dan Godfrey II's first programme at Bournemouth while his variations for bassoon and (orchestra), Lucy Long was for many years a favourite at the early Henry Wood Promenade Concerts
Godfrey, Arthur Eugene
1868
1939
son of Charles Godfrey II, Arthur was educated at St. Paul's Choir School and the RAM, later working as an accompanist, as adviser to publishing firms and as Musical Director in various theatres, notably of the Alhambra Theatre in Glasgow (1921-9). His compositions were varied and included a String Quartet, ballads like A Fairy Fantasy, The Happy Isle, Lord of the Sea and Stand United, the barn dance, Happy Darkies, which was programmed by his cousin Dan II during his first Bournemouth season and a reasonably successful comedy, Little Miss Nobody, produced in 1898 at the Lyric Theatre, which ran for 200 performances and also had a brief American run. Landon Ronald wrote some of the music, but Godfrey was responsible for most of it
Godfrey, Charles I
1790
1863
began the Godfrey family's association with military music by playing bassoon in the Coldstream Guards Band in 1813. He became Bandmaster in 1825, retaining that position until his death, although he retired from the Army in 1834. In 1831 he had become a Musician in Ordinary to the King and from 1847 he edited Jullien's 'Military Journal', one of the earliest of military band publications
Godfrey, Charles II
1839
1919
son of Charles Godfrey I, Charels II studied at the RAM with George MacFarren and Lazarus and played the clarinet in Jullien's orchestra. At the age of twenty he became Bandmaster of the Scots Fusiliers, moving in 1868 to be Bandmaster of the Royal Horse Guards, where he remained until 1904, from 1899 as a commissioned officer. At various times he was Professor of Military Music at the RCM and the Guildhall School. He adjudicated at the British Open Brass Band Championships in Manchester for many years prior to the Great War (his brass band arrangements of Coleridge-Taylor's Hiawatha and Gems of Mendelssohn were the respective test pieces at the 1902 and 1904 National Championships). He edited the Army Military Band Journal and founded the Orpheus Band Journal
Godfrey, Charles (George) III
1866
1935
son of Charles Godfrey II, Chalres III went to the RAM, like his father but did not enter the Army, becoming Bandmaster of the Corps of Commissionaires in 1887, shortly before his cousin Dan II took it over, and then, from 1887-97, of the Crystal Palace Military Band. Later he was Musical Director of the orchestra at Buxton Spa (1897-8) and at the Spa, Scarborough (1899-1909, the years immediately before Alick Maclean's brilliant reign there)
Godfrey, Daniel I
1831
1903
after study at the Royal Academy of Music, became Bandmaster of the Grenadier Guards in 1856, holding that position for forty years and taking the Band to Boston in 1872 where it did much for Anglo-American relations, not at their most cordial at the time in the aftermath of the Civil War. The Band played several times at Windsor for the Queen. In 1887 be became the first Army bandmaster to achieve commissioned rank. After retiring from the Army he formed his own band and again visited the United States. He founded a music instrument business, Dan Godfrey Sons, in the Strand. He was responsible for many arrangements and a number of original compositions - marches, quadrilles and waltzes
Godfrey, Dan II
1868
1939
trained at the RCM but, unable to obtain an Army position as he had not been to Kneller Hall, conducted the band of the Corps of Commissionaires (1887-9) and the (civilian) London Military Band (1889-91) before going to conduct opera in Johannesburg in 1891-3 prior to giving the rest of his energies to Bournemouth. His arrangements were many and he also composed dance music, marches and songs
Godfrey, Dan III
1893
1935
the son of Dan Godfrey II, he studied at the RAM, like his grandfather, and played in the Coldstream Guards Band like his great grandfather, although he was never its Bandmaster. Instead he directed resort orchestras at Harrogate, Blackpool and Hastings and worked for the BBC in its early years, both at Manchester and Savoy Hill, often conducting the Wireless Orchestra. In 1928 he, like his father before him, sailed for South Africa where he was, until his sadly early death, Musical Director to Durban Corporation, thus, like his father, spreading the gospel of municipal music
Godin, Scott
13 Jun. 1986
New York City, USA
playing professionally from the age of 12, he joined Ben Pollack's orchestra in 1926. In 1929 he moved to New York and free lanced with various bands such as those of Red Nichols, Ben Selvin, Ted Lewis, Johnny Green, Paul Whiteman, and played in Broadway shows such as Gershwin's Strike Up The Band and Girl Crazy. He formed his own band in Spring 1934, and started out with arrangements by Dean Kincaide, Will Hudson and Benny Carter. In November 1934, Goodman started a series of weekly broadcasts on the "Let's Dance" program, using additional arrangements by Fletcher Henderson. Through radio's effectiveness in dissemination and by touring throughout the United States, Goodman became known as "The King of Swing," one of the most widely-known and significant figures in popular music towards the end of the 1930s. In 1939, Goodman disbanded his ensemble in order to undergo an operation to relieve sciatica. When he reassembled his band the following year, he acquired the services of arranger Eddie Sauter. The war years are considered the apogee of Goodman and his band's career. Goodman was also active in classical music. In 1935, he performed and recorded the Mozart clarinet quintet. In 1938 he comissioned Bela Bartok to write Contrasts, which he premiered and recorded the following year with Joseph Szigeti and the composer. Goodman continued to comission works from contemporary composers, and increased the number of his appearances in classical venues towards the end of his career
Goodman, Paul
1925
2003
a brilliant composer, arranger and conductor. In 1945 he was appointed head of the arranging department at Bron Associated Publishers, where he was involved in working with the best British bands such as Ted Heath, Geraldo and the BBC Dance Orchestra. Initially Ron�s work in the film industry was at Merton Park Studios on documentaries, but in 1958 his big chance came with a commission to write his first score for a major feature film Whirlpool. Two years later he was signed by MGM British Studios to compose and conduct for most of their British productions. In total, Goodwin worked on some 60 films, and an early success was his attractively spirited Miss Marple music, inspired by the casting of Margaret Rutherford as Agatha Christie�s famous amateur sleuth and originally written for Murder She Said (1962). 633 Squadron (1964) was his first big blockbuster and the following year he produced the score for Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines
Goorhuis, Rob
12 Nov. 2010
Poland
studied composition with Boleslaw Szabelski at the State Higher School of Music (PWSM) in Katowice (1955-1960). After a post-graduate sojourn in Paris, he became a professor of composition at the PWSM in Katowice, and-- in 1975-1979--its Rector. As a composer, he has been known and respected in Poland, but not well-known around the world. The phenomenal success of his Symphony no. 3 (Gramophone's"Best-selling CD in 1993") has astounded many of his contemporaries, especially in Poland, where the work had been known for more than a decade. In his home country G�recki's Third was perceived as one of a series of fascinating compositions, the result of a long and complex creative evolution
Gorelova, Galina
27 Dec. 1800, Fareham, England
10 May 1880
an English organist and composer who studied under Thomas Attwood. He succeeded Attwood as organist at St Pauls Cathedral in 1838. Goss' own pupils included Arthur Sullivan. As a composer he is best remembered for his Anglican church music and glees
Goss-Custard, Reginald
1956
Dorking, Surrey, UK
a native of St. Leonards and largely self taught, the composer Reginald Goss-Custard was successively organist of St. Margaret's Westminster and St. Michael's Chester Square. He was also organist for many years at the Bishopsgate Institute, where his two weekly recitals formed the basis of his reputation as a concert organist rather than as a church musician. On the advice of Cunningham, Goss-Custard was appointed as Organist of the Alexandra Palace after the 1929 restoration of the organ
Gossec, Francois-Joseph
Finland
pianist and composer. His small early output consists mostly of vocal works. His first work to attain wider attraction was the chamber opera Ihmeellinen viesti toiselta t�hdelt� (Strange News from Another Star, 1984), based on a story by Herman Hesse. The TV opera Hund (Hound, 1995) features the Russian Mafia. Another important work is the Zen-Buddhist cantata H�rk� ja h�nen paimenensa (The Ox and His Herder, 1992), which Goth�ni has adapted into a concerto grosso entitled H�rk� ja paimen (The Ox and the Herder, 1999) for violin, piano and strings
Gotkovsky, Ida
Brno
studied organ at the Brno Conservatory, from where he went on studying composition under Alois Pinos at the Janacek Academy of Performing Arts (JAMU), also in Brno. After completing his studies he worked temporarily in quite a number of capacities - as an accompanist at the Conservatory, in theatre, as as a music director in radio, as an employee of the Czech Music Fund, as a music school teacher, music editor in the Czech TV in Brno. At present he is professor at JAMU, Brno and artistic director of Exposition of New Music Festival. His greatest interest, however, is in composition. Graham says of his own music, that it "grows as does timber in a forest", without predetermined plans and goals. He is concerned with creation itself rather than with the cultivation of the personality: " I am what I do." Several of his works have met with success at performances in Great Britain, Germany, Poland, Austria, Italy, Romania, Holland, Sweden, France and USA. In 1993 his chamber cantata Der Erste gained him second prize in the Musica iudaica festival s international competition for works on texts by Franz Kafka
Grain [du Grain, D�gren], Jean [Johann Jeremias] du
fl. 1740
Finland
the early stage in his career is represented by the small orchestral work Toccata dodecafonica (1959), the Concerto for two tape recorders and orchestra (1964) and the staged cantata St�mmor ur elementer (Voices from the Elements, 1965) for male voice choir, male voice quartet, tape, six projectors and dancers. In the late 1960s, Gr�sbeck began to turn towards a more traditional free-tonal idiom. His later work consists mostly of relatively simple and archaic choral works, but he has also written orchestral music and concertos. Gr�sbeck is closely connected with choral music, having had a long career as a choral conductor
Gratton, Hector
15 May 1989
Los Angeles, USA
bandleader and composer. He was accompanist/arranger to stars such as James Melton, Libby Holman and Ethel Merman. It was while writing material for Gertrude Lawrence that he composed Body and Soul, the first recording of which was made by Jack Hylton & His Orchestra, eleven days before the song was copyrighted. He worked too as arranger to Gaetano Alberto "Guy" Lombardo (June 19, 1902�November 5, 1977), the Canadian bandleader and violinist famous in the United States who with his three brothers Carmen, Lebert, and Victor and other musicians from his hometown of London, Ontario, formed the big band The Royal Canadians in 1924. It was famous for playing what is considered "The Sweetest Music This Side of Heaven."
Green, Philip
12 Mar. 604
Italy
a system of writing down reminders of chant melodies was probably devised by monks around 800 to aid in unifying the church service throughout the Frankish empire. Charlemagne brought cantors from the Papal chapel in Rome to instruct his clerics in the �authentic� liturgy. A program of propaganda spread the idea that the chant used in Rome came directly from Pope Gregory I (also known as Gregory the Great or Gregory Diagolus) who was universally venerated. Pictures were made to depict the dove of the Holy Spirit perched on Gregory's shoulder, singing God's authentic form of chant into his ear. This gave rise to calling the music "Gregorian chant". A more accurate term is plainsong or plainchant
Gregson, Edward
3 Apr. 1972
Santa Monica, USA
by the age of 15, Grof� was working in bands as an alto hornist and in the Los Angeles Philharmonic as a viola player. Around 1920 he began working as an arranger and pianist with the jazz bandleader Paul Whiteman. Grof� arranged music (including George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue) and composed original pieces in a symphonic jazz style. Grof�'s own works included Mississippi: A Journey in Tones in 1925, Metropolis: A Fantasie in Blue in 1928, and the Grand Canyon Suite in 1931. Each piece painted a musical portrait of an American scene. He continued to work for Whiteman until 1932
Groh, Johann
1865
Paris, France
blind from the age of one and a half, he was admitted at the Institut des Jeunes Aveugles de Paris when he was eleven years old. He learned there the basics of piano playing, and learned to play the cello and the organ. After leaving the institute he became organ teacher at the institute. Among his pupils was Alphonse Dupuis, himself blind from birth, and organist at the church of St. Paul in Orl�ans, who suggested that Guiet take the post of organist at Saint-Paterne at Orl�ans. He was a brillant organist, and is known to have performed on the cello in several chamber music concerts. Because of his disappointment over the refusal to restore the rapid deterioration of the organ at the Saint-Paterne he left for Paris and became a post at his old Institut des Jeunes Aveugles
Guenin, Helene
1410
1481
Jewish dance master, choreographer, composer, and theorist. His De practica seu arte tripudii survives in seven known versions, plus three existing fragments. The Sparti translation is from the 1463 version written by the scribe Paganus Raudensis in Milan for Galeazzo Sfroza, believed to be the original source for the various copies. There are significant differences between each of the versions of Guglielmo's work, with varying degrees of completeness and clarity, added or omitted information, and major innovations to some dance choreographies. De practica includes a theoretical introduction proving the moral and ethical worth of dance, a section on the fundamental concepts on which the art of dance is based, and a Socratic dialogue defending dancing and supporting the importance of his principles of dance. This is followed by the practice, which includes choreographies of 31 dances: 14 bassedanze, and 17 balli
Guiard
1071
1126
known in English as William IX of Aquitaine, he was nicknamed the Troubador and was Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony and Count of Poitiers as William VII of Poitiers between 1086 and 1126. He was also one of the leaders of the crusade of 1101 and one of the first medieval vernacular poets. His Occitan names were Guilh�m IX duc d'Aquit�nia e de Gasconha and Guilh�m VII comte de Peitieus. An anonymous 13th century biography of Guillaume, forming part of the collection Biographies des Troubadours, remembers him thus: "The Count of Poitiers was one of the most courtly men in the world and one of the greatest deceivers of women. He was a fine knight at arms, liberal in his womanizing, and a fine composer and singer of songs. He travelled much through the world, seducing women"
Guillaume de Poitiers
Pr�aux, Normandy
1090
Norman chronicler, not to be confused with Guillaume of Aquitaine (see above) who is also known sometimes as Guillaume de Poitiers
Guillaume de Cabestang
fl. 1212
more correctly, in Occitan, Guilhem de Cabestanh, a troubadour poet. According to his legendary vida, he was the lover of Seremonda, wife of Raimon of Castel-Rossillon. On discovering this, Raimon fed Cabestanh's heart to Seremonda. When he told her what she had eaten, she threw herself from the window to her death. This legend appears later in Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron and in the Cantos of Ezra Pound
Guillaume le Peigneur (see Amiens, Guillaume d')
Dublin, Ireland
well known from his countless concerts, radio broadcasts, television appearances, recordings, compositions, editions and arrangements, his musical career began as a choirboy at St. Patrick's Cathedral Dublin and the Chapel of Trinity College Dublin under Dr. George Hewson, and he studied with private teachers. After some years as Lay Vicar Choral and Choir Librarian at Christ Church Cathedral Dublin, he joined Radio Telefis Eireann working in Cork and Dublin. Throughout his career he has directed and conducted many vocal and instrumental ensembles most notably The Locrian Consort, The Patrician Consort, the R.T.E. Singers, the Irish Pro Musica Chorale, the Cork Schola Cantorum, Musick's Monument and of course The Douglas Gunn Ensemble. He was on the staff of the Cork School of Music from 1974 to 1987, teaching Recorder and Baroque Chamber Music. He also taught at the Dublin Early Music Centre for nine years. Douglas Gunn is an authority on Irish Music of the 17th and 18th centuries. As a composer, most of Douglas Gunn's output has been choral music. He has also written for solo voice with various instruments, and some chamber music, including music for recorder
Gunn, John
c.1824
Edinburgh, Scotland
a fine cellist, but also a remarkable writer on music. In the year 1790 he went to London as a cello teacher. He there published, in 1793, an instruction book for his instrument, under the title of The Theory and practice of fingering the Violoncello, containing rules and progressive lessons for attaining the knowledge and command of the whole compass of the instrument. Fetis observes, with regard to the preface of this work, consisting of two parts, that it contains a remarkable account of the origin of the Violoncello, as well as of old and modern stringed instruments. Gunn wrote another work, published in London in 1801, which has reference to the Violoncello. The title of it is, Essay theoretical and practical on the application of Harmony, Thorough-bass, and Modulation to the Violoncello. Besides this he published, in 1794, a School of the German flute, and in 1807 he brought out his most important work- viz., An Historical Inquiry respecting the performance on the Harp in the Highlands of Scotland from the earliest times until it was discontinued about the year 1734. In the year 1795 Gunn returned to Edinburgh to take up an advantageous post that was offered to him, and which he apparently held until his death.
Gunning, Christopher
1944
Gunningo has published some instructional instrumental solos, but is better known for his most attractive music for TV and film documentaries among which we can instance the TV film Yorkshire Glory, is presenting the beauties of that country through the seasons
Gunuc, Kemal
| i don't know |
Missouri shares the vast majority of its eastern border with which other state? | Missouri | history - geography - state, United States | Britannica.com
state, United States
Alternative Title: Show Me State
Missouri
(2010) 5,988,927; (2015 est.) 6,083,672
Total area (sq mi)
"Salus Populi Suprema Lex Esto (The Welfare of the People Shall Be the Supreme Law)"
State bird
Seats in U.S. House of Representatives
8 (of 435)
1Excluding military abroad.
2Species not designated.
Missouri, constituent state of the United States of America. To the north lies Iowa ; across the Mississippi River to the east, Illinois , Kentucky , and Tennessee ; to the south, Arkansas ; and to the west, Oklahoma , Kansas , and Nebraska . With the exception of Tennessee, Missouri has more neighbouring states than any other U.S. state. Bisecting the state is the Missouri River , flowing from Kansas City in the west, through the state’s capital, Jefferson City , in the centre, to just above St. Louis in the east, where it joins the Mississippi. Missouri was the name of a group of indigenous people who lived in the area at the time of European settlement; the French named the river after the native community , and the river, in turn, gave its name to the state.
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The Missouri River at St. Albans, eastern Missouri, U.S.
Jack Zehrt—Taxi/Getty Images
Located near the centre of the conterminous United States, Missouri is the meeting place of the eastern timberlands and western prairies and of the southern cotton fields and the northern cornfields. It has represented the political and social sentiments of a border state since its admission as the 24th member of the union on August 10, 1821. The question of its admission as a slave state or as a free state produced in the U.S. Congress the Missouri Compromise (1820), which regulated the spread of slavery in the western territories.
Missouri was the westernmost state of the union until the admission of Texas in 1845, and for decades it served as the eastern terminus of the Santa Fe and Oregon trails. For the western territories, St. Louis , one of Missouri’s largest cities, long was the closest contact with the culture and more settled society of the eastern states. For the eastern United States, Missouri had a reputation as the chief gateway to points west.
Gateway Arch framing downtown St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.
© Kelly-Mooney Photography/Corbis
Sara Teasdale
Missouri embodies a unique but dynamic balance between the urban and the rural and between the liberal and the conservative . The state ranks high in the United States in terms of urbanization and industrial activity, but it also maintains a vigorous and diversified agriculture. Numerous conservative characteristics of the rural life that predominated prior to the 1930s have been retained into the 21st century; indeed, Missouri’s nickname, the Show-Me State, suggests a tradition of skepticism regarding change. Area 69,707 square miles (180,540 square km). Population (2010) 5,988,927; (2015 est.) 6,083,672.
Land
Relief
The part of Missouri that lies north of the Missouri River was once glaciated. In this area the land is characterized by gently rolling hills, fertile plains, and well-watered prairie country. South of the Missouri, a large portion of the state lies in the Ozark Mountains . Except in the extreme southeastern corner of Missouri—including the southern extension, commonly called the “Bootheel”—and along the western boundary, the land in this region is rough and hilly, with some deep, narrow valleys and clear, swift streams. It is an area abounding with caves and extraordinarily large natural springs. Much of the land is 1,000 to 1,400 feet (300 to 425 metres) above sea level, although near the western border the elevations rarely rise above 800 feet (250 metres). About 90 miles (145 km) south of St. Louis is Taum Sauk Mountain ; with an elevation of 1,772 feet (540 metres), it is the highest point in the state. In far southeastern Missouri lies a part of the alluvial plain of the Mississippi River , where elevations are less than 500 feet (150 metres). On the southwestern edge of this region is the state’s lowest point, where the St. Francis River flows from the Missouri Bootheel into Arkansas at an elevation of about 230 feet (70 metres).
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Taum Sauk Mountain, in the northeastern Ozark Mountains, Missouri, U.S.
Kbh3rd
New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ)
The St. Francois Mountains in the eastern Ozarks exhibit igneous granite and rhyolite outcroppings, while the rest of the state is underlain by sedimentary rocks—mainly limestones, dolomites, sandstone, and shale. Missouri is tectonically stable except for the southeastern portion, where small earth tremors occur. The possibility of another devastating earthquake of a magnitude comparable to those centred at New Madrid in 1811–12 cannot be discounted.
Drainage and soils
USA Facts
Drainage and soil conditions permit farming in all of Missouri’s counties, although the Ozark Mountain region mainly supports livestock and poultry farming because of the region’s thin soil. Northern Missouri, much of it covered by rich glacial and loessial soils, is generally well drained. The alluvial soils in the bottomlands along the many rivers and streams, which are among the most extensive in the country, also add to the farming potentiality. Except for the rivers that flow generally southeasterly into the Mississippi, many through Arkansas, the Missouri River drains most of the state.
Missouri’s largest lakes were created by damming rivers and streams. The Lake of the Ozarks , impounded by the Bagnell Dam on the Osage River , has an area of 93 square miles (241 square km) and a shoreline of some 1,375 miles (2,200 km); it is among the largest man-made lakes in the country. Although most of Missouri’s artificial lakes were built primarily to furnish hydroelectric power and to prevent flooding, they also provide the state with excellent recreational resources.
Climate
Missouri is susceptible to the influences of cold Canadian air, of warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico , and of drier air from the southwest . Although winds are variable throughout the year, summer winds generally blow from the south and southwest and winter winds from the north and northwest. Precipitation, usually sufficient for crops, varies from around 35 inches (890 mm) in the north and northwest to nearly 50 inches (1,270 mm) in the extreme southeast. About one-third of it falls from April to June. Heavy snows are unusual; most snow occurs between December and February. Missouri lies in “Tornado Alley,” the zone of maximum tornadic activity in the United States, and averages about 25 twisters annually. Occasionally, tornadoes have turned particularly deadly and destructive, as with the May 2011 storm that devastated the city of Joplin .
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Maximum January temperatures usually range from the mid-30s F (about 2 °C) in the north and northwest to the mid-40s F (about 6 °C) in the southeast; minimum temperatures range from about 15 °F (about –9 °C) to the upper 20s F (about –3 °C). In the Ozarks, however, temperatures are typically cooler than they are elsewhere in the state. The extreme northwest usually has milder summers (late June through late September) than the southeast, but summer temperatures well above 100 °F (38 °C) may occur in any part of the state.
Plant and animal life
In the 18th century about two-thirds of the land that is now Missouri was forested, and the remainder was covered with prairie grasses. By the early 21st century about one-third of the state was under forest cover, mostly on the hills and slopes of the Ozarks, and nearly all of the prairie land had been brought under cultivation. Scattered prairie remnants have been preserved by various governmental agencies and nongovernmental nature conservation organizations, however.
Missouri is home to a broad spectrum of flora and fauna. The river bluffs and valleys of the Ozark Mountain region have many unusual plants, including fame flower (Talinum parviflorum), a type of campion that is locally known as royal catchfly (Silene regia), Trelease’s larkspur (Delphinium treleasei), coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima), gayfeather (genus Liatris ), and fringed poppy mallow (Callirhoe diigitata). The state parks provide a haven for more than 100 species of fish, some 200 species of birds, and dozens of species of mammals. Elk, deer, bison, and bears once were plentiful, as were such smaller animals as beavers, otters, and mink. After European settlement and the expansion of agriculture, most of the larger animals disappeared, and animals with valuable fur were trapped until near extinction. However, management and restocking efforts led by the state government increased Missouri’s deer population from just a few hundred in the early 20th century to nearly a million by the early 21st century. Wild turkeys, pheasant, ducks, and geese are hunted in season. A small population of bears has migrated from Arkansas into the southern part of the state, but hunting them is not permitted.
People
flag of Missouri
Population composition
The original inhabitants of Missouri were various native peoples, notably the Missouri in the east and the Quapaw and Osage in the west. Other native North American groups entered the area as European power and influence on the continent expanded. Most indigenous peoples were forcibly removed from Missouri to what is now Oklahoma via the infamous Trail of Tears in the early 19th century. Although there remained more than 20,000 people of Native American descent in Missouri in the early 21st century, they constituted just a tiny fraction of the state’s total population.
After the arrival of the first French settlers in the 18th century, immigration came largely from states to the east and northeast, as well as from the South . Ultimately, a Southern-style agricultural economy and society were established in the Bootheel and in the area known as Little Dixie, which lies generally north of the Missouri River and extends westward along its banks to the middle of the state. Immigrants from abroad—particularly Germans, Irish, and English—came in great numbers after 1820. By 1860 large groups of Germans had settled in Missouri, mainly in St. Louis and just to the west, while many Irish had settled in the city. Between 1860 and 1890 the immigration from Ohio , Illinois , and Indiana exceeded that from the South, while an increasing number of immigrants from Germany arrived, settling mostly in urban centres. Subsequently, St. Louis and Kansas City attracted sizable communities of Italians and Greeks as well as Poles and Jews. By World War II (1939–45) more than 20 different European ethnic groups had settled in rural Missouri. In the early 21st century more than four-fifths of the state’s population was white.
The northward migration of many African Americans from the rural South altered the ethnic composition of the population, especially in the first half of the 20th century. From 1940 to 1960 the number of residents of white European ancestry increased by 11 percent, whereas the population of African descent increased by 62 percent. By the early 21st century African Americans accounted for more than one-tenth of the state’s total population, with the great majority concentrated in St. Louis and Kansas City.
Since about 1980 the Hispanic and Asian communities have grown substantially. In the last decade of the 20th century, Missouri’s Hispanic—primarily Mexican—community nearly doubled in size to constitute a still small but increasingly significant segment of the state’s population. Although most of the state’s Hispanic residents live in St. Louis and Kansas City, many also settled in southwestern Missouri, where the growing poultry industry provided employment. The state’s Asian population, within which the Chinese, Indian, and Vietnamese communities predominate, also is concentrated in the state’s largest cities.
It is not unusual that a crossroads state should exhibit religious diversity . The Roman Catholic Church , which was dominant until the Louisiana Purchase (1803), remains powerful, particularly in the St. Louis and Kansas City areas. The chief Protestant denominations are the Baptists and the Methodists , but various Pentecostal groups also are well represented throughout the state. Jewish communities have flourishing congregations in the larger cities. There are small Amish colonies in the Ozark Mountains and in several other locations.
Settlement patterns
Missouri’s regions reflect the ethnic, religious, and political persuasions of the residents. The Bootheel in the extreme southeast was settled by planters from the South and was appended to Missouri at the time of statehood through the great influence of one planter; it is the centre of Missouri’s historic cotton culture. Drainage systems converted former swamps in this region into one of the state’s richest agricultural zones. The Ozark Mountains area, whose rugged terrain is unsuited to extensive agriculture, has been among the poorer regions of Missouri, but it constitutes one of the great tourist attractions of the state. In the years prior to the American Civil War (1861–65), the Little Dixie region was settled by persons sympathetic to the South. Some of the finest examples of antebellum residences are found there. South of Little Dixie, on the bluffs and uplands south of the Missouri River and west of St. Louis, is a concentration of German settlements, known locally as the “Missouri Rhineland.” In the western part of the state, north and east of the Missouri River, is historic “ Mormon Country .” There, followers of Joseph Smith , the founder of the Mormon church, settled about 1831, first at Independence and subsequently in other areas, until they were driven out by hostile neighbours. In the centre of the state, around Boonville and Columbia , is the “Boone’s Lick Country,” where the frontiersman Daniel Boone and his sons moved from Kentucky to hunt and trap game and to make salt.
Urban areas continued to expand, ultimately reducing the amount of agricultural land. Although urban settlements are scattered throughout the state, Kansas City and St. Louis are Missouri’s most important centres of commerce and manufacturing. They are the nuclei of large metropolitan areas that extend into Kansas on the west and Illinois on the east. More than half of the state’s population lives in and around these two cities.
Kansas City skyline at sunset, Missouri, U.S.
Donovan Reese/Getty Images
Jeremy Woodhouse/Getty Images
Demographic trends
While Missouri’s population has grown modestly since the mid-20th century, people continued to emigrate to other states, reflecting a common trend in the more heavily rural and economically less-developed parts of the country. Southwestern Missouri, however, has not conformed to this pattern. Since about 1960 that region experienced rapid population growth, stimulated by the expanding tourism industry and the influx of retirees. Much of the growth occurred in Springfield , which is the urban hub of the region; in communities near the large lakes; and in the vicinity of Branson , the booming country music and retirement centre.
Economy
Although agriculture has remained an important component of Missouri’s economy, the manufacturing and service sectors have since the mid-20th century grown to become the major contributors to the state’s gross product. After World War II there was a notable shift in the emphasis of Missouri’s manufacturing activity from nondurable to durable goods. The production of shoes and clothing, for instance, declined, while metal fabrication and the manufacture of plastics and machinery increased. By the early 21st century Missouri ranked among the top states in the country in some types of manufacturing, particularly the production of aerospace and transportation equipment—including automobile assembly.
Agriculture and forestry
Missouri has more farms than nearly every other state in the country, and the vast majority of these farms are owned by individuals or families. Since the late 20th century, however, the number of Missouri’s farms has been decreasing while acreage and productivity have been on the rise, largely because of the development of agribusiness enterprises. Only a small portion of Missouri’s workforce is directly engaged in agriculture, and many of the state’s farmers earn a major portion of their income from nonfarm work.
Approximately two-thirds of Missouri’s farmland is planted in crops; the remaining third is divided roughly equally between woodland and pasture. Cotton was once Missouri’s principal agricultural commodity, but production declined in the second half of the 20th century because of cotton disease and low market prices. Since that time, farmers have diversified their agricultural activities. Soybeans became the state’s most valuable crop, followed by hay, corn (maize), wheat, sorghum, cotton, and rice. Small acreages of tobacco continue to be planted in the northwestern part of the state. Hay is the leading product of the Ozark region, where it supports a growing feeder cattle industry. More than half of Missouri’s total farm income derives from the sale of animals and animal products, mainly cattle, hogs, poultry, and dairy products. Dairying is concentrated in the state’s southwestern region.
Hay bales, Missouri, U.S.
Pigs in a factory farm, northeastern Missouri, U.S.
Daniel Pepper/Getty Images
The forest resources of the Ozarks were increasingly tapped after the 1950s for dimension lumber, oak flooring, railroad ties, cabinet wood, and whiskey barrels. The introduction of large wood-chip mills in the area since the late 20th century stirred great controversy, because those mills are capable of stripping thousands of acres of forestland in a relatively short time span, greatly modifying wildlife habitats, patterns of water runoff, and the rate of soil erosion. Such environmental concerns triggered the state government to curb chip milling intermittently in Missouri.
Resources and power
The state’s variety of major mineral resources includes lead and iron ore, zinc, barite, and limestone. Missouri is one of the country’s leaders in lead production, and deposits of lead and zinc continue to be discovered in the mineral-rich zone known as the Viburnum Trend (or the New Lead Belt) in southeastern Missouri. Further development of lead deposits at the southern end of the Viburnum Trend in the Mark Twain National Forest and near the Ozark National Scenic Riverways has been prohibited, however. Iron mining in Missouri began in the early 19th century and continued reasonably steadily until the late 20th century. Fluctuation in global iron prices and environmental concerns have allowed only intermittent production since the mid-1980s. Lead and zinc production has decreased because of declining demand and low prices.
Sample of crested barite from Missouri
Joseph and Helen Guetterman collection; photograph, John H. Gerard/EB Inc.
More than four-fifths of Missouri’s electricity is supplied by coal-fired power plants, with coal imported primarily from Wyoming. The remainder of Missouri’s energy comes mostly from nuclear power stations. Natural gas and hydroelectric power plants generate only a small fraction of Missouri’s electricity.
Manufacturing
Although it has declined since the late 20th century, manufacturing is an important contributor to Missouri’s economy, accounting for more than one-tenth of the state’s gross product and for a comparable proportion of the state’s workforce. The sector is led by the production of aerospace and transportation equipment, followed by processed foods, fabricated metals and machinery, chemicals, and plastics and rubber. Geographically, manufacturing employment is concentrated in the metropolitan areas of St. Louis , Kansas City , Springfield , St. Joseph , Columbia , and Joplin. The large plants tend to be located near the major urban centres, while midsize cities and towns attract smaller-scale industries.
Manufacture of an aircraft wing in a factory in St. Louis, Mo., U.S.
© Bettmann/Corbis
Services, labour, and taxation
Missouri’s diverse service sector—the most significant components of which include government, retail and wholesale trade, financial services, real estate, health and social services, and assorted professional services—heavily dominates the state’s economy. Federal, state, and local government form the largest segment of the sector. The regional offices of the Internal Revenue Service , the federal tax-collection agency, are located in Kansas City and serve much of the Midwest. Both Kansas City and St. Louis are important centres for banking, trade (based largely on the exchange of farm- and automobile-related products), and business services.
Although they still account for only a small portion of the state’s gross product, tourism and its associated services have expanded rapidly since the late 20th century, notably surpassing agriculture in economic importance. Much of this growth was in the larger towns and cities and near the large Ozark lakes. One such town, Branson, has become a city, though it also remains an emblem of the rural way of life and attracts millions of domestic and international visitors annually.
Workers in Missouri have enjoyed the benefits of a generally expanding economy, but income per capita has remained below the national average. Unions have had great influence in increasing the salary levels of teachers, clerical workers, and those in various specialized trades. Although Missouri has compared favourably with other states in terms of its overall income, it has continued to rank low in state tax revenue per capita. An important amendment to the constitution, adopted in 1980, requires the refund of taxes if state revenues grow more than 1 percent faster than the level of the taxpayers’ income.
Transportation
The major flows of traffic within Missouri are from the east to west along the valley of the Missouri River and southward along the Mississippi River . Together, these two rivers provide more than 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of navigable waterways within the state, and they ultimately connect waterborne traffic with New Orleans . Missouri also is served by several interstate highways. Extension of these and other roads into the Ozarks since the late 20th century has greatly reduced the isolation of the region.
A grain barge traveling on the Mississippi River along Missouri’s border.
Kevin Horan—Stone/Getty Images
Aerial view of a lock and dam on the Mississippi River, Hannibal, Mo., U.S.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
The state’s railroads are linked with most of the country’s major trunk lines, and St. Louis , Kansas City , and Jefferson City are served by Amtrak passenger service. Since 1910 the gradual abandonment of competing parallel lines and short lines built by mining and lumbering companies has led to a considerable reduction in Missouri’s railroad mileage. Following the 1976 Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act, additional unprofitable branchlines were abandoned.
St. Louis and Kansas City are regional air hubs. International flights are available at both locations. The Springfield-Branson National Airport is a growing secondary (domestic) air hub serving the tourist centres and the fast-growing economy of southwestern Missouri.
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An Update on State Budget Cuts
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An Update on State Budget Cuts
At Least 46 States Have Imposed Cuts That Hurt Vulnerable Residents and the Economy
UPDATED
New School Year Brings Steep Cuts in State Funding for Schools , October 7, 2011
With tax revenue still declining as a result of the recession and budget reserves largely drained, the vast majority of states have made spending cuts that hurt families and reduce necessary services. These cuts, in turn, have deepened states’ economic problems because families and businesses have less to spend. Federal recovery act dollars and funds raised from tax increases have greatly reduced the extent, severity, and economic impact of these cuts, but only to a point. And federal aid to states is slated to expire well before state revenues have recovered.
The cuts enacted in at least 46 states plus the District of Columbia since 2008 have occurred in all major areas of state services, including health care (31 states), services to the elderly and disabled (29 states and the District of Columbia), K-12 education (34 states and the District of Columbia), higher education (43 states), and other areas. States made these cuts because revenues from income taxes, sales taxes, and other revenue sources used to pay for these services declined due to the recession. At the same time, the need for these services did not decline and, in fact, rose as the number of families facing economic difficulties increased.
These budget pressures have not abated. Because unemployment rates remain high — and are projected to stay high well into next year — revenues are likely to remain at or near their current depressed levels. This has caused a new round of cuts. Based on gloomy revenue projections, legislatures and governors have enacted budgets for the 2011 fiscal year (which began on July 1, 2010 in most states). In many states these budgets contain cuts that go even further than those enacted over the past two fiscal years.
Cuts to state services not only harm vulnerable residents but also worsen the recession — and dampen the recovery — by reducing overall economic activity. When states cut spending, they lay off employees, cancel contracts with vendors, reduce payments to businesses and nonprofits that provide services, and cut benefit payments to individuals. All of these steps remove demand from the economy. For instance, at least 44 states and the District of Columbia have reduced overall wages paid to state workers by laying off workers, requiring them to take unpaid leave (furloughs), freezing new hires, or similar actions. State and local governments have eliminated over 400,000 jobs since August 2008, federal data show. Such measures are reducing not only the level and quality of services available to state residents but also the purchasing power of workers’ families, which in turn affects local businesses and slows recovery.
States are taking actions to mitigate the extent of these cuts. Since the recession began, over 30 states have addressed their budget shortfalls in part by increasing taxes. Like budget cuts, tax increases remove demand from the economy by reducing the amount of money people have to spend. But tax increases can be less detrimental to state economies than budget cuts because some of the tax increases affect upper-income households, so are likely to result in reduced saving rather than reduced consumption. Many more states will need to consider tax increases or other revenue measures, as well as such steps as tapping remaining state rainy day funds, as a way to minimize harmful budget cuts.
The cuts thus far in state-funded services — and the resulting harm to families’ well-being and to state economies — would have been much greater without federal assistance. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act provided roughly $140 billion over two and a half years in the form of enhanced Medicaid funding and funding to pay for education, public safety and other services. In addition, H.R. 1586 — the August 2010 jobs bill — extended enhanced Medicaid funding through June 2011 and added $10 billion in additional education funding.
In some cases, it is possible to identify specific services that were slated for cuts but that have been protected in whole or in part by the federal funds; these include child care in Alabama and Arizona, public safety funding in Washington, prescription drugs for seniors and tuition assistance in New York, and education funding in a number of states. The Department of Education found that in an average quarter through June 30, the State Fiscal Stabilization Fund in the Recovery Act funded 266,000 education jobs and 49,000 jobs in other areas, for a total of 315,000 jobs. [1]
In other cases, it is impossible to know what would have happened if states had not received the federal funds. But it is indisputable that families and communities would be facing much more serious consequences from state cuts.
Federal aid to states, however, is scheduled to expire well before state budgets have recovered. Additional funding for Medicaid is set to end at the end of June 2011, the close of most states’ 2011 fiscal year. States will have used up much of their additional federal funding for education at that point also. But the latest available data show state revenues still far below pre-recession levels, resulting in significant state budget shortfalls that will persist into fiscal year 2012 and beyond. Indeed, historical experience and current economic projections suggest that due to declining federal assistance, fiscal year 2012 will be a more difficult budget year for states than any year to date, meaning that state budget cuts could deepen even further, causing deeper private-sector and public-sector job loss.
One way to mitigate the need for additional state spending cuts and protect the economy would be for the federal government to reduce state budget gaps by extending enhanced Medicaid funds over the period that states are expected to experience budget problems rather than cutting enhanced funding off in June 2011. At the very least, the federal government should not take any actions that make states’ budget situations worse. Certain federal tax reductions, for example, could also reduce state revenues, exacerbating state budget problems and slowing the economic recovery. Cuts to federal “domestic discretionary” spending also would worsen state budget problems and lead to job loss, since a large share of that spending takes the form of grants to states.
Whatever actions the federal government takes, states themselves can and should act to lessen the need for harmful cuts. They can do so by implementing a balanced approach to addressing their budget shortfalls, one that includes revenues rather than just ever deepening reductions in services.
Background: The Deep Recession Is Creating Widespread Deficits
The national recession is producing both declines in state and local revenues and increased need for public programs as residents lose jobs, income, and health insurance. In the 2009 and 2010 fiscal years, the imbalance between available revenues and what was needed for services opened up budget gaps in most states. In addition, states have now addressed significant budget shortfalls in enacting their 2011 budgets and even more budget gaps are projected for fiscal year 2012. Since the start of the recession, states have closed over $425 billion in budget shortfalls. Sizable budget gaps are likely to continue for the next several years.
Virtually all states are required to balance their operating budgets each year or biennium. Unlike the federal government, states cannot maintain services during an economic downturn by running a deficit. States had record reserves heading into this recession, but those have mostly been drawn down. Since federal economic assistance is slated to expire well before state budgets have recovered, states must address remaining shortfalls with a combination of spending cuts and/or tax increases.
Cuts Continue to Deepen, Affect Wide Range of Services
States began cutting their budgets in the spring of 2008, as the recession brought sharply weakened revenues. The cuts have intensified in the face of high and persistent unemployment. Even as the need for state-funded services rose, states cut funding for services by 4.2 percent for fiscal year 2009 and an additional 6.8 percent for 2010, according to estimates by the National Association of State Budget Officers (NASBO). NASBO projects that state spending for 2011 will remain 7.6 percent below 2008 levels. [2] Indeed, the cuts that many states have enacted for FY2011 have been even more severe than those implemented in previous years. For example:
An estimated 8,200 families in Arizona lost eligibility for temporary cash assistance as the time limit for that assistance is cut back to 36 months from 60.
Colorado cut public school spending by $260 million, nearly a 5 percent decline from fiscal year 2010. The cut amounts to more than $400 per student.
Florida’s 11 public universities raised tuition by 15 percent for the 2010-11 academic year. This tuition hike, combined with a similar increase in 2009-10, results in a total two-year increase of 32 percent.
In Minnesota, as a result of higher education funding cuts, approximately 9,400 students lost their state financial aid grants entirely, and the remaining state financial aid recipients will see their grants cut by 19 percent.
Virginia’s $700 million in K-12 education cuts for the current biennium include the state’s share of an array of school district operating and capital expenses, and funding for class-size reduction in Kindergarten through third grade.
Washington will reduce assistance for thousands of people who are physically or mentally incapacitated and unable to work in early 2011. For 28,000 adults receiving cash grants through the state’s Disability Lifeline program, the typical monthly benefit will fall by $81 to $258 from $339.
These cuts are affecting a wide range of important services. Since the recession began:
At least 31 states have implemented cuts that will restrict low-income children’s or families’ eligibility for health insurance or reduce their access to health care services.
At least 29 states plus the District of Columbia are cutting medical, rehabilitative, home care, or other services needed by low-income people who are elderly or have disabilities, or are significantly increasing the cost of these services.
At least 34 states and the District of Columbia are cutting aid to K-12 schools and various education programs.
At least 43 states have cut assistance to public colleges and universities, resulting in reductions in faculty and staff in addition to tuition increases.
And at least 44 states and the District of Columbia have made cuts affecting state government employees.
Overall, at least 46 states plus the District of Columbia have made reductions in services. (These measures are discussed in greater detail in the Appendix)
The Role of Revenue Increases and Federal Aid
Several states facing large budget shortfalls have averted deep cuts in vital services by enacting temporary or permanent revenue increases.
In late 2007 and 2008, some ten states enacted tax increases, closed loopholes, restricted tax credits, or implemented other revenue-raising measures. Major packages were enacted in Maryland, Michigan, and New York.
Since the recession began, over 30 states have raised taxes, sometimes quite significantly. Increases have been enacted or are under consideration in personal income, business, sales, and excise taxes. Major state revenue packages have been enacted in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Massachusetts, Nevada, New York, North Carolina, Washington and Wisconsin, among other states.
States also have used federal assistance to avert spending cuts. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, enacted in February 2009, gave states roughly $140 billion over a two-and-a-half year period to help fund ongoing programs, including enhanced funding for Medicaid and funding for K-12 and higher education. In August 2010, the federal government provided states an additional six months of enhanced Medicaid funding and an additional $10 billion in education funding. In state after state, it is abundantly clear that spending and service cuts in health care, education, human services, public safety, and other areas would have been much deeper had the federal funds not been available. [3] As noted above, however, federal fiscal relief will be largely exhausted by the end of states’ 2011 fiscal year, even though states are projecting substantial budget gaps for fiscal year 2012 and beyond. If the federal aid expires before state budgets have recovered, states will lose a critical tool for avoiding pro-cyclical actions such as budget cuts and tax increases that could slow the economic recovery even further. [4]
AT LEAST 46 STATES AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA HAVE CUT SERVICES
Elderly/ Disabled (29 plus DC)
K-12 and Early Education (34 plus DC)
Higher Education (43)
State Workforce (44 plus DC)
Alabama
X
Appendix: Budget Cuts by Area
At least 46 states plus the District of Columbia have enacted budget cuts that will affect services for children, the elderly, the disabled, and families, as well as the quality of education and access to higher education (see table on page 5). Those cuts are detailed below.
Public Health Programs
At least 31 states have implemented cuts that will restrict eligibility for health insurance programs and/or access to health care services.
As a result of state budget cuts, over 1 million low-income Arizona residents have lost access to Medicaid services offered by the state, including emergency dental services, medically necessary dentures, insulin pumps, airway devices for people with chronic lung disease, gastric bypass surgery, certain hearing aids for the deaf or severely hard of hearing, and prosthetics.
California cut funding for the Healthy Families program, the state’s CHIP program. To make up for the lost funds, the nearly 1 million children in the program will have to pay more for visits to health care providers, and many will have to pay higher premiums as well. These cost increases may cause some families to drop from the program. In addition to these changes, the state cut nearly all funding for services supporting HIV/AIDS patients, and it completely eliminated funding for the state’s domestic violence shelter program and maternal, child, and adolescent health programs.
Because of changes that Connecticut made to its Medicaid program, on June 1, 2010, over 220,000 pregnant women, parents, caretaker relatives and disabled and elderly adults lost coverage for over-the-counter medications and nutritional supplements (with exceptions for insulin and supplies, nutritional supplements for those with feeding tubes, and prenatal vitamins).
In its FY 2011 budget Massachusetts made a $2.2 million, or 6 percent, cut to HIV/AIDS prevention programs, and cut dental benefits for approximately 700,000 low-income residents enrolled in the state’s MassHealth (Medicaid) program. The budget also eliminated a health insurance program for low-income legal immigrants.
Michigan ended a medical coverage program for 950 adults with dependent children unable to afford employer-sponsored health insurance after transitioning from welfare to work and exhausting the 12-month transitional medical assistance available to them.
New Hampshire’s fiscal year 2011 budget reduced the state hospital’s beds by 15, which will result in 500 fewer patients treated per year.
New Jersey’s FY2011 budget lowers the income eligibility limit for parents enrolled in the state’s CHIP program from 200 percent to 133 percent of the federal poverty line and entirely eliminates the eligibility of legal immigrant parents who have been in the United States for less than five years. These changes will result in approximately 50,700 low-income adults losing access to health care coverage.
South Carolina eliminated a program that helps seniors pay for prescription drug costs not covered by Medicare part D.
Washington is increasing premiums by an average of 70 percent for a health plan serving low-income residents. Premiums for the poorest plan members — those earning up to 125 percent of the poverty line — will double. The premium increase is expected to cause between 7,000 and 17,000 enrollees to leave the program.
Several states, including California, Michigan, Nevada, and Utah, have dropped coverage of dental and/or vision services for adult Medicaid recipients.
Other states that have enacted cuts in Medicaid or CHIP include Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Cuts include reduced or frozen reimbursements to health care providers.
Programs for the Elderly and Disabled
At least 29 states and the District of Columbia have cut medical, rehabilitative, home care, or other services needed by low-income people who are elderly or have disabilities or significantly increased the amounts that such people must pay for services.
Alabama has ended homemaker services for approximately 1,100 older adults. These services often allow people to stay in their own homes and avoid nursing home care.
Arizona has eliminated a host of behavioral health services for 4,000 children ineligible to receive such services through Medicaid, and has also cut case management, therapy, and transportation services for 14,500 individuals participating in a non-Medicaid program for the seriously mentally ill.
Georgia has reduced such programs for the elderly as services for people with Alzheimer’s Disease, elder service centers, prescription drug assistance, and elder support, including a recent cut of 5 percent in the FY 2011 budget.
Idaho’s Department of Health and Welfare has reduced or eliminated cash assistance to 1,250 low-income elderly adults and people with disabilities.
Illinois ’ FY2011 budget makes cuts in community mental health services for children that will limit access to services. Community mental health services for adults who are not eligible for Medicaid are reduced or eliminated.
Kansas has reduced grants to Centers for Independent Living, resulting in a loss of services for nearly 2,800 individuals with a disability.
Massachusetts cut funding for the state’s elder home care program by 5 percent in its FY2011 budget. The program allows elderly residents to receive long-term care in their community rather than a nursing home. This cut could result in more than 1,000 elderly residents losing access to care.
Michigan froze enrollment for long term care services and supports that help the developmentally disabled avoid institutionalization, resulting in 300 people with developmental disabilities being placed on a waiting list.
Minnesota has capped enrollment at current levels for a program that provides expanded health services and care coordination for people with disabilities. The state has also restricted enrollment in or scaled back a number of programs that allow the elderly and disabled to receive services in their home that they might otherwise only be able to receive in a nursing home, hospital, or other institution. As a result, thousands of elderly and disabled Minnesotans will see their access to these services denied or significantly reduced.
Mississippi’s mental health budget has been reduced 7 percent from FY10 budgeted levels and 22 percent from FY09 budgeted levels. Over time, these cuts have resulted in the reduction of 200 beds at the state mental health hospital, closure of 24 supervised apartments at a state residential center, closure of a state adolescent dorm, and elimination of some early intervention programs.
New Hampshire is reducing reimbursements to 10 mental health centers for children’s support services in FY11, likely resulting in longer waiting lists and more costly inpatient care as outpatient services become less available.
New Mexico has cut cash assistance payments for low-income disabled residents by one-third. The state provides these payments to an average of 2,100 disabled individuals each month who cannot work and are not eligible for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF).
Pennsylvania has cut its state supplemental security income (SSI) supplement by $5 per month for individuals and $10 per month for couples.
Ohio has eliminated virtually all state funding for mental health treatment for individuals who are not eligible for the state’s Medicaid program.
Washington will reduce assistance for thousands of people who are physically or mentally incapacitated and unable to work in early 2011. For 28,000 adults receiving cash grants through the state’s Disability Lifeline program, the typical monthly benefit will fall by $81 to $258 from $339.
Other states that have capped or reduced funding for programs that serve people who have disabilities or are elderly include California, theDistrict of Columbia, Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, and Virginia.
K-12 Education and Other Childhood Education Programs
At least 34 states and the District of Columbia have implemented cuts to K-12 education.
Arizona eliminated preschool for 4,328 children, funding for schools to provide additional support to disadvantaged children from preschool to third grade, aid to charter schools, and funding for books, computers, and other classroom supplies. The state also halved funding for kindergarten, leaving school districts and parents to shoulder the cost of keeping their children in school beyond a half-day schedule.
California reduced K-12 aid to local school districts by billions of dollars and cut a variety of programs, including adult literacy instruction and help for high-needs students.
Colorado has reduced public school spending in FY 2011 by $260 million, nearly a 5 percent decline from the previous year. The cut amounts to more than $400 per student.
Georgia cut state funding for K-12 education for FY 2011 by $403 million or 5.5 percent relative to FY 2010 levels. The cut has led the state’s board of education to exempt local school districts from class size requirements to reduce costs.
Hawaii shortened the 2009-10 school year by 17 days and furloughed teachers for those days.
Illinois cut school education funding by $311 million or 4 percent in its FY 2011 budget relative to FY 2010 levels. Cuts include a significant reduction in funding for student transportation and the elimination of a grant program intended to improve the reading and study skills of at-risk students from kindergarten through the 6th grade.
Maryland cut professional development for principals and educators, as well as health clinics, gifted and talented summer centers, and math and science initiatives.
Michigan cut its FY 2010 school aid budget by $382 million, resulting in a $165 per-pupil spending reduction. In FY 2011, Michigan restored $11 in funding per student, so per-pupil funding remains $154 below 2009 levels.
Over the course of FY10, Mississippi cut by 7.2 percent funding for the Mississippi Adequate Education Program, a program established to bring per-pupil K-12 spending up to adequate levels in every district.
Massachusetts cut state education aid by $115.6 million, or 3 percent in its FY 2011 budget relative to FY 2010 levels. It also made a $4.6 million, or 16 percent cut relative to FY 2010 levels to funding for early intervention services, which help special-needs children develop appropriately and be ready for school.
Missouri is cutting its funding for K-12 transportation by 46 percent. The cut in funding likely will lead to longer bus rides and the elimination of routes for some of the 565,000 students who rely on the school bus system.
New Jersey cut funding for afterschool programs aimed to enhance student achievement and keep students safe between the hours of 3 and 6 p.m. The cut will likely cause more than 11,000 students to lose access to the programs and 1,100 staff workers to lose their jobs.
North Carolina cut by 21 percent funding for a program targeted at small schools in low-income areas and with a high need for social workers and nurses. As a result, 20 schools will be left without a social worker or nurse. The state also temporarily eliminated funding for teacher mentoring.
Rhode Island cut state aid for K-12 education and reduced the number of children who can be served by Head Start and similar services.
Virginia’s $700 million in cuts for the coming biennium include the state’s share of an array of school district operating and capital expenses and funding for class-size reduction in kindergarten through third grade. In addition, a $500 million reduction in state funding for some 13,000 support staff such as janitors, school nurses, and school psychologists from last year’s budget was made permanent.
Washington suspended a program to reduce class sizes and provide professional development for teachers; the state also reduced funding for maintaining 4th grade student-to-staff-ratios by $30 million.
State education grants to school districts and education programs have also been cut in Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Nebraska, Nevada, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Utah.
Colleges and Universities
At least 43 states have implemented cuts to public colleges and universities and/or made large increases in college tuition to make up for insufficient state funding.
Alabama’s fiscal year 2011 cuts to higher education led to 2010-11 tuition hikes that ranged from 8 percent to 23 percent, depending on the institution.
Arizona’s Board of Regents approved in-state undergraduate tuition increases of between 9 and 20 percent as well as fee increases at the state’s three public universities. Additionally, the three state universities implemented a 2.75 percent reduction in state-funded salary spending and through a variety of actions, such as academic reorganization, layoffs, furloughs, position eliminations, hiring fewer tenure-eligible faculty, and higher teaching workloads.
The University of California has increased tuition by 32 percent since the middle of the 2009-10 school year.
Colorado funding for higher education was reduced by $62 million from FY 2010 and this has led to cutbacks at the state’s institutions. For example, the University of Colorado system will lay off 79 employees in FY 2011 and has increased employee workloads and required higher employee contributions to health and retirement benefits.
Florida’s 11 public universities will raise tuition by 15 percent for the 2010-11 academic year. This tuition hike, combined with a similar increase in 2009-10, results in a total two-year increase of 32 percent.
Georgia cut state funding for public higher education for FY2011 by $151 million, or 7 percent. As a result, undergraduate tuition for the fall 2010 semester at Georgia’s four public research universities (Georgia State, Georgia Tech, the Medical College of Georgia, and the University of Georgia) will increase by $500 per semester, or 16 percent. Community college tuition will increase by $50 per semester.
The University of Idaho has responded to budget cuts by imposing furlough days on 2,600 of its employees statewide. Furloughs will range from 4 hours to 40 hours depending on pay level.
Indiana’s cuts to higher education have caused Indiana State University to plan to lay off 89 staff.
Michigan reduced student financial aid by $135 million (over 61 percent), including decreases of 44 percent in competitive scholarships and 44 percent in tuition grants, as well as elimination of nursing scholarships, work-study, the Part-Time Independent Student Program, Michigan Education Opportunity Grants, and the Michigan Promise Scholarships.
In Minnesota, as a result of higher education funding cuts, approximately 9,400 students will lose their state financial aid grants entirely, and the remaining state financial aid recipients will see their grants cut by 19 percent.
Missouri’s fiscal year 2011 budget reduces by 60 percent funding for the state’s only need-based financial aid program, which helps 42,000 students access higher education. This cut was partially restored with other scholarship money, but will still result in a cut of at least 24 percent to need-based aid.
New Mexico eliminated over 80 percent of support to the College Affordability Endowment Fund, which provides need-based scholarships to 2,366 students who do not qualify for other state grants or scholarships.
In its FY2011 budget New York cut funding for public universities by 10 percent relative to the previous academic year, cut aid to community colleges by 11 percent and cut grants awarded by a financial aid program that serves students from low and moderate income families. The state’s university system previously increased resident undergraduate tuition by 14 percent beginning with the spring 2009 semester.
In North Carolina, University of North Carolina students will see their tuition rise by $750 in the 2010-2011 school year and community college students will see their tuition increase by $200 due to fiscal year 2011 reductions in state higher education spending.
South Dakota’s fiscal year 2011 budget cuts state support for public universities by $6.5 million and as a result the Board of Regents has increased university tuition by 4.6 percent and cut university programs by $4.4 million.
Texas instituted a 5 percent across-the-board budget cut that reduced higher education funding by $73 million.
Virginia’s community colleges implemented a tuition increase during the spring 2010 semester.
Washington reduced state funding for the University of Washington by 26 percent for the current biennium; Washington State University is increasing tuition by almost 30 percent over two years. In its supplemental budget, the state cut 6 percent more from direct aid to the state’s six public universities and 34 community colleges, which will lead to further tuition increases, administrative cuts, furloughs, layoffs, and other cuts. The state also cut support for college work-study by nearly one-third and suspended funding for a number of its financial aid programs.
Other states cutting higher education operating funding and financial aid include Arkansas, Connecticut, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, and Wisconsin.
Cuts in Other Services
States also are making cuts in a variety of other programs, including those for very poor families and other vulnerable populations.
Arizona is cutting the time limit for temporary cash assistance to 36 months from 60. As a result, an estimated 8,200 families will lose eligibility for that assistance.
California is eliminating cost-of-living adjustments to cash assistance programs for low-income families and cutting child care subsidies.
Colorado is cutting payment rates for mental health providers and eliminating funding for residential treatment for an estimated 626 patients each year in the state’s mental health institutes.
In Connecticut, the governor has ordered budget cuts to programs that help prevent child abuse and provide legal services for foster children.
The District of Columbia cut its homeless services funding by more than $12 million, or 20 percent. It also reduced its cash assistance payments to needy families and cut funding for services that help low-income residents stay in their own homes and communities.
Georgia is cutting funding for low-income family support programs by 7 percent, primarily through staffing cuts including layoffs and furloughs of workers who help families apply for food stamps, Medicaid, and cash assistance.
Idaho’s Department of Health and Welfare has closed nine of its 45 field offices across the state, limiting access to public assistance services.
Michigan reduced funding by 38 percent for the No Worker Left Behind program, a job training and education grant program administered through the Department of Labor.
As a result of state budget cuts Minnesota residents successfully transferring from welfare to work will see monthly cash bonuses that they receive from the state cut in half (from $50 to $25).
Rhode Island has cut funds for affordable housing, eliminated health insurance for home-based child care providers, restricted TANF cash assistance for children, reduced health insurance for retired state workers, and cut support to localities by $10 million.
The South Carolina Department of Juvenile Justice has lost almost one-fourth of its state funding, resulting in over 260 layoffs and the closing of five group homes, two dormitories, and 25 after-school programs.
To operate within a reduced budget, the Chief Justice in Vermont ordered the court system to close for half a day each week.
Texas has cut the number of children in a child care subsidy program by about 4,000 and increased waiting lists.
A number of other states are making cuts to child care assistance programs, including Massachusetts and Ohio.
Some states, such as Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming, have implemented cuts to localities, leading to local concerns about reductions in funding for policing, child care assistance, meals for the elderly, hospice care, services for veterans and seniors, and other services.
Cuts in State Government Workforces
At least 44 states plus the District of Columbia are eliminating or not filling various state jobs, imposing mandatory furloughs (time off without pay), or making other cuts affecting their state workforce. Such steps can make it more difficult for residents to obtain state services. Cutting staff — whether on a permanent or temporary basis — also may contribute to increased unemployment.
number of states are imposing furloughs and/or pay cuts for some state employees. These include Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin.
Arizona closed down 11 Department of Motor Vehicle offices, resulting in layoffs of 115 employees.
Iowa laid off almost 200 state employees due to an across-the-board state agency cut of 10 percent.
Mississippi’s Department of Human Services will lay off 124 workers, 115 of them from a community-based juvenile justice facility.
New Jersey has eliminated 2,000 state positions by encouraging early retirement, leaving vacancies unfilled, and laying off staff.
In recent rounds of budget cuts Maryland has laid off some 270 employees. Most of these positions have come from the Health, Public Safety, and Transportation departments.
Missouri laid off nearly 700 workers to address its FY2010 mid-year deficit.
The Tennessee governor announced elimination of over 2,000 state positions, about 5 percent of the state workforce. Some 1,500 employees accepted buy-outs for early retirement.
In Washington, a hiring freeze imposed by the governor in August 2008 caused the state’s workforce to decline by more than 1,400. In January 2009 the state replaced the freeze with a cap on the number of budgeted positions at each state agency; the state’s workforce is expected to fall by another 2,600 under the cap.
Virginia has laid off several hundred workers.
Hiring freezes have also been ordered in Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
Additional states — such as Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Ohio, South Carolina, and Wisconsin, plus the District of Columbia — have laid off or announced plans to lay off state employees.
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics confirms that these cuts are having a significant direct impact on employment. The total number of people employed by state and local governments has fallen by over 400,000 since August 2008, at a time when the need for the services produced by those workers has increased. These employment numbers are in addition to other measures such as furloughs and cuts to benefits and wages that also reduce workers’ purchasing power and thereby undermine the ability of the national economy to recover.
End Notes:
[1] “US Department of Education, American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, Section 1512 Quarterly Reporting, through June 30, 2010 – by Program, posted at http://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/leg/recovery/spending/impact4.html . The 418,000 figure includes 266,443 full-time equivalent jobs funded in an average quarter over the previous four quarters by the SFSF education fund and 48,526 by the SFSF “government services” fund. Other Recovery Act funds targeted to education also created or saved jobs: 51,228 full-time equivalent jobs were funded by the IDEA Part B grants and 46,850 by the Title I fund.
[2] See National Association of State Budget Officers, “The Fiscal Survey of the States,” June 2010.
[3] See “Federal Fiscal Relief Is Working as Intended,” revised June 29, 2009.
[4] “State Tax Changes in Response to the Recession,” March 8, 2010 and “Federal Fiscal Relief Is Working as Intended,” revised June 29, 2009.
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One of the circuits for the 2011 Formula One season, the Sepang International Circuit can be found in which Asian city? | Circuit Guide: Sepang International Circuit - Photo | Red Bull Motorsports
Circuit Guide: Sepang International Circuit
We guide you round the Sepang International Circuit, the first F1 track designed by Herman Tilke.
Sepang International Circuit, Malaysia © Mark Thompson/Getty Images
By Matt Youson
Known for: Formula One Malaysian Grand Prix, MotoGP Malaysian Grand Prix, Sepang 1000KM
Type: Street / Mixed
The form
Malaysia’s Sepang Circuit joined the Formula One calendar as the penultimate round of the 1999 Championship. It kept and end-of-season date for the first two years of its F1 life but moved to its now traditional March slot in 2001. The first of F1’s Hermann Tilke-design super circuits, it was at the time of construction right at the cutting edge of racing in terms of facilities and design. By 2010, however, it had, according to Bernie Ecclestone, become “like an old house that needs a bit of redecorating”. The circuit organisers have been hard at work and a number of uprated spectator and team facilities are due to be unveiled this season.
As for the track itself, Tilke’s first major F1 design presents teams with a number of challenges. Basically two massive straights bookended by tight corners and with a fast flowing section on between it’s a set-up conundrum for engineers and often sees teams adopt a compromise approach which foregoes ultimate speed on the straights for good aerodynamic grip and balance in the flowing sections. Overtaking, however, is mostly done at the end of those long straights, especially into turn 15 at the end of the lap or into turn one.
Alonso has won the race for three different teams © Lotus F1 Team
Although the track surface is smooth, high ambient temperature and heavy-braking into those tight corner mean that tyres wear here is on the high side. Indeed, 17% of the lap is spent under braking.
The final piece of the puzzle is the weather. The current late-afternoon start sees the cars take to the grid at a time when storms are frequent and often torrentially heavy, as we found out in 2009 when the race had to be abandoned at just 31 laps. It was the first time half points had been awarded in a grand prix since the 14-lap Australian GP of 1991.
Michael Schumacher and Fernando Alonso have the most wins here, Schumacher taking victories in 2000, ’01 and ’04 and Alonso in '05. '07 and 2012. Kimi Raikkonen took his maiden F1 win here in 2003 and then claimed the top step again in 2008, while Sebastian Vettel won in 2010 and 2011.
The location
Sepang Circuit is located 60km outside the centre of Malaysia’s capital Kuala Lumpur and is located beside Kuala Lumpur International Airport. The two facilities were almost built simultaneously and construction of the track was completed in March 1999, seven months before its F1 debut. While removed from the city it is linked, via the airport, to the city centre by a high-speed train. Most of the teams stay close the circuit with drivers tending to congregate at the airport hotel. For fans it’s the mix of on-track action and the attractions of downtown KL that are the big draw. As with the Australian Grand Prix, the twilight race causes a few scheduling headaches and because of the high temperatures and humidity the large paddock area can sometimes feel a little empty as team personnel keep to the air conditioned comfort of the team hospitality buildings.
MotoGP also race at Sepang © Repsol Honda
Other series
Sepang is blessed with the attention of the biggest four and two-wheel series, playing host to Formula One in March and MotoGP in October. The demands on the motorcycles are actually much the same as for Formula One with heavy tyre degradation from the heat and heavy braking slow speed corners making life difficult for the riders. The 2011 MotoGP race will also unfortunately be remember for the tragic accident in which Italian rider Marco Simoncelli was killed. Aside from the major international events, Sepang also hosts a number of local events, including the 1000kms of Sepang endurance race, which now attracts entrants from across the Asia-Pacific region.
Did you know
The abandoned 2009 Malaysian Grand was the third shortest grand prix by duration, at 55 minutes, 30.6 seconds. The two shorter events were the rain-shortened Australian GP of 1991 (24m 34.899s) and the Spanish GP of 1975 (42m 53.7s), which was halted after an accident in which two spectators were killed.
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Who was the Roman Emperor at the time of the crucifixion of St. Peter? | Race the best at the Malaysian Formula 1 Grand Prix - Asian Correspondent
Race the best at the Malaysian Formula 1 Grand Prix
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3rd October 2012
By Joe Worthington
THE Malaysian Formula 1 Grand Prix race is the highlight of the international car racing circuit. Thousands of loyal fans are attracted annually to the race which has been held at the Sepang International Circuit since 1999, owing to the continuing popularity of the 56 lap 192.878 mile race.
The predecessor to the Malaysian Formula 1 Grand Prix was the Formula 2 which was held from 1962 – 65, but it was held in Singapore who later gained independence from the Malaysian Federation, so during the break-up of the Federation Malaysia held four lower impact races at the Shah Alam circuit from 1968 until 1995 when the current race track was opened in Sepang. These were the Tasman Series, Formula Pacific, Formula Atlantic, and the Formula Holden.
Formula 1 action at Sepang International Circuit, Malaysia. Pic: Craig, WikiMedia Commons.
The Sepang International Circuit , where the Formula 1 race is held, is located just 60 kilometres from the capital city of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, and is situated only 10 minutes from Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Selangor State. The circuit was designed by a German named Hermann Tilke in 1995, who also designed the Shanghai, Turkish, Bahrain, India, Korea, Valencia, and Singapore circuits which are also in the Formula 1 race calendar. The Sepang circuit is famous for its short and tight hairpin and unusually long back straight.
Crowds arrive at Sepang International Circuit, Malaysia, on race day. Pic: Craig, WikiMedia Commons.
Petronas (Malaysian: Petroliam Nasional Berhad), the Malaysian national oil and gas company, has sponsored the Malaysian Grand Prix since its inauguration into the racing calendar since 1999. The energy company finances the upkeep of the track and the spectator stands, they supply the oil and petroleum for the racing cars, and they are responsible for the security of the race.
The most famous racer at the Malaysian Grand Prix of all time was John MacDonald who won races in the years of 1970, 1971, 1973, and 1975. John was English born but moved to live in Hong Kong during his national service, where he continued to live and set up a garage business which made him successful and allowed him to become a successful racer also.
The most successful racing team to compete in the Malaysian Grand Prix is Ferrari thanks to the successes of Michael Schumacher in 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2008, and 2012.
Michael Schumacher pictured at the 2011 Malaysian Grand Prix. Pic: Whiz Kris, Flickr.
The annual race, held every year towards the end of March, attracts approximately 50,000 spectators from all around the world, some just to see their favourite racing star, but others to feel the excitement and exhilaration of the head to head race between man and man, country and country, sponsor and sponsor.
Most Formula 1 racers unanimously agree that the Malaysian Grand Prix is by far the most stress inducing and physically demanding race in the whole Formula 1 calendar. Temperatures are torturous and regularly reach 30 degrees Celsius and when combined with the humidity, which is rarely lower than 75%, the climate alone drains all drivers of energy even before putting in any effort to race. Malaysia, but Kuala Lumpur in particular, is famous for its unexpected heavy rain downpours which often disrupt the car racing, causing crashes and severe car damage.
The actual race track has been called “the most environmentally friendly race track in the world” by various commentators because of its abundance of palm trees. The track was built on a former 260 hectare palm oil plantation, so to compensate for the loss of plants the owners planted hundreds of palm trees around the race track, spectator’s stands, and spectator’s recreation areas.
In the latest Malaysian Grand Prix, the 2012 season, which was held on 25th March, the leader of the driver’s championship, Fernando Alonso with his Ferrari team, came first after a breathtaking and sometimes risky race. Just 2.2 seconds behind Alonso was the less well known Sergio Perez with his Sauber team, and then came the former world champion Lewis Hamilton and the McLaren-Mercedes not long after. It made for an unforgettable race in the beautiful country of Malaysia.
Many people, especially those coming from Europe and the Americas combine watching the Malaysia Formula 1 Grand Prix with a relaxing holiday elsewhere in the country. The Malaysian Government praises this as it brings in much needed tourism income in the form of taxes, shop purchases, transport income, and accommodation income. Kuala Lumpur International Airport as the country’s main airport is also kept busy during the races. The Malaysian Formula 1 Grand Prix could be an unforgettable experience, so why not give it a try and book your tickets in time for the next race?
If you enjoyed this article and would like to find out more about travelling to Malaysia, please visit the Tourism Malaysia website
_____________________
About the author…
Joe Worthington (UK)
Joe Worthington is a multi-published travel & political writer and editor who has had work published in various high profile magazines, websites, and travel guides, including inflight magazines, tourism board websites, and world heritage publications. He is always on the lookout for new work opportunities and loves to travel whenever he has the opportunity to do so. You can find more of his writing at Travel With Joe Magazine .
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One of the circuits for the 2011 Formula One season, The Marina Bay Street Circuit can be found in which Asian city? | Singapore Formula 1 Grand Prix race tickets - buy online
<p>Relish private viewing on the main straight, world-class Hospitality, gourmet catering and Champagne Open Bar!<br /> <br /> As a guest in the Sky Suite, you will enjoy some of the most extensive views of the Marina Bay Street Circuit. The lounges offer panoramic views of the main straight and the pit lane, placing you at the heart of the Grand Prix. The action can be viewed from the indoor lounges as well as from the rooftop terrace. The lounges also include several TV screens that will be broadcasting the race action live.<br /> <br /> You will enjoy access to the luxurious Sky Suite lounges from 15:30 to 23:30. A deluxe menu, including reception snacks and drinks as well as a gourmet dinner, will be served in the glass-fronted dining suites. Drinks are served on an open-bar basis and include premium Champagne, a selection of fine wines, beers and soft drinks.<br /> <br /> A limited edition lanyard, a 3-day VIP pass and a pair of ear plugs are complimentary. This prestigious package also grants you access to all 3 days of post-race entertainment concerts. </p> <br> <p>The Sky Suites are located along the Pits Straight and Turn 1; your exact allocation is subject to availability.</p>
Club Suite - (Fri-Sun)
Relish close-up views of the Main Straight, premium Hospitality, gourmet catering and Champagne open bar!<br /> <br /> As a guest of the Club Suite you will enjoy some of the finest views of the Marina Bay Street Circuit. The lounges offer close-up viewing of the main straight and the pit lane, placing you at the heart of the Grand Prix. The action can be viewed from the indoor lounges as well as from the outdoor private areas of the Suite. The lounges also include several TV screens that will be broadcasting the race action live.<br /> <br /> You will enjoy access to the luxurious Club Suite lounges from 15:30 to 23:30. A deluxe menu, including reception snacks and drinks as well as a gourmet dinner, will be served in the glass-fronted dining suites. Drinks are served on an open-bar basis and include premium Champagne, a selection of fine wines, beers and soft drinks.<br /> <br /> A limited edition lanyard, a 3-day VIP pass and a pair of ear plugs are complimentary. This prestigious package also grants you access to all 3 days of post-race entertainment concerts. <br><br>The Club Suites are located at the Pits Straight.
Green Room - (Fri-Sun)
As a guest of the Green Room, you will enjoy some of the finest views of the Marina Bay Street Circuit. The lounges offer close-up viewing of the first corner and the action across turns 2 and 3, where overtaking will inevitably happen - particularly throughout the first few laps of the race. The action can be viewed from the indoor lounge as well as from the outdoor area. The lounges also include several TV screens that will be broadcasting the race action live.<br /> <br /> You will enjoy access to the luxurious Green Room lounges from 15:30 to 23:30. Inside, you will be served an all-day dining menu in buffet style while enjoying access to an all-day open bar with wines, beers and a wide range of soft drinks.<br /> <br /> This prestigious package also grants you access to all three days of post-race entertainment concerts.<br /> <br>The Green Room Lounge is located by Turn 1.
Lounge @ Turn 3 - (Fri-Sun)
<p>Get a superb race-viewing and prime hospitality experience at the Marina Bay Circuit! The Lounge at Turn 3 will give you an unforgettable day at the track, with access to an air-conditioned marquee lounge to relax in along with exclusive grandstand seating right next to the VIP facility. The Lounge enjoys an ideal location close to the Village Stage and the F1 Village, and features an open bar with wines, beers and soft drinks. Each guest of the Turn 3 Lounge will also relish a cushioned seat in the comfortable Turn 3 Premier Grandstand with terrific views of the circuit’s initial three turns. </p> <p> </p> <p>All the following is included in the Turn 3 Lounge package:</p> <p> </p> <p>- Access to marquee lounge (15:30 – 00:00 on Friday and Saturday, 15:30 – 23:30 on Sunday)<br /> - Open bar with wines, beers and soft drinks in the Lounge<br /> - Reserved seat in the Turn 3 Premier Grandstand with wider and cushioned seats<br /> - Two meal vouchers and two snack vouchers to be redeemed at a premium food and beverage facility by the Lounge<br /> - Access to executive restroom facilities<br /> - Access to Zone 1’s F1 Village and all Entertainment Zones in the circuit park <br /> - Complimentary accessory pack with quality ear plugs, poncho, water bottle and moist towelett</p>
ZONE 1
<p>Get the very best Singapore Grand Prix action with spectacular views from a premium position and enjoy priority access! The three-day Super Pit ticket gives you a sought-after seat in the Pit Grandstand with views of the team garages, starting grid and finish line along with the following:</p><br> <p>- Priority access at Gate 1<br /> - Special commemorative ticket <br /> - Ticket lanyard</p> <p> </p> <p>The Pit Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and is a great place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations, the dramatic race start, and see the winner take the chequered flag before celebrating on the podium.<br /> <br /> This is a fantastic spot for speed lovers, as you will see the cars exit the final left-hander, before blasting past you down the main straight. The cars here push 170 mph making this a truly spectacular grandstand, filled with the roar of the engines.<br /> <br /> You will also have a great overview of the pit lane and the stunning pit lane buildings, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies, and to watch the skill of the pit crews.<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Pit Grandstand - (Fri-Sun)
The Pit Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and is a great place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations, the dramatic race start, and see the winner take the chequered flag before celebrating on the podium.<br /> <br />This is a fantastic spot for speed lovers, as you will see the cars exit the final left-hander, before blasting past you down the main straight. The cars here push 170 mph making this a truly spectacular grandstand, filled with the roar of the engines.<br /> <br />You will also have a great overview of the pit lane and the stunning pit lane buildings, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies, and to watch the skill of the pit crews.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.<br /> <br /><b><strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong></b>
Pit Grandstand - (Sun)
The Pit Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and is a great place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations, the dramatic race start, and see the winner take the chequered flag before celebrating on the podium.<br /> <br />This is a fantastic spot for speed lovers, as you will see the cars exit the final left-hander, before blasting past you down the main straight. The cars here push 170 mph making this a truly spectacular grandstand, filled with the roar of the engines.<br /> <br />You will also have a great overview of the pit lane and the stunning pit lane buildings, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies, and to watch the skill of the pit crews.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Turn 1 - (Fri-Sun)
The Turn 1 Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and the entry to Sheares Corner, Turn 1. This is a steep left-hander, and one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be at the heart of the action.<br /> <br />You will also enjoy a great view all the way to the exit of the technical, slow left-hander at Turn 2. This is a great spot to enjoy the incredible cornering ability of a modern F1 car, as they sweep through this sector, changing direction three times in the blink of an eye.<br /> <br />Higher seats will also enjoy a view of the main straight, so this is a good place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations and the dramatic race start.<br /> <br />You will also have a clear view of the pit lane exit, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies and see who comes out in front.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Turn 1 - (Sun)
The Turn 1 Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and the entry to Sheares Corner, Turn 1. This is a steep left-hander, and one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be at the heart of the action.<br /> <br />You will also enjoy a great view all the way to the exit of the technical, slow left-hander at Turn 2. This is a great spot to enjoy the incredible cornering ability of a modern F1 car, as they sweep through this sector, changing direction three times in the blink of an eye.<br /> <br />Higher seats will also enjoy a view of the main straight, so this is a good place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations and the dramatic race start.<br /> <br />You will also have a clear view of the pit lane exit, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies and see who comes out in front.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Turn 1 - (Sat)
The Turn 1 Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and the entry to Sheares Corner, Turn 1. This is a steep left-hander, and one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be at the heart of the action.<br /> <br />You will also enjoy a great view all the way to the exit of the technical, slow left-hander at Turn 2. This is a great spot to enjoy the incredible cornering ability of a modern F1 car, as they sweep through this sector, changing direction three times in the blink of an eye.<br /> <br />Higher seats will also enjoy a view of the main straight, so this is a good place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations and the dramatic race start.<br /> <br />You will also have a clear view of the pit lane exit, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies and see who comes out in front.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Turn 1 - (Fri)
The Turn 1 Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and the entry to Sheares Corner, Turn 1. This is a steep left-hander, and one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be at the heart of the action.<br /> <br />You will also enjoy a great view all the way to the exit of the technical, slow left-hander at Turn 2. This is a great spot to enjoy the incredible cornering ability of a modern F1 car, as they sweep through this sector, changing direction three times in the blink of an eye.<br /> <br />Higher seats will also enjoy a view of the main straight, so this is a good place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations and the dramatic race start.<br /> <br />You will also have a clear view of the pit lane exit, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies and see who comes out in front.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Turn 2 - (Fri-Sun)
The Turn 2 Grandstand overlooks Sheares Corner, Turn 1, looking down the barrel of the main straight. This is a steep left-hander, and one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be at the heart of the action.<br /> <br />You may also enjoy a great view all the way to the exit of the technical, slow left-hander at Turn 2. This is a great spot to enjoy the incredible cornering ability of a modern F1 car, as they sweep through this sector, changing direction three times in the blink of an eye.<br /> <br />Higher seats will also enjoy a view of the main straight, so this is a good place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations and the dramatic race start.<br /> <br />You will also have a clear view of the pit lane exit, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies and see who comes out in front.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
ZONE 3
The Bay Grandstand is one of the circuit’s largest, in a fantastic setting overlooking the waters of Marina Bay and the skyscrapers beyond.<br /> <br />You will also enjoy a rare spectacle in the world of Formula 1, as the cars race under the grandstand itself, directly below you.<br /> <br />From the Bay Grandstand you will see the cars accelerate out of Turn 17, brushing the barriers on exit, before braking hard to turn left and race beneath this Grandstand.<br /> <br /><b><strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong>
ZONE 4
The Connaught Grandstand overlooks the extremely heavy braking zone at Turn 14, as the cars come off the Esplanade bridge at 185 mph, before taking this steep right-hander at just 50 mph.<br /> <br />This is one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be well placed to see some of the most exciting and crucial moments of the race.<br /> <br />Such a hard braking zone is also likely to produce accidents, and any driver missing his braking point here will find himself deep into the huge run-off areas, if he hasn’t collected another car on the way.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4.<br /> <br /><b><strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong>
Padang - (Fri-Sun)
The Padang Grandstand is undoubtedly the most scenic and varied spot to watch the race. You will be facing the delightfully illuminated facades of the City Hall and other historic buildings, and behind you will have the giant Padang stage, which attracts crowds of 50,000 during the post-session complimentary concerts.<br /> <br />You will be facing the high-octane straight that leads to the Singapore Sling chicane, a great spot to savour the incredible power and noise of modern F1 cars.<br /> <br />The cars accelerate hard out of the 3<sup>rd</sup> gear left-hander at Turn 9, so the air will be filled with the roar of the engines as they power past you.<br /> <br /><b><strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong>
Padang - (Sun)
The Padang Grandstand is undoubtedly the most scenic and varied spot to watch the race. You will be facing the delightfully illuminated facades of the City Hall and other historic buildings, and behind you will have the giant Padang stage, which attracts crowds of 50,000 during the post-session complimentary concerts.<br /> <br />You will be facing the high-octane straight that leads to the Singapore Sling chicane, a great spot to savour the incredible power and noise of modern F1 cars.<br /> <br />The cars accelerate hard out of the 3<sup>rd</sup> gear left-hander at Turn 9, so the air will be filled with the roar of the engines as they power past you.<br /> <br /><b><strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong>
Padang - (Sat)
The Padang Grandstand is undoubtedly the most scenic and varied spot to watch the race. You will be facing the delightfully illuminated facades of the City Hall and other historic buildings, and behind you will have the giant Padang stage, which attracts crowds of 50,000 during the post-session complimentary concerts.<br /> <br />You will be facing the high-octane straight that leads to the Singapore Sling chicane, a great spot to savour the incredible power and noise of modern F1 cars.<br /> <br />The cars accelerate hard out of the 3<sup>rd</sup> gear left-hander at Turn 9, so the air will be filled with the roar of the engines as they power past you.<br /> <br /><b><strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong>
Padang - (Fri)
The Padang Grandstand is undoubtedly the most scenic and varied spot to watch the race. You will be facing the delightfully illuminated facades of the City Hall and other historic buildings, and behind you will have the giant Padang stage, which attracts crowds of 50,000 during the post-session complimentary concerts.<br /> <br />You will be facing the high-octane straight that leads to the Singapore Sling chicane, a great spot to savour the incredible power and noise of modern F1 cars.<br /> <br />The cars accelerate hard out of the 3<sup>rd</sup> gear left-hander at Turn 9, so the air will be filled with the roar of the engines as they power past you.<br /> <br /><b><strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong>
Stamford - (Fri-Sun)
The Stamford Grandstand sits alongside the short blast from Memorial Corner, Turn 7, to Turn 8. This is a tricky, technical sector and the bumpy surface on entry means drivers must be careful not to out brake themselves and slam into the barriers.<br /> <br />Some spectacular overtakes take place into this tight sector, and you will enjoy trackside seats that put you incredibly close to the action as the cars roar past you just a few metres away, before exiting the steep right-hander.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4.<br><br><strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong>
Esplanade Waterfront - (Fri-Sun)
The Esplanade Waterfront Grandstand enjoys a view of one of the circuit’s most exciting sections, as well as a delightful setting next to the waters of Marina Bay.<br /> <br />You will see the cars exiting Turn 16 at the end of Raffles Avenue, before sweeping through Turn 17 at an amazing 80 mph, brushing the barriers on exit. You will then see them accelerate away, before braking hard to race under the Bay Grandstand, a truly unique sight in the world of Formula 1.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4, and the Esplanade Outdoor Theatre, a vibrant entertainment venue.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Esplanade Waterfront - (Sun)
The Esplanade Waterfront Grandstand enjoys a view of one of the circuit’s most exciting sections, as well as a delightful setting next to the waters of Marina Bay.<br /> <br />You will see the cars exiting Turn 16 at the end of Raffles Avenue, before sweeping through Turn 17 at an amazing 80 mph, brushing the barriers on exit. You will then see them accelerate away, before braking hard to race under the Bay Grandstand, a truly unique sight in the world of Formula 1.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4, and the Esplanade Outdoor Theatre, a vibrant entertainment venue.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Esplanade Waterfront - (Sat)
The Esplanade Waterfront Grandstand enjoys a view of one of the circuit’s most exciting sections, as well as a delightful setting next to the waters of Marina Bay.<br /> <br />You will see the cars exiting Turn 16 at the end of Raffles Avenue, before sweeping through Turn 17 at an amazing 80 mph, brushing the barriers on exit. You will then see them accelerate away, before braking hard to race under the Bay Grandstand, a truly unique sight in the world of Formula 1.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4, and the Esplanade Outdoor Theatre, a vibrant entertainment venue.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Esplanade Waterfront - (Fri)
The Esplanade Waterfront Grandstand enjoys a view of one of the circuit’s most exciting sections, as well as a delightful setting next to the waters of Marina Bay.<br /> <br />You will see the cars exiting Turn 16 at the end of Raffles Avenue, before sweeping through Turn 17 at an amazing 80 mph, brushing the barriers on exit. You will then see them accelerate away, before braking hard to race under the Bay Grandstand, a truly unique sight in the world of Formula 1.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4, and the Esplanade Outdoor Theatre, a vibrant entertainment venue.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
COMBINATION PACKAGES (FRI- SAT- SUN)
Pit Combi - (Padang- Stamford- Pit)
Pit Combi - (Padang- Stamford- Pit)
<p>The Combination Package is a fantastic opportunity to follow the race weekend from a different grandstand every day.<br /> <br /> You’ll enjoy the Free Practice sessions on the Friday from the Padang Grandstand, a high-octane straight with views of the delightfully illuminated City Hall.<br /> <br /> You will spend Saturday’s qualifying in the Stamford Grandstand with great views of the full-speed blast into the challenging Memorial Corner, Turn 7 and Turn 8. <br /> <br /> On Sunday you will watch the race from a seat in the Pit Grandstand, a great place to see the action in the pit lane, and the incredible power and noise of the cars pushing 200 mph.<br /> <br /> An excellent way to enjoy this great event from different perspectives, and soak up the carnival atmosphere in the different grandstands.<br /> <br /> Access to Zones according to Grandstand descriptions.</p>
Padang Combi - (Stamford- Pit- Padang)
Padang Combi - (Stamford- Pit- Padang)
<p>The Combination Package is a fantastic opportunity to follow the race weekend from a different grandstand every day.<br /> <br /> You will enjoy Friday’s free practices in the Stamford Grandstand with great views of the full-speed blast into the challenging Memorial Corner, Turn 7 and Turn 8.<br /> <br /> You will have a ticket in the Pit Grandstand for Qualifying and Saturday Free Practice, a great place to see the action in the pit lane, and the incredible power and noise of the cars pushing 200 mph.<br /> <br /> On Sunday you will watch the race from a seat in the Padang Grandstand, a high-octane straight with views of the delightfully illuminated City Hall.<br /> <br /> An excellent way to enjoy this great event from different perspectives, and soak up the carnival atmosphere in the different grandstands.<br /> <br /> Access to Zones according to Grandstand descriptions.</p>
Premier Walkabout Combi - (Pit- Pit- P. Walkabout)
Premier Walkabout Combi - (Pit- Pit- P. Walkabout)
The Premier Walkabout Combination Package is a fantastic opportunity to follow the race weekend from a different vantage point every day.<br /> <br />You’ll watch the Free Practice and Qualifying sessions on Saturday and Friday from the Pit Straight Grandstand, a great place to see the action in the pit lane, and the incredible power and noise of the cars pushing 200 mph.<br /> <br />On Sunday you will have a Zone 1 Walkabout ticket, allowing you to watch the race from the free-seating bleacher areas that are to be found around most of the track in this zone, from Turn 22 to Turn 3.<br /> <br />Access to Zones according to Grandstand descriptions.
Stamford Combi - (Pit- Padang- Stamford)
Stamford Combi - (Pit- Padang- Stamford)
<p>The Combination Package is a fantastic opportunity to follow the race weekend from a different grandstand every day.<br /> <br /> You’ll enjoy the Free Practice sessions on the Friday from the Pit Grandstand, a great place to see the action in the pit lane, and the incredible power and noise of the cars pushing 200 mph.<br /> <br /> You will have a ticket in the Padang Grandstand for Qualifying and Saturday Free Practice, a high-octane straight with views of the delightfully illuminated City Hall.<br /> <br /> On race day, you will enjoy the thrilling action from the Stamford Grandstand with great views of the full-speed blast into the challenging Memorial Corner, Turn 7 and Turn 8.<br /> <br /> An excellent way to enjoy this great event from different perspectives, and soak up the carnival atmosphere in the different grandstands.<br /> <br /> Access to Zones according to Grandstand descriptions.</p>
EXECUTIVE PACKAGES
Turn 3 Premier Grandstand - (Fri-Sun)
Turn 3 Premier Grandstand - (Fri-Sun)
The Premier Grandstands provide an upgraded grandstand experience, with supremely comfortable seating and excellent circuit views.<br /> <br />This premium location is complimented by a spacious dining area, with all-inclusive premium food and beverages, an exclusive bar, amenity packs, and special merchandising.<br /> <br />The Turn 3 Premier Grandstand overlooks the fascinating section from the entry to Sheares Corner, Turn 1, to the exit of Turn 3, and the blast down Republic Boulevard. This is one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be at the heart of the action.<br /> <br />This is a great spot to enjoy the incredible cornering ability of a modern F1 car, as they sweep through this sector, changing direction three times in the blink of an eye.<br /> <br />You will also have a clear view of the pit lane exit, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies and see who comes out in front.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
GROUP PACKAGES
Pit Grandstand 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Pit Grandstand 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Pit Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and is a great place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations, the dramatic race start, and see the winner take the chequered flag before celebrating on the podium.<br /> <br />This is a fantastic spot for speed lovers, as you will see the cars exit the final left-hander, before blasting past you down the main straight. The cars here push 170 mph making this a truly spectacular grandstand, filled with the roar of the engines.<br /> <br />You will also have a great overview of the pit lane and the stunning pit lane buildings, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies, and to watch the skill of the pit crews.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Pit Grandstand 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Pit Grandstand 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Pit Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and is a great place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations, the dramatic race start, and see the winner take the chequered flag before celebrating on the podium.<br /> <br />This is a fantastic spot for speed lovers, as you will see the cars exit the final left-hander, before blasting past you down the main straight. The cars here push 170 mph making this a truly spectacular grandstand, filled with the roar of the engines.<br /> <br />You will also have a great overview of the pit lane and the stunning pit lane buildings, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies, and to watch the skill of the pit crews.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Connaught 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Connaught Grandstand overlooks the extremely heavy braking zone at Turn 14, as the cars come off the Esplanade bridge at 185 mph, before taking this steep right-hander at just 50 mph.<br /> <br />This is one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be well placed to see some of the most exciting and crucial moments of the race.<br /> <br />Such a hard braking zone is also likely to produce accidents, and any driver missing his braking point here will find himself deep into the huge run-off areas, if he hasn’t collected another car on the way.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Connaught 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Connaught 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Connaught Grandstand overlooks the extremely heavy braking zone at Turn 14, as the cars come off the Esplanade bridge at 185 mph, before taking this steep right-hander at just 50 mph.<br /> <br />This is one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be well placed to see some of the most exciting and crucial moments of the race.<br /> <br />Such a hard braking zone is also likely to produce accidents, and any driver missing his braking point here will find himself deep into the huge run-off areas, if he hasn’t collected another car on the way.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Padang 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Padang Grandstand is undoubtedly the most scenic and varied spot to watch the race. You will be facing the delightfully illuminated facades of the City Hall and other historic buildings, and behind you will have the giant Padang stage, which attracts crowds of 50,000 during the post-session complimentary concerts.<br /> <br />You will be facing the high-octane straight that leads to the Singapore Sling chicane, a great spot to savour the incredible power and noise of modern F1 cars.<br /> <br />The cars accelerate hard out of the 3<sup>rd</sup> gear left-hander at Turn 9, so the air will be filled with the roar of the engines as they power past you.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Padang 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Padang 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Padang Grandstand is undoubtedly the most scenic and varied spot to watch the race. You will be facing the delightfully illuminated facades of the City Hall and other historic buildings, and behind you will have the giant Padang stage, which attracts crowds of 50,000 during the post-session complimentary concerts.<br /> <br />You will be facing the high-octane straight that leads to the Singapore Sling chicane, a great spot to savour the incredible power and noise of modern F1 cars.<br /> <br />The cars accelerate hard out of the 3<sup>rd</sup> gear left-hander at Turn 9, so the air will be filled with the roar of the engines as they power past you.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Stamford 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Stamford 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Stamford Grandstand sits alongside the short blast from Memorial Corner, Turn 7, to Turn 8. This is a tricky, technical sector and the bumpy surface on entry means drivers must be careful not to out brake themselves and slam into the barriers.<br /> <br />Some spectacular overtakes take place into this tight sector, and you will enjoy trackside seats that put you incredibly close to the action as the cars roar past you just a few metres away, before exiting the steep right-hander.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4.
Esplanade Waterfront 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Esplanade Waterfront 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Esplanade Waterfront Grandstand enjoys a view of one of the circuit’s most exciting sections, as well as a delightful setting next to the waters of Marina Bay.<br /> <br />You will see the cars exiting Turn 16 at the end of Raffles Avenue, before sweeping through Turn 17 at an amazing 80 mph, brushing the barriers on exit. You will then see them accelerate away, before braking hard to race under the Bay Grandstand, a truly unique sight in the world of Formula 1.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4, and the Esplanade Outdoor Theatre, a vibrant entertainment venue.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Esplanade Waterfront 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Esplanade Waterfront 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Esplanade Waterfront Grandstand enjoys a view of one of the circuit’s most exciting sections, as well as a delightful setting next to the waters of Marina Bay.<br /> <br />You will see the cars exiting Turn 16 at the end of Raffles Avenue, before sweeping through Turn 17 at an amazing 80 mph, brushing the barriers on exit. You will then see them accelerate away, before braking hard to race under the Bay Grandstand, a truly unique sight in the world of Formula 1.<br /> <br />This ticket provides access to Zone 4, and the Esplanade Outdoor Theatre, a vibrant entertainment venue.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Bay 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Bay Grandstand is one of the circuit’s largest, in a fantastic setting overlooking the waters of Marina Bay and the skyscrapers beyond.<br /> <br />You will also enjoy a rare spectacle in the world of Formula 1, as the cars race under the grandstand itself, directly below you.<br /> <br />From the Bay Grandstand you will see the cars accelerate out of Turn 17, brushing the barriers on exit, before braking hard to turn left and race beneath this Grandstand.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Bay 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Bay 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
The Bay Grandstand is one of the circuit’s largest, in a fantastic setting overlooking the waters of Marina Bay and the skyscrapers beyond.<br /> <br />You will also enjoy a rare spectacle in the world of Formula 1, as the cars race under the grandstand itself, directly below you.<br /> <br />From the Bay Grandstand you will see the cars accelerate out of Turn 17, brushing the barriers on exit, before braking hard to turn left and race beneath this Grandstand.<br /> <br /><b>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</b>
Premier Walkabout 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Premier Walkabout 4-7 Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
This ticket gives you access to the many different free-seating areas around the circuit, including all four of the circuit's zones. Seats on bleachers will be available, unlike many other circuits where general admission seating is only provided on the ground.<br /> <br /> The walkabout ticket gives you freedom to move around the circuit, and to try out different views of the track. Views vary greatly, so we recommend getting to the track early in order to claim a good spot!<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Premier Walkabout 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
Premier Walkabout 8 or more Tickets - (Fri-Sun)
This ticket gives you access to the many different free-seating areas around the circuit, including all four of the circuit's zones. Seats on bleachers will be available, unlike many other circuits where general admission seating is only provided on the ground.<br /> <br /> The walkabout ticket gives you freedom to move around the circuit, and to try out different views of the track. Views vary greatly, so we recommend getting to the track early in order to claim a good spot!<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
JUNIOR TICKETS AGED 16 YEARS AND BELOW
Pit Grandstand - (Fri-Sun)
<p>This ticket is valid for children of age 16 years old and younger. Children younger than 12 years old needs to be accompanied by an adult ticket holder with an indemnity form (please see link to form in the ticket shop description on top of the page). </p> <p>The Pit Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and is a great place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations, the dramatic race start, and see the winner take the chequered flag before celebrating on the podium.<br /> <br /> This is a fantastic spot for speed lovers, as you will see the cars exit the final left-hander, before blasting past you down the main straight. The cars here push 170 mph making this a truly spectacular grandstand, filled with the roar of the engines.<br /> <br /> You will also have a great overview of the pit lane and the stunning pit lane buildings, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies, and to watch the skill of the pit crews.<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.<br /> <br /> <strong>Attending the race with your friends? Please contact us for our promotional deals on Group packages (8 and over).</strong></p>
Turn 1 - (Fri-Sun)
<p>This ticket is valid for children of age 16 years old and younger. Children younger than 12 years old needs to be accompanied by an adult ticket holder with an indemnity form (please see link to form in the ticket shop description on top of the page). </p> <p>The Turn 1 Grandstand runs along the outside of the main straight, and the entry to Sheares Corner, Turn 1. This is a steep left-hander, and one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be at the heart of the action.<br /> <br /> You will also enjoy a great view all the way to the exit of the technical, slow left-hander at Turn 2. This is a great spot to enjoy the incredible cornering ability of a modern F1 car, as they sweep through this sector, changing direction three times in the blink of an eye.<br /> <br /> Higher seats will also enjoy a view of the main straight, so this is a good place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations and the dramatic race start.<br /> <br /> You will also have a clear view of the pit lane exit, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies and see who comes out in front.<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.</p>
Turn 2 - (Fri-Sun)
<p>This ticket is valid for children of age 16 years old and younger. Children younger than 12 years old needs to be accompanied by an adult ticket holder with an indemnity form (please see link to form in the ticket shop description on top of the page). </p> <p>The Turn 2 Grandstand overlooks Sheares Corner, Turn 1, looking down the barrel of the main straight. This is a steep left-hander, and one of the circuit’s main overtaking spots, so you will be at the heart of the action.<br /> <br /> You may also enjoy a great view all the way to the exit of the technical, slow left-hander at Turn 2. This is a great spot to enjoy the incredible cornering ability of a modern F1 car, as they sweep through this sector, changing direction three times in the blink of an eye.<br /> <br /> Higher seats will also enjoy a view of the main straight, so this is a good place to watch the adrenalin of the pre-race grid preparations and the dramatic race start.<br /> <br /> You will also have a clear view of the pit lane exit, making this is an excellent place to follow the evolution of pit strategies and see who comes out in front.<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.</p>
GENERAL ADMISSION
This ticket gives you access to the many different free-seating areas around the circuit, including all four of the circuit's zones. Seats on bleachers will be available, unlike many other circuits where general admission seating is only provided on the ground.<br /> <br /> The walkabout ticket gives you freedom to move around the circuit, and to try out different views of the track. Views vary greatly, so we recommend getting to the track early in order to claim a good spot!<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Premier Walkabout - (Sun)
This ticket gives you access to the many different free-seating areas around the circuit, including all four of the circuit's zones. Seats on bleachers will be available, unlike many other circuits where general admission seating is only provided on the ground.<br /> <br /> The walkabout ticket gives you freedom to move around the circuit, and to try out different views of the track. Views vary greatly, so we recommend getting to the track early in order to claim a good spot!<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Premier Walkabout - (Sat)
This ticket gives you access to the many different free-seating areas around the circuit, including all four of the circuit's zones. Seats on bleachers will be available, unlike many other circuits where general admission seating is only provided on the ground.<br /> <br /> The walkabout ticket gives you freedom to move around the circuit, and to try out different views of the track. Views vary greatly, so we recommend getting to the track early in order to claim a good spot!<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Premier Walkabout - (Fri)
This ticket gives you access to the many different free-seating areas around the circuit, including all four of the circuit's zones. Seats on bleachers will be available, unlike many other circuits where general admission seating is only provided on the ground.<br /> <br /> The walkabout ticket gives you freedom to move around the circuit, and to try out different views of the track. Views vary greatly, so we recommend getting to the track early in order to claim a good spot!<br /> <br /> This ticket provides access to Zones 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Zone 4 Walkabout - (Fri-Sun)
| Singapore |
At which Roman Catholic cathedral and UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Castile region of Spain could you visit the tomb of 'El Cid'? | F1 fanfare, Formula One News & Top Stories - The Straits Times
The Straits Times
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Singapore's Formula 1, into its sixth year, has attracted hardcore fans who turn up every year
Eddino Abdul Hadi, Melissa Kok And Kezia Toh
The Lion City is set to roar again - with the engines of lightning-fast cars when the sixth annual Formula 1 SingTel Singapore Grand Prix flags off next weekend.
The only night race in Grand Prix and the only street circuit race in Asia, the event attracts not just local race fans but also dedicated followers from around the world.
For example, organiser Singapore GP estimates that 40 per cent of the attendees last year were overseas visitors, similar to the figures in previous years.
All 84,317 tickets last year were sold out, and Singapore GP is confident it will achieve a similar feat this year. To date, 96 per cent of the tickets have been sold.
F1 fans are also snapping up race merchandise. In the last five editions, 150,000 pieces of souvenir and apparel ranging from pins to T-shirts have been sold. A new range totalling 250,000 items, priced from $15 for a can cooler to $125 for a jacket, will be sold this year.
A novel product to look out for this year is a "cooling" towel, which is said to help combat the hot and humid weather here.
Besides being sold at the circuit park, official merchandise items are also available at sports retail chain World Of Sports, as well as Singapore GP booths outside Wisma Atria and at Orchard Green in Orchard Road.
For fans, watching the race is not just about catching the skilled drivers and their super-powered cars in action. As home-grown F1 fan Jasvinder Singh, 33, puts it, heading down for all three days of the race is an "all-round experience".
"The atmosphere at the Marina Bay circuit park over the three nights is always fantastic," says the assistant manager at the National University of Singapore's engineering faculty.
He caught the Singapore race in 2008 and 2009, as well the F1 races in Sepang, Malaysia, and is heading to the Marina Bay Street Circuit next weekend.
"You don't just get the action on the tracks, you get good music and good food too and there's a carnival-like atmosphere to the whole event," he says.
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ROCKY GO, 46, FROM SINGAPORE
Whenever Singaporean race fan Rocky Go heads down to the Formula 1 SingTel Singapore Grand Prix, which he has attended every year since its debut in 2008, he makes sure he is clad in navy blue, red and yellow, the colours of his favourite team, Red Bull.
"I used to be a crazy Ferrari fan and would even buy $600 Ferrari jackets to support them. But last year, I switched to supporting Red Bull instead," says the 46-year-old, an engineering officer in the construction industry.
He was won over by the skills and achievements of the team's drivers, Sebastian Vettel from Germany and Mark Webber from Australia.
"These two guys are young, energetic and daring, unlike current and past Ferarri drivers such as Felipe Massa and Kimi Raikkonen, who always find it hard to be in the Top 5."
Mr Go, who spends about $1,000 on his F1 experience every year on tickets, drinks and merchandise, used to go with his wife in the first two years. But she was "irritated" by the loud noise from the powerful cars, so he has been catching the race alone since 2010. The couple have no children.
"It's fine with me because I always run into my colleagues or friends. We don't just watch the races but also have a few drinks and enjoy the atmosphere."
He has never been to any other F1 races besides the ones here, but he catches up on Grand Prix news whenever he can.
He still remembers the first time he attended the Singapore edition in 2008.
"Being at the track and watching and hearing the race live is thrilling and very different from watching it on television."
He also makes sure he gets tickets to the grandstand seats to get a better view of the action on the tracks. He made an exception only in 2010, when he bought walkabout tickets as he wanted to roam around the Marina Bay circuit park.
The entertainment programme off-track is another draw. "My favourite performances over the years have always been those by 1980s pop stars, such as Bananarama and Boy George."
He also looks forward to the camaraderie among strangers who support the same team.
"In the past few races, I have made friends with other car enthusiasts not just from Singapore but also from Australia, Hong Kong and Japan. It's even better when we all support Red Bull together."
BRUCE DRAKE, 57, FROM PERTH
Australian race fan Bruce Drake follows the same routine each time the Singapore Grand Prix season swings around.
The 57-year-old flies in from his home in Perth, Australia, and lands at about 8.30 to 9pm on the Friday night of the three-day race and, within an hour, he would be sitting trackside for the final night practice.
"I book the same seat each year in the Pit Straight Grandstand, just downfrom the start and finish line, which gives you all the action on the track as well as in the pits," he says.
He also stays in Pan Pacific Singapore each time because it is located within the Marina Bay Street Circuit.
A car enthusiast, the managing director of a land surveying business has watched almost every Formula 1 race on television in the past three decades.
The inaugural Formula 1 SingTel Singapore Grand Prix in 2008 was the first race he attended - and he has not missed a single one here since.
Although there is an Australian race in Melbourne in the F1 calendar, Mr Drake says he prefers to catch the race in Singapore.
"I come back to the Singapore Grand Prix each year by myself for the excitement, the entertainment packages and to catch up with the many friendly people I have met over the past few years," he says.
He also points out that since it takes about the same time to fly from Perth to Melbourne as it does to Singapore, he prefers to come here. He is familiar with Singapore as he has been here for holidays many times since his first visit in 1979.
The grandfather of three spends about A$6,000 (S$7,081) on accommodation, airfare, tickets to the race and other expenses for the three days that he is here. Of this, about A$500 is spent on F1 merchandise, mostly from his favourite team, Ferrari.
He comes here alone as his wife feels that a weekend is too short a trip. His three sons are busy with work and it is difficult to organise a trip around their schedules.
His daily schedule during the three race days here is always packed. His visit here next weekend will be no different. He plans to get up at 7am on Saturday and Sunday and take a 10km walk around town, after which he will try to squeeze in visits to places such as the Asian Civilisations Museum and Little India, before heading to the circuit park by 3pm on each day.
"I can't think of a better way to spend three days. It is not just the race but the excitement Singapore has to offer a visitor."
Most of all, the "friendliness of the people" is what draws him back. "Everyone goes out of his or her way to make sure you feel welcome and have a great time."
Eddino Abdul Hadi
PETER GEORGE, 46, AND PAT DELBRIDGE, 43, FROM WOKING, SURREY, ENGLAND
British couple Peter George and Pat Delbridge are avid Grand Prix fans who have travelled to catch the Formula 1 races in Silverstone in England, Spa in Belgium, Austin, Texas, in the United States and Monaco.
But for them, the Singapore edition, which they have attended every year since 2010, stands out among the lot.
"Obviously, it is the only night race, and the downtown location of the circuit makes it spectacular viewing," says Mr George, 46, an environmental consultant. "Singapore is such a fantastic city to visit anyway that coming every year is irresistible.
"The bright lights and intense action on the circuit go hand in hand with the bright lights and dynamism of Singapore. In short, a perfect combination."
Fans of the McLaren drivers - they both live in Woking, home of the McLaren team - they point out that the spectators here get to be a lot closer to the tracks.
"Wherever you sit or stand at the Marina Bay Circuit, you're right next to the action, whereas, at some of the other circuits, the action can feel quite remote."
Being closer to the track means they are able to smell the brake dust caused by the car's hard brakes.
"Being a spectator here involves multiple senses which can be a bit overwhelming but there's never a dull race in Singapore."
The couple, who do not have any children, usually stay a week and spend an average of £3,000 (S$6,008) for each trip. They stay with Ms Delbridge's brother, a sound designer who has been living here for the past 20 years.
Besides the races, the Georges also manage to squeeze in other sights while they are here.
Says Ms Delbridge, a 43-year-old networks manager: "There's so much to do in Singapore. I like to go to Raffles Hotel for a Singapore Sling and visit the zoo and the National Orchid Garden. We've done indoor skydiving in Sentosa in the past too."
The food, she adds, is "fantastic".
"I love the food courts and gourmet bak kwa (barbecued pork) from Kim Joo Guan in Chinatown. I'm also rather obsessed with Mos Burger, which isn't available in Britain. A special treat is going to Ku De Ta at the top of the Marina Bay Sands for the view."
For Mr George, the food within the circuit park itself is a draw.
"It's probably the best food of any of the circuits we've been to. Much better than the burgers and fries served at most places."
He adds that one way organisers here can make the event a better experience for hardcore F1 fans is to let them have a feel of racing through the tracks.
"It's a real shame there isn't an F1 race simulator at the circuit as I'm sure there would be plenty of interest."
Eddino Abdul Hadi
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Mississippi shares its eastern border with which other state? | Boundaries of Georgia | New Georgia Encyclopedia
Challenges to Georgia's Northern Boundary
The boundary lines that define the state of Georgia are significant for a variety of reasons, such as ownership of physical territory, jurisdiction for the state's laws , and the state's rights within the federal system. The determination of Georgia's boundaries over time has been fraught with conflict, controversy, and uncertainty.
Trustees' Charter Boundaries, 1732
Georgia Territory as Defined in Its Charter
King George II granted James Oglethorpe and the Trustees a charter in 1732 to establish the colony of Georgia. This charter provided, among other things, that the new colony would consist of all the land between the headwaters of the Savannah and the Altamaha rivers, with its eastern boundary formed by the Atlantic Ocean and its western boundary by the "south seas," a reference to the Pacific Ocean. The latter designation encompassed a tremendous amount of land, most of which was unexplored and unclaimed.
As early as 1683 French explorers claimed land west of the Mississippi River, which they called Louisiana, but the boundaries of this territory were not fully delineated. Over the next several decades, the French were primarily active in Canada, developing a fur trade with the Indians there, and establishing settlements in present-day Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana. From the 1730s until 1783, they caused problems for the Georgia colonists by migrating eastward from the Mississippi River to claim additional land and to trade with the Cherokee , Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Creek Indians .
By the 1730s the Spanish were organized in Florida and had claimed land as far west as the Mobile River in present-day southwest Alabama and had missions west of the Mississippi River in what is now Texas and New Mexico. They caused a constant military problem for the British colonies by moving north from St. Augustine, Florida, but after Oglethorpe's victory in 1742 at the Battle of Bloody Marsh , on St. Simons Island , they no longer posed a threat.
The French and Indian War
Georgia's
Georgia Colony Boundaries, 1763
original boundary remained the same from the founding of the colony until 1763, when the French and Indian War ended in a major territorial victory for the British. England, France, and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris in 1763, and for the first time since Christopher Columbus discovered the New World, England gained complete control of all the land in North America east of the Mississippi River, from Canada to the tip of the Florida peninsula.
Georgia
Colony of East Florida, 1763
took on a new shape as a result of that treaty, with its western boundary becoming the Mississippi River rather than the Pacific Ocean. The rivers in colonial America were the superhighways of the time, providing routes for commerce and transportation. Having a presence on the Mississippi River opened up the western part of the colony to new settlers, facilitating trading w
Colony of West Florida, 1763
ith Indian tribes in that region.
In 1763 the British divided what had been Spanish Florida into the two new colonies of West Florida and East Florida, with the Apalachicola River serving as the dividing line between them. West Florida, with Pensacola as its capital, extended west to the Mississippi River. East Florida included all the land east of the Apalachicola River, with St. Augustine as its capital. At the same time, Georgia's royal governor James Wright received permission from the king of England to expand the boundaries of Georgia to include the territories between the Mississippi and Chattahoochee rivers not granted to the Florida colonies. As a result, Georgia's southern boundary was extended down to the northern boundary of East Florida.
Aftermath of the Revolutionary War
The
Georgia State Boundaries, 1783
1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War (1775-83), fixed the 31st latitude north as the southern boundary of the new United States. The line extended from the Mississippi River eastward to the Chattahoochee River, moved down that river to its junction with the Flint River , and then followed a direct line east to the headwaters of the St. Marys River. As a result, Georgia's southern boundary was also that of the United States.
In a separate treaty between England and Spain, England ceded both East and West Florida back to Spain, which now gained control of the lower Mississippi River. This situation created tensions between Spain and the United States for the next dozen years because Spain refused to allow commercial traffic other than its own to descend the river.
After much negotiation, the two countries signed the Pinckney Treaty in 1795, which opened commercial access to the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans. Equally significant, the treaty designated the boundary between the two countries as the 31st latitude north. Georgia's boundaries were not affected.
Western Boundary
Georgia's Northern and Western Boundaries, 1802
the Revolutionary War, the new states began ceding the western portions of their territories to the United States in exchange for the federal government repaying their war debt. In 1802 Georgia became the last state to cede its western lands, compelled to do so in the wake of the Yazoo land fraud , one of the most egregious land scandals in the history of the United States.
The Yazoo land fraud occurred in 1795, when the Georgia General Assembly sold millions of acres along the Yazoo River (in present-day Mississippi) for pennies to Georgia legislators, state officials, and other investors, many of whom resold the land for huge profits. When news of these misdeeds reached the public, the outcry was huge and the sale was overturned, but not before hundreds of people had purchased the disputed land. Swamped with claims, the state decided to give up all its land west of the Chattahoochee River to the federal government. In the 1802 Article of Agreement and Cession, the U.S. government agreed to bear all expenses for settling the claims of those who owned land in the Yazoo River country and to pay Georgia $1.25 million.
Following this agreement, the state's new western boundary began with the juncture of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers in southwest Georgia and proceeded north to the great bend of the river (at present-day West Point, Georgia). From there it stretched for 160 miles to the Indian village of Nickajack on the Tennessee River and continued from there up to the 35th latitude north. (Nickajack no longer exists; the Tennessee River was dammed in 1913, creating a lake that covers the abandoned site.)
Southern Boundary
Although numerous descriptions of Georgia's changing boundaries had been written since the colony's founding in 1732, almost seventy years passed before any of the lines were actually surveyed. With the signing in 1795 of the Pinckney Treaty, in which Spain and the United States agreed on their common border, President George Washington asked surveyor Andrew Ellicott to travel to Natchez, on the Mississippi River, and meet with a Spanish team to survey the boundary line. This line extended from the Mississippi River eastward to the Chattahoochee River, moved down that river to its junction with the Flint River, and then followed a direct line east to the headwaters of the St. Marys River.
Ellicott's Mound
Ellicott and a fifty-member surveying team arrived in Natchez in February 1797 and spent a year trying to get the Spanish to begin the survey. Finally, in May 1798, the U.S. and Spanish surveying teams met at the 31st latitude at the Mississippi River and began their work. By mid-September 1799 the teams had surveyed 381 miles of the line and were at the Chattahoochee River. Remaining to be surveyed was the portion of the line from the junction of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers to the headwaters of the St. Marys River.
Because of problems with the Seminole Indians, who were unhappy with the United States and Spain marking a boundary line through their territory, the survey of the next 155 miles was abandoned. The teams split into two, with half walking from the mouth of the Flint River to the village of St. Marys , while Ellicott and twenty others took the equipment and all of his surveying paperwork on a forty-ton schooner and sailed around Florida. Both teams safely met at St. Marys in early December 1799.
The group decided to mark only the headwaters of the St. Marys River without doing any other surveying. Using canoes, Ellicott and members of the team went up the St. Marys into the Okefenokee Swamp . With no distinct spring as the exact source of the St. Marys, Ellicott made an educated decision about the headwaters' location and marked it with a large mound of dirt. This location is known as Ellicott’s Mound and is marked today by a U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey disc. Both Ellicott’s location of the headwaters and the unsurveyed Georgia/Florida boundary were the topics of numerous disputes and lawsuits for the next sixty years.
The Orr-Whitner Line
Orr-Whitner Line, 1861
1819 the United States agreed to purchase West and East Florida from Spain, which was struggling at that time to hold onto its possessions in North America. Established as the Florida Territory in 1822, Florida eventually became a state in 1845. In the decades after the purchase of the territory, at least six attempts were made to prove or disprove Ellicott's Mound as the legitimate origin of the St. Marys River, and numerous aborted attempts were made to survey Georgia's southern border.
Finally, in 1859, Georgia and Florida appointed surveyors Gustavus J. Orr and B. F. Whitner, respectively, to complete the survey. The Orr-Whitner line was accepted by Florida in 1861 and Georgia in 1866 as their official boundary, although the outbreak of the Civil War (1861-65) delayed the line's approval by the U.S. Congress until 1872. The long debate with Florida over Georgia's southern boundary was finally settled and has not been disputed since.
Northeastern Boundary
Georgia's charter of 1732 describes the colony's northern boundary as beginning at the headwaters of the Savannah River. However, it would be more than fifty years, at the Beaufort Convention of 1787, before Georgia and South Carolina further defined the boundary as "the most northern branch or stream of the River Savannah from the Sea or Mouth of such stream to the fork or confluence of the Rivers now called Tugoloo and Keowee, and from thence the most northern branch or stream of the said River Tugaloo, till it intersects the northern boundary line of South Carolina." (The northern boundary line of South Carolina was the 35th latitude north.) Another twenty-five years passed before a reliable survey determined that the most northern branch of the Tugaloo was the Chattooga River . In the meantime, Georgia's boundary with South Carolina remained poorly defined, as did its boundary with North Carolina.
As settlers established communities in the western portions of North Carolina, many were unsure in which state they resided. The confusion arose because the 35th latitude north, which was the southern boundary of North Carolina, and thus the northern boundary of Georgia, had never been surveyed. From 1787 to 1811 the citizens of what is now Transylvania County in western North Carolina assumed that they lived in Georgia and elected representatives to the Georgia state legislature.
Ellicott's Survey
Placement of Ellicott's Rock, 1811
1811, to settle the issue, Georgia again hired Ellicott, this time to survey and mark the location of the 35th latitude north. Ellicott's positive location of the latitude line established that those citizens who thought they lived in Georgia were really in North Carolina. Although Ellicott's finding resulted in a significant loss of land for Georgia, his survey was accepted by the state and has never been challenged in the courts. For nearly two centuries, records of Ellicott's survey were believed to be lost.
In 1813 North Carolina and South Carolina each sent a survey team to mark the 35th latitude north at the Chattooga River. The surveyors from both states agreed on its location and carved the inscription "Lat 35 AD 1813 NC+SC" on a huge boulder on the east bank of the river. This rock, known as "Commissioner's Rock," is located in the Ellicott Rock Wilderness and is easily reached by hikers. The rock is on the National Register of Historic Places (where it is listed as "Ellicott Rock") and also marks the point at which the boundaries of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia converge.
Confusion over Ellicott's Rock
For more than fifty years, hikers, historians, writers, and officials have taken the three-mile walk from the trailhead at Burrell's Ford campground up the east side of the Chattooga River to visit what is known as Ellicott's Rock. This small rock is located fifteen feet north of Commissioner's Rock and has the letters N and either G or C carved on it.
Numerous authors have written about Ellicott's Rock in surveying, history, travel, and hiking magazines, and most repeat the story line that Ellicott carved those letters in 1811, when he surveyed the 35th latitude for Georgia. The writers also attempted to solve the mystery of Ellicott's lost records by speculating that because Ellicott found the 35th latitude to be some ten miles south than previously thought, causing Georgia to lose thousands of acres to North Carolina, that Georgia refused to pay him for the survey. The theory continues that Ellicott, in a fit of pique, destroyed all his field notes and his diary of the survey.
Twenty-first-century research conducted in the North Carolina and Georgia state archives tells a very different story. Letters and receipts reveal that Georgia paid Ellicott $4,450 for his survey. Also discovered were his diary, found in an unfinished manuscript, and a draft report of his surveying calculations locating the 35th latitude, intended for Georgia governor David B. Mitchell . Further, the resolution appointing Ellicott to find and mark the 35th latitude north does not mention the Chattooga River, and an 1812 letter from Ellicott to North Carolina governor William Hawkins states: "In the parallel of 35 degree N. latitude, on the west side of the Chatoga river, a stone is set up marked on the South side (G. lat 35 N.) and on the north side, (N.C.) for North Carolina" [emphasis added]. This evidence indicates that the rock on the east side of the river, near Commissioner's Rock, was not inscribed by Ellicott. A rock matching Ellicott's description has not been found.
Continuing Disputes
There have been several modifications of the boundary line between Georgia and South Carolina over the years because of alterations along the Savannah River, including erosion , the accretion of islands and banks, and changes in the river course itself. In 1990 the U.S. Supreme Court heard the most recent lawsuit between Georgia and South Carolina, which concerned ownership of some islands in the river and commercial fishing rights.
Northern Boundary
Of all Georgia's boundaries, the northern boundary with Tennessee has caused the most problems. Tennessee became the sixteenth state in 1796, and its southern boundary was the 35th latitude north. It was not until 1817, however, when the Alabama Territory was separated from the Mississippi Territory, that Tennessee and Georgia legislators passed a resolution agreeing to mark their common boundary.
Georgia's northwestern boundary was described as a line from the great bend of the Chattahoochee River and "thence, in a direct line, to Nickajack, on the Tennessee river . . . running up the said Tennessee river, and along the western bank thereof, to the southern boundary line of the state of Tennessee." Three-man surveying teams from both states met at Nickajack to find the 35th latitude north and "plainly mark and designate the same."
The field notes available from the survey indicate that Georgia team member James Camak, a mathematician, determined where the lines were to be surveyed. Using his knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, Camak calculated in 1818 that the 35th latitude was not north of Nickajack and on the west bank of the Tennessee River but almost a mile south of Nickajack. His calculations were incorrect; according to modern measurements, the 35th latitude is one mile north of Nickajack and in the middle of the Tennessee River. Nevertheless, Camak and both teams marked the line as south of Nickajack and then proceeded to mark it to the east for 110 miles. The teams marked the end of the line and returned to Georgia to file their reports.
In 1819 Tennessee issued a statute defining its boundary with Georgia as "the thirty-fifth degree of north latitude, as found by James Camak," a statement that haunts Georgia to this day. Georgia's legislature passed a resolution in that same year authorizing the governor to have the maps of the surveyed lines recorded in the U.S. Surveyor General's office, but there is no record of any federal law or act certifying or approving the survey as the official boundary between the two states.
Georgia
Georgia's Northern and Western Boundaries, 1826
then asked Camak in 1819 to take a team to Ellicott's Rock and mark a line west from there to connect with the line from Nickajack. The team members proceeded westward, and when they came to where they had stopped measuring the year before, they noted that they were located "661 yards" north of the earlier mark. Instead of remeasuring all their surveys, they simply connected the westward and eastward lines and marked the junction. This offset is still there today and is labeled on all maps as "Montgomery's Corner," located in Towns County , just east of Blairsville. Even this portion of Camak's survey was never on the 35th latitude north.
Alabama was admitted as a state in 1819. Seven years later, in 1826, the governors of Georgia and Alabama agreed to survey the western boundary connecting Nickajack and Miller's Bend (now West Point), a town on the Chattahoochee River in west central Georgia. Alabama sent commissioners to oversee the work, believing that it was Georgia's responsibility to mark the line. Georgia again called on Camak as its mathematician. Approaching the mark that he had made eight years earlier, Camak noted that Nickajack was "about one quarter of a mile north of the Georgia/Tennessee boundary as surveyed in 1818." Modern measurements, however, indicate that Camak's surveyed line is almost a mile south of the 35th latitude north.
Challenges to Georgia's Northern Boundary
Georgia's legislature has voted to revisit its northern boundary line with Tennessee and North Carolina a dozen times over the past 200 years without receiving any response from Tennessee or North Carolina. Confusion over property lines on the boundary has resulted in lawsuits between property owners, but there has never been a lawsuit between Georgia and Tennessee or between Georgia and North Carolina.
The drought of 2008 in Georgia brought renewed attention to the fact that if the Georgia/Tennessee boundary had been properly surveyed along the 35th latitude, then plenty of water from the Tennessee River would be available for Georgia's citizens. That year Georgia's legislature passed another resolution, signed into law by Governor Sonny Perdue , strongly urging him to initiate negotiations with the governors of Tennessee and North Carolina to correct Camak's flawed survey. The legislature also authorized the state's attorney general to take "legal action to correct Georgia's northern border at the 35th parallel," should such negotiations fail to correct the situation. Nothing further occurred as a result of this resolution.
In 2013 Georgia's legislature passed another resolution proposing a settlement of the northern boundary issue, which became effective without approval of the governor. This resolution provides that "if an agreement resolving the boundary dispute is not reached as of the last day on which the General Assembly convenes in regular session in 2014, the Attorney General of Georgia is hereby authorized and directed to take such action as is required to initiate suit in the United States Supreme Court against the State of Tennessee for final settlement of the boundary issue."
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What is the name of the Pakistani town in which Osama Bin Laden was shot and killed in May 2011? | Boundaries of Georgia | New Georgia Encyclopedia
Challenges to Georgia's Northern Boundary
The boundary lines that define the state of Georgia are significant for a variety of reasons, such as ownership of physical territory, jurisdiction for the state's laws , and the state's rights within the federal system. The determination of Georgia's boundaries over time has been fraught with conflict, controversy, and uncertainty.
Trustees' Charter Boundaries, 1732
Georgia Territory as Defined in Its Charter
King George II granted James Oglethorpe and the Trustees a charter in 1732 to establish the colony of Georgia. This charter provided, among other things, that the new colony would consist of all the land between the headwaters of the Savannah and the Altamaha rivers, with its eastern boundary formed by the Atlantic Ocean and its western boundary by the "south seas," a reference to the Pacific Ocean. The latter designation encompassed a tremendous amount of land, most of which was unexplored and unclaimed.
As early as 1683 French explorers claimed land west of the Mississippi River, which they called Louisiana, but the boundaries of this territory were not fully delineated. Over the next several decades, the French were primarily active in Canada, developing a fur trade with the Indians there, and establishing settlements in present-day Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana. From the 1730s until 1783, they caused problems for the Georgia colonists by migrating eastward from the Mississippi River to claim additional land and to trade with the Cherokee , Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Creek Indians .
By the 1730s the Spanish were organized in Florida and had claimed land as far west as the Mobile River in present-day southwest Alabama and had missions west of the Mississippi River in what is now Texas and New Mexico. They caused a constant military problem for the British colonies by moving north from St. Augustine, Florida, but after Oglethorpe's victory in 1742 at the Battle of Bloody Marsh , on St. Simons Island , they no longer posed a threat.
The French and Indian War
Georgia's
Georgia Colony Boundaries, 1763
original boundary remained the same from the founding of the colony until 1763, when the French and Indian War ended in a major territorial victory for the British. England, France, and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris in 1763, and for the first time since Christopher Columbus discovered the New World, England gained complete control of all the land in North America east of the Mississippi River, from Canada to the tip of the Florida peninsula.
Georgia
Colony of East Florida, 1763
took on a new shape as a result of that treaty, with its western boundary becoming the Mississippi River rather than the Pacific Ocean. The rivers in colonial America were the superhighways of the time, providing routes for commerce and transportation. Having a presence on the Mississippi River opened up the western part of the colony to new settlers, facilitating trading w
Colony of West Florida, 1763
ith Indian tribes in that region.
In 1763 the British divided what had been Spanish Florida into the two new colonies of West Florida and East Florida, with the Apalachicola River serving as the dividing line between them. West Florida, with Pensacola as its capital, extended west to the Mississippi River. East Florida included all the land east of the Apalachicola River, with St. Augustine as its capital. At the same time, Georgia's royal governor James Wright received permission from the king of England to expand the boundaries of Georgia to include the territories between the Mississippi and Chattahoochee rivers not granted to the Florida colonies. As a result, Georgia's southern boundary was extended down to the northern boundary of East Florida.
Aftermath of the Revolutionary War
The
Georgia State Boundaries, 1783
1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War (1775-83), fixed the 31st latitude north as the southern boundary of the new United States. The line extended from the Mississippi River eastward to the Chattahoochee River, moved down that river to its junction with the Flint River , and then followed a direct line east to the headwaters of the St. Marys River. As a result, Georgia's southern boundary was also that of the United States.
In a separate treaty between England and Spain, England ceded both East and West Florida back to Spain, which now gained control of the lower Mississippi River. This situation created tensions between Spain and the United States for the next dozen years because Spain refused to allow commercial traffic other than its own to descend the river.
After much negotiation, the two countries signed the Pinckney Treaty in 1795, which opened commercial access to the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans. Equally significant, the treaty designated the boundary between the two countries as the 31st latitude north. Georgia's boundaries were not affected.
Western Boundary
Georgia's Northern and Western Boundaries, 1802
the Revolutionary War, the new states began ceding the western portions of their territories to the United States in exchange for the federal government repaying their war debt. In 1802 Georgia became the last state to cede its western lands, compelled to do so in the wake of the Yazoo land fraud , one of the most egregious land scandals in the history of the United States.
The Yazoo land fraud occurred in 1795, when the Georgia General Assembly sold millions of acres along the Yazoo River (in present-day Mississippi) for pennies to Georgia legislators, state officials, and other investors, many of whom resold the land for huge profits. When news of these misdeeds reached the public, the outcry was huge and the sale was overturned, but not before hundreds of people had purchased the disputed land. Swamped with claims, the state decided to give up all its land west of the Chattahoochee River to the federal government. In the 1802 Article of Agreement and Cession, the U.S. government agreed to bear all expenses for settling the claims of those who owned land in the Yazoo River country and to pay Georgia $1.25 million.
Following this agreement, the state's new western boundary began with the juncture of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers in southwest Georgia and proceeded north to the great bend of the river (at present-day West Point, Georgia). From there it stretched for 160 miles to the Indian village of Nickajack on the Tennessee River and continued from there up to the 35th latitude north. (Nickajack no longer exists; the Tennessee River was dammed in 1913, creating a lake that covers the abandoned site.)
Southern Boundary
Although numerous descriptions of Georgia's changing boundaries had been written since the colony's founding in 1732, almost seventy years passed before any of the lines were actually surveyed. With the signing in 1795 of the Pinckney Treaty, in which Spain and the United States agreed on their common border, President George Washington asked surveyor Andrew Ellicott to travel to Natchez, on the Mississippi River, and meet with a Spanish team to survey the boundary line. This line extended from the Mississippi River eastward to the Chattahoochee River, moved down that river to its junction with the Flint River, and then followed a direct line east to the headwaters of the St. Marys River.
Ellicott's Mound
Ellicott and a fifty-member surveying team arrived in Natchez in February 1797 and spent a year trying to get the Spanish to begin the survey. Finally, in May 1798, the U.S. and Spanish surveying teams met at the 31st latitude at the Mississippi River and began their work. By mid-September 1799 the teams had surveyed 381 miles of the line and were at the Chattahoochee River. Remaining to be surveyed was the portion of the line from the junction of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers to the headwaters of the St. Marys River.
Because of problems with the Seminole Indians, who were unhappy with the United States and Spain marking a boundary line through their territory, the survey of the next 155 miles was abandoned. The teams split into two, with half walking from the mouth of the Flint River to the village of St. Marys , while Ellicott and twenty others took the equipment and all of his surveying paperwork on a forty-ton schooner and sailed around Florida. Both teams safely met at St. Marys in early December 1799.
The group decided to mark only the headwaters of the St. Marys River without doing any other surveying. Using canoes, Ellicott and members of the team went up the St. Marys into the Okefenokee Swamp . With no distinct spring as the exact source of the St. Marys, Ellicott made an educated decision about the headwaters' location and marked it with a large mound of dirt. This location is known as Ellicott’s Mound and is marked today by a U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey disc. Both Ellicott’s location of the headwaters and the unsurveyed Georgia/Florida boundary were the topics of numerous disputes and lawsuits for the next sixty years.
The Orr-Whitner Line
Orr-Whitner Line, 1861
1819 the United States agreed to purchase West and East Florida from Spain, which was struggling at that time to hold onto its possessions in North America. Established as the Florida Territory in 1822, Florida eventually became a state in 1845. In the decades after the purchase of the territory, at least six attempts were made to prove or disprove Ellicott's Mound as the legitimate origin of the St. Marys River, and numerous aborted attempts were made to survey Georgia's southern border.
Finally, in 1859, Georgia and Florida appointed surveyors Gustavus J. Orr and B. F. Whitner, respectively, to complete the survey. The Orr-Whitner line was accepted by Florida in 1861 and Georgia in 1866 as their official boundary, although the outbreak of the Civil War (1861-65) delayed the line's approval by the U.S. Congress until 1872. The long debate with Florida over Georgia's southern boundary was finally settled and has not been disputed since.
Northeastern Boundary
Georgia's charter of 1732 describes the colony's northern boundary as beginning at the headwaters of the Savannah River. However, it would be more than fifty years, at the Beaufort Convention of 1787, before Georgia and South Carolina further defined the boundary as "the most northern branch or stream of the River Savannah from the Sea or Mouth of such stream to the fork or confluence of the Rivers now called Tugoloo and Keowee, and from thence the most northern branch or stream of the said River Tugaloo, till it intersects the northern boundary line of South Carolina." (The northern boundary line of South Carolina was the 35th latitude north.) Another twenty-five years passed before a reliable survey determined that the most northern branch of the Tugaloo was the Chattooga River . In the meantime, Georgia's boundary with South Carolina remained poorly defined, as did its boundary with North Carolina.
As settlers established communities in the western portions of North Carolina, many were unsure in which state they resided. The confusion arose because the 35th latitude north, which was the southern boundary of North Carolina, and thus the northern boundary of Georgia, had never been surveyed. From 1787 to 1811 the citizens of what is now Transylvania County in western North Carolina assumed that they lived in Georgia and elected representatives to the Georgia state legislature.
Ellicott's Survey
Placement of Ellicott's Rock, 1811
1811, to settle the issue, Georgia again hired Ellicott, this time to survey and mark the location of the 35th latitude north. Ellicott's positive location of the latitude line established that those citizens who thought they lived in Georgia were really in North Carolina. Although Ellicott's finding resulted in a significant loss of land for Georgia, his survey was accepted by the state and has never been challenged in the courts. For nearly two centuries, records of Ellicott's survey were believed to be lost.
In 1813 North Carolina and South Carolina each sent a survey team to mark the 35th latitude north at the Chattooga River. The surveyors from both states agreed on its location and carved the inscription "Lat 35 AD 1813 NC+SC" on a huge boulder on the east bank of the river. This rock, known as "Commissioner's Rock," is located in the Ellicott Rock Wilderness and is easily reached by hikers. The rock is on the National Register of Historic Places (where it is listed as "Ellicott Rock") and also marks the point at which the boundaries of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia converge.
Confusion over Ellicott's Rock
For more than fifty years, hikers, historians, writers, and officials have taken the three-mile walk from the trailhead at Burrell's Ford campground up the east side of the Chattooga River to visit what is known as Ellicott's Rock. This small rock is located fifteen feet north of Commissioner's Rock and has the letters N and either G or C carved on it.
Numerous authors have written about Ellicott's Rock in surveying, history, travel, and hiking magazines, and most repeat the story line that Ellicott carved those letters in 1811, when he surveyed the 35th latitude for Georgia. The writers also attempted to solve the mystery of Ellicott's lost records by speculating that because Ellicott found the 35th latitude to be some ten miles south than previously thought, causing Georgia to lose thousands of acres to North Carolina, that Georgia refused to pay him for the survey. The theory continues that Ellicott, in a fit of pique, destroyed all his field notes and his diary of the survey.
Twenty-first-century research conducted in the North Carolina and Georgia state archives tells a very different story. Letters and receipts reveal that Georgia paid Ellicott $4,450 for his survey. Also discovered were his diary, found in an unfinished manuscript, and a draft report of his surveying calculations locating the 35th latitude, intended for Georgia governor David B. Mitchell . Further, the resolution appointing Ellicott to find and mark the 35th latitude north does not mention the Chattooga River, and an 1812 letter from Ellicott to North Carolina governor William Hawkins states: "In the parallel of 35 degree N. latitude, on the west side of the Chatoga river, a stone is set up marked on the South side (G. lat 35 N.) and on the north side, (N.C.) for North Carolina" [emphasis added]. This evidence indicates that the rock on the east side of the river, near Commissioner's Rock, was not inscribed by Ellicott. A rock matching Ellicott's description has not been found.
Continuing Disputes
There have been several modifications of the boundary line between Georgia and South Carolina over the years because of alterations along the Savannah River, including erosion , the accretion of islands and banks, and changes in the river course itself. In 1990 the U.S. Supreme Court heard the most recent lawsuit between Georgia and South Carolina, which concerned ownership of some islands in the river and commercial fishing rights.
Northern Boundary
Of all Georgia's boundaries, the northern boundary with Tennessee has caused the most problems. Tennessee became the sixteenth state in 1796, and its southern boundary was the 35th latitude north. It was not until 1817, however, when the Alabama Territory was separated from the Mississippi Territory, that Tennessee and Georgia legislators passed a resolution agreeing to mark their common boundary.
Georgia's northwestern boundary was described as a line from the great bend of the Chattahoochee River and "thence, in a direct line, to Nickajack, on the Tennessee river . . . running up the said Tennessee river, and along the western bank thereof, to the southern boundary line of the state of Tennessee." Three-man surveying teams from both states met at Nickajack to find the 35th latitude north and "plainly mark and designate the same."
The field notes available from the survey indicate that Georgia team member James Camak, a mathematician, determined where the lines were to be surveyed. Using his knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, Camak calculated in 1818 that the 35th latitude was not north of Nickajack and on the west bank of the Tennessee River but almost a mile south of Nickajack. His calculations were incorrect; according to modern measurements, the 35th latitude is one mile north of Nickajack and in the middle of the Tennessee River. Nevertheless, Camak and both teams marked the line as south of Nickajack and then proceeded to mark it to the east for 110 miles. The teams marked the end of the line and returned to Georgia to file their reports.
In 1819 Tennessee issued a statute defining its boundary with Georgia as "the thirty-fifth degree of north latitude, as found by James Camak," a statement that haunts Georgia to this day. Georgia's legislature passed a resolution in that same year authorizing the governor to have the maps of the surveyed lines recorded in the U.S. Surveyor General's office, but there is no record of any federal law or act certifying or approving the survey as the official boundary between the two states.
Georgia
Georgia's Northern and Western Boundaries, 1826
then asked Camak in 1819 to take a team to Ellicott's Rock and mark a line west from there to connect with the line from Nickajack. The team members proceeded westward, and when they came to where they had stopped measuring the year before, they noted that they were located "661 yards" north of the earlier mark. Instead of remeasuring all their surveys, they simply connected the westward and eastward lines and marked the junction. This offset is still there today and is labeled on all maps as "Montgomery's Corner," located in Towns County , just east of Blairsville. Even this portion of Camak's survey was never on the 35th latitude north.
Alabama was admitted as a state in 1819. Seven years later, in 1826, the governors of Georgia and Alabama agreed to survey the western boundary connecting Nickajack and Miller's Bend (now West Point), a town on the Chattahoochee River in west central Georgia. Alabama sent commissioners to oversee the work, believing that it was Georgia's responsibility to mark the line. Georgia again called on Camak as its mathematician. Approaching the mark that he had made eight years earlier, Camak noted that Nickajack was "about one quarter of a mile north of the Georgia/Tennessee boundary as surveyed in 1818." Modern measurements, however, indicate that Camak's surveyed line is almost a mile south of the 35th latitude north.
Challenges to Georgia's Northern Boundary
Georgia's legislature has voted to revisit its northern boundary line with Tennessee and North Carolina a dozen times over the past 200 years without receiving any response from Tennessee or North Carolina. Confusion over property lines on the boundary has resulted in lawsuits between property owners, but there has never been a lawsuit between Georgia and Tennessee or between Georgia and North Carolina.
The drought of 2008 in Georgia brought renewed attention to the fact that if the Georgia/Tennessee boundary had been properly surveyed along the 35th latitude, then plenty of water from the Tennessee River would be available for Georgia's citizens. That year Georgia's legislature passed another resolution, signed into law by Governor Sonny Perdue , strongly urging him to initiate negotiations with the governors of Tennessee and North Carolina to correct Camak's flawed survey. The legislature also authorized the state's attorney general to take "legal action to correct Georgia's northern border at the 35th parallel," should such negotiations fail to correct the situation. Nothing further occurred as a result of this resolution.
In 2013 Georgia's legislature passed another resolution proposing a settlement of the northern boundary issue, which became effective without approval of the governor. This resolution provides that "if an agreement resolving the boundary dispute is not reached as of the last day on which the General Assembly convenes in regular session in 2014, the Attorney General of Georgia is hereby authorized and directed to take such action as is required to initiate suit in the United States Supreme Court against the State of Tennessee for final settlement of the boundary issue."
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Which stategic computer game, in which the player takes control of the members of a suburban household, is the best-selling PC video game of all time? | Top Twenty Five (25) Selling PC Games Of All Time | Guns Lot
Top Twenty Five (25) Selling PC Games Of All Time
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The PC gaming industry is a multi billion dollar business where video game titles can become household names, products, and movies. Some of the most successful PC games have sold millions of copies generating hundreds in millions in revenue. Following are the Top Twenty Five (25) Selling PC Games of All Time.
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blackpearl Posted: July 29, 2007 Filed under: video games
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The PC gaming industry is a multi billion dollar business where video game titles can become household names, products, and movies. Some of the most successful PC games have sold millions of copies generating hundreds in millions in revenue. Following are the Top Twenty Five (25) Selling PC Games of All Time.
25. Battlefield 2
(2.09 million)
- Battlefield 2 (abbreviated as BF2) is a computer game in which players fight in a modern battlefield using modern weapon systems. Battlefield 2 is a first-person shooter with some strategy and RPG (Role-Playing Game) elements. Battlefield 2 was developed by Digital Illusions CE (DICE) with a custom game engine. During development, Trauma Studios contributed to the development of the game after it was acquired by Digital Illusions CE
24. Battlefield 1942
(2.44 million)
- Battlefield 1942 is a 3D World War II first-person shooter (FPS) computer game developed by Digital Illusions CE and published by Electronic Arts for Microsoft Windows (2002) and Apple Macintosh (2004). The game can be played in singleplayer mode against computer game bots or in multiplayer mode against players on the Internet.
23. Diablo
(2.5 million)
- Diablo is a dark fantasy-themed hack and slash action role-playing game developed by Blizzard North and released by Blizzard Entertainment in December, 1996.
22. Anno
1602 (2.5 million)
- Anno 1602 - Creation of a New World (in the USA, Canada and Australia released as 1602 A.D.) is a game with both real time strategy and city building elements, developed by Germany-based Sunflowers Interactive Entertainment Software company.
21. Cossacks 2: Napoleonic Wars
(2.5 million)
- Cossacks II: Napoleonic Wars is the fourth computer game in the Cossacks series of real-time strategy games, released in Spring 2005 to mixed reviews. This game focuses exclusively on the Napoleonic era, meaning it has a much shorter time span than others in this series, which spanned several centuries.
20. Age of Empires I
(3 million)
- The Age of Empires series became a popular franchise of real-time strategy computer games based on the success of Age of Empire I. It was started in 1997, developed by Ensemble Studios, and published by Microsoft Game Studios. There are seven titles in the series (four of which are expansions) and a spin-off titled Age of Mythology.
19. Command & Conquer: Red Alert
(3 million)
- Command & Conquer: Red Alert is a landmark real-time strategy video game in the Command & Conquer series, released by Westwood Studios in 1996. The events of Red Alert take place in an alternate history, where Allied Forces defend Europe against an aggressive Soviet Union. It was initially available for PC (MS-DOS & Windows 95 versions included in one package), and was subsequently ported to PlayStation.
18. The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion
(3 million)
- The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, or Oblivion, is a single player fantasy-themed action-oriented computer role-playing game developed by Bethesda Game Studios and published by Bethesda Softworks and the Take-Two Interactive subsidiary 2K Games.
17. Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
(3 million)
- Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos (War3 or WC3) is a real-time strategy computer game released by Blizzard Entertainment in July 2002. It is the second sequel to Warcraft: Orcs & Humans, the third game set in the Warcraft Universe. The game proved to be one of the most anticipated and popular computer game releases ever.
16. EverQuest
(3.5 million)
- EverQuest (or colloquially, EQ) is a 3D fantasy-themed massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) that was released on March 16, 1999. The original design is credited to Brad McQuaid, Steve Clover, and Bill Trost. It was developed by Verant Interactive (which had recently parted ways with 989 Studios) and published by Sony Online Entertainment (SOE). SOE currently runs and distributes EverQuest. The game's sequel, EverQuest II, was released in late 2004.
15. Doom 3
(3.5 million)
- Doom 3 is a science fiction, horror, first-person shooter computer game. It was developed and published by id Software, and was released on August 3, 2004. Doom 3, despite its name, is not a direct continuation of the original Doom series storyline, but rather a re-imagining of the first game in the series, with the addition of a completely new game engine and graphics.
14. Frogger
(4 million)
- Frogger is an arcade game introduced in 1981. It was licensed for worldwide distribution by Sega/Gremlin, and developed by Konami. The game is regarded as a classic and was noted for its novel gameplay and theme. Frogger is still popular and versions can be found on many internet game sites.
13. Guild Wars (includes Factions and Nightfall)
(4 million)
- Guild Wars is an episodic series of multiplayer online role-playing games, for the Microsoft Windows operating system. It was created by ArenaNet, a Seattle game development studio and a subsidiary of the South Korean game publisher NCsoft. Three stand-alone episodes and one expansion pack were released in the series from April 2005 to August 2007.
12. Cossacks: European Wars
(4 million)
- Cossacks: European Wars is a computer game set in the 17th and 18th centuries, and renowned for the seemingly infinite number of units players may control. This ability set it apart from other games of the time such as Age of Empires, Empire Earth, and Civilization.
11. Populous
(4 million)
- Populous is a computer game developed by Bullfrog in 1989 and is regarded by many as being the seminal god game. In 1991, Populous won the Origins Award for Best Military or Strategy Computer Game of 1990 as well as 1990 Computer Game of the Year in American video game magazine Video Games & Computer Entertainment. It was the first game in the Populous series. It preceded Populous II and Populous: The Beginning.
10. Half-Life 2
(4 million)
- Half-Life 2 (HL2) is a science fiction first-person shooter computer game that is the sequel to Half-Life. It was developed by the Valve Software Corporation and was released on November 16, 2004, following a protracted five-year development cycle during which the game's source code was leaked to the Internet. The game garnered near unanimous positive reviews and received critical acclaim, winning over 35 Game of the Year awards for 2004.
8. RollerCoaster Tycoon
(4 million)
- RollerCoaster Tycoon is a simulation strategy computer game that simulates theme park management. Developed by MicroProse and Chris Sawyer and published by Hasbro Interactive, the game was released for Microsoft Windows on March 31, 1999 and was later ported to the Xbox game console. It is the first game in the RollerCoaster Tycoon series and was followed by RollerCoaster Tycoon 2.
9. Diablo II
(4 million)
- Diablo II, sequel to the popular game Diablo, is a dark fantasy-themed action role-playing game in a hack and slash or "Dungeon Roaming" style. It was released for both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS in 2000 by Blizzard Entertainment. Diablo II was developed by Blizzard North.
7. The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind
(4 million)
- The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, or simply Morrowind, is a single player computer role-playing game developed by Bethesda Game Studios, and published by Bethesda Softworks and Ubisoft. It is the third installment in The Elder Scrolls series of games. It was released in the United States in 2002.
6. Myst
(6 million)
- Myst (or MYST) is a graphic adventure computer game designed and directed by the brothers Robyn and Rand Miller. It was developed by Cyan, Inc., a Spokane, Washington-based studio, and published and distributed by Brøderbund. The Millers began working on Myst in 1991 and released it for the Macintosh computer on September 24, 1993. It has spawned four direct sequels and several spin-off games and novels. Myst was the bestselling PC game for several years, until The Sims exceeded its sales.
5. Half-Life
(8 million)
- Half-Life - often abbreviated as HL or HL1 - is a sci-fi first-person shooter computer game developed by Valve Software, first released by Sierra Studios on November 19, 1998. Designed for PCs running Microsoft Windows, the game uses a heavily modified version of the Quake engine, called GoldSrc.
4. World of Warcraft
(9 million current customers, which is different from box sales)
- World of Warcraft (commonly known as WoW) is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game. It is Blizzard Entertainment's fourth game set in the fantasy Warcraft universe, first introduced by Warcraft: Orcs & Humans in 1994. World of Warcraft takes place within the world of Azeroth, four years after the events at the conclusion of Blizzard's previous release, Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne. Blizzard Entertainment announced World of Warcraft on September 2, 2001. The game was released on November 23, 2004, celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Warcraft franchise.
3. StarCraft
(9.5 million)
- StarCraft is a real-time strategy game by Blizzard Entertainment. It was initially released for Microsoft Windows in 1998. A Mac OS version of the game was released in 1999, and a port to the Nintendo 64 was released in 2000. The main storyline follows a war among three galactic species: the adaptable and mobile Terrans, who are descendants of Human outcasts from Earth; the hive mind arthropodal Zerg; and the psionic humanoid Protoss warriors.
2. The Sims 2
(13 million)
- The Sims 2 is a strategic life simulation computer game developed by Maxis and published by Electronic Arts. It is the sequel to the best-selling computer game to date, The Sims. It was released on September 17, 2004 and sold a then-record one million copies in its first ten days.
1. The Sims
(16 million copies sold)
- The Sims is a strategic life-simulation computer game created by game designer Will Wright, published by Maxis, and distributed by Electronic Arts. It is a simulation of the daily activities of one or more virtual persons ("Sims") in a suburban household near SimCity.
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The Sims is a strategic life simulation computer game created by game designer Will Wright, published by Maxis, and distributed by Electronic Arts. The game is a simulation of the day-to-day activities of one or more virtual people (dubbed "Sims") in a suburban household located near SimCity. get sims,patch,add-on,free sims2 links,download sims for free !!!!
Tuesday, May 1, 2007
is article is about a computer game released in 2000. For the console port, see The Sims (console game). For the sequel, see The Sims 2.
For games beginning with "Sim", see List of Sim games.
The Sims
Release date(s) US February 4, 2000
BR February 4, 2000
Platform(s) Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X
Media 1 CD + Installation Discs and The Sims 2 sneak preview CD with Makin' Magic
System requirements Microsoft Windows
* Windows 95 and up, 233 MHz to 450 MHz Pentium II or faster, 64 MB RAM, 4x or faster CD-ROM drive, DirectX 6.0-compatible sound card and graphics card (card must have 2 MB onboard memory and able to display at 800x600 with 16-bit color)
Linux
* Linux Kernel 2.2 or higher, Glibc 2.1.3 or higher, XFree86 4.0 or higher or equivalent, 350 MHz Celeron/Pentium II/Duron/Athlon or faster or equivalent, 64Mb of ram, 128 recommended, sound card supporting OSS or ALSA, video card capable of 16 bit color and 800x600 resolution, nvidia GeForce GPU recommended with 16mb of video ram. (NOTE: This is the ported Linux version from TransGaming)
Apple Macintosh
* Mac OS X 10.0.3 or later -or- Mac OS 8.6 or 9.x with CarbonLib 1.2.5 or later, 233 MHz or faster PowerPC G3 or G4, 64 MB RAM (Mac OS 8/9) or 128 MB RAM (Mac OS X), G3/333 MHz recommended; 128 MB of RAM
Input Keyboard & mouse
The Sims is a strategic life simulation computer game created by game designer Will Wright, published by Maxis, and distributed by Electronic Arts. The game is a simulation of the day-to-day activities of one or more virtual people (dubbed "Sims") in a suburban household located near SimCity.
First released on February 4, 2000, the base game has sold more than 6.3 million copies, making it the best-selling PC game in history.[1] The franchise has sold over 70 million units worldwide as of January 2007.[2] Since its initial release, seven expansion packs and a sequel, The Sims 2 (with its own expansion packs), have been released. The Sims has won numerous awards, including GameSpot's PC Game of the Year Award for 2000.
Contents
o 7.1 Compilations with the original The Sims game
+ 7.1.1 North American releases
+ 7.1.2 Releases in other regions
o 7.2 Compilations of expansion packs
* 8 Sequels
o 8.1 The Sims Online
o 8.2 The Sims 2
o 8.3 The Sims 3
o 8.4 MySims
o 8.5 The Sims Stories
* 9 Ports
* 11 External links
[edit] Overview
As with many Maxis games, The Sims is a departure from most other computer games, which tend to have a definite goal or objective. Instead, the game focuses entirely on the "lives" of virtual people called "Sims," placing the player in control of their virtual "world", and their daily activities such as sleeping, eating, reading and bathing, to name a few. Will Wright, the game's designer, likes to refer to it as a "digital dollhouse." Though players are encouraged to make their own characters, certain pre-made characters have become popular in their own right, such as the Goth family.
[edit] Origins and development
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Title screen from a short promotional video for The Sims released on the SimCity 3000 installation CD.
Title screen from a short promotional video for The Sims released on the SimCity 3000 installation CD.
The idea for The Sims is thought to be drawn from Will Wright's experience in the 1991 Oakland firestorm, when his house and many of his possessions were burned down in the fire.[3][4] As such, Wright was required to move his family elsewhere and rebuild his life; these events led to Will's inspiration of creating a simulated game about life. The game is also loosely based on SimCity, another computer game designed by Wright in which the player must manage a city and its citizenry, dubbed "Sims." The idea of "simulated people" led Wright to believe that he could program and design the perfect construct of the main aspects that a computer or video game possesses.
Wright originally proposed the idea of a virtual "dollhouse" to Maxis in 1993 while the idea was still in development, although the proposal was met with skepticism by staff;[5] computer hardware during the period was not thought to be capable of running such a simulation smoothly. In 1995, Wright was offered an opportunity from Electronic Arts to continue developing the concept and game so that EA could publish it.[verification needed] Development of the game, initially dubbed "Project X," commenced in 1995.[verification needed]
After production for the game finally began in 1995, Wright was interviewed about his idea in a PC Magazine article published around 1995, in which he talked about the chance for players to control a computer generated character in their own environment.[verification needed]
In 1997, the name of the game was changed from "Project X" to "The Sims" as a reference to Will Wright's earlier "Sim" games, which had been relatively successful in the early- to mid-1990s.
[edit] Gameplay and design
This screenshot of The Sims shows a large family inhabiting one house. The focus is currently on the sunglasses-clad character, who can be identified by the green diamond or "plumbob" over his head. His portrait is highlighted in the control bar. By looking at the color of the diamond and his statistics, the user can see that he is currently very content.
This screenshot of The Sims shows a large family inhabiting one house. The focus is currently on the sunglasses-clad character, who can be identified by the green diamond or "plumbob" over his head. His portrait is highlighted in the control bar. By looking at the color of the diamond and his statistics, the user can see that he is currently very content.
Instead of objectives, the player is encouraged to make choices and engage fully in an interactive environment. As such, the game has successfully attracted casual gamers. The only real objective of the game is to organize the Sims' time to help them reach personal goals.
In the beginning, the games offers players pre-made characters to control as well as the option to create more Sims. Creating a Sim consists of creating a "family" (identified by a last name) that can hold up to eight members. The player can then create Sims, by providing the Sim a first name and optional biography, and choosing the the gender (male or female), skin complexion (light, medium, or dark) and age (adult or child) of the Sim, the personality of the Sim that is dictated by five attributes and a specific head and body (bundled with a specific body physique and clothing). The player cannot change hairstyles for Sims after they move into a house.
Each family, regardless of how many members are in it, starts with a limited amount of cash (§20,000) that will be needed to purchase a house or vacant land, build or remodel a house, and purchasing furniture. All architectural features and furnishings are dictated by a tile system, in which items must be placed on a square and rotated to face exactly a 90 degree angle with no diagonals permitted. Walls and fences go on the edge of a "square", whereas furniture and Sims take up one or more squares. There are over 150 home building and items (for walls, floors, and furniture) for purchase.
Sims are directed totally on the basis of instructing them to interact with objects, such as a television set, a bathtub, or another Sim. Sims may receive house guests, which are actually based on the Sims of other game files. The player cannot control 'visiting' Sims, although it is important for Sims to interact with one another in order to develop a healthy social life and gain popularity.
Sims have a certain amount of free will (if it is enabled in-game), and although the player can instruct them to do something, they may decide that something else needs to be done first, or even outright ignore the player's commands. Unlike the simulated environments in games such as SimCity, SimEarth, or SimLife, the Sims are not fully autonomous. They are unable to take certain actions without specific commands from the player, such as paying their bills. Thus, if left alone, without any player supervision, the Sims will eventually develop overdue bills and their property will be repossessed.
The player must make decisions about time spent in personal development, such as exercise, reading, creativity, and logic, by adding activities to the daily agenda of the Sims. Daily maintenance requirements must also be scheduled, such as personal hygiene, eating, and sleeping. If the simulated humans do not perform the proper amount of maintenance, they will sicken and die. Furthermore, Sims need to have fun; if they don't, the fun level bar eventually lowers and they become depressed, but however depressed they become, they are unable to commit suicide (they are not programmed to do so). They are, however, able to be nasty to other Sim characters by insulting them, slapping them and even attacking them. Financial health is simulated by the need to send the Sims to find jobs, go to work, pay bills, and take advantage of personal development and social contacts to advance in their jobs.
The inner structure of the game is actually an agent based artificial life program. The presentation of the game's artificial intelligence is advanced, and the Sims will respond to outside conditions by themselves, although often the player/controller's intervention is necessary to keep them on the right track. The Sims technically has unlimited replay value, in that there is no way to win the game, and the player can play on indefinitely. It has been described as more like a toy than a game.
That The Sims reflects aspects of reality makes the game itself of note, especially as virtually every prior entertainment program used one or more aspects of fantasy to entertain (from Disney characters to alien ships). Simple, real-life situations, such as adopting children or forming relationships replace merely earning points and advancing to the "final boss level."
A neighborhood in The Sims consists of a single screen displaying all playable houses.
A neighborhood in The Sims consists of a single screen displaying all playable houses.
In addition, the game includes a very advanced architecture system. The game was originally designed as an architecture simulation alone, with the Sims there only to evaluate the houses.[5] During development it was decided that the Sims were more interesting than the houses. This is a common trait in Maxis games. SimCity was originally designed as a method for developers to create cities to include in a bomber game that Wright was creating and SimTower was originally designed to reverse-engineer real world elevator algorithms.[citation needed]
There are some limitations to the first game of The Sims, most notably that children in the first series never grow up to become adults, though babies do eventually become children. Also, adult Sims never age (or die of old age), and there is no concept of a weekend. For example, adults go to work every day, and children go to school every day. However, taking one day off from work or school is okay, but taking off two consecutive days has consequences, such as getting fired. Children can also be "homeschooled", by having them study during the day to keep their school grades up.
While there is no eventual objective to the game, states of failure does exist in The Sims. One is that Sims may die, types of death including starvation, drowning, perishing in a fire, electrocution and by virus (contracted from a pet guinea pig, which can happen when its cage is left dirty). In addition, Sims can leave a household for good and never return; two adult Sims with a bad relationship may brawl, eventually resulting in one of them signing out a divource. Although considered states of failure, many players occasionally deliberately mistreat their Sims to observe the reactions. This can be done with no consequences if the game state isn't saved.
The Sims uses a combination of 3D and 2D graphics techniques. the Sims themselves are rendered as high-poly-count 3D objects, but the house, and all its objects, are pre-rendered, and displayed diametrically.
[edit] Reception
In 2002, The Sims became the top-selling PC game in history, displacing the game Myst. Critics praised it with positive reviews. It has been a success in many ways—attracting casual gamers and female gamers (which account for 50% of sales)—unusual in a market traditionally dominated by young males. Open-ended gameplay has been done before in games, such as the farming-based simulation series Harvest Moon (a 1997 game originally released for the SNES), but The Sims has certainly gained popularity for this particular style of gameplay. Games such as Nintendo's Animal Crossing (GameCube), have capitalized upon its success.
[edit] Simlish language
Main article: Simlish
Sims speak a fictional language called Simlish. The language is nonsensical, and owes much to the improv comedians (Gerri Lawlor, Marc Gimbel and Stephen Kearin, among others) who provided impromptu utterances while recording voice-overs for the game.
While there is no direct translation for Simlish, many fans have attempted to record and create dictionaries of often-used words. Many have speculated that the Simlish language has a close resemblance to the Italian or Latin language, while others suggest that it resembles Japanese.
If the Makin' Magic expansion pack is installed before any other expansion packs, the language spoken by Sims is slightly different.[citation needed] The Sims Bustin' Out also features a slightly different Simlish lexicon that most notably uses "babyar" instead of "nooboo" to represent the term "baby".
[edit] Expansion packs
A sim enjoying playing with a virtual reality simulator on The Sims: Deluxe Edition.
A sim enjoying playing with a virtual reality simulator on The Sims: Deluxe Edition.
The Sims is one of the most heavily expanded computer game franchises ever. In all, a total of seven expansion packs were produced for The Sims (listed in chronological order):
* Livin' Large, released August 2000, adds more home objects, events, Sims, careers, and the ability to establish multiple neighborhoods.
* House Party, released March 2001, adds party-related content, such as lighted dance floors.
* Hot Date, released November 2001, allows Sims to meet or pick up other Sims for romantic encounters in a new city environment, dubbed "Downtown." Downtown also allows Sims to eat, play and purchase items, such as clothing, gifts and magazines. The expansion pack is also the first in the series to establish a playable area outside the neighborhood.
* Vacation, released March 2002, allows the player to take Sims to various vacation destinations, such as beaches and the woods for camping.
* Unleashed, released September 2002, gives Sims the ability to adopt and train a wide variety of pets, allow Sims to grow crops, and expands the neighborhood, including the addition of a New Orleans-themed town, dubbed "Old Town."
* Superstar, released May 2003, allows Sims to visit a Hollywood-like town called "Studio Town" and become celebrities.
* Makin' Magic, released October 2003, allows Sims to use magic and cast spells and introduces a new Magic Town area.
[edit] Compilations
[edit] Compilations with the original The Sims game
The Sims has now been repackaged in numerous editions. These editions are not expansions in themselves, but rather a compilation of the basic game plus pre-existing expansion packs and additional game content. These editions include:
[edit] North American releases
Name Windows release date Features
The Sims Deluxe Edition 2002 Core game; The Sims: Livin' Large; The Sims Creator, an editor used to create sim skins; Deluxe Edition exclusive content, which includes 25+ exclusive objects and 50+ clothing choices.
The Sims Double Deluxe 2003 The Sims Deluxe Edition; The Sims: House Party; Double Deluxe bonus content.
The Sims Mega Deluxe May 25, 2004 The Sims Double Deluxe; The Sims: Hot Date.
The Sims Complete Collection November, 2005 Core game; all seven expansion packs; Deluxe Edition exclusive content; Double Deluxe bonus content; The Sims Creator.
[edit] Releases in other regions
Name Region Windows release date Features
The Sims Triple Deluxe United Kingdom n/a The Sims Double Deluxe; The Sims: Vacation.
The Complete Collection of The Sims United Kingdom 2003 Core game; all seven expansion packs; The Sims Creator.
The Sims: Full House Australia n/a Core game; all seven expansion packs; disc containing preview of The Sims 2.
[edit] Compilations of expansion packs
An expansion collection series was released in 2005:
* The Sims: Expansion Collection Volume One consists of The Sims: Unleashed and The Sims: House Party.
* The Sims: Expansion Collection Volume Two consists of The Sims: Hot Date and The Sims: Makin' Magic.
* The Sims: Expansion Collection Volume Three consists of The Sims: Vacation and The Sims: Superstar.
Another expansion collection series was also released in 2005:
* The Sims: Expansion Three-Pack Volume 1 consists of The Sims: Unleashed, The Sims: Superstar, and The Sims: House Party.
* The Sims: Expansion Three-Pack Volume 2 consists of The Sims: Hot Date, The Sims: Vacation, and The Sims: Makin' Magic.
[edit] Sequels
[edit] The Sims Online
Main article: The Sims Online
In December 2002, Maxis shipped The Sims Online, which recreates The Sims as an MMORPG, where actual human players can interact with each other. This sequel did not achieve the same level of success as the original The Sims game that producers and developers thought it would.
Reviews for The Sims Online have been lackluster. Many reviewers have likened The Sims Online experience to an enormous chat room where few participants, if any, have anything worthwhile to say.
Of particular interest are reports that the community has degenerated heavily, verging on the anarchistic. Prostitution and other questionable activities are now commonplace. Naturally, this brings into question the scope for games such as this to be properly moderated. [2]
[edit] The Sims 2
Main article: The Sims 2
Maxis released The Sims 2 on September 14, 2004. The sequel takes place in a full 3D environment, as opposed to the combination 2D/3D ("2.5-D" or Isometric) environment of the original game. Other additions to the original gameplay include Sims that grow from infancy to adulthood, then age and eventually die. This game features clear "days of the week" with obvious weekends for children to stay home from school, as well as "vacation days" to take time off work, an "Aspiration Meter" that increases and decreases as a Sim fulfills specific desires and experiences its worst fears, and "Aspiration Rewards" which can be "bought" with "Aspiration Points" that are earned each time a want is successfully filled.
The Sims 2 is set some 25 years later after the original game, and also integrates a storyline into the game. For instance, the Pleasant family (available in the family bin in ‘‘Sims 1’’) has settled in a suburban neighborhood, and their family tree panels reveals relationships with the original Pleasant family from the Sims 1. Additionally, the Goth family has aged significantly, while Bella Goth has mysteriously vanished (suggestively from an alien abduction).
Because faces and neighborhoods are handled in very different ways, objects had to migrate from 2-D sprites to 3-D models, and some objects (particularly those contained in expansion packs) were not copied at all. The Sims 2 was not made backwards-compatible with any Sims 1 content. There have been several expansion packs and add-ons released for The Sims 2.
[edit] The Sims 3
The Sims 3 is an officially announced and upcoming sequel to The Sims 2. It is currently in development, and will be distributed by Electronic Arts. It is expected to be released in late 2009 into early 2010, according to EA chief financial officer Warren Jenson.[6]
[edit] MySims
Main article: MySims
MySims is a Japanese game created by EA exclusively for the Wii and Nintendo DS. It will feature Mii-like, chibi-style characters for avatars (similar to Animal Crossing). The game is set to be released in 2007 in Japan, North America and Europe.
[edit] The Sims Stories
Main article: The Sims Stories
The Sims Stories is a series of computer games from The Sims series optimized for play on laptops, but can still be played on desktops. At present, one game has been released, with two others to be released later.
[edit] Ports
The Sims has been ported from Microsoft Windows to some video game consoles. Though sales have been respectable, the series is not nearly as big a hit as it has been on the PC.
* The Sims (released in January 2003), first console version of The Sims on the PlayStation 2. Later released for GameCube and Xbox.
* The Sims Bustin' Out (released in December 2003): the second console and Game Boy Advance-based versions of The Sims as an RPG where the player guides Sims to move into Malcolm's Mansion. It can be played with two players and provides the added ability to visit external locales ('Community' lots).
* The Urbz: Sims in the City (released in November 2004): This version renames the "Sims" to "Urbz" and gives them fresh, new attitudes that were previously either scarce or nonexistent in previous incarnations of the simulated beings. The Urbz is set in various districts throughout an urban environment, with each having its own unique Urbz and elements. The Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS versions are less complex.
* The Sims and all its expansion packs were ported to the Macintosh by Aspyr Media, Inc.. However, due to the lack of a universal binary the game tends to run rather slowly on new Intel Macs, especially when viewing scenes which require 3D rendering.
* The Sims was ported to the GNU/Linux platform using Transgaming's WineX technology (now known as Cedega) and was bundled with Mandrake Linux Gaming Edition. However, both WineX and the Cedega engine are unable to run the Windows version of the game. The original port will no longer run on modern Linux distributions and is unable to accept the various add-on packs intended for the Windows version.
[edit] References
1. ^ The Sims overtakes Myst. GameSpot. Retrieved on September 26, 2006.
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| i don't know |
What is the name of the Icelandic volcano which erupted in May 2011 causing disruption of flights around northern Europe? | Iceland volcano 2011: Incredible pictures of volcanic ash released as dozens of flights are axed | Daily Mail Online
President Obama cuts short Ireland stay to avoid effects of ash cloud
Aviation sector says it is better prepared than last year
British officials warns of further disruption in the week ahead
Click here to see live video of volcano eruption viewed from space
These amazing images show why tens of thousands of families are facing air travel chaos as a thick cloud of volcanic ash descends over Britain.
The towering plume of Icelandic ash, smoke and steam hit Scotland and Ireland last night, bringing disruption to airlines.
U.S. President Barack Obama flew from Ireland to London last night - a day early - to ensure the cloud does not delay his state visit.
Electrical storm: Ash is hurled miles into the air by the eruption, creating thunderstorms around the volcano
Ash from the Grimsvotn volcano hanging in the sky over Iceland. The cloud has spewed 12 miles into the atmosphere
Stunning: As the volcano erupts, huge dark ash and storm clouds gather across the Icelandic skyline
The Irish visit was the first stop on a six-day European tour - and he left as British Airways cancelled all flights between London and Scotland until 2pm today.
Between 30 and 40 BA flights will be affected from airports including Heathrow, Gatwick and London City to and from Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen. The airline runs 80 flights a day between these airports.
Royal Dutch Airlines KLM cancelled the 16 flights scheduled for this morning to and from Aberdeen, Glasgow, Edinburgh and Newcastle.
The airlines said customers on any cancelled flights will be able to claim a full refund or rebook on to alternative flights – and that all other flights will operate as scheduled.
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At least 36 flights were cancelled in Scotland last night and today, as airports across Britain were put on stand-by for imminent disruption.
By noon today, the Met Office forecasts that the cloud will have swept south, covering most of England and Wales with low concentrations of ash. Medium concentrations of ash – the level where aircraft need permission to fly from the CAA – may affect Newcastle airport.
The warnings come a year after debris from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano spread across Europe, creating the biggest no-fly zone since the Second World War. But the Civil Aviation Authority has stressed that, unlike last year’s six-day ban, a complete shut-down of British airspace will not happen this time.
Looking up to the darkened sky because of the ash cloud, Sunna Agustdottir, seven, carries a new-born lamb to shelter at the family farm in Longumyri, Iceland
Wearing a face mask, Anna Hardadottir, a farmer of Horgsland, leads a horse through the ash pouring out of the erupting volcano. It has spewed an ash cloud about 15 miles into the sky
A footprint outside a petrol station giving an indication of how deep the ash is and, right, a dead bird lies on Higway One near the town of Kirkjubaejarklaustur in the south-east of the country
Farmers hurry to get their sheep into shelter. The thick cloud of ash blocked out daylight at towns and villages at the foot of the glacier where the volcano lies and covered cars and buildings
This is because tests following the experience of last April have shown that many flights can still take place when the ash is in ‘low’ or ‘medium’ density.
There will be a blanket ban on all flights only when the cloud is at its highest concentration of ash. Andrew Haines, chief executive of the CAA, said: ‘Our number one priority is to ensure the safety of people both onboard aircraft and on the ground.
THE NEW RULES ON AIRSPACE CLOSURES DUE TO ASH
New procedures will govern the closure of UK airspace this time.
A CAA spokesman explained that interested parties had agreed on a system whereby ash levels are graded as low, medium or high.
'Airspace will not be closed and we will notify airlines when the Met Office predicts there are medium or high levels of ash present,' the spokesman said.
'If an airline has done a risk assessment as to how it will fly safely in medium or high ash levels and as liaised with aircraft manufacturers and engine makers, then they will be able to fly if the CAA considers it acceptable.'
‘The new arrangements that have been put in place since last year’s ash cloud mean the aviation sector is better prepared and will help to reduce any disruption in the event that volcanic ash affects UK airspace.’
Some 500,000 passengers on 9,000 flights come in and out of UK airspace every day. The latest crisis was sparked by the eruption of Iceland’s Grimsvotn volcano, which has been spewing out a 13-mile high tower of ash since Saturday.
The Met Office said the ash reached the northern coast of Britain around 6pm yesterday.
The whole of Scotland was forecast to be covered by a ‘high concentration’ of ash by 6am today, while lower concentrations will cover Ireland, parts of mid and north Wales and Northumbria.
Airports in Newcastle, Glasgow, Belfast and Edinburgh could all be hit.
Loganair has cancelled all its flights due to depart between 6am and 1pm today. Its services are mostly within Scotland, but some cancelled flights are to Birmingham and Belfast.
As well as President Obama’s early flight, the Barcelona football squad will also travel to London earlier than scheduled for Saturday’s Champions League final against Manchester United at Wembley.
Transport Secretary Philip Hammond said: ‘There have already been some modest delays to flights, particularly those crossing the Atlantic ... and there could be further disruption later in the week, but we are doing everything we can to keep this to a minimum.’
The ash billows into the sky from the Grimsvotn volcano, under the Vatnajokull glacier in south east Iceland
The huge puffs of ash from the active volcano could ruin many people's plans to jet off as it starts to drift into Europe
Chaos in the sky: Aerial view of the eruption of the volcano Grimsvotn in the south-east of Iceland which has forced shut its main international airport
Covered from head to toe with ski goggles and face mask this farmer's son - preparing to herd his sheep to shelter - looks like he is on the set of a science fiction film set
A British Airways jumbo jet was grounded in Canada on Sunday following fears the engines had been contaminated with volcanic ash during a transatlantic crossing. But BA said the move had been ‘precautionary’ and that no evidence of volcanic ash had been found.
In April last year, UK airspace was shut for six days when volcanic ash hit the British Isles.
Under the old ‘zero tolerance to ash’ rules planes were grounded for fear that particles from the volcano could clog up engines.
The ban – which cost up to £2billion and led to disruption for ten million passengers – was only overturned after pressure from airline chiefs who insisted their planes could fly safely through low concentrations of volcanic ash.
Under new rules ash concentrations will be measured and graded. Most planes will be able to fly in ‘low’ and ‘medium’ densities of ash, but barred if ash levels are high.
It could be worse than the last time
By MICHAEL HANLON
One could be forgiven for thinking that someone up there, or rather down there, doesn’t like aeroplanes flying overhead. Just 13 months after the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull spewed forth a vast cloud of ash and grounded 100,000 flights over the North Atlantic, another of the country’s huge volcanoes, Grimsvotn, is threatening to do the same.
Nordic myth has it that Iceland is home to races of elves and subterranean trolls, guardians of the hot springs, geysers and volcanoes which have created its extraordinary landscape. Big volcanic eruptions – which have caused terrible famines in the past – were traditionally taken as a sign that the gods were unhappy.
Centuries ago, the eruption of Grimsvotn – which lies in the south of the island – would be a sign that the trolls were very displeased (indeed, in 1743 an eruption of the same volcano killed a quarter of the Icelandic population). Today, this spectacular eruption is creating a massive headache for the aviation authorities, airlines and travellers.
This latest shot shows the ash cloud (the reddish colour) swirling into the atmosphere after spewing from the Grimsvotn volcano
Stretching 13 miles into the stratosphere, as this ash cloud casts a rather familiar pall across the British Isles and north-west Europe, the fear is that the coming bank holiday weekend, one of the busiest travel periods of the year, will be severely disrupted.
The nightmare scenario is that Britain faces the prospect, yet again, of aircraft being grounded for days – or even weeks. This is a far larger eruption than that of last year, and the biggest eruption in Iceland for 50 years. Last year, ten million passengers saw their flights cancelled or delayed as a no-fly zone operated across much of Europe for a week. Potentially, this year’s eruption could be even worse.
Grimsvotn, Iceland’s most active volcano (a measure of the frequency of its activity, although not necessarily the severity of its eruptions – on average the mountain erupts every five years), started spewing ash on Saturday. It is a ‘sub-glacial volcano’, lying under a 600ft-thick pancake of ice, or the Vatnajokull glacier, which the recent eruption has simply burnt straight through.
The trouble with Iceland is that it sits bang on the join between two of the Earth’s tectonic plates – the North American plate and the Eurasian Plate. Currents deep in the Earth are pulling these plates apart. Molten rock – or lava – rises up to fill the resulting cracks and fissures, resulting in Iceland’s spectacular volcanic landscape.
An infra-red image showing the plume of smoke spreading out from south-east Iceland. The pinkish-red part shows the fallout from the eruption, the brown is normal cloud cover. Britain is braced in case it begins to drift east.
Last year’s disruptive eruption and this one are not related; Eyjafjallajökull and Grimsvotn are less than 100 miles apart, but they lie on different faultlines and are fed by separate chambers of molten rock underground.
It is, say geologists, pure coincidence and bad luck that led to such similar incidents so close to one another. Indeed, a large eruption of Grimsvotn in 2004 passed without incident, as the prevailing winds carried the ash far away from the busy air corridors crossing the Atlantic.
In the case of the current eruption, the initial signs are not good. According to Dr Dave McGarvie, a volcanologist at the Open University, Grimsvotn is erupting ‘ten to 100 times more material into the air per second than Eyjafjallajökull’.
Dr McGarvie explains that while last year’s eruption was, after an initial period when ice and lava mixed, largely ‘dry’, the Grimsvotn lava is involved with ‘intense and explosive interactions with water’.
How are we going to get home? Tourists leave the Islandia Hotel yesterday in Nupur as ash continue to pour out of the erupting volcano
Sample: Ash is collected awaiting examination at the command centre in Kirkjubaejarklaustur as authorities prepare to deal with the effects of the eruption
Basically, molten basalt rock at a temperature of 1000c or more is meeting glacial ice and cold water. The result is an explosion of steam that is driving fine ash particles – fragments of solidified lava – high into the air. It is these abrasive ash particles that pose a danger to aircraft, with the potential to wreck the delicate, rapidly whirling innards of their engines.
This is not simply a theoretical risk; in June 1982, a British Airways Boeing 747 lost all power while flying through a plume of ash generated by an Indonesian volcano. It was only through great skill and some luck that the crew managed to restart the engines and land the plane safely.
So what are the prospects of a repeat of last year’s disruption? Although the initial signs are alarming, there are subtle differences between the two eruptions that mean the airlines (and passengers) may just get away with it. The Eyjafjallajökull eruption produced a very fine, glassy ash which stayed in the atmosphere for days.
Grimsvotn’s basaltic lava is heavier, clumpier and forms larger ash particles which should fall from the sky much more quickly. And the eruption already seems to be literally running out of steam – the plume is only half the height it reached at the weekend. Last year, some airlines criticised aviation authorities for being overcautious. But research by engineers at Copenhagen and Reykjavik Universities shows that the risk to plane engines was higher than many assumed and that the ban was almost certainly the right thing to do in the circumstances.
Since then, however, there has been a careful reassessment of the rules governing aviation and volcanic ash. Aircraft are now allowed to operate in ash concentrations of up to 4mg per cubic metre provided a thorough inspection takes place after landing. ‘Engines are quite tolerant of this stuff,’ says Dr Colin Brown, of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, adding that ash concentrations which nearly destroyed BA009 over Indonesia in 1982 approached 2000mg per cubic metre.
Huge eruption: Smoke plumes from the Grimsvotn volcano create a stunning scene about 120 miles east of Rejkjavik
Awesome power: Keflavik airport has been closed to air passengers as of 8.30am this morning following the eruption
caption]
What happens now depends on three things. How long the volcano continues to erupt (this could be days or just hours); how the airlines decide to interpret the ash guidelines issued by the Civil Aviation Authority – which is unknown – and, lastly, the weather.
With a fair wind and a bit of geological luck, holidaymakers might manage to get away as planned this weekend.
But if, like the millions of Britons who enjoyed the blissfully silent skies of April last year, Iceland’s trolls and elves decide they too appreciate the silence of plane-free skies, we could be looking at yet another week of travel nightmare for millions.
| Grímsvötn |
Which car-racing simulation game is the best-selling video game of all time on both Playstation and Playstation 3? | Iceland volcano: Grimsvotn eruption hits flights - BBC News
BBC News
Iceland volcano: Grimsvotn eruption hits flights
22 May 2011
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Media captionMatthew Roberts, Iceland's Met Office: "Eruption beginning to decline in strength"
Iceland has closed its main international airport and cancelled domestic flights after its most active volcano, Grimsvotn, began erupting.
A plume of smoke has risen 20km (12 miles) into the sky from the volcano.
But Iceland's Meteorological Office says the eruption should not cause widespread disruption to air traffic.
Last year, ash clouds from another Icelandic volcano, Eyjafjallajokul, led to the closure of a large section of European airspace.
Governments feared that ash particles could cause aircraft engines to fail, and the closure caused chaos to air travellers.
Different ash
Hjordis Gudmundsdottir, a spokeswoman for the Isavia civil aviation authority said: "We have closed the area until we know better what effect the ash will have."
The authority said Keflavik airport, the country's main hub, would remain shut for the rest of Sunday.
But officials say the eruption is unlikely to have the same impact as Eyjafjallajokul in 2010.
University of Iceland geophysicist Magnus Tumi Gudmundsson said this was Grimsvotn's largest eruption for 100 years, "much bigger and more intensive than Eyjafjallajokull".
He added: "There is a very large area in south-east Iceland where there is almost total darkness and heavy fall of ash. But it is not spreading nearly as much. The winds are not as strong as they were in Eyjafjallajokull."
He said this ash was coarser than last year's eruption, falling to the ground more quickly instead of floating long distances.
Europe's air traffic control organisation said on Sunday: "There is currently no impact on European or trans-Atlantic flights and the situation is expected to remain so for the next 24 hours.
"Aircraft operators are constantly being kept informed of the evolving situation."
However, weather officials warned that ash could reach northern Scotland by Tuesday and other parts of Britain, France and Spain by Thursday or Friday if the eruption continues at the same rate, according to Reuters.
In Scotland, a meeting of the government's resilience committee chaired by Transport Secretary Keith Brown is currently being held to discuss the possible impact.
Threat to engines
Grimsvotn lies under the the largest glacier in Europe, Vatnajokull in south-east Iceland.
When it last erupted in 2004, transatlantic flights had to be re-routed south of Iceland, but no airports were closed.
Last year's outpouring of ash from Eyjafjallajokull led to the largest closure of European airspace since World War II.
About 10 million travellers were affected and some questioned whether the shutdown was an over-reaction.
However, a scientific study published last month said the safety concerns had been well founded.
Researchers from the University of Copenhagen and the University of Iceland said ash particles from the early part of the Eyjafjallajokull eruption were especially abrasive, posing a possible threat to aircraft engines.
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Which common component of antacids and laxatives is a suspension of Magnesium hydroxide in water? | Magnesium Hydroxide for Horses | EquiMed - Horse Health Matters
Milk of Magnesia
Description
Magnesium hydroxide is a compound of magnesium, which is a naturally occurring mineral, combined with hydroxide. As a suspension in water, it is known as Milk of Magnesia. Magnesium hydroxide is a common component of antacids and laxatives.
Usage
Magnesium hydroxide is used as an antacid to neutralize stomach acid and also as a laxative. In some cases, it is prescribed to help relieve mild colic.
Magnesium hydroxide will reduce stomach acidity for a short period of time, but needs to be given every two hours to be effective. For this reason, some veterinarians prefer using amitidine, ranitidine, or omeprazole because of their longer-acting effectiveness and better time compliance on the part of the person administering the drug.
Dosage and Administration
NA
Notes:
Extra-label use of drugs in treating animals is allowable only by licensed veterinarians within the context of a valid veterinarian-client-patient relationship, and does not include drug use in treating animals by the layman (except under the supervision of a licensed veterinarian).
None noted if used according to directions.
Precautions
Diarrhea caused by magnesium hydroxide carries away much of the body's supply of potassium. With prolonged use, extra potassium should be given to prevent cramping of muscles.
Interactions
Allow at least two hours between other drugs and administration of magnesium hydroxide.
Overdose
More pronounced diarrhea occurs with overdose.
Images
| Magnesium hydroxide |
The former England captain Bobby Moore had two middle names. One was Frederick; also the name of a football team, what was his other middle name? | Maalox | Article about Maalox by The Free Dictionary
Maalox | Article about Maalox by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Maalox
see milk of magnesia milk of magnesia,
common name for the chemical compound magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2. The viscous, white, mildly alkaline mixture that is used medicinally as an antacid and laxative is a suspension of approximately 8% magnesium hydroxide in water.
..... Click the link for more information. .
magnesium hydroxide
[mag′nē·zē·əm hī′dräk‚sīd]
(inorganic chemistry)
Mg(OH)2 A white powder, very slightly soluble in water, decomposing at 350°C; used as an intermediate in extraction of magnesium metal, and as a reagent in the sulfite wood pulp process. Also known as magnesium hydrate.
magnesium hydroxide
A white powder which is slightly soluble in water; in dolomitic-type limes used in plaster, its presence helps the lime to spread more easily.
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How were 'Mistress Ford' and 'Mistress Page' collectively known in the title of a Shakespeare play? | The Merry Wives of Windsor - Shakespeare in quarto
British Library copies of Merry Wives of Windsor contains detailed bibliographic descriptions of all the quarto copies of the play.
Shakespeare’s sources
Shakespeare could have used several sources for The Merry Wives of Windsor.
Barnaby Riche, ‘Of Two Brethren and Their Wives’, in Riche His Farewell to Militarie Profession (1581). Shakespeare could have drawn on this for Falstaff’s wooing of Mistress Ford and his escapes from her jealous husband.
‘The Tale of the Two Lovers of Pisa’ in Tarltons Newes Out of Purgatorie (1590). This is another possible source for Falstaff’s entanglement with Mistress Ford and its consequences.
A Lover's Misfortunes. Tarlton's Newes out of Purgatorie, 1590. British Library, C.40.c.68, p. 47. Larger image
Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, Il Pecorone. (1558) The second novella from the second day of stories is closest to the plot involving Falstaff and Mistress Ford, and may have been used directly by Shakespeare.
Luigi Pasqualigo, translated by Anthony Munday, Fedele and Fortunio (1585). Munday’s comedy is a free translation and adaptation of the 1576 edition of Il Fedele by Pasqualigo. It includes the character Captain Crackstone, who has been suggested as an important influence on Falstaff.
Story of the play
Note: the links below will take you to the page in the quarto where each act begins, according to standard modern editions. (The quartos themselves have no act divisions.) The quarto shown for each play is always the earliest in the Library's collection - unless it is a 'bad' quarto in which case it is the earliest 'good' quarto.
The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in the town of Windsor and the surrounding forest. Since the action takes place between Falstaff’s appearance in Henry IV, Part 2 and his death in Henry V, it may be dated to the early years of the 15th century.
( Act 1 ) Justice Shallow and his young relative Slender acuse Falstaff of riotous behaviour and theft. Falstaff denies the charges. In need of money, he decides to court Mistress Ford and Mistress Page at the same time. He sends love-letters to both of them. Slender, Dr Caius, and Fenton all ask the help of Mistress Quickly in wooing Anne Page, the daughter of Mistress Page.
( Act 2 ) Mistress Page and Mistress Ford compare the love-letters they have received from Falstaff. They are exactly the same, and the two women plan revenge. Falstaff’s men tell Page and Ford of Falstaff’s intentions towards their wives. Ford is jealous and decides to take action. Mistress Quickly joins with Mistress Page and Mistress Ford to plot Falstaff’s downfall. She tells him that both women are in love with him. Ford disguises himself as a would-be lover to his own wife and asks Falstaff’s help to seduce her. Falstaff tells him of his meeting that very day with Mistress Ford. Dr Caius challenges the parson Sir Hugh Evans over his support for Slender’s wooing of Anne Page.
( Act 3 ) When they meet, Dr Caius and Parson Evans are persuaded by their friends not to fight. Mistress Ford entertains Falstaff at her house. Mistress Page arrives to warn her friend of the imminent arrival of Ford. The two women persuade Falstaff to hide in a large laundry basket. He is carried out inside it as Ford arrives to search the house. Page urges his daughter Anne to accept Slender as a husband, while Mistress Page intends Anne for Dr Caius. Falstaff returns after being thrown into the Thames. Mistress Quickly persuades him to try again with Mistress Ford. Falstaff tells Ford, again in disguise, about his escape from Ford’s house and his new assignation with Mistress Ford.
( Act 4 ) Falstaff again visits Mistress Ford. Mistress Page arrives to warn that Ford is on his way home. The two women persuade Falstaff to disguise himself in women’s clothes so he can escape. As Falstaff leaves, Ford does not recognise him but beats him all the same. Mistress Ford and Mistress Page tell their husbands about Falstaff’s letters and the tricks they have played on him. Together, they decide to teach the fat knight a lesson. Fenton plots to elope with Anne Page.
( Act 5 ) As commanded by the women, Falstaff arrives at night by Herne’s oak in Windsor Forest. He is wearing antlers on his head. Mistress Ford and Mistress Page join him, but they run away in pretended fright as Mistress Quickly arrives disguised as the Queen of the Fairies. Her troupe of fairies frighten Falstaff and pinch him soundly. During the commotion, Fenton steals away with Anne Page. Mistress Page and Mistress Ford and their husbands confront Falstaff and show him up as a coward and a fool. Fenton and Anne Page return to confess they are married. The assembled company return home to celebrate the events of the night.
| The Merry Wives of Windsor |
Magnesium sulphate is a substance used for medicinal and agricultural purposes. By what name is it better known? | February | 2015 | A Fool Grows Wise
A Fool Grows Wise
'Only a fool grows wise by experience' — Ancient Greek proverb
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By thomastyrrell ¶ Posted in Shakespeare ¶ Tagged comedy of errors , limited editions club , private press , scolar , Shakespeare ¶ Leave a comment
Cardiff University Library: Special Collections and Archives. Illustrations by John Austen
After reading Measure for Measure last week in a heavily annotated scholarly edition, I thought I’d take a new tack for The Comedy of Errors and read something designed for pleasure rather than education. It’s hard to get hold of the really, really nice editions on a student budget – neither the city nor the university libraries are likely to put them on loan, and my shelves run more to secondhand paperbacks than illustrated luxury hardback editions.
Fortunately Cardiff University has a handsome, modern and well-equipped Special Collections and Archives division – SCOLAR for short – in the basement of the Arts and Social Sciences Library. I turned up, surveyed the catalogues, ordered a few things and finally settled on a 1939 private press edition, published in New York by the Limited Editions Club.
Cardiff University Library: Special Collections and Archives.
According to the notes in the library catalogue, the book is ‘quarter bound in white buckram over decorative paper-covered boards displaying floral and fruit motifs on pink ground with an abbreviated half title set within decorative border on upper front cover.’ Dr Melanie Bigold, my PhD supervisor, gets very excited by bookbinding, and can use it to tell you where the book was first printed and sold and what the printer had for breakfast that morning – talk about judging a book by its cover! As a complete layman in that field, I couldn’t say much about it – but there’s no denying it’s a beautiful piece of work.
The rest of the book held up to the promise of the cover. I can’t say any of the accompanying illustrations by John Austen ever particularly gripped me, but they were a colourful art deco diversion, and the artist had made the best of it given The Comedy of Errors isn’t a visually spectacular play to begin with. The paper was thick and creamy, the margins generous, the typeface bold and eye-catching. After the Arden edition of Measure for Measure where the footnotes often swallowed up half the page, it was pleasant to be reading something with no critical apparatus whatsoever – the last time that had happened was reading The Merry Wives of Windsor in a Complete Works edition where the text was squeezed in to the very edge of the page with hardly any margin at all. Also – in a first for this project – this edition preserves the original first folio spelling, which adds a wonderful texture to even the less interesting lines of dialogue:
Why prat’st thou to thyselfe, and answer’st not?
Dromio, thou drone, thou snaile, thou slug, thou sot.
The Comedy of Errors itself is a piece of comic virtuosity, the story of a pair of identical twins with the same name, separated at birth and unaware of each others existence, and their identical twin servants, ditto. Naturally everyone keeps mistaking Antonio and Dromio for their opposite numbers – I confess that, without the aid of footnotes or an introduction, I didn’t entirely follow who was supposed to be on stage at once – but I think some confusion is part of the point. After various misunderstandings, during which each Antonio is respectively arrested and committed, the play concludes with the usual scene of recognition, and the family reunited.
Cardiff University Library: Special Collections and Archives
In addition to having the most complex plot, it’s also the most elaborately poetic Shakespeare play I’ve read so far, even more so than Two Gentlemen of Verona , my previous benchmark. The play is written entirely in verse, and goes so far beyond the usual iambic pentameter that characters speak in rhyming couplets for entire pages – as in the quote above – and sometimes break into longer and more discursive hexameter or octameter lines. This elaborate formal invention matches well with the play’s complex, self-confident and symmetrical plotting. Reaching the final lines of Shakespeare’s shortest play, one feels its kinship to the short, controlled, rhetorically intricate forms the Renaissance revelled in, like the sonnet or the double-sestina. It will never have the popularity of one of the bawdier comedies or the bloodier tragedies – it sets itself out to be admired for its technical artistry rather than its drama or pathos – but as a work of self-conscious literary craftsmanship, it’s hard to think how it could have been done better. Reading it in an edition that was itself a work of high-end literary craftsmanship only deepened this insight.
By thomastyrrell ¶ Posted in Shakespeare ¶ Tagged cardiff library , cuts , measure for measure ¶ Leave a comment
Book in one hand, placard in the other!
The Languages and Literature collection on the second floor of Cardiff Central Library was the dark secret of my undergrad. When the essay titles came out and the shelves of criticism on Beowulf, Chaucer and Shakespeare emptied as if by magic, I’d abscond to the public library. They’ve a really good range of key texts, the Cambridge Companions and popular histories, and it saved me from having to beg coursemates for books on social media, or hand over an even larger chunk of my student loan to Blackwells in return for a book I was only going to use once.
Last Saturday, I nipped upstairs, located the Shakespeare section – which features an impressive range of DVDs to complement the books – and grabbed a copy of Measure for Measure, the fourth play in my attempt to read all the plays of Shakespeare in a year. It was in the Arden Shakespeare series, the rigorously edited, comprehensively annotated scholarly edition of choice. I was pleased to see no-one had skimped on out-of-date editions. Then I hurried back out the front, grabbed a placard protesting spending cuts and joined the crowd gathering in front of the building, clutching their favourite books in hand.
Cuts are biting hard in Cardiff, and the library service is taking the brunt. It’s usual for cuts to pinch hours and services, but Cardiff’s Central Library, one of the most handsome and best-stocked libraries in the world, has been decapitated. It’s entire top floor, with its local studies collection, has been closed off and mothballed. In addition, it’s lost the ability to open on Wednesdays, it may have to share space with social services, and staff have been warned not to discuss the cuts on social media. Bad enough, but it was the council’s decision to close and sell off seven of its local branch libraries that first mustered the people of Cardiff to gather in protest and make their voices heard. In a previous job as a bicycle courier, I got to know and visit many of those libraries, relishing the time to take a break, use the loo, and cast an appreciative eye over the fiction section. All of them were bright, busy and well-stocked, and all of them will be missed. And so I chose to celebrate an institution where I’ve spent hundreds of happy hours of my life by spending a few more rereading Measure for Measure, a classic story of hypocrisy and overbearing authority. Replace the Puritan zeal of Angelo, the ruler of Vienna, with the neo-liberal zeal of Cardiff’s city councillors, and the tale becomes very timely indeed.
It’s one of my favourite Shakespeare plays – and coincidentally enough, the first Shakespeare I ever saw in Cardiff, performed on an unusual square stage down at the Bay. I was so close to the action that the actors would come and sit in the chair beside me when they were offstage – which, given that it was a reduced company, wasn’t very often. Despite this, the nightclub staging, complete with whiskey bottles (actually cold tea – I tasted) well-reflected the play’s concerns with decadence and propriety. The way the vile hypocrisy of Angelo seeps out from behind his icy facade was aptly reflected by giving the actor the dual role of Mistress Quickly, the owner of a brothel. It was one of those performances that makes someone know and understand and like the play better as a text.
It’s the kind of performance worth reliving in the mind as I make my way through the pages of the Arden edition of Measure for Measure, which was all too clearly designed for scholarly use rather than reading pleasure. The introduction runs to nearly a hundred pages, devoted variously to questions of authorship, dating and sources before finally condescending to offer a few critical notes on the play. Similarly, the footnotes appear in two columns of small print and even then can swamp as much as half the page, forever sending the reader hither and thither after renaissance plays, modern critics and classical manuals of rhetoric. If you’re reading Shakespeare in order to give yourself a cheap library education, however, it’s hard to think of a better edition you could choose. Long may it grace the shelves of Cardiff Library!
By thomastyrrell ¶ Posted in Uncategorized ¶ Tagged Ellen Terry , Falstaff , Henry Irving , Merry Wives of Windsor , Shakespeare ¶ 1 Comment
This is an odd play to come upon at this point, only three texts into my grand project to read all the works of Shakespeare in a year . In truth, it’s the closest Shakespeare ever came to writing the Renaissance equivalent of a spin-off TV show. The story goes that Queen Elizabeth I was so delighted with Shakespeare’s greatest comic creation, Sir John Falstaff, that when he stomped off the stage at the close of Henry IV Part 2, she demanded the playwright write a sequel, bringing the fat knight to England in the modern day and giving him a love story. In some accounts, she was so impatient she only gave him a fortnight to write the play. Wisely, Shakespeare did as the Queen bid him, but – perhaps wary of the possibility of having to write new episodes of The Falstaff Show until Kingdom Come – promptly killed Falstaff off at the beginning of Henry V. But all of that is a long way in the future – somewhere in June, when I’m out of the comedies and midway through the histories.
In search of an interesting edition to read the play in, I turned to the bookshelves in the postgraduate office, ever an interesting guide to people’s interests and research topics. My colleague Calum Gardner thoughtfully allowed me to borrow a thoroughly charming early twentieth-century edition, printed in New York and previously belonging to one A. Napier. There was no date on it anywhere I could spot, but it’s dedicated to Sir Henry Irving, a famous Shakespearean actor who also employed an Irish scribbler of penny dreadfuls with the unlikely name of Bram Stoker. Irving also provides part of the introduction to the edition, in a short and a wittily sarcastic essay on the Baconian controversy. His suggestion is that Francis Bacon wrote the entire output of the Elizabethan stage, including Shakespeare, but notes that who actually wrote Bacon’s work for him remains forever a mystery. It seems as likely as any of the other conspiracy theories!
Among the other treasures in the old book are a scattering of early photographs of Shakespearean actors and actresses. The Merry Wives of Windsor is represented by a studio portrait of Ellen Terry as Mistress Ford; Terry was one of the most famous actresses of her day, now sadly only known for having been Dickens’s mistress. In a delightful period feature, a collection of tabs recessed into the sides of the pages make it easier to flick from play to play.
Turning to The Merry Wives, I am struck once again by the comparison to what went before – the language of Two Gentlemen of Verona was elaborate, beautiful and almost constantly in blank verse; Merry Wives is written mostly in prose, and the language is heavily spiced with Welsh and Spanish malapropisms from the two comic rivals in love, Sir Hugh Evans and Doctor Caius.
But it’s not their play. It’s not even Falstaff’s play, though he steals every scene in which he appears. Uniquely, the heroes are two married women, Mistress Ford and Mistress Page, to each of whom Falstaff sends exactly the same letter, pledging his whole heart and undying affection, and not realising that these two best friends might just get together and uncover his ruse. Together, they foster a scheme not only to humiliate Falstaff for his impudence, but to teach Mistress Ford’s needlessly suspicious husband a lesson in trust, climaxing in a night of fairytale revels that looks forward to A Midsummer Night’s Dream. My favourite line in the production belongs to Mistress Page, in conversation with the jealous Mister Ford:
Ford: Well met, Mistress Page. Whither go you?
Mrs Page: Truly sir, to see your wife. Is she at home?
Ford: Ay; and as idle as she may hang together, for want of company; I think, if your husbands were dead, you two would marry.
Mrs Page: Be sure of that, – two other husbands.
Actually, my favourite Merry Wives joke belongs not to any of the characters in the play, but to that well-known master of mirth and merriment, Kaiser Wilhelm II. It’s his only recorded joke. Due to wartime anti-German feeling, King George V issued a proclamation changing the Royal Family Name from ‘Saxe-Coburg and Gotha’ to the more English sounding ‘Windsor’. Kaiser Bill shrugged this off this snub by saying he looked forward to seeing a performance of The Merry Wives of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
Heh. I fancy Shakespeare would have groaned as loudly as the rest of us.
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Also the name of a football team, what was the middle name of former Rangers and Liverpool winger Mark Walters? | Tobago Legends | Aston Villa
Stadium: Villa Park
Capacity: 42,682
Aston Villa Football Club is based in Witton, Birmingham, they play in the Premier League, the highest level of English football. Founded in 1874, they have played at their current home ground, Villa Park, since 1897. Aston Villa are founder members of The Football League in 1888. They are also founder members of the Premier League in 1992, and have remained there ever since
ALAN WRIGHT
Alan’s exciting football journey took him all the way from Blackpool to nearby Fleetwood – with plenty of other ports of call in between – including an illustrious spell with Aston Villa for whom he made 260 league appearances. Tiny, tenacious and technical, Alan won many friends and admirers during a distinguished 22-year professional career.
UGO EHIOGU
Tottenham Under 21 coach Ugo is probably best remembered for his nine-year and seven-year spells with Aston Villa and Middlesbrough; two clubs he served with distinction and accumulated over 350 league appearances. He won 15 England Under 21 caps, made his full international debut against China in 1996 and went on to win a further three caps, scoring his one England goal against Spain in 2001.
DARIUS VASSELL
Who could forget Darius’ amazing emergence on the international scene when he scored a wonder goal on his debut for England against Holland in 2002. The former Aston Villa, Manchester City and Leicester striker made 22 appearances for his country, scoring six goals in the process, and played in both the 2002 World Cup and 2004 European Championship finals. Blessed with great pace and an eye for goal, he made over 300 league appearances for his three English clubs.
MARK WALTERS
It was perhaps somewhat ironic that a player with the middle name of ‘Everton’ should find himself playing for Liverpool having established a stellar reputation as a fleet-footed, destructible winger with Aston Villa and Glasgow Rangers where he overcame Scottish scepticism and racism to be become a fans’ favourite. After spells on loan at Stoke and Wolves, Mark played for Southampton, Swindon and Bristol Rovers, ending his career with 600 league appearances (128 goals) to his name.
DARREN BYFIELD
Having begun his career with Aston Villa , Darren played for no fewer than 13 professional clubs before ending his playing days back in the West Midlands in the non league with Solihull Motors. Walsall, Rotherham and Gillingham fans, in particular, remember him with great affection as he clocked up well over 100 league goals in a much-travelled career, which also included six appearances for Jamaica for whom he scored his one and only international goal.
Gavin Ward
The phrase ‘have boots will travel’ should be changed to ‘have gloves will travel’ in the case of former keeper Gavin Ward who was on the books of no fewer than 16 league clubs during a career spanning 26 years. His best times as player came during a ten-year spell when he represented the likes of Cardiff, Leicester, Bradford, Bolton and Stoke, in particular, with great distinction. After massing 377 league appearances he turned to coaching, with Nottingham Forest and then Burton.
Graham Fenton
Born in Whitley Bay in the North East of England, Graham first made his mark in the West Midlands as a teenage sensation with Aston Villa for whom he made over 30 league appearances. He also played for Blackburn, Leicester, Stoke and Blackpool and even had a spell in Scotland with St Mirren in 2000. He won one Under 21 international cap for England; it should have been more. He finished his playing career with North Shields who he went on to manage.
Stefan Moore
A product of the Aston Villa academy, Stefan came through the ranks at Villa Park with younger brother Luke and after making his first team debut in 2001, he went on to make more than 20 league appearances for his hometown club. After a three-year spell with Queens Park Rangers, he dropped into the non league scene, initially with Kidderminster Harriers, and he is currently playing in the Conference North for Solihull Motors. He represented England from the Under 15s to Under 19s.
| Everton |
Thomas-a-Becket was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral during the reign of which king? | Transfer window: from Roberto Firmino to Sami Khedira plus who’s next | Football | The Guardian
Sportblog
Transfer window: from Roberto Firmino to Sami Khedira plus who’s next
The rumour mill is in flow but plenty of transfers have already been completed, with more looming across the Premier League, La Liga and beyond
Clockwise from left: Firmino, Aleix Vidal, Geoffrey Kondogbia, Memphis Depay, Luciano Dario Vietto and Mario Mandzukic. Photograph: Rex
Saturday 27 June 2015 05.47 EDT
Last modified on Monday 10 October 2016 04.59 EDT
Premier League
Done deals
The busiest club in a transfer window that has sparked into life are Liverpool. Their £29m move for the Hoffenheim forward Roberto Firmino is the league’s most expensive deal of the summer so far and the highest-profile of the five completed by Brendan Rodgers. The others have seen James Milner arrive on a free transfer after his contract at Manchester City ran down, the striker Danny Ings arrive from Burnley, the young defender Joe Gomez sign for £3.5m from Charlton and the goalkeeper Adam Bogdan from Bolton.
Will Liverpool’s early signings set them on the path to success? | Nick Ames
Read more
Manchester United moved to secure the PSV winger Memphis Depay for around £25m in May but are yet to deal further and Tottenham were similarly sharp to sign the Austrian defender Kevin Wimmer. Spurs have also added the Burnley right-back Kieran Trippier to their squad for around £3.5m.
Southampton have been active early on, hiring the Málaga forward Juanmi and the Sporting Lisbon right-back Cédric Soares, while the Fulham goalkeeper Maarten Stekelenburg has arrived on loan. Spanish attackers have been popular early in the window, with Stoke City bringing in the Hannover player Joselu for £5.75m and Everton completing a £4.2m move for their former loanee Gerard Deulofeu from Barcelona. Also pitching up at Goodison Park is the Manchester United midfielder Tom Cleverley. Leicester have completed a move for the Mainz striker Shinji Okazaki, also signing Robert Huth and Christian Fuchs.
Newly promoted Bournemouth have flexed their muscles early on, signing the Ipswich left-back Tyrone Mings for a club record £8m, with Ryan Fraser moving in the opposite direction on loan. Other high-profile deals have seen Swansea swoop for the Marseille striker André Ayew along with the Saint-Étienne left-back Franck Tabanou, and Aston Villa bring Micah Richards back to England on a permanent deal after his loan from Manchester City to Fiorentina expired. Slaven Bilic’s first signing as manager of West Ham has been the highly rated Sampdoria midfielder Pedro Obiang, a deal followed by the arrival of the Marseille forward Dimitri Payet.
Pending
It seems a matter of time before Petr Cech joins Arsenal from Chelsea. The same can be said for Nathaniel Clyne’s move to Liverpool from Southampton. Manchester United could eventually to get their man in Real Madrid’s Sergio Ramos although it may hasten the move in the opposite direction of David de Gea. The Paul Pogba saga looks sure to run and run, with Manchester City said to be the latest side in the box seat. Tottenham look set to sign Toby Alderweireld, who spent last season with Southampton, when the player returns from his honeymoon. Bournemouth could make a sixth signing of the summer in the experienced former Everton defender Sylvain Distin. Another promoted side, Watford, are likely to sign the Genoa winger Diego Perotti in a deal worth £7m.
The full-back Cédric Soares was an early summer signing for Southampton. Photograph: Dennis Grombkowski/Bongarts/Getty Images
Serie A
Done deals
Italy’s top flight has seen its fair share of high-profile deals already, perhaps riding the wave of Juventus’s excellent run to the Champions League final. And it was the Vecchia Signora who struck early in June to sign the Argentinian forward Paulo Dybala from their Serie A rivals Palermo for around £28m. They have also paid nearly £17m for the Atlético Madrid centre-forward Mario Mandzukic and firmed up the signing of on-loan Udinese midfielder Roberto Pereyra. But perhaps the bargain of the summer so far is the Bosman signing of Sami Khedira, after the German’s departure from Real Madrid. Carlos Tevez has ended speculation about his future by confirming that he has re-signed for his first club Boca Juniors.
The second most expensive transfer among Serie A clubs has been Internazionale’s £26m move for the Monaco midfielder Geoffrey Kondogbia, who had been linked with Premier League clubs.
Napoli have re-signed the goalkeeper Pepe Reina, their former loanee, after his year deputising for Manuel Neuer at Bayern Munich. Also arriving in Naples is the influential Empoli midfielder Mirko Valdifiori.
One of the most eye-catching deals elsewhere has been Sassuolo’s £8m move for an outright claim to the Juventus and Italy Under-21 forward Domenico Berardi. The 20-year-old had been co-owned by the two and scored 42 goals in the last three seasons for Sassuolo. It has been suggested that the Turin club have a buy-back clause for the player.
Roma are yet to make a high-profile signing this summer but have bought back the Italy international midfielder Andrea Bertolacci from Genoa.
Genoa themselves have been busy, signing the former Lazio forward Goran Pandev from Galatasaray to join Serge Gakpé and Darko Lazovic, whose arrivals were confirmed earlier this year.
The Italian under-21 international Domenico Berardi has joined Sassuolo for £8m. Photograph: Carl Recine/Action Images via Reuters
Pending
Juventus midfielder Andrea Pirlo is close to joining Major League Soccer club New York City, while Fiorentina hope to persuade Mohamed Salah, such a success during his loan spell from Chelsea last season, to stick around for another year but the player’s wage demands could mean that Internazionale step in to secure the player’s services.
La Liga
Done deals
Barcelona have not let the small matter of a transfer embargo prevent them from signing the Sevilla winger Aleix Vidal, although the 25-year-old will not be able to represent them competitively until January. It can be only a matter of time before Rafa Benítez and Real Madrid spring into action but for now the only significant new face is that of Danilo, whose arrival from Porto was rubber-stamped in March.
The other big piece of business so far is Atlético Madrid’s £14m purchase of the Villarreal striker Luciano Vietto, who scored 12 goals in his first La Liga season and will be expected to fill the void left by Mandzukic. He looks sure to be joined by Jackson Martínez, the Porto striker, who has confirmed he will be moving. In a cheaper but even bigger-name move Real Betis snapped up the former Hamburg, Real Madrid and Spurs midfielder Rafael van der Vaart.
The Europa League winners, Sevilla, have signed the forward Gaël Kakuta from Chelsea, as well as Celta Vigo’s Danish midfielder Michael Krohn-Dehli. They have moved Iago Aspas, whom they were obliged to sign after his loan from Liverpool, straight to Celta.
Valencia have also been busy, firming up their loan deals with Benfica to sign Rodrigo, João Cancelo and André Gomes permanently. They have also signed the São Paulo defensive midfielder Rodrigo Caio. And Villarreal have made two big signings from Málaga – striker Samuel Garcia and winger Samuel Castillejo.
Pending
Real Madrid remain strongly linked with David de Gea, although Manchester United are said to value him at more than £35m. Paul Pogba’s name keeps being mentioned in connection with Spain’s big two, especially Barcelona.
Rafael van der Vaart introduces himself at Real Betis Photograph: Miguel Angel Morenatti/AP
Bundesliga
Done deals
Germany’s leading powers have been quickly into action, Bayern Munich signing the Stuttgart goalkeeper Sven Ulreich to join his former team-mate Joshua Kimmich, the midfielder whose deal was agreed in January. Stuttgart have replaced Ulreich with the PSV Eindhoven goalkeeper, Przemyslaw Tyton.
Borussia Dortmund have kicked off the post-Jürgen Klopp era with the acquisition of Gonzalo Castro, the Bayer Leverkusen midfielder, while the Freiburg goalkeeper Roman Bürki has joined along with the young 1860 Munich midfielder Julian Weigl.
Wolfsburg will be looking to build on their outstanding 2014-15 season and will do so with the services of the former Borussia Mönchengladbach striker Max Kruse.
Although Hoffenheim have lost Roberto Firmino, they have gained the outstanding young Czech right-back Pavel Kaderabek from Sparta Prague and the Swiss centre-back Fabian Schär from FC Basel. They have also signed the Freiburg midfielder Jonathan Schmid.
Freiburg have paid a severe price for last season’s relegation, losing the forward Admir Mehmedi to Bayer Leverkusen, who have also completed a deal for the Schalke defender Kyriakos Papadopoulos. Leaving Leverkusen in another high-profile deal was the striker Josip Drmic, who has joined Borussia Mönchengladbach.
Another move between Bundesliga teams is that of the striker Anthony Ujah, who joined Werder Bremen from Cologne in May. Cologne have replaced him with Hoffenheim’s Anthony Modeste. Mainz have looked to Japan once more to replace Okazaki, signing FC Tokyo’s exciting forward Yoshinori Muto. Big things are also expected of the striker Florian Niederlechner, acquired from FC Heidenheim, but they may find it hard to replace the midfielder Johannes Geis, who has joined Schalke.
Pending
Bayern Munich look sure to complete a move for the Shakhtar Donetsk forward Douglas Costa, with his club manager, Mircea Lucescu, having confirmed that the deal is imminent.
Joshua Kimmich has joined Bayern Munich Photograph: BPI/REX Shutterstock
Ligue 1
Done deals
There have been few big-money deals swilling around in France, with even Paris Saint-Germain keeping their powder dry so far. Departures, particularly to England, seem the norm at the moment although three players have made the return journey: Yacouba Sylla has joined Rennes after an unsuccessful spell at Aston Villa and Kévin Théophile-Catherine has made his loan to Saint-Etienne from Cardiff permanent but the biggest name to be on the move is Hatem Ben Arfa. The former Newcastle player joined Nice in January but was unable to sign for them until June, as he had already played for two teams last season.
Meanwhile the Belgian winger Nill De Pauw, who had been courted by Charlton, has joined Guingamp from Lokeren. Lille, too, have been active, signing the former Marseille defender Renato Civelli from Bursaspor and the Nice midfielder Éric Bauthéac.
Pending
Monaco seem sure to confirm the arrival of the Estudiantes striker Guido Carrillo. The Argentinian club have said that the 24-year-old is on his way after the clubs agreed a deal of around £6.3m. The exciting Caen midfielder Thomas Lemar is due to be confirmed as a Monaco player, too. Paris Saint-Germain have been linked with a slew of big-name players but departures – such as those of Yohan Cabaye and Thiago Motta – could be on the cards first.
Rest of Europe
There has been next to no significant movement yet from the traditionally big-spending clubs in Russia and Ukraine and Portugal’s big guns, too, have generally been holding fire. Benfica announced the signing of Adel Taarabt from Queens Park Rangers on a five-year deal, though, and Porto have signed the Rayo Vallecano and former Derby forward Alberto Bueno.
Holland has seen more activity, with Ajax signing Nemanja Gudelj from AZ and the former Everton defender John Heitinga on a free transfer. Dirk Kuyt’s return to Feyenoord was confirmed before the end of last season.
In Turkey Samuel Eto’o is reportedly on the verge of signing for Antalyaspor. The Lille defender Simon Kjaer’s move to Fenerbahce has been confirmed.
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What is the name of the fictional island upon which the 'Thomas the Tank Engine' stories are set? | Thomas the Tank Engine series | Children's Books Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Thomas the Tank Engine series
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Thomas the Tank Engine series
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Description
About
The Railway Series (now better known as The Thomas the Tank Engine series) is a set of story books about a fictional railway system located on the fictional Island of Sodor and the engines that lived on it. There are currently 41 books in the series, the first being published in 1945. Twenty-six were written by Rev. W. Awdry up to 1972. From 1983 to 1996 a further fourteen were written by his son, Christopher Awdry .
Nearly all of The Railway Series stories were based upon real-life events. As a lifelong railway enthusiast, Rev. W. Awdry was keen that his stories should be as realistic as possible. The engine characters were almost all based upon real classes of locomotive, and some of the railways themselves were directly based upon real lines in the British Isles.
There have been several television series made out of them.
Audio adaptations of The Railway Series have been recorded at various times under the title The Railway Stories. There is also a musical inspired by the Railway Series, Starlight Express.
The books
The books are written for small children. Every book has trains in, with each train being able to talk and think like a human. Each train is given its own unique character. The books are very famous for their illustrations, with some people claiming that the illustrations give the books their unique charm, and not the actual stories themselves.
Authors
Twenty-six books were written by Rev. W. Awdry up to 1972. From 1983 to 1996 a further fourteen were written by his son, Christopher Awdry.
Illustrators
William Middleton : Illustrated the first ever book, but Rev. W. Awdry did not like his illustrations, so he was dumped.
Reginald Payne : Illustrated Thomas the Tank Engine, but was not available for the next book, even though Rev. W. Awdry wanted him back.
C. Reginald Dalby : Dalby illustrated the next eight books in the series. The Three Railway Engines was reprinted with Dalby's artwork replacing William Middleton's and he also touched up the artwork for the second book. His work on the series proved popular with readers, but not so with the author, who repeatedly clashed with him over issues of accuracy and consistency. Dalby resigned from the series in 1956, following an argument over the portrayal of Percy the Small Engine in the book of the same name. Despite the tempestuous relationship with Awdry, he is probably the best remembered of the series' artists.
John T. Kenney : His style was less colourful but more realistic than Dalby's. As a result of his commitment to realism and technical accuracy, he enjoyed a far more comfortable working relationship with Awdry, which lasted until Gallant Old Engine (1962), when his eyesight began to fail him. He was not as nearly as popular as C. Reginald Dalby with fans however.
Gunvor Edwards & Peter Edwards : The artist initially chosen to replace him was the Swedish-born artist Gunvor Edwards. She began illustrating Stepney the "Bluebell" Engine, but felt unsuited to the work. She was assisted for that volume by her husband Peter, who effectively took over from then on. Both artists retained credit for the work, and the "Edwards era" lasted until Wilbert Awdry's last volume, Tramway Engines. The style used in these volumes was still essentially realistic, but had something of an impressionist feel.
Clive Spong : Illustrated all of Christopher Awdry's books.
Reader's Reviews
Please add your review here.
Books in the series
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Which English scientist and philosopher invented the magnifying glass in 1250? | Thomas the tank engine friends toys product
Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends Toys and Products
Thomas the Tank Engine Toys & Product
Complete line of Thomas the tank engine characters, trains and sets.
Thomas the Tank Engine is over 60 years old. He lives on the Island of Sodor with all the other engines. The newest movie featuring Thomas and Friends is King of the Railway. Our favorite locomotive is a fictional engine. He is blue, and has an 0-6-0 wheel arrangement based on a LBSCR E2 Steam Engine. He lives on the fictional Island of Sodor, and is locomotive number 1 on the Sodor Railways. He is the star of his own television series . The blue engine first appeared in the 1940s, when stories about him were published in The Railway Series by Reverend W.V. Awdry. Now he is the most well known fictional locomotive in the world.
Other fun Information :He has two coaches, Annie and Clarabel, and his own branch line. His favorite saying is "Bust my Buffers" and when he is really angry, "Bust my Boiler". Sir Topham Hatt calls him a "Really useful engine". The #1 blue engine hates snowplows.
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In which country do the football teams 'Grasshopper' and 'Young Boys' play? | Grasshopper vs Young Boys - Switzerland Super League Head to Head (H2H) Statistics and Match Preview - SoccerPunter.com
SoccerPunter > Soccer Statistics > Switzerland > Super League 2005/2006 > Grasshopper vs Young Boys
Select Switzerland Super League Teams To Analyze Head-to-Head Statistics
Before you bet with your bookie, you should analyze the match using H2H stats for Grasshopper vs Young Boys .
Do you predict Grasshopper or Young Boys to win? Submit your soccer prediction to tipsters competition and you could win a prize.
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Nelson's flagship. HMS Victory, sits in dry dock at which | Grasshoppers live scores, results, fixtures, Grasshoppers v Legia live | Soccer, Switzerland
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1
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In which country are the headquarters of the electronics company SAMSUNG? | Which Country Does Samsung Belong to ? Find It Here | WhichCountry.co
Ships
Precision Instruments
This is a largest and much famous company over the world having almost 369,000 (FY 2011) employees. It is providing services relating to the different natures such as Construction, Financial services, Advertising, Entertainment, Hospitality, Information and Communications Technology Services, Retail and Medical Services.
but mostly it is famous for mobile phones, cameras and HDTV. Apple, Nokia are two big competitors.
Which Country Does Samsung Belong to?
For Samsung South Korea is the country of origin ,where it was founded and its originally belongs to it. the company is famous and widely spread over the world having more than 80 branches in different parts of world . and its Headquarters is Samsung Town, Seoul, South Korea
Also see
| South Korea |
Which fish is used in the soup 'Cullen Skink'? | Samsung Electronics on the Forbes Global 2000 List
Asia's Fab 50 Companies (2012)
Samsung Electronics Co., Ltd. engages in the manufacturing and selling of electronics and computer peripherals. The company operates its business through following business divisions: Consumer Electronics, Information Technology & Mobile Communications and Device Solutions. The Consumer Electronics business division provides cable television, monitor, printer, air-conditioners, refrigerators, washing machines, and medical devices. The Information Technology & Mobile Communications business division offers handheld products, communication systems, computers, and digital cameras. The Device Solutions business division comprises of memory, system large scale integrated circuit and light emitting diode. It was founded on January 13, 1969 and is headquartered in Suwon, South Korea. More »
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"Which word completes the title of a Tony Hawks book: ""Round Ireland With A ....""?" | Round Ireland with a Fridge by Tony Hawks, Paperback | Barnes & Noble®
Meet the author
Overview
Have you ever made a drunken bet? Worse, still, have you eveer tried to win one? In attempting to hitchhike round Ireland wich a fridge, Tony Hawks did both, and his foolhardiness led him to one of the best experiences of his life. Joined by his trusty traveling companion-cum-domestic appliance, he made his way from Dublin to Donegal, from Sligo through Mayo, Galway, Clare, Kerry, Cork, Wexford, Wicklow--and back again to Dublin. In their month of madness, Tony and his fridge met a real prince, a bogus king, and the fridge got christened. They surfed together, entered a bachelor festival, and one of them had sex without the other knowing. And unexpectedly, the fridge itself became a momentary focus for the people of Ireland.
An international bestseller, Round Ireland with a Fridge is a classic travel adventure in the tradition of Bill Bryson with a dash of Dave Barry.
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Editorial Reviews
From the Publisher
“Round Ireland with a Fridge is a sort of alternative Michael Palin tome and a far better read thatn you would expect. It is part autobiography, part travelogue, and part Guinness-addled ramblings.” The Irish Times
“One ridiculous and sumbline example of the high-concept travel book is the British comedian Tony Hawk's Round Ireland with a Fridge....The whole book is driven by the sheer lunacy of the original proposition, and the sweet bottom line is that anything that brings people together and shows them this good a time isn't stupid at all.” The New York Times Book Review
“A rambling but ultimately warmhearted diary-like account that combines elements of Let's Go Ireland, Cheers, and Seinfeld...Hawks has produced a witty, silly, tribute to the hospitality and generosity that the Emerald Isle is famous for.” The Post and Courier (Charleston, S.C.)
Publishers Weekly - Publisher's Weekly
When British writer, performer and musician Hawks makes a drunken bet for 100 that he can "hitchhike round the circumference of Ireland, with a fridge, in one calendar month," he starts, in 1997, an unexpectedly wonderful adventure into the good-natured soul of the Irish people. Though the book begins inauspiciously as a bad parody of Dave Barry's travel books, with Hawks assuming a smug distance from the people and events he encounters, happily fate intervenes in the form of a jovial radio-show host who convinces Hawks to phone in daily to share updates about his travels with the fridge. Almost overnight, Hawks becomes a regional legend--"The Fridge Man"--with all sorts of people willing to help him achieve his goal, however silly it may be. What could have been a convenient contrivance actually allows a kinder and far funnier Hawks to appear, as his daily talks with his radio "fans" bring him unexpected delights, including encounters with an overenthusiastic innkeeper and his family, the amazing champion surfer Bingo, various musicians and lots of pub visits. In the end, Hawks's book becomes a lively celebration of contemporary Irish society and the goodwill of its people that neither revels in irony nor descends into mawkishness. (Mar.) Copyright 2000 Cahners Business Information.|
Library Journal
Yes, a fridge. People sometimes do the craziest things when they've had too many beers. Hawks, known throughout Great Britain for his humor and appearances on various radio and television shows, made a drunken bet with a friend that he could successfully hitchhike around Ireland with a refrigerator as his traveling companion. Once sober, he realized the magnitude of the task he'd set himself but agreed to honor the bet anyway. The result is a hysterically funny travelog, in which Hawks shares his warm regard for the Irish, his amusing contacts with the natives, anecdotes from places he stayed, and brief tales about those who gave him rides. Anyone who enjoys Bill Bryson or Dave Barry will greatly appreciate Hawks for a writing style that seems to be a stew made of one part Monty Python, one part Benny Hill, and two parts Barry. Highly recommended for public libraries and academic libraries with browsing collections.--Sandra Knowles, Henderson Cty. P.L., Hendersonville, NC Copyright 2000 Cahners Business Information.\
Read an Excerpt
Prologue
I'm not, by nature, a betting man. However, the pages that follow in this book do not bear testimony to that. In fact they exist wholly as the result of a bet.
I'm not, by nature, a drinking man. However, the making of the bet which led to this book does not bear testimony to that. Because I made it when I was pissed.
Everything you read from this moment forth is a tribute to what can be achieved as a result of a shabby night of booze.
Chapter One
If Only
In 1989 I went to Ireland for the first time. I don't know why it had taken so long. Some parts of the world you make a conscious effort to visit and others have to wait until fate delivers you there.
When the moment arrived for me to set foot on the Emerald Isle, it was as a result of a badly written song. An Irish friend from London, Seamus, had urged me to compose a piece for him and his mate Tim to sing at an International Song Competition which was held each year in his home town. Qualification for the final, he explained, was a formality provided I agreed to do a twenty-minute stand-up comedy set for the audience whilst the judges were out. Seamus wanted to perform a humorous song, and had asked me to come up with something that would `set it apart' from the other mundane entries. In the event, what would set it apart would be a quite significant drop in standard.
The song I had written was called `I Wanna Have Tea With Batman'. Now I consider myself to be a good songwriter (in spite of my onlycommercial success being a one-off hit record called `Stutter Rap' by Morris Minor And The Majors), but this song was ... how can I put it? ... yes, that's it poor. To their credit, Seamus and Tim conjured up a performance to match it.
In an extraordinary gesture which was at best surreal and at worst embarrassing, they dressed as Batman and Robin. At least that's what they had aimed to do, but a limited costume budget had left them in borrowed tights, miscellaneous lycra and academic robes doubling as capes. They resembled a couple of children entered for a fancy dress competition by uninterested parents. Seamus seemed unconcerned, his theory of comedy being that if you had an `outrageous' outfit, that was enough; and then he announced his master stroke that one of them would carry a teapot and the other a kettle.
One had to admire his courage, for he was performing in front of his home town and everyone he had grown up with was there. Friends, family, teachers, shopkeepers, barmen, drunks and priests were all rooting for him. If one was going to let oneself down very badly and Seamus was most definitely going to do that it would be difficult to imagine an assembled throng with which it would have more resonance.
Seamus and Tim took centre stage. The audience responded with an audible inhalation of breath. For them, there was little to suggest that the two characters before them were supposed to be Batman and Robin, and they were clearly taken aback by this magnificent fusion of colour, tights and kitchen appliances.
I watched from the back, experiencing for the first time a curious blend of wonderment and discomfort, and could see in the faces of both performers that their self belief in the costume selection was ebbing away with each elongated second. Thankfully, from the congregation, astonishment subsided into applause. The conductor caught the eye of our superheroes and they nodded to establish they were ready. The band struck up. The musical introduction finished but neither Tim nor Seamus began singing. They looked accusingly at each other. Paralysed with nerves one of them had missed their cue. Somebody near me allowed their head to drop into their hands. Seamus, man of the moment, stepped forward and signalled to the conductor to stop the band. Astonishingly the maestro ignored him. He was pretending he couldn't see Shea's frantic signals. For God's sake, how bad could his eyesight be? Was it possible not to notice the flapping arms of a multi-coloured caped crusader brandishing a teapot in anger?
That conductor was more focused than most of us could ever hope to be. He had a long evening to get through and he was going to get through it in the shortest available time. Going back and starting again for those who had screwed up wasn't on the agenda, even if it was `Good old Seamus' from down the way. And so, with all the obduracy of a first world war general, his head stayed firmly down and the band played on.
Time went into stasis. I simply have no way of knowing how long it was before Seamus abandoned his frenzied gesticulations, punched Tim, and they both began singing. Indeed, I can't recall how badly they performed the rest of the song. Who cares? The audience applauded, they won `Most Entertaining Act', and so began my fascination with Ireland.
Aside from the song contest débâcle, there had been another incident which had made this first trip to Ireland stand out in my mind. On arrival at Dublin Airport, I had been met by Seamus's lifelong friend Kieran and driven to Cavan. As we headed north and discussed Batman and Robin's prospects (Kieran was peculiarly guarded on the subject, but later I understood why when I learned that he had watched their rehearsals), I noticed a figure by the side of the road, hitch-hiking. I looked closer, as one does with hitch-hikers, to make that split-second assessment of their appearance to judge their suitability for travel companionship. This was odd. Very odd. He had something alongside him and he was leaning on it. It was a fridge. This man was hitch-hiking with a fridge.
`Kieran, was that man hitch-hiking with a fridge?'
`Oh yeah.'
There was nothing in Kieran's tone of voice to suggest the slightest hint of surprise. I had clearly arrived in a country where qualification for `eccentric' involved a great deal more than that to which I had become used.
Years passed. (I've always wanted to write that.) The Song Competition had become an anecdote which was given an airing at dinner parties approximately once every two years, and a reference to the fridge hitchhiker always accompanied it as something of a postscript. For some reason, the image of this man and his large white appendage was indelibly stamped on my memory. I could still see him there by the roadside, something in his face demonstrating a supreme confidence that the presence of his refrigerator would in no way impair his chances of a ride. Sometimes I wondered whether I had imagined him, but no, Kieran had witnessed the miracle too.
Had it not been for Kieran, I could have allowed my imagination to develop `Fridge Man' into some kind of spiritual revelation; an apparition, an angel who had appeared to me as a symbol of optimism in a bleak, cynical world. I could be the apostle who spread the message that we could all transport our burdens with the ease of `Fridge Man', if only we trusted in our fellow man to stop and help us on our way. I could hand out leaflets at railway stations and arrange meetings, steadily recruiting followers into a utopia where, when you opened your door to the world, a little light came on and illuminated your groceries.
Alternatively, I could pull myself together.
And that is exactly what I did. The fridge incident was forgotten, banished to the recesses of my mind where matters of infinitesimal consequence belonged. It took alcohol in excess to throw it back up again.
The occasion was a dinner of party with some friends down in Brighton. A vast quantity of wine had been consumed and the atmosphere was, shall we say, lively. Round about midnight those present settled on a short discussion on the merits of the new fridge which Kevin had bought, and then, by a series of turns, our raddled attention was given to a trip he was planning to Ireland. The juxtaposition of the two triggered a triumphal re-emergence of my fridge hitch-hiking story, which I relayed to the guests via a long-winded collection of badly slurred words. Kevin's response was unambiguous.
`Bollocks.'
`It's not bollocks,' I countered. I had hoped this would see him off, but there was more.
`Yes, it is. Nobody could ever get a lift with a fridge.'
`They could in Ireland, it's a magical place.'
`Magical! So's my arse!'
I let the subject drop. Experience had taught me that someone mentioning how magical their arse was tended not to precede stimulating and considered debate.
When I woke in the morning, in a physical condition which served as a reminder as to what had taken place the night before, I found a note by my bed:
`I hereby bet Tony Hawks the sum of One Hundred Pounds that he cannot hitch-hike round the circumference of Ireland, with a fridge, within one calendar month.'
And there was Kevin's signature, and below it, an illegible squiggle which I took to be mine.
And so, the bet was made.
Now, it's no good me pretending that the gauntlet had been thrown down and that my honour was at stake if I didn't pick it up and rise to the challenge set down before me. I had been drunk and so had Kevin, and if people were held to things said when sloshed, then we'd all be tragic heroes, ensnared in miserable lives enforced upon us by our own reckless words. I'd still be with Alison Wilcox who I'd told I would `love forever' in the midst of a lager-sodden teenage one-night stand. I find it difficult to imagine us still together now mortgage, kids and Ford Mondeo, given that the only thing we really had in common was a failure to remember each other's names in the morning.
In fact when I did get round to calling Kevin, he had only a very sketchy recollection of the whole sorry saga. The last thing he was going to do was to hold me to something he could barely remember having taken place. So why, a month later did I find myself seriously considering taking the bet on? There was no need, no need at all, and yet there I was looking at a map of Ireland and trying to work out the mileage involved in making its coastal circuit. Alas, I had been struck down with what psychoanalysts refer to as G.T.D.S.B.S. syndrome.
Naturally, the adopted logic of those suffering from G.T.D.S.B.S. syndrome is flawed and can be easily exposed. I cite a short conversation I had with a mountaineer (mountaineers are probably the most common casualties of this phenomenon) as an example of how easily this may be achieved: `Why, in the bitter conditions of an Alpine winter, are you tackling the dangerous and challenging northeastern face of the fearsome Mattherhorn?' `Because it's there.'
`But so are your slippers and the TV remote.' Q.E.D., I think.
Why subject yourself to untold pain and deprivation when popping to the shops and back followed by a bit of a sit down, is an option? Why explore when you can tidy? Why sail singlehandedly when you can read singlehandedly, trek when you can taxi, abseil when you can take the stairs, stand when you can sit, or listen to Neil Sedaka's Greatest Hits when you can take your own life?
And it's no good pretending that G.T.D.S.B.S. syndrome is rare, because we all know someone who has been touched by it. Someone at work, or their brother, or someone in the aerobics class, has run a marathon. Twenty-six miles. Twenty-six pointless miles. And do we know anyone who has enjoyed it? Of course we don't. They might pretend they enjoyed it, but they're lying. Life is full of mysteries, doubts and unfathomables but if we can be certain of one thing in this world then it is this:
Running twenty-six miles is no fun.
I think it was probably an American who came up with the adage `if it ain't hurting, it ain't working'. It would be nice to think that shortly after he uttered those words someone smacked him in the mouth by way of demonstrating how well it was working for him.
And yet I was just as deluded as the marathon runner, maybe even more so. All logic defied what I found myself contemplating. I would sit up late at night weighing up the pros and cons. All right, the cons won hands down, but there were times when I managed to make the whole thing seem glamorous. An adventure, the unknown, the chance to do something no one had done before. Wow! something no one had done before. That's something most of us can only dream of.
If you're not sure of the lengths to which people are prepared to go in order to set themselves apart from their fellow Man, then have a browse through The Guinness Book Of Records next time you find yourself with a couple of free minutes in the reference library. That's exactly what I found myself doing one morning checking the entries under Refrigerators and Hitch-hiking, just to confirm that the whole Ireland/fridge venture hadn't already been successfully undertaken by a seventeen-year-old biology student from Sheffield. Research brought relief when I discovered that nobody had done it, but honestly, you wouldn't believe some of the things they had done.
Akira Matsushima of Japan unicycled a distance of 5,244 km from Newport Oregon, to Washington DC, from 10 July to 22 August 1992.
Quite impressive given that most people would be chuffed just to make it across a room. But the efforts of Akira must have pissed off another aspiring unicyclist, Ashrita Furman of the US, who wanted to establish a unicycling record of his own, but felt unable to eclipse the feat of the one-wheeled Jap. So, what to do? Of course it's obvious, isn't it? Start practising unicyclying backwards.
Ashrita Furman of the US unicycled 85.5 km backwards at Forest Park, Queens, US, on 16 September 1994.
Well, I just hope his parents are proud of him. What an invaluable skill their son has acquired. Further study of this most bizarre of textbooks revealed that Ashrita was one of many who adhered to the school of thought that if you couldn't break a world record forwards, then your best bet was to have a go at doing it backwards.
Timothy `Bud' Badyna ran the fastest backwards marathon 3 hours 53 minutes and 17 seconds at Toledo, Ohio, on 24 April 1994.
I checked to see whether Timothy `Bud' Badyna had also managed an entry under `Biggest Wanker', but I was disappointed to find that he hadn't. Congratulations though to the Conservative MP, Edward Leigh.
Before I returned the book to its shelf, I scoured the pages for an entry under `Most failed attempts to get into the Guinness Book Of Records', hoping to see a list of efforts like:
Most amounts of cheese eaten in a force 8 wind.
Most number of years spent attempting to startle a postman every morning.
Shiniest ears.
| The Fridge |
"""And our friends are all aboard, many more of them live next door"" is a line from which 'Beatles' song?" | Tony Hawks, Signed - AbeBooks
Tony Hawks, Signed
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ISBN 10: 0060198605 ISBN 13: 9780060198602
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Item Description: Regan Books, New York, New York, U.S.A., 2000. Hard Cover. Book Condition: Acceptable. 8vo - over 7¾" - 9¾" Tall, 289 Pages. Not pretty. Several edge tears, edge wear, and sun fading. Tips bumped with some board exposure, bare spot on the front board from large sticker removal. Inscribed to Thomas who also wrote his name and address in felt pen on the front paste down. Inscribed By Author on the Ffep. Bookseller Inventory # 011835
ISBN 10: 0091863279 ISBN 13: 9780091863272
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Item Description: Ebury Press, 1998. Paperback. Book Condition: Good. Signed. SIGNED BY AUTHOR. A slight tan to the page edges. Good reading copy. Minor Shelfwear. Good condition is defined as: a copy that has been read but remains in clean condition. All of the pages are intact and the cover is intact and the spine may show signs of wear. The book may have minor markings which are not specifically mentioned. Most items will be dispatched the same or the next working day. Bookseller Inventory # mon0003275058
ISBN 10: 0091863279 ISBN 13: 9780091863272
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Item Description: 1998. Soft cover. Book Condition: Very Good. 11th paper printing inscribed by the author on the title page. Spine creased, slight rubbing, curling and tanning, else text clean, binding tight. Language: eng Language: eng 0.0 Language: eng 0.0. Signed by Author(s). Bookseller Inventory # ABE-12569535494
ISBN 10: 0060198605 ISBN 13: 9780060198602
Used Hardcover Signed
ISBN 10: 0060198605 ISBN 13: 9780060198602
Used Hardcover Signed
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Item Description: Regan Books/HarperCollins, New York, New York, U.S.A., 2000. Hardcover. Book Condition: As New. Dust Jacket Condition: As New. First Edition Later Printing. Autobiography, SIGNED by Hawk on ffep (his name only, no inscription). Obtained at a local signing--he is a local San Diego resident). FIRST EDITION, Seventh Printing (per number line), this hardcover is Near Fine: just slightly less perfect than brand new! Only flaw is some teeny foxed spots to exterior top page edges. Otherwise, completely clean, binding tight & square, nice white pages; NO writing, underlining, or highlighting. NOT ex-lib. Unclipped DJ is virtually flawless: bright, clean, no fading or chipping; beautifully protected in new archival mylar cover. Please see our 5 photos! Description & photos copyright Gargoyle Books 2016. Same Day Shipping on all orders received by 2 pm Weekdays (Pacific time); Weekends & holidays ship next business day. Signed by Author(s). Bookseller Inventory # 010709
Destination, Rates & Speeds
Item Description: Ebury Press 2007 Paperback, 2007. Book Condition: Good. Whilst in Ireland for an International Song Competition, Tony Hawks was amazed to see a hitch-hiker, trying to thumb a lift, but with a fridge. This seemed amazingly optimistic - his Irish friends, however thought nothing of it at all. 'I had clearly arrived in a country', writes Tony, 'where the qualifications for 'eccentric' involved a great deal more than that to which I had become used'. Two years pass but the fridge incident haunts our author. Until one night, heavy with drink, he finds himself arguing about Ireland with a friend. It is, he insists, a 'magical place', so magical in fact, that a man could even get a lift with a fridge. The next morning there is a note by the bed. 'I hereby bet Tony Hawks the sum of One Hundred Pounds that he cannot hitch-hike around the circumference of Ireland with a fridge within one calendar month'. The document was signed. The bet was made. This book is the story of Tony's adventures through that incredible month. The people he meets, the difficulties, the triumphs. The fridge. 272 pages. Bookseller Inventory # 985418
Destination, Rates & Speeds
Item Description: Regan Books, NY, 2002. Original Wraps. Book Condition: Fine. First Edition. ***** This is the true first edition, first printing (with "10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1" stated on the copyright page). ***** This book is SIGNED by the author (Tony Hawk) on the second page. The author has not inscribed this book to anyone; it is just signed by the author. ***** Very nice softcover (as issued -- there was no hardcover edition published). There is NO writing, NO bookplates, and NO remainder marks. It is NOT a book club edition and NOT a former library book. CONDITION: The book in FINE condition. ***** OUR GUARANTEE TO YOU: All books are guaranteed to be as described. We believe that no sale is complete until you are happy. Any book is returnable for a full refund (including postage) if you're not 100% satisfied. All books are packaged very carefully and shipped via USPS Mail with Delivery Confirmation. Thank you! Richard Vick, Modern First Editions (Buying and Selling Modern First Editions since 1982). Signed by Author. Bookseller Inventory # 1704
| i don't know |
Who presented the t.v. religious programme 'Highway', first broadcast in 1983? | TV Whirl - Other Bits
Other Bits
Dave Lister 2009
Highway - 1986
Started in 1983, Highway remained ITV's flagship religious programme until the mid 90s, presented by the late Sir Harry Secombe. Officially it was produced as a co-production between several smaller regions, however as Tyne Tees were the main force behind it, it's regarded by most as being their programme. Indeed, the very first edition came from the centre of TTTV-land, Newcastle. This opening, from 1986, sees the programme return to Tyneside once again for the Tall-Ships race. Thanks to Iam Burn for the clip.
The Bill - 1992
The Bill as most people probably still remember it; plain and unflashy, in half-hour episodic format. The accompanying endcredit sequence to this era had the two bobbies walking on a cobbled street, which *everyone* must remember. Produced by Thames Television, The Bill followed the happenings of a police station in an area of London called Sun Hill, and was one of the mainstay programmes which helped Thames stay afloat as a company when it was cast out of the network and onto the independent producer pile after the highly controversial 1991 Franchise Renewal round. The show itself survived through until 2010 on ITV, before finally meeting the axe.
The Bill - 2001
2001, and the programme had certainly changed quite a bit from The Bill most people know, in an attempt to appear trendier and more modern. Now up to an hour, and the storylines had begun to spread over several episodes frequently.
The Bill - 2003
Skip on another 2 years, and things with The Bill have changed even more. By 2003 it had started being defined by ITV themselves as a soap rather than drama, with the usual 'love' plots included, and storylines which run for weeks. Unlike most of their soaps, however, The Bill had no permanent home, jumping about the schedules from week to week. In February 2003, this brand new set of titles was introduced to the programme. They're nice, and dont suffer the same problem as the last set; namely having to be updated frequently whenever the characters change. Although it does sound like someone accidentally forgot to play some notes in the new mix mind...
Points Of View - 1990
A bit of an odd choice for the site you may think. I partly agree, its just that I had such an old recording of the BBC's Points of View, featuring Anne Robinson with a BIG hairstyle, that I couldn't let it go to waste.
Gamesmaster - 1992
Gamesmaster was a Channel 4 programme which ran throughout the mid 90's as one of the first shows dedicated to computer games. Hosted for most of its run by Dominik Diamond, it involved contestants pitting their gaming skills against each other under the watchful eye of the Gamesmaster (a large digitally altered head, played by the late Patrick Moore). This is the opening to the first ever episode of the programme in 1992.
Heartbeat - Xmas 1994
Heartbeat was a programme set in Rural Yorkshire in the 60's. Produced by Yorkshire Television, it ran right through until 2010, lasting considerably more than the 10 years of the 60s, before being axed as part of cutbacks by ITV at the Leeds studio complex. This shows the opening to the Christmas Special for 1994, during what some people argue was the show's glory days with Nick Berry and Niamh Cusack.
Brass Eye Apology - 2001
In Summer 2001 Channel 4 broadcast a special of a program called Brass Eye. It was intended to be a satire about Media and Public attitudes towards paedophilia (according to the blurb), but ended up sparking a national outcry. This file is an apology, which was shown several weeks later, after an investigation by the ITC.
Thames Skyline Ident - 1970s
Thames Television's skyline ident became a famous institution in its time, and is still well known to this day. The scene, with a montage of London being reflected in the Thames was used throughout the 70s and 80s, albeit with slight adaptions. This version is a frontcap, which used to be broadcast before ITV programmes up until the late 80s, which was left on by Channel 5 when they repeated some old comedy programming on Boxing day 2002.
Paul Daniels - 1986
Featuring the late magician Paul Daniels, the show was one of the highlights of the BBC's saturday entertainment schedule throughout the 80s and into the 90s, before it was finally axed. This set of titles dates from 1986. Clip courtesy of Iam Burn.
Sky One Ident - 1993
A Sky one ident from 1993. Clip thanks to Iam again.
Sky Multichannels Promo - 1993
A big and long file from Sky in 1993, introducing the launch of Sky's New Multichannel package. A collection of new channels, launching in September of that year. Ah for those olden days before we had 300 channels, most of them with tiny viewing figures. Clip thanks to Iam again.
Sky Multichannels Promo B - 1993
Another, this time shorter, promotion for Sky Multichannels. Clip courtesy of Iam again.
Sky One Mix Promo - 2003
A promo, spoofing BBC1's 'The One' promos, originally produced for the launch of Sky One Mix on Sky, then kept to promote its availability on other platforms later. Clip thanks to Iam again.
Challenge Anneka - Christmas 2006
In Christmas 2006, after a break of over 10 years, Anneka Rice finally reprised her role in a shortlive revival of her popular 90s programme Challenge Anneka. New technology and new graphics, but the same classic music remained - oh and a move from BBC1 to ITV.
In Bed With Medinner - 1997
In Bed With Medinner was a late night show produced by LWT throughout the 90s. Hosted by Bob Mills, it featured the comedian taking an irreverent look at television and other things in life. The opening title sequence, and the studio set, were designed as a parody of The Prisoner series from the 60s.
S4C Election - 2010
The opening to coverage of the 2010 general election but from a Welsh perspective, as shown on the Welsh language channel S4C.
The Hitman & Her - 1991
~ NEW! ~
Produced by Granada Television and shown by most of the ITV overnight services from 1988 through to 1992, The Hitman & Her featured Pete Waterman and Michaela Strachan touring nightclubs of the UK to stick a camera in front of people there. In this edition from 1991 they return to Mr Smiths in Warrington, which had also been the location for the very first edition in 1988.
Jobfinder - 1997
~ NEW! ~
Fulfilling a public service role in the 90s for Tyne Tees and Yorkshire, but tucked away in the graveyard hours where it wouldn't affect revenue was Jobfinder. Introduced here by a very low budget set of titles possibly rejected from The Bill.
BBC - Perfect Day - Christmas 1998
~ NEW! ~
Originally produced in 1997, the Perfect Day film was put together to celebrate the diverse range of music produced by the BBC under their licence fee charter. A whole host of musical personalities appeared for only a minimal fee to take turns covering Lou Reed's song. The film was so popular that is resulted in a charity release for Children In Need, and continued to be shown for a considerable time afterwards - this slightly wintery version airing coming in during Christmas 1998. Several of those featured have passed away in the years since, including Lou Reed himself, however to this day the film remains one of the corporation's better remembered short pieces.
~ Acknowledgements ~
| Harry Secombe |
The 'BRIC Group' of developing economies became the 'BRICS Group' in 2010 by the addition of which country? | Most Memorable Shows | The Maidstone Television Studios
Contact
Most Memorable Shows
Here are some of the most memorable shows recorded here at The Maidstone TV Studios between 1982 and 2002. Click here to see recent shows recorded over the past few years.
Fraggle Rock
Fraggle Rock (also known as Jim Henson’s Fraggle Rock or Fraggle Rock with Jim Henson’s Muppets) is a children’s live action puppet television series created by Jim Henson with the central characters being a set of Muppet creatures called Fraggles.
Fraggle Rock was co-produced by British television company Television South (TVS), the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, U.S. pay television service Home Box Office and Henson Associates. Unlike Sesame Street, which had been created for a single market and only later adapted for international markets, Fraggle Rock was intended from the start to be an international production and the whole show was constructed with this in mind.
C.A.T.S. Eyes
C.A.T.S. Eyes is a British television series made by TVS for ITV between 1985 and 1987.
The series was a spin-off from The Gentle Touch and saw Jill Gascoine reprise her role as Maggie Forbes, having left the police force to join a private detective agency called “Eyes” based in Kent that is actually a front for a Home Office team called C.A.T.S. (Covert Activities Thames Section). C.A.T.S. Eyes was shown on Friday nights in the UK for its first series, before moving to a Saturday night slot for its second and third series. It was a ratings hit in the UK, regularly ranking within the top 20 throughout its run.
Coast to Coast
Coast to Coast was launched in January 1982 as TVS’ nightly regional news. The South East edition was originally produced and broadcast from the former Southern Television studios in Dover and by October 1982, from the purpose-built TVS Television Centre in Maidstone.
Originally presented by Vyvyan Mackeson, the launch team also included a number of former Southern Television presenters and reporters including sports presenter Mike Field (who presented the programme’s predecessor, Scene South East), Mike Fuller, Arnie Wilson and weatherman Ron Lobeck.
Mackeson left Coast to Coast after several months and was replaced by the Brighton reporter Mike Debens. Debens went on to become the programme’s longest serving main presenter, partnered on-screen by Merrill Harries, Mike Fuller, Cheryl Armitage, Anna Maria Ashe and Liz Wickham.
The final editions of the programme aired as an hour-long special on 31 December 1992, closing with a live performance of the programme’s signature tune by the Band of the Royal Marines.
CATCHPHRASE
CATCHPHRASE was one of the most popular programmes ever to be produced at TVS Maidstone. Production began in 1985 with the series making its debut on the ITV Network at the beginning of 1986.
Presented by comedian Roy Walker, two contestants, identified a familiar phrase represented by a piece of animation accompanied by background music.
The show’s mascot, a golden robot called “Mr Chips”, appeared in many of the animations.
Over 150 editions were made before TVS lost its franchise, and the series is still going strong today.
NO. 73
Number 73 (styled as No. 73) was a live Saturday morning show and ran from 1982 to 1988. The show’s stars included Sandi Toksvig, Neil Buchanan, Andrea Arnold, Kim Goody, Nick Staverson, Patrick Doyle and Richard Waites.
Upon winning the regional franchise TVS quickly set up a thriving children’s department. A team was put together with a strong background in theatre and drama, deciding to produce a Saturday morning show that differed from the usual Tiswas and Saturday Superstore formula. This show would feature actors in character as hosts, performing their own comedic storyline around the usual guests, music videos, competitions and cartoons.
Much of the show was improvised, and a whole week of rehearsals plus an extensive dress rehearsal on Friday preceded each live broadcast on Saturday morning. The red front door and Toksvig’s “Sandwich Quiz” is remembered by millions.
ALL CLUED UP
All Clued Up was a TVS quiz show based on the The $1,000,000 Chance of a Lifetime. It aired on Sunday afternoons from 1988 to 1991 ably hosted by David Hamilton. Like the American show, two married couples competed to solve word puzzles, which led to a master solution.
Billed as a ‘high tech quiz show’, the set featured a giant alphabetic keyboard which the contestants used to select letters. Considerable cash prizes were offered providing the couples could avoid pressing the elusive and prize-crippling “stinger”.
FIVE ALIVE
Five Alive was TVS’s Saturday night comedy sketch show. It starred Brian Conley, Doon MacKichan, Peter Piper, Andrew Secombe, Joanna Brookes and Phil Nice. It ran for two series on the ITV network from 1986-1988.
FINDERS KEEPERS
Finders Keepers was a CITV game show based on an original American format of the same name. It was originally broadcast between 1991 and 1996, hosted by Neil Buchanan. A 2006 revival was hosted by Jeff Brazier.
The lucky winning team got to do the super search around The Finders Keepers house, constructed in studio two (studio five in 2006). They had to raid all 8 rooms in three minutes (increased to four minutes in later series); the more rooms raided, the better the prize!
PERFECT SCOUNDRELS
Perfect Scoundrels was an early-90s comedy drama following the travelling exploits of two conmen, ripping off various unwitting people. The show’s main stars were Peter Bowles and Bryan Murray (also creators) including an enjoyable cameo appearance from Lulu.
Three series were Produced by TVS Television for the ITV network between 1990 and 1992.
KELLY'S EYE
Kelly’s Eye Was an ITV Comedy sketch and music series in which Matthew Kelly took a wry look at those unexpected, absurd & surprising situations arising in everyday life.
Produced at TVS Maidstone in 1985, the series featured contributions from Helen Atkinson-Wood, Jim Sweeney, Felicity Montagu and David Simeon as well as a performance from a well-known band.
MOTORMOUTH
Motormouth was a Saturday morning children’s television series that was produced in Maidstone and transmitted live across the ITV network for four series. Replacing No. 73, it ran from 1988 – 1992 and starred Neil Buchanan, Tony Gregory, Julian Ballantyne, Caroline Hanson, Andrea Arnold, Gaby Roslin, Steve Johnson and Andy Crane.
In September 1992 What’s Up Doc? replaced the show, being broadcast live from Maidstone, like its predecessor.
AIRMAIL
Originally part of Coast to Coast, Airmail was TVS’s version of the BBC’s Points of View. Each week Jill Cochrane presented viewers’ letters and comments to the programme makers. Viewers were also invited to request clips from previous TVS productions for a stroll down memory lane.
ARCADE
James Montgomery and Veronica Charlwood opened up an Arcade (actually a fictional setting meticulously created by TVS designers in Maidstone’s studio two) showing off a variety of arts and crafts to TVS viewers.
DRAMARAMA
Dramarama ran from 1983 to 1989 and was a CITV drama slot which most of the ITV companies contributed to. The idea for the show was conceived by TVS’s head of children’s Anna Home and utilized a plethora of new talent, many of whom went on to further success in their field.
A BEETLE CALLED DEREK
A Beetle Called Derek was an environmental magazine programme presented by Andrea Arnold, running for three series between 1989 and 1991.
TALKING ANIMAL
Two series of Talking Animal were produced between 1984 and 1985 in which international zoo vet David Taylor and Andrea Arnold discussed the various myths that surround popular animals and the environments in which they live.
DO IT
Do It was set in the offices of The Belstow Weekly, a small local paper in southern England. Reporter Sheelagh Gilbey, bored with the humdrum life of being an admin clerk, decided to create an exciting free supplement for kids. The result was a magazine called Do It which showed children how to make and do all kinds of bizarre and unusual things including jewellery made from glue and plaster-cast hands. Neil Buchanan worked in the loading by and was often reprimanded by the editor for leading Sheelagh astray.
WORLDWISE
Worldwise was a Children’s quiz show in which two teams would compete to circumnavigate the world on a giant electronic map by answering questions and performing observational tests. Prizes would also be awarded for landing on randomly chosen destinations on the faux flight path.
Networked on ITV from 1985 to 1987, it was hosted by David Jensen, Emma Freud and Bharti Patel.
HIGHWAY
Highway (transmitted on Sunday’s between 1983 and 1993) was presented by Sir Harry Secombe and featured mixture of hymns and chat from various locations. Guests sang religious songs, gave readings or talked about their lifestyles and spiritual feelings.
THE REAL WORLD
TVS’s answer to Tomorrow’s World was presented by Micheal Rodd running from 1982 to 1985. It was on The Real World that TVS broadcast the first 3D television pictures in the UK. Michael was ably assisted by co-hosts Sue Jay and Jackie Spreckley.
HELLO CAMPERS
Kieran Prendiville presented this networked ITV documentary celebrating 50 years of Butlin’s Holiday Camps. Transmitted in 1986, there were contributions from Roy Hudd, Ted Rogers, George Melly and Mike Reid.
ART ATTACK
Art Attack was a multi award-winning show that ran for nineteen series from 1990 – 2007 (making it one of CITV’s longest running). All but one of the series were produced in Maidstone as well hundreds of others for countries all around the world.
The main aim of the programme (presented throughout by Neil Buchanan) was to show that you “don’t have to be a great artist to be a great artist”. Recurring character The Head (an animated stone bust performed by celebrated puppeteer Francis Wright) would pop up after each Art Attack to recap Neil’s instructions and then present his own effort, which had inevitably gone amusingly wrong somehow.
Recorded in studios two and five for most of its life, the Big Art Attacks were recorded in various Kent locations.
HOW 2
How 2 was an informative children’s programme produced by TVS between 1990 and 1991, and Scottish Television from 1992 to 2006. The show picked up the reigns from original show How which was produced by Southern Television up until 1981 when the company lost its franchise.
Each episode began with the presenters (Fred Dinenage, Gareth Jones and Carol Vorderman) all raising one hand and saying “How” simultaneously (playing on the Native American greeting). Common topics covered included science, history, mathematics, and simple puzzles.
HENRY'S LEG
Henry’s Leg was a children’s drama based on the popular children’s novel by Ann Pilling, adaptation by Roy Russell. The series was produced by John Dale and directed by TVS stalwart Michael Kerrigan.
Henry Hooper loves collecting junk but the discovery of a false leg from a store mannequin spells trouble. The local gangsters also have an interest in the lost limb and trouble abounds.
Recorded on location, the scene were Henry finds the infamous leg was shot outside Curry’s in Central Faversham, Kent.
Find us
By Car
Navigate to The Maidstone Studios, Vinters park, Maidstone, Kent, ME14 5NZ. We’re just off the M20, Junction 7 sign-posted Maidstone. Find us on Google maps .
London Gatwick: 40 mins
| i don't know |
Which novel by James Patterson is the next in the 'Alex Cross' series after 'Roses Are Red'? | [James Patterson] ☆‡ Roses are Red ▹ Free Digital Books
Roses are Red
Tanya Mar 01, 2008
HOLY COW...My mouth literally dropped open when I read the last sentence in this book! To be completely honest, I read that same sentence like 5 times! Holy chit, batman! I am off to start the next book, Violets are Blue to see where this goes! Holy cow! ...
Elaine Aug 02, 2008
I can not begin to describe how much I hated this book. Uninteresting, the main character wasn't particularly appealing, and the writing is terrible. The end is a cliffhanger, and I could care less about getting the next book to find out the end of the story. This is the first James Patterson book I...
Kevin Wijas Oct 21, 2009
Roses are Red by James Patterson is an exciting mystery that is led by D.C’s top detective Alex Cross. A group of professional bank robbers and their leader “The Mastermind” plan and execute perfect robberies while committing malicious murders of “innocent” people. Crosses l...
David Erickson Dec 11, 2010
I felt this wasn't the best of the Alex Cross series, but it was very good. The wirting pattern makes it easy to set the book down and come back to it.The one thing that annoys me is that the biggest bad guy never seems to get his nailed. While in some of the books, some of the bad guys are figured ...
Thom Swennes May 10, 2012
Generally I like books to have complete stories. These stories have a beginning, middle and end and when I read the last page my mind evaluates or digests what I have read and I can then form an opinion. Roses are Red by James Patterson isn’t like his average stories. Most of Patterson’s n...
Erica Mar 23, 2013
Unfortunately, this is going to be my last James Patterson novel. I think that there just comes a point where you realize you have outgrow certain authors and I haven't particularly cared for the last three Patterson novels I have read. Sad to me, because I remember staying up ALL NIGHT to read Kiss...
Jessica Mar 26, 2013
Ugh. I've read a handful of Patterson's books and none of them would qualify as good literature, but this one was particularly awful. The writing is cliched and one-dimensional, the characters are uninteresting, and the story tries to be so shocking that it actually ends up being predictable. There ...
Beth (Ducky) Nov 14, 2014
did thaT JUST..................
La Tonya Jordan Mar 22, 2015
Detective Alex Cross is a magnificent person. This book is well written. It shows family dynamics, friendships, love, and the suspense of never knowing whom the killer truly is until the end. Days later you still can’t believe who the killer truly is. The unanswered question is will Detective C...
Phrynne May 10, 2016
I always know I am enjoying a book when I find myself staying up past midnight to finish it. That's what happened with this one and though I regret the loss of sleep I do not regret one word of the reading:) I love hearing about Alex Cross's rather unusual little family and it was sweet to hear abou...
Readers Also Enjoyed
About James Patterson
James Patterson - Official US SiteOfficial UK SiteBookShotsJIMMY Patterson BooksOfficial Site for James Patterson's Middle School SeriesReadKiddoReadJames Patterson has created more enduring fictional characters than any other novelist writing today with his Alex Cross, Michael Bennett, Women’s Murder Club, Private, NYPD Red, Daniel X, Maximum Ride, and Middle School series. As of January 2016, he has sold over 350
Browse by Genre
| Violets Are Blue |
Which member of 'Girls Aloud' is from Northern Ireland? | [James Patterson] ☆‡ Roses are Red ▹ Free Digital Books
Roses are Red
Tanya Mar 01, 2008
HOLY COW...My mouth literally dropped open when I read the last sentence in this book! To be completely honest, I read that same sentence like 5 times! Holy chit, batman! I am off to start the next book, Violets are Blue to see where this goes! Holy cow! ...
Elaine Aug 02, 2008
I can not begin to describe how much I hated this book. Uninteresting, the main character wasn't particularly appealing, and the writing is terrible. The end is a cliffhanger, and I could care less about getting the next book to find out the end of the story. This is the first James Patterson book I...
Kevin Wijas Oct 21, 2009
Roses are Red by James Patterson is an exciting mystery that is led by D.C’s top detective Alex Cross. A group of professional bank robbers and their leader “The Mastermind” plan and execute perfect robberies while committing malicious murders of “innocent” people. Crosses l...
David Erickson Dec 11, 2010
I felt this wasn't the best of the Alex Cross series, but it was very good. The wirting pattern makes it easy to set the book down and come back to it.The one thing that annoys me is that the biggest bad guy never seems to get his nailed. While in some of the books, some of the bad guys are figured ...
Thom Swennes May 10, 2012
Generally I like books to have complete stories. These stories have a beginning, middle and end and when I read the last page my mind evaluates or digests what I have read and I can then form an opinion. Roses are Red by James Patterson isn’t like his average stories. Most of Patterson’s n...
Erica Mar 23, 2013
Unfortunately, this is going to be my last James Patterson novel. I think that there just comes a point where you realize you have outgrow certain authors and I haven't particularly cared for the last three Patterson novels I have read. Sad to me, because I remember staying up ALL NIGHT to read Kiss...
Jessica Mar 26, 2013
Ugh. I've read a handful of Patterson's books and none of them would qualify as good literature, but this one was particularly awful. The writing is cliched and one-dimensional, the characters are uninteresting, and the story tries to be so shocking that it actually ends up being predictable. There ...
Beth (Ducky) Nov 14, 2014
did thaT JUST..................
La Tonya Jordan Mar 22, 2015
Detective Alex Cross is a magnificent person. This book is well written. It shows family dynamics, friendships, love, and the suspense of never knowing whom the killer truly is until the end. Days later you still can’t believe who the killer truly is. The unanswered question is will Detective C...
Phrynne May 10, 2016
I always know I am enjoying a book when I find myself staying up past midnight to finish it. That's what happened with this one and though I regret the loss of sleep I do not regret one word of the reading:) I love hearing about Alex Cross's rather unusual little family and it was sweet to hear abou...
Readers Also Enjoyed
About James Patterson
James Patterson - Official US SiteOfficial UK SiteBookShotsJIMMY Patterson BooksOfficial Site for James Patterson's Middle School SeriesReadKiddoReadJames Patterson has created more enduring fictional characters than any other novelist writing today with his Alex Cross, Michael Bennett, Women’s Murder Club, Private, NYPD Red, Daniel X, Maximum Ride, and Middle School series. As of January 2016, he has sold over 350
Browse by Genre
| i don't know |
Which English city is the setting for the film 'East Is East'? | East Is East (1999) - IMDb
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In early 1970s England, a Pakistani father finds the authority he has previously maintained challenged by his increasingly Anglicized children.
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Title: East Is East (1999)
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Nominated for 4 BAFTA Film Awards. Another 16 wins & 8 nominations. See more awards »
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Storyline
In 1971 Salford fish-and-chip shop owner George Khan expects his family to follow his strict Pakistani Muslim ways. But his children, with an English mother and having been born and brought up in Britain, increasingly see themselves as British and start to reject their father's rules on dress, food, religion, and living in general. Written by Jeremy Perkins {J-26}
A comedy of families, a chip shop... and a very randy dog. See more »
Genres:
2 June 2000 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
A Kelet az Kelet See more »
Filming Locations:
£435,627 (UK) (5 November 1999)
Gross:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Emma Rydal had to wear a wig as she had cut her hair drastically short months previous to casting for her part in _"Playing the Field" (1998) _. See more »
Goofs
In the scene when they are in Bradford, Ella and her daughter are in the kitchen. Ella comforts her friend because she is upset about her daughter in Pakistan. In the background on the painting on the wall you can see the reflection of the boom mic as it goes up. See more »
Quotes
[Moorhouse and Earnest are distributing leaflets of Enoch Powell as George passes by]
Mr. Moorhouse : 'Ere, look, see? There's one of'em now. Got his bags packed for his way home, heh.
Earnest Moorhouse : [Respectfully] Salam Alekom, Mr. Khan.
Mr. Moorhouse : [Slaps Earnest over the head] Shut up, you little bastard!
| Salford |
What is the home venue of the 'New York Nicks' in the NBA and the 'New York Rangers' in the NHL? | East Is East (1999) - Plot Summary - IMDb
East Is East (1999)
Plot Summary
Showing all 4 plot summaries
In 1971 Salford fish-and-chip shop owner George Khan expects his family to follow his strict Pakistani Muslim ways. But his children, with an English mother and having been born and brought up in Britain, increasingly see themselves as British and start to reject their father's rules on dress, food, religion, and living in general.
- Written by Jeremy Perkins {J-26}
Jahangir Khan was born in Pakistan and had got married for the first time there. Seeking better prospects, he immigrated to Britain, fell in love with Ella, a Caucasian, married her, and eventually became the father of six sons and one daughter. He wanted all of children to follow Islamic tradition, and would parcel them in the "Masjid van" every Friday for prayers and religious incantations. Arguments with Ella are one-sided and always end when he threatens to bring "Mrs. Khan" from Pakistan. His eldest son, Nadir, comes to know that his dad was going to arrange his marriage and runs away from home. Jahangir, who now calls himself George, disowns him - all the more when he finds that Nadir is gay and is living with a male. While the children have all settled down in the community and have had their respective romantic flings, they do not know that their father has plans to marry off two of his sons to two Pakistani sisters. Nevertheless, the family prepare themselves, and her sons are introduced to these women. After recovering from the initial shock of seeing the women face to face, the family settles down, leaving Khan to negotiate the details. Noticing that the apartment was very small, the brides' mother proposes that both boys should settle in their house after marriage. Watch how chaos takes over, and the manner in which the overbearing Khan attempts to bring his family in line - or at least tries to, all this in the midst of Enoch Powell's announcement that his political party will expel all immigrants and send them back to their respective motherlands.
- Written by rAjOo ([email protected])
In early 1970's England, a traditional Pakistani father (Om Puri) finds his family spinning in decidedly non-traditional directions. His brood consisting of six sons and one daughter all move in independent-minded directions set off when the eldest son runs away from home rather than keeping to his fate of an arranged marriage. When the next two sons also find out that their father has secretly been arranging marriages for them, they rebel and set off repercussions that forces the family to totally reconsider their family structure.
| i don't know |
In recent years a fifth basic taste, in addition to sweet, bitter, sour and salty, has been proposed and given which Japanese name? | Umami and Food Palatability
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| Umami |
What is the name of the shipyard at which the 'Titanic' was built? | On tasty colours and colourful tastes? Assessing, explaining, and utilizing crossmodal correspondences between colours and basic tastes | Flavour | Full Text
Review
Open Access
On tasty colours and colourful tastes? Assessing, explaining, and utilizing crossmodal correspondences between colours and basic tastes
Published: 8 July 2015
Abstract
Can basic tastes, such as sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and possibly also umami, be conveyed by means of colour? If so, how should we understand the relationship between colours and tastes: Is it universal or relative, innate or acquired, unidirectional or bidirectional? Here, we review the growing body of scientific research showing that people systematically associate specific colours with particular tastes. We highlight how these widely shared bidirectional crossmodal correspondences generalize across cultures and stress their difference from synaesthesia (with which they are often confused). The various explanations that have been put forward to account for such crossmodal mappings are then critically evaluated. Finally, we go on to look at some of the innovative ways in which chefs, culinary artists, designers, and marketers are taking—or could potentially push further—the latest insights from research in this area as inspiration for their own creative endeavours.
Keywords
Colour Basic tastes Crossmodal correspondences Design Gastronomy Synaesthesia
“Colour clearly conveys to the brain what taste is to be expected” ([ 63 ], p. 86).
“Sight by itself informs us only of colors and forms [and that] ... No one can pretend that the images of sight are determinate in reference to taste.” Peirce [ 42 ]
Review
Introduction
The idea that the four or five basic tastes—bitter, sweet, sour, salty, and possibly also umami—are in some way associated with particular colours is one that has widespread currency. The idea surfaces in many places, from the fiction of Borges [ 2 ] 1 through to innovative marketing campaigns such as the one orchestrated on behalf of Boss, a Belgian paint manufacturer (see [ 64 ]). 2 But is there something more to the idea of mapping basic tastes and colours than an interesting aesthetic endeavour?
Traditionally, the mapping of colour onto taste, or vice versa, has been based on the intuitions of the creative or designer involved, or else on the crossmodal associations apparently experienced by a few synaesthetes for whom the experience of taste comes with a conscious experience of colour—what is known as a concurrent (e.g. [ 23 ]). The key question here, though, is whether we can ever be sure that the mappings that have been suggested by writers and designers really do appeal to a wider audience? An intriguing body of empirical research conducted over the last three decades now shows that all of us (no matter whether we are synaesthetes or not) do indeed match basic tastes to colours in ways that are far from arbitrary—in the sense of being regular across individuals and consistent over time [ 24 , 28 , 35 , 65 , 71 ].
What is especially surprising here is that the basic tastes are not uniquely associated with a particular food source: That is, the colour that they are associated with cannot simply be traced back to the colour of a particular fruit, vegetable, or foodstuff. The colour red for instance, which is commonly associated with sweetness, is not just characteristic of sweet ingredients (think here only of red meat, or red chili) and it is not obvious that sweetness is more often present in red foodstuffs than yellow, white, brown, or orange foods. This aspect of the correspondences between colours and tastes makes them intriguingly different, then, from the association between the smell of lemon and, for example, the colour yellow (see [ 11 ]). In this respect, the pairings between tastes and colours do not count as associations between features or properties of the same kind of object (what are commonly referred to as semantic associations) but more as crossmodal correspondences, which are defined as matchings between apparently unrelated sensory features and dimensions (see [ 13 , 54 ]). To be clear, the term crossmodal correspondences refers to the associations that people make between dimensions of experience that cannot be explained simply by pointing to a common source (e.g. as when we match a barking sound with the picture of a dog, or more pertinent here, the smell of a lemon with the colour yellow; see [ 32 , 41 ]).
Characterizing the relation between basic tastes and colour as a kind of crossmodal correspondence does not presuppose that a single relation is at stake. Although tastes are often described as being, in some sense, ‘basic’, they will also have a perceived intensity and an associated hedonic valence once in the mouth [ 3 ]. Likewise, colours are also analysed and described in terms of different dimensions, such as their hue, saturation, and brightness. In this respect, then, there might well be different correspondences, or even a complex network of correspondences, underlying the matching of any specific colour with any particular taste. So, for instance, one such mapping might exist between more intense tastes and more intense (i.e. brighter and more saturated) colours (see [ 54 , 55 ]).
Outline
In the present article, we start by reviewing the scientific literature on crossmodal correspondences between taste (in the gustatory sense) and colour that has been published to date. One can think of these correspondences in terms of Koch and Koch’s [ 28 ] notion of “preconceptions of taste based on color” ( the “Crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste words: the empirical evidence ” section). The bi-directionality of these robust and widespread mappings are highlighted. Indeed, this is one of the features that helps to distinguish the correspondences from those rare individuals, known as synaesthetes (with chromatic gustation), who experience colour on tasting certain foods ( Synaesthesia vs. crossmodal correspondences ). Having established the robustness, and cross-cultural generality of these crossmodal associations (see [ 71 ]), and having distinguished them from synaesthesia, we then go on to review the various theories that have been put forward over the years in order to account for such ‘potentially surprising’ links between the senses ( Where do crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste come from? ).
The latest scientific insights concerning such crossmodal correspondences are now starting to be gleaned from large-scale online studies conducted in several countries simultaneously (see [ 71 ], for one recent example). The results of such studies have started to inspire and/or constrain gastronomic and artistic creations. The crucial shift that is now beginning to occur here is from designs that were traditionally based solely on the intuitions of the creative to designs that have been inspired by, and often tested against, the mean responses of a representative group of individuals. In the “ Utilizing the crossmodal correspondence between colour and taste ” section, we will see how the latest evidence on colour-taste matching has been incorporated into a variety of real-world situations, varying in terms of their relation to food (the most natural place for the association to surface). Specifically, we provide examples from the coloured amuse bouches [ 20 ] 3 recently introduced by one chef, through to colourful plateware designs [ 58 ]. We end up with a case study concerning the use of colour-taste correspondences in the marketing of paint. We evaluate how well the first two of these innovative design solutions do in terms of capturing the crossmodal mappings between colour and taste using both the in-person (or offline), and online, testing of people’s attitudes.
Crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste words: the empirical evidence
Over the last three decades, a number of researchers have assessed the colours that people tend to match to the basic tastes, either by asking them which colour go best with a certain taste, or vice versa. In one of the first studies of its kind to have been conducted in this area, O’Mahony [ 35 ] had 51 students at the University of California, Davis pick 1 of 12 colours (comprising black, blue, brown, gold, green, yellow, grey, orange, red, silver, violet, and white) to match each of the four basic taste words (bitter, salty, sour, and sweet). This task was performed three times at 2-week intervals. O’Mahony reported the number of participants who gave the same colour response on all three of the occasions on which they were tested (see Table 1 ). The greatest consistency of responding was in response to the sweet taste when matched with the colour red (with 7 of the 51 participants choosing this colour every time), yellow for sour (10/51), white for salty (15/51). There was also a weaker, but still significant, tendency for participants to consistently pick green and black for bitter (4 and 3/51, respectively).
Table 1
Number of participants (N = 51) who chose the same colour (from a choice of 12 colours) to match each of the four basic tastes on three separate occasions
0
0
Note that any value greater than 0.0295 in the table indicates that the regularity with which the colour was chosen by the participant was significantly greater than that expected by chance. (Data taken from [ 35 ], Table 1 )
O’Mahony [ 35 ] also had his participants match the days of the week and seven US states to both colours and tastes. Friday and Saturday are unambiguously associated with sweet, as are the states of California, Florida, and Oregon. O’Mahony’s interest in carrying out this line of research related to the status of ‘sweet’, ‘sour’, ‘bitter’, and ‘sour’ as, in some sense, ‘primary’, tastes. More specifically, O’Mahony wanted to know whether consistent responses/associations could be generated in response to the basic taste words (without participants simply referring back to the terms bitter, sweet, salty, and sour).
In her 1999 book, whose title translates as How colour works, German sociologist Eva Heller described the results of a study in which she had close to 2000 Germans (from all walks of life) assign colours to the four main tastes. Heller reports that green and yellow were predominantly associated with sour whereas pink, orange, and red were associated with sweet. On the other hand, white, grey, and blue led people to expect a salty taste, and violet, black, and brown were associated with a bitter taste (see Table 2 ). In contrast to O’Mahony [ 35 ], Heller’s motivation in carrying out this research related to a more general interest in the psychological and symbolic meaning of colour.
Table 2
–
The participants in these studies were either given the names of one of the four or five basic tastes and had to pick a matching colour or else rate how well (or badly) the colour matched a given taste. The strongest crossmodal correspondences are shown, while weaker correspondences appear in brackets
Note: Dashes denote the fact that this colour was not tested in this study. Note also that not all of the colour options are shown for every study
In 2003, Koch and Koch reported a small scale study (N = 45 university students studying business) assessing the crossmodal correspondences between the 4 basic tastes and 10 colours (black, blue, grey, brown, green, orange, purple, red, white, and yellow). Participants rated how strongly each taste (identified by a taste word) was related to a given colour term using a 10-point scale. Thus, each participant had to complete a total of 40 questions of the following form: “On a scale from 1 to 10 with 10 being the most sweet, how sweet is the color red?” Higher scores (7–10) were taken to indicate a positive association, whereas lower scores (1–3) were taken to indicate a negative association. Intermediate scores (4–6) were taken to indicate some weak relationship between colour and taste. Analysis of the results revealed significant crossmodal associations between both red and orange on the one hand and a sweet taste on the other. Associations were also documented between both green and yellow and sour, as well as between white and salty (see Table 2 ). Interestingly, 17 of the 45 participants tested by Koch and Koch indicated a strong relationship between black and bitter as well (the responses of a further 23 participants indicated no relationship, while the responses of a further 5 participants indicated a moderate relationship). Interestingly, the only colours not to show any positive colour-taste associations were blue, purple, and grey.
In 2008, Tomasik-Krótki and Strojny had their participants (a convenience sample of more than 500 individuals from 17 different countries, covering a number of continents) via questionnaire: “how they link the colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet to the tastes bitter, sweet, umami, sour and salty” ([ 65 ], p. 253). The wording of the article itself is a little ambiguous as to what exactly the participants had to do. 4 That said, crossmodal associations between red and orange with sweet, yellow and green with sour, blue with salty, and violet with bitter and umami were documented (see Table 2 ). A subset of the participants in this study also associated a bitter taste with the colour green. The researchers’ interest in carrying out this study was different again from that in the other previous studies reported in this section. Tomasik-Krótki and Strojny were specifically interested in trying to establish any crossmodal associations between colours and both tastes and odours on the other. These researchers created units of taste (mnians) and odour (fooys) and a permutation system that would allow for the standardized translation of one sensory impression into another across the senses.
Finally, and most recently, Wan et al. [ 71 ] conducted an online study in which they assessed the crossmodal correspondence between the five basic tastes and colours in four groups of participants from mainland China, India, Malaysia, and the USA. The participants were presented with a random sequence of 11 colour patches (black, blue brown, green, grey, orange, pink, purple, red, white, and yellow). One of these colour patches appeared in the centre of the screen at the start of each trial. The participants had to click and drag the colour patch onto one corner of a taste pentagon centred on the colour patch at the start of the trial (see Fig. 1 ).
Fig. 1
Screen shot from Wan et al.’s [ 71 ] study assessing the crossmodal correspondence between colour and taste. Participants had to drag the colour patch to the matching taste
The results revealed that the black colour patch was associated with bitterness, green with sourness, pink with sweetness, and white with a salty taste (see Fig. 2 ). Note how these results are broadly consistent with those reported in the other studies that have been documented in this section (see Table 2 ). However, beyond the introduction of a novel internet-based methodology for testing crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste, a second aim of Wan et al.’s study was to more systematically look at any cross-cultural differences in colour-taste correspondences (cf. [ 4 ] for a cross-cultural study of shape-taste correspondences). The cross-cultural similarities/differences in the patterns of responding that were observed are highlighted in Fig. 3 . While the results across the four different countries are globally similar, some important local cultural differences were also observed. So, for example, if one looks at the number of participants who matched each of the tastes with the white colour patch, then visual inspection of the results highlights the fact that the Chinese participants were much less likely to pick salt as the most appropriate taste than were those participants from any of the other three countries tested in their study.
Fig. 2
The taste-colour correspondences documented by Wan et al. [ 71 ]. The percentage of bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and umami taste terms chosen for each of the colour patches are represented by the colours black, white, green, pink, and blue, respectively. (Figure reprinted from Wan et al. [ 71 ])
Fig. 3
Cross-cultural similarities/differences in the basic taste word chosen for each of the colour patches in Wan et al.’s [ 71 ] study of crossmodal correspondences between colour (hue) and taste in four different countries. The percentage of bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and umami taste terms chosen for each of the colour patches are represented by the colours black, white, green, pink, and blue, respectively
One of the other questions that Wan et al. [ 71 ] asked their participants concerned how confident they were in terms of the colours that they chose for each of the tastes (following [ 29 ]). 5 Specifically, they had to report how confident they were that other people would respond in the same way that they had. Responses were made by indicating a point on a 5-point horizontal scale with the following options, arranged from left to right: Very unconfident, unconfident, uncertain, confident, and very confident. Analysis of the data (see Fig. 4 ) revealed that the participants were not especially confident in matching colours to tastes (the mean rating was 3.62 when the 5 confidence ratings were assigned values of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively). These results are particularly interesting in that they show that individually, people are not all that confident that the crossmodal mappings between colours and tastes are shared. 6 Notice how it is only when the data from the participants is combined that clear answers (that is, a consensual response) start to emerge. Given such a pattern of results, it can be argued that chefs and food companies alike would benefit from large-scale online studies (such as reported by [ 71 ]) when choosing their crossmodal matches.
Fig. 4
a Confidence ratings of all participants (i.e. collapsing across nationality) when they chose each taste as the best match for a specific colour in Wan et al.’s [ 71 ] study. b Mean confidence ratings for the correspondence between each colour and each taste in Wan et al.’s [ 71 ] study. Error bars represent the standard errors of the means. c Scatterplot showing the positive correlation between the mean average rating and the chosen counts of each taste term for each colour in Wan et al.’s [ 71 ] study
Limitations and considerations
Taken together, the results of the five studies reported in this section tell a remarkably consistent story: The colour black (and possibly also purple/violet) is widely associated with bitter, salty is white, or possibly blue, sour is yellow and possibly green, and sweet is pink and/or red (see Table 2 ). Moreover, this consensus was reached despite the fact that dramatically different sample sizes were used and the various studies were conducted in different countries in different decades with very different aims by the researchers concerned. It is worth pausing to consider the following two issues. As shown in Table 2 , the studies vary regarding the participants who were tested. As is all too frequently the case in psychology research, O’Mahony [ 35 ] and Koch and Koch [ 28 ] only tested university students. The sample tested in these studies therefore likely qualify as biased toward WEIRD individuals who, following Henrich et al. [ 25 ] acronym, represent the small minority of people leaving in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic countries. By contrast, the other three (larger) studies [ 24 , 65 , 71 ] were all recruited from a broader demographic base. Nevertheless, the results of these five studies look broadly similar, thus implying that the WEIRDo’s in this case were not so strange after all, or perhaps, more reassuringly, that such crossmodal correspondences transcend education and cultural background.
Note also how more than three decades separate the first and last of the five studies reported in this section. In that time, people’s associations with certain food colours have undoubtedly changed. One illustration of this comes from the various blue foods that one finds in the supermarket nowadays: Rolling the clocks back to the 1970s and 1980s, many researchers used to advise us that blue foods were an absolute no-no in the marketplace and would never succeed. For example, according to Watson ([ 72 ], pp. 66–67): “We have a deep-seated dislike of blue foods. Take a trip through a supermarket and see how many blue ones you can find. They are rare in nature and equally rare in our artificial hunting grounds. No sweet manufacturer ever successfully marketed a blue confection, and no blue soft drink or ice cream appeared on sale for very long.” Nowadays, by contrast, blue drinks are reasonably common in the drinks aisles (see [ 19 , 49 ]). Interestingly, though, despite these historical changes, visual inspection of Table 2 certainly does not reveal much in the way of obvious changes or trends in colour-taste matching over the decades. In other words, the crossmodal correspondences between colours (hues) and basic tastes appear to have remained fairly consistent over the last three decades. This might again hint at the important difference between this kind of crossmodal correspondence and the semantic (conceptual) associations that we all learn between the colours and tastes of specific foods or food brands. Careful inspection of Table 2 might, though, suggest another explanation for the choice of the colour (or colours) that is (are) associated with a given basic taste. As the range of alternative colours (hues) that the participants in these various studies have been offered varies, the possibility remains that a given choice is simply the least bad of the options that was made available to the participants. One can see, for example, that pink was always chosen as a match for a sweet taste when it was one of the response options. Unfortunately, however, this option was only available to the participants in two of the five studies shown in Table 2 , namely Heller [ 24 ] and Wan et al. [ 71 ].
Finally, the fact that taste words, rather than actual tastants, were used in all of the studies that have been conducted to date could also be considered as something of a limitation (cf. [ 53 ]). One specific problem with using taste words is that many participants (especially those in the West) are unsure of what the term ‘umami’ actually refers to. 7 That said, having participants pick the colours that would match the four or five pure tastants in solution could introduce its own difficulties, as people sometimes confuse the identity of pure tastants when presented in solution. So, for example, people sometimes/often identify sour solutions as bitter (e.g. [ 36 ]). Hence, on balance, and considering the ease of use of taste words in online research, our preference (and that of the other researchers whose work has been reviewed in this section) would still be to go with taste words rather than actual tastants. 8
Now it is important to note that we, and prior researchers, have somewhat simplified the problem by choosing to focus only on the four or five most common of the basic tastes. Over recent years, there has been a growth of evidence to suggest that there might be a number of other basic tastes (some suggest as many as 23 or more, see [ 62 ]) including fatty acid taste and metallic. Anyone wanting to assess the colour matches for these less familiar tastes may well need to revert to delivering actual tastants.
And on the flip side, one could, of course, also question the appropriateness of using colour names rather than actual colours, as occurred in all but one of the studies summarized in Table 2 . Bear in mind here only the potential difficulty associated with knowing exactly how coloured stimuli appear on screen, given the vagaries of different monitor characteristics when one wants to conduct one’s studies online. Nevertheless, despite these minor concerns, the main point to draw from the summary of the results of those studies reviewed in this section is just how consistent colour-taste mappings are, across culture, across time, and across different experimental paradigms.
Synaesthesia vs. crossmodal correspondences
Does the research that has been reviewed above demonstrate that we can all, in some sense ‘taste colours’? Some researchers and designers have certainly wanted to conclude that the tendency to associate colours with tastes reflects a kind of universal synaesthesia (e.g. [ 45 ]). Early on, Déjerine [ 10 ] coined the term chromatic gustation (or la gustation colorée) to describe those individuals who reported experiencing certain colours (concurrents) on tasting specific foods (the inducing stimulus). 9 However, here, it is important to note that while intriguing, it turns out that such cases of chromatic gustation are, in fact, extremely rare (see [ 6 , 15 ] for case studies, and see [ 9 ] for a summary of different types of synaesthesia).
Some case studies of chromatic gustation are very striking. For instance, the synaesthete “S”, who was thoroughly tested a little over a century ago by Downey [ 15 ] experienced very vivid colour concurrents that could last for up to 10 min. 10 These colour concurrents were localized to the mouth and tended to be stronger when S closed his eyes (see [ 15 ], p. 528). Downey carefully controlled stimulus delivery so we can be certain that it really was the tastes (in the gustatory sense) of the stimuli that were the inducer in this case. 11 Another interesting finding was that while colour concurrents were triggered by pure tastants, they were not elicited by food-related odours. 12
Crucially, though, the relationship between the inducing taste and the concurrent colour in chromatic gustation synaesthesia is unidirectional [ 13 ]. That is, in every case that we are aware of, it was the taste (or flavour) of a food or drink that induced a particular colour concurrent, and not vice versa. By contrast, as reviewed in the “ Crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste words: the empirical evidence ” section, people (all non-synaesthetes as far as we are aware) can both pick colours for tastes, and match tastes to colours: In other words, the crossmodal correspondence between taste and colour appears to be bi-directional, hence illustrating one of the key differences between these widespread crossmodal correspondences and synaesthesia. Another key difference between these two phenomena is that the synaesthete actually sees the colour on tasting the food, whereas the average non-synaesthetic observer in the studies reported in the “ Crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste words: the empirical evidence ” section merely expects, or guesses, the association between colour and taste without actually experiencing the colour itself on thinking about a particular taste, or on being given a specific taste. Finally, the inducer-concurrent associations that are experienced by synaesthetes tend to be fixed over a lifetime (or at least remain fixed for as long as the synaesthete can remember). By contrast, novel crossmodal correspondences can, in certain cases at least, be learnt over a surprisingly small number of exposures to a new statistical regularity in the environment or psychophysics laboratory [ 17 ].
The existence of chromatic gustation synaesthesia and, more generally, the unusual experiences reported by representatives of the roughly 4 % of the population who count as synaesthetes have often been used as inspiration in the fields of art and design (e.g. [ 23 ]). Here, though, we wish to argue that the idiosyncratic nature of the synaesthete’s concurrents (this, in fact, being a defining feature of the condition, at least according to some researchers; see [ 21 ]) means that it is going to be exceedingly difficult to take the concurrent colours that are experienced by a chromatic gustation synaesthete as a useful source of information when it comes to trying to generate specific expectations of taste based on colour that work with the public at large. That said, it should not come as any surprise if it turns out that certain of the taste inducer-colour concurrent mappings reported in those synaesthetes with chromatic gustation end-up matching, at least in a subset of cases, the taste-colour correspondences reported by non-synaesthetes: S, for instance, reported seeing green on being given a sour taste [ 15 ]. After all, the combination of 10 colours and 5 basic tastes is not so large that some synaesthetes will not present one of the 6–8 associations found in non-synaesthetes by chance. It would also not be all that surprising if (in fact, one might expect that) the matchings learned by individual synaesthetes are constrained by the highly regular correspondences that are present in every one of us (see [ 14 ]).
Where do crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste come from?
Having established the robustness of the crossmodal correspondences that exist between colours and basic tastes, and having shown that the same mappings appear to hold across a number of distinct cultural groups, the most obvious next question is to wonder where these mappings come from, if not reflecting an example of synaesthesia. Over the years, at least five main classes of explanation have been put forward in order to explain crossmodal correspondences (see [ 12 , 54 ]) and seem relevant to explaining the taste-colour case (and note here that these various explanations need not be considered as mutually exclusive):
1)
The structural account: According to this account, certain correspondences may have a structural origin, meaning that they reflect the inherent structural, wiring, or processing constraints of the human brain (that is, they are not learnt). One example of such a structural correspondence might, for example, be the mapping of more intense stimuli across sensory modalities, given the similar way in which stimulus intensity is coded across the senses (namely as an increase in neural firing; see [ 54 , 60 ]). 13
2)
The statistical account: According to a second account (one with perhaps the most explanatory power), crossmodal correspondences may simply reflect the internalization (in the observer) of the statistical regularities of the environment (e.g. [ 75 ]). So, for example, the fact that sounds having a higher pitch tend to be localized higher in space is a result of the fact that small objects tend (on average) to make it further from the ground, combined with the filtering properties of the outer ear (see [ 40 ]). Relevant here, developmental data shows that already, by 6 months of age, the infant can internalize the relationship between the colour of the cup and the taste of the contents ([ 46 ]; see also [ 30 ]).
3)
Semantic (or linguistic) correspondences: The third popular account is the semantic (or linguistic) one [ 69 ] and is based on the observation that we often use the same descriptors for qualitatively different sensory impressions. According to the proponents of this thesis, the common use of the same terms might provide the basis for linking sensations across the senses [ 33 ]. 14 It is certainly possible that the semantic/linguistic account may build on the statistical regularities of the environment—so, for example, the reason why people associate sounds having a higher frequency with the word ‘high’ may be because such sounds are, statistically speaking, more likely to come from higher in space (see [ 40 ]).
4)
Use of the availability heuristic: A fourth potential account for what may be going on in colour-taste matching studies is that the participants involved might simply be using the availability heuristic (e.g. [ 27 , 43 ]). In other words, the participants in the various studies reported in the “ Crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste words: the empirical evidence ” section might have been judging as most appropriate for a given taste, those food colours that they could most easily and immediately bring to mind as exemplifying a given taste. So, for example, when asked what colour goes with a sour taste, those who thought of (in the sense either of creating a mental image or merely activating the concept) a lemon end up saying yellow, whereas those who bring to mind a lime choose green instead. Indeed, none of the studies assessing the crossmodal correspondence between taste and colour reported in the “ Crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste words: the empirical evidence ” section controlled for mental imagery [ 56 ]. 15
5)
Affective correspondences: According to the affective mediation account, people may simply want to match pairs of stimuli if they happen to evoke the same feeling or emotion or are known to be associated with the same affective state (e.g. [ 5 , 39 , 66 , 68 ]). Relevant here is the longstanding literature showing that colours are associated with emotions [ 37 , 38 , 52 ]. Similarly, hedonic responses are also associated with/triggered by the presentation of basic tastes [ 3 , 44 , 47 , 59 ]. Hence, given what is already known, the participants in the studies reported in the “ Crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste words: the empirical evidence ” section could, presumably, potentially be matching based on the hedonic value or emotion associated with each individual stimulus. No one has, though, as least not as far as we are aware, proposed an affective mediation account specifically of the crossmodal correspondence between colours and basic tastes. That said, it is worth noting that the affective account has recently gained traction as a plausible explanation for the crossmodal correspondence between colours and both fragrances [ 48 ] and music [ 39 ]. Further investigation of the affective mediation account could presumably utilize a version of the clever experimentation introduced recently by Palmer et al. [ 39 ]. 16
The key question here, then, is which account (or accounts) provides the best explanation for the results that have been published to date? Looking back over the literature, the explanation that most writers have reached for when trying to explain the crossmodal correspondence between colour and taste is that it reflects the internalization of the statistical regularities of the environment. So, for example, according to Watson [ 72 ]: “As true scavengers, we went looking for a wide variety of foods. These had certain characteristics in common which helped protomen find and recognize them and which still determine our choice of food today. Color is one of the most obvious. Ripe fruits are usually some shade of red or orange, roots and shoots are yellowish, nuts and edible animals are often brown. All these are warm colors that would have been distinctive against the green of foliage or grass. We still seek them out and tend to avoid the cold colours.” Elsewhere, Koch and Koch [ 28 ] tentatively suggest that: “the relationship between color and taste may reflect only the frequency with which certain colors and foods or drinks have been paired.” 17
Indeed, one suggestion that has been made by a number of researchers is that the association of green and red to sour and sweet, respectively, comes from our brain’s having picked up on the environmental regularity that many fruits do indeed transition from green, unripe, and sour through to ripe, red, and sweet (e.g. [ 72 ]). However, while this kind of account may work for the mapping of the sour and sweet tastes to colours, one can question the generalizability of this kind of explanation for the other basic tastes.
Indeed, according to Maga [ 31 ]: “numerous foods of varying color can be characterized as tasting salty, examples would be pretzels (brown), potato chips (yellow), popcorn (white), olives (green, black), and pickles (green).” 18 According to Maga, then, a straightforward statistical account fails to do the work here. 19 Presumably, it is the intuitive plausibility of the statistical account that explains its widespread and seemingly uncritical, acceptance by the majority of those working in this area. However, it needs to be remembered that until someone conducts a thorough analysis of the natural scene statistics as far as food colours and the tastes that are associated with them is concerned, it should be treated as little more than a plausible, and we admit intuitively pleasing, but ultimately yet to be validated assertion (see [ 1 ] on the danger of evolutionary psychology’s ‘just-so stories’). After all, if the association between salt and white comes from the crystalline substance most of us have in our kitchens, one might ask why sweet should not also be white, since sucrose, a major source of sweetness in our diet, is also commonly seen in crystals of that colour? Of course, it might be argued that the red, ripe, sweet association trumps the white sugar crystals account.
A possible semantic underpinning to the crossmodal correspondence between basic tastes and colours remains to be explored. Introspection might suggest that taste words are not commonly used to describe colours (at least not in the English language). 20 Indeed, early analyses of various language corpora suggested that the use of taste words to describe colours would be more frequent, but that the use of colour words to characterize tastes was prevented by the directionality of the transfer of adjectives (see [ 74 ])—if this claim was true, then linguistic habits could not account for the bi-directionality of the mappings. Such a conclusion will most likely have to be revised, though, given the results of Werning et al.’s [ 73 ] systematic study. They presented German speakers with all possible combinations of adjectives and showed that expressions applying olfactory and gustatory adjectives to colours were as easy to understand as those where colours were used to characterize smells and tastes. The bi-directionality of linguistic mappings therefore might serve to re-open the debate concerning the validity of the semantic hypothesis.
Finally, it is perhaps worth noting that, at least as far as we are aware, no one has offered a structural account of the correspondence between colour and basic taste. The same is not true of the relation between brightness and intensity of taste, which might, presumably, be explained by a common coding of stimulus intensity.
Utilizing the crossmodal correspondence between colour and taste
While theoretical models of the underlying mechanism(s) that best account for taste-colour correspondences are still being refined, putting these research findings to use has started to bring new insights into their perceptual and evaluative consequences. For example, one chef who has incorporated these results into the design of the dishes he serves is Jozef Youssef ( https://kitchen-theory.com/ ). At a series of dining events running in Maida Vale, London, in early 2015, an amuse bouche was served that was named simply: “Sweet, sour, salty and bitter” (see Fig. 5a ). The challenge for the diner, though, was to decide which colour corresponds to which taste.
Fig. 5
a Salty, bitter, sour, and sweet, the amuse bouches served at Synaesthesia by Kitchen Theory (see https://kitchen-theory.com/ ). The spoons are brought to the table in a random arrangement, and it is the diner’s job to sort the tastes by means of colour. The spoons in the figure have been arranged in the intended order as implied by the name (from left to right). This dish was inspired by the latest cross-cultural research demonstrating the robust crossmodal correspondences that exist between colour and taste (see [ 71 ]). These stimuli were shown to the participants in the offline study. b Results of the offline study in which 69 participants viewed the amuse bouche shown in a and had to try and match the appropriate taste with the matching coloured spoon. c Simplified amuse bouches (garnish removed). These stimuli were shown online to the participants in the online study. d Results of the online study in which participants viewed the amuse bouche shown in c online and had to try and match the appropriate taste with the matching coloured spoon
We recently conducted a study on a group of 69 MBA students (21 females, 41 males, the remaining participants not specifying their age, mean age = 29.1 years, SD = 3.5) from Oxford University’s Saïd Business School to see how easy people would find this crossmodal matching task. 21 The studies reported here were reviewed and approved by the Central University Research Ethics Committee (CUREC) of the University of Oxford. The data collection was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and informed consent was obtained from all participants in both offline and online settings. The data from two of the participants was excluded from the analysis as they failed to follow the instructions (reporting the same taste for more than one colour). A Pearson’s chi-square performed on the association between the taste responses and the coloured amuse bouches revealed a significant association between the two, χ 2 = 140.597, df = 9, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .418, p < .001. A summary of the pairwise comparisons is presented in Table 3 . The results are clearly non-random with a little over half of the participants (52.24 %) correctly decoding the chef’s intentions (see Fig. 5b ).
Table 3
Frequencies and pairwise comparisons from offline and online tests of people’s ability to correctly associate the coloured amuse bouche shown in Fig. 5a , c with one of the four basic tastes
Colour
3a
6a
The values in bold indicate the most frequently selected taste. Each subscript letter denotes a subset of colour categories whose proportions do not differ significantly from each other at the .05 level reading across a row
Looking at Fig. 5a , it is obvious that a number of factors are varying all at once here: colour, certainly, but also the presence vs. absence of a garnish. While an argument can perhaps be made that this is an essentially unavoidable element of actual culinary delivery, such uncontrolled variation in one’s stimuli clearly fails to satisfy experimental standards. We therefore decided to repeat the matching experiment, but now using unadorned visual colour stimuli with the aim of extending and replicating the results of our offline experiment, online. The online study included a group of 104 participants (35 females, mean age = 34 years, SD = 12). The participants were presented with the stimuli shown in Fig. 5c and separately with those shown in Fig. 6 . The order in which the two sets of stimuli were presented was randomized across participants. Furthermore, the positioning of each of the four or five stimuli was also randomized from one participant to the next. The online participants had to select the taste word that they felt best matched each of the stimuli. The results (see Fig. 5d ) were analysed using a Pearson’s chi-square analysis. Once again, a significant association was revealed between the basic tastes and the colours of the amuse bouche, χ 2 = 626.000, df = 9, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .708, p < .001.
Fig. 6
The five basic tastes sweet, sour bitter, salty, and umami as conceptualized by London-based designed Jialin Deng for a range of tableware. (Figure reprinted with permission from ( http://jialindeng.wix.com/whispery-savoury ))
The results revealed that, overall, 77.64 % of the participants got all of the pairings correct (or, better said, decoded the chef's intentions). The fact that not everyone got the pairings 100 % correct is interesting in its own right. First, one might question whether the specific hue of the colours was quite right. The descriptor green, or red, obviously covers a number of shades, and the crossmodal correspondence studies that have been reported to date (see the “ Crossmodal correspondences between colour and taste words: the empirical evidence ” section) have not gone beyond either the name of a colour, or else selected a particular shade. A summary of the pairwise comparisons is presented in Table 3 . Note that, in contrast to the results of the offline experiment, the intended colour/taste associations were reflected in the matchings of most of the participants.
In summary, the results of these two experiments demonstrate that people are far better than chance at identifying the intended taste of each of chef Youssef’s amuse bouche. However, the absence of perfect agreement, which will not surprise the psychologists, can be a problem when it comes to an actual dish, which should presumably work for everyone? 22 Looking back at Table 2 , it can be seen that salty is not uniquely matched with white, but also with blue. Similarly, the sour taste appears to be associated with green for some people but with yellow for others. And while many people match sweet with red, a not insubstantial number of people chose pink when that option was offered. Finally, both brown/black and violet/purple appear to be associated with the bitter taste. Such observations lead to the suggestion that if both colours were combined in each amuse bouche, people might would do even better in terms of decoding the chef's intentions. 23 What would happen, for instance, if the white amuse bouche were to be served on a blue spoon, the green amuse bouche on a yellow spoon, the red one on a pink spoon, and the browny/black one on a spoon of violet/purple colour? 24
Is this, the use of crossmodal correspondences to guide the presentation of a dish, anything more than a fad one might ask? Well, only time will tell. But already we have seen another chef Xavier Gomez, from Porto Allegre in Brazil, serving a version of this dish to the diners at a couple of dining events that were held recently (see http://xavier260.com/ ).
Tasty plateware
Another individual who is using the insights established by the scientific research is Jialin Deng. Coming from a design background, she has created a set of stimuli (prototypes for plateware that exist, thus far, only digitally) that she hopes that people will associate with one of the five basic tastes (see Fig. 6 ). We have conducted both offline (using the same group of students at the Saïd Business School, the data of two additional participants was excluded from the analysis for the same reasons as mentioned earlier) and online versions of the study (conducted at the same time as the other online study mentioned earlier). The results revealed that, overall, 54.15 % of the participants in the offline study and 46.15 % in the online study agreed with the intentions of the designer (see Fig. 7a , b , respectively). Pearson’s chi-squares revealed a significant association between the different designs and the taste words for both the offline, χ 2 = 271.077, df = 16, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .457, p < .001, and online study, χ 2 = 287.500, df = 16, p < .001, Cramer’s V = .372, p < .001. A summary of the pairwise comparisons is shown in Table 4 . (Note here that directly comparing these results with chef Jozef Youssef’s espherified spoons is difficult given the inclusion of the fifth taste, umami, in Deng’s plateware designs). 25
Fig. 7
Results of the offline (a) and online (b) studies in which the five stimuli shown in Fig. 6 were presented to participants who had to associate each visual stimulus with one of the five basic tastes
Table 4
Frequencies and pairwise comparisons from offline and online tests of people’s ability to correctly associate the colourful plateware designs shown in Fig. 7 with one of the five basic tastes
Colour
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Which US President was known as 'The Rail-Splitter' and 'The Great Emancipator'? | Holidays: Lincoln's Birthday in United States
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Lincoln's Birthday in United States
Quick Facts
Lincoln’s Birthday is observed in the United States in honor of Abraham Lincoln, who was the nation’s 16th president and was known as the Great Emancipator.
Local names
See list of observations below
Lincoln’s Birthday celebrates the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, one of the most popular presidents in United States history. It is a state holiday in some states on or around February 12 each year.
The day is also known as Abraham Lincoln’s Birthday, Abraham Lincoln Day or Lincoln Day. Some states observe the day as part of Presidents’ Day , which is officially known as Washington’s Birthday.
Abraham Lincoln (image pictured above) is one of the United States' most popular presidents. ©iStockphoto.com/Chris Howells
What do people do?
Various activities such as re-enactments, concerts and birthday parties are often organized for the day. Organizations such as the Indiana Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission, Kentucky Lincoln Heritage Trail, and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum often plan large-scale events to honor and remember Lincoln on or around his birthday.
A wreath-laying ceremony and reading of the Gettysburg Address at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC are traditional events on February 12. Republican Party members may also hold Lincoln Day fundraising dinners because he is known as the first president of the Republican Party.
Public life
Lincoln’s Birthday is a public holiday in the following states on February 12:
Connecticut.
Missouri.
New Jersey.
New York (Lincoln's Birthday is a floating holiday for state government employees in certain bargaining units).
Many government offices, schools and businesses are closed within most these states (see status for New York, above) on this day. Lincoln’s Birthday is also absorbed into Presidents’ Day in other parts of the United States, such as Arizona, Maryland, Michigan, Ohio, and West Virginia.
Background
Abraham Lincoln was born in Hardin County, Kentucky, on February 12 in 1809. He lived for a time in Indiana before moving to Illinois. He worked on a farm, split rails for fences, worked in a store, was a captain in the Black Hawk War, and worked as a lawyer. He married Mary Todd and together they had four boys, only one of whom lived to maturity.
Lincoln began his political career at the age of 23 in 1832 when he ran an unsuccessful campaign for the Illinois General Assembly, as a Whig Party member. He joined the newly formed Republican Party in 1854 and was nationally recognized during the 1858 debates with Stephen Douglas despite Douglas’ win in the race for US Senator. Lincoln won the presidency in 1860 and, despite being a Republican, rallied most of the northern Democrats to the Union case during the Civil War (1861-65).
Lincoln was known as the Great Emancipator, the Rail Splitter and Honest Abe. He was the president throughout the American Civil War and is known for his struggle to preserve the Union and the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre in Washington DC on Good Friday, April 14, 1865. The assassination occurred less than two weeks after the Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox Court House in 1865.
It has been recorded that Lincoln’s Birthday was first celebrated as a holiday in 1866, one year after his death. Many states have a joint holiday to honor both Lincoln and George Washington, sometimes calling it Presidents’ Day.
Symbols
Various museums and monuments are dedicated to Abraham Lincoln. Various artworks, such as paintings, drawings, statues and photographs, have been created in Lincoln’s image and preserved to honor him. Examples include:
Lincoln’s likeness on Mount Rushmore
Lincoln’s portrait on the American five dollar bill.
The Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC.
Daniel Chester French’s sculpture inside the Lincoln Memorial.
The Lincoln stamp issued in 1965.
The Lincoln Tomb in Springfield, Illinois.
The nature of Lincoln’s death made him a martyr in the eyes of many Americans and many polls have ranked Lincoln as one of the greatest presidents in United States history.
Lincoln's Birthday Observances
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Which resort is the site of the art deco Midland Hotel and Happy Mount Park, the venue for the short-lived 'The World of Crinkley Bottom'? | Lincoln's Birthday in the United States
Home Calendar Holidays the United States Lincoln's Birthday
Lincoln's Birthday in the United States
Lincoln’s Birthday celebrates the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, one of the most popular presidents in United States history. It is a state holiday in some states on or around February 12. It's also known as Abraham Lincoln’s Birthday, Abraham Lincoln Day or Lincoln Day.
Abraham Lincoln (image pictured above) is one of the United States' most popular presidents.
Abraham Lincoln (image pictured above) is one of the United States' most popular presidents.
©iStockphoto.com/Chris Howells
Celebrate Lincoln's Birthday
Some states observe the day as part of Presidents’ Day , which is officially known as Washington’s Birthday.
Various activities such as re-enactments, concerts and birthday parties are often organized for the day. Organizations such as the Indiana Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission, Kentucky Lincoln Heritage Trail, and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum often plan large-scale events to honor and remember Lincoln on or around his birthday.
A wreath-laying ceremony and reading of the Gettysburg Address at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC are traditional events on February 12. Republican Party members may also hold Lincoln Day fundraising dinners because he is known as the first president of the Republican Party.
Public Life
Lincoln’s Birthday is a public holiday in some states including:
California. (Many schools, courts and businesses are closed. However, some offices and businesses remain open.)
Connecticut.
Missouri. (Many schools remain open.)
New Jersey.
New Mexico.
New York (Lincoln's Birthday is a floating holiday for state government employees in certain bargaining units).
West Virginia.
Many government offices are closed within most these states. Some schools are open, so it is best to check with your local school district. Some businesses also remain open. Not all states observe the day on the same date. Lincoln’s Birthday is also absorbed into Presidents’ Day in other parts of the United States, such as Arizona, Maryland, Michigan, Ohio, and West Virginia. It is a legal observance in Florida.
About Lincoln's Birthday
Abraham Lincoln was born in Hardin County, Kentucky, on February 12 in 1809. He lived for a time in Indiana before moving to Illinois. He worked on a farm, split rails for fences, worked in a store, was a captain in the Black Hawk War, and worked as a lawyer. He married Mary Todd and together they had four boys, only one of whom lived to maturity.
Lincoln began his political career at the age of 23 in 1832 when he ran an unsuccessful campaign for the Illinois General Assembly, as a Whig Party member. He joined the newly formed Republican Party in 1854 and was nationally recognized during the 1858 debates with Stephen Douglas despite Douglas’ win in the race for US Senator. Lincoln won the presidency in 1860 and, despite being a Republican, rallied most of the northern Democrats to the Union case during the Civil War (1861-65).
Lincoln was known as the Great Emancipator, the Rail Splitter and Honest Abe. He was the president throughout the American Civil War and is known for his struggle to preserve the Union and the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre in Washington DC on Good Friday, April 14, 1865. The assassination occurred less than two weeks after the Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox Court House in 1865.
It has been recorded that Lincoln’s Birthday was first celebrated as a holiday in 1866, one year after his death. Many states have a joint holiday to honor both Lincoln and George Washington, sometimes calling it Presidents’ Day.
Symbols
Various museums and monuments are dedicated to Abraham Lincoln. Various artworks, such as paintings, drawings, statues and photographs, have been created in Lincoln’s image and preserved to honor him. Examples include:
Lincoln’s likeness on Mount Rushmore
Lincoln’s portrait on the American five dollar bill.
The Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC.
Lincoln's Birthday Observances
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Which Canadian province lies immediately east of British Columbia? | British Columbia
British Columbia
British Columbia
British Columbia (BC) is located on the westernmost part of Canada and is renowned for its scenic natural beauty. It was the sixth Canadian province formed in 1871.
Geography
The province of British Columbia has the Pacific Ocean to the west, Alaska to the northwest, and to its north lie the Yukon and Northwest Territories . Alberta province lies on the east of British Columbia, and towards the south, there are the Washington, Idaho, and Montana states of U.S.A. British Columbia�s land area occupies about 364,800 sq mi, while the rugged coastline extends for approximately 17,000 mi. There are several parks as well as protected areas in British Columbia. Some of the national parks include:
� Glacier National Park
� Gulf Islands National Park Reserve
� Kootenay National Park
� Mount Revelstoke National Park
Climate
British Columbia enjoys mainly mild and temperate climate and is known for the warmest and finest weather in entire Canada. British Columbia�s weather ranges from moderate (marine) to continental and is predominantly influenced by the Pacific Ocean, the towering mountains, the westerly winds blowing through the region and the northern latitude of the province. The northern part of British Columbia has colder winters and cooler summers compared to the remaining parts of the province.
History
Stone tools discovery on the Beatton River close to Fort St. John point to human habitation in British Columbia to more than 11500 years back. Explorations by James Cook during the 1770s and George Vancouver in 1792 firmly established British control on the coastal area, towards the north and western sides of Columbia River. Most of the explorers were primarily concerned with furthering the fur trade. The building of trading posts under the banners of North West Company and Hudson Bay Company led to the development of a strong British presence in the area.
Demographics
English ethnic origin percentage is the highest in British Columbia followed by Scottish, Irish, German, Chinese, French, East Indian and others. Large proportions of immigrants have lived in this province for 30 years or so. British Columbia also contained the highest visible minorities� population compared to other Canadian provinces.
Economy
British Columbia�s economy mainly was based on forestry industry and mining. Employment in resource areas has fallen with time, and jobs nowadays have been concentrated in the retail/service and construction sectors. The film industry in British Columbia is known as Hollywood North. Vancouver is the third biggest film producing location in the continent apart from Los Angeles and New York City. Economic activity in relation to mining has witnessed dramatic changes in British Columbia.
Cities
Victoria is the capital city of British Columbia. The city of Vancouver has the highest population. Other main cities of this province include:
� Surrey
| Alberta |
Who did Cassius Clay defeat in February 1964 to become World Heavyweight Boxing Champion? | British Columbia
British Columbia, Canada
The Land
British Columbia is Canada's westernmost province and one of North America's most mountainous regions. B.C. is bordered by the province of Alberta, the Yukon Territory and several U.S. states, including Alaska. Given its location, British Columbia is a gateway to the Pacific and Asia. Sometimes simply categorized as part of Canada's "West," the province is actually a distinct region both geographically and culturally.
The variety of its landscape is the main reason for B.C.'s distinctiveness: its 947 800 km2 offer remarkable topographical contrasts. Where the Pacific Ocean reaches the continent, it meets a chain of islands, large and small, running from north to south. Some of these islands are nestled in fiords carved in the majestic Coastal Mountains, which rise more than 2000 m above sea level.
To the east of the Coastal Mountains lies a rolling upland of forests, natural grasslands and lakes. Farther east, the Rocky Mountains (with peaks more than 4000 m high) separate B.C. from neighbouring Alberta. In the north, a small corner of the province is occupied by the Great Plains.
The province's climate equals its topography for variety. For example, the mild coastal region receives abundant precipitation - from 130 to 380 cm of rain a year - while the interior has a continental climate. Other parts of the province are almost desert-like, with very hot summers followed by very cold winters.
The History
The Aboriginal peoples of British Columbia developed a rich and complex culture. Because of the diversity of the Pacific coast - mild to cold climate, seashore to mountains - the tribes that settled in this area developed completely different cultures and languages.
The coastal inhabitants were experts at wood sculpture, as their totem polls attest even today. They were also famous for their skill and courage in whaling. As for their social system, it was marked by occasions such as the potlatch - a ceremony in which important gifts were given to guests - and by theatrical displays.
In 1774, the first Europeans, under the flag of Spain, visited what is now British Columbia. In contrast with eastern Canada, where the English and French were the two nationalities fighting over territory, Spain and Russia were the first countries to claim ownership of certain parts of British Columbia. In the 18th century, the Spanish claimed the west coast from Mexico to Vancouver Island. At the same time, the Russians were making an overlapping claim for control of the Pacific coast from Alaska to San Francisco.
In 1778, Captain James Cook of Great Britain became the first person to chart the region. The first permanent colony, in present-day Victoria, was established by the British in 1843.
When gold was discovered in the lower Fraser Valley in 1857, thousands of people came in search of instant wealth. To help maintain law and order, the British government established the colony of British Columbia the following year. In 1866, when the frenzy of the gold rush was over, the colony of Vancouver Island joined British Columbia.
The colony was cut off from the rest of British North America by thousands of kilometres and a mountain range. The promise of a rail link between the Pacific coast and the rest of Canada convinced British Columbia to join Confederation in 1871.
The People
The majority of B.C.'s inhabitants are of British origin, but the population is enriched by immigrants and descendants of immigrants of all nationalities. More than 100 000 British Columbians are descendants of the thousands of Chinese who took part in the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the late 19th century. Today, Vancouver has North America's second-largest Chinese community. In addition, more than 60 000 of B.C. inhabitants are from India and over 16 000 from Japan. British Columbians of Asian heritage have contributed tremendously to the province's economic and cultural vitality.
The Aboriginal population of British Columbia, which began to decline with the arrival of the first European settlers, is enjoying new strength. It is growing in numbers (more than 165 000 people in 1991) and has developed strong Aboriginal organizations. This new energy coincides with a renaissance in Aboriginal cultural and artistic expression.
British Columbia continues to attract Canadians and foreigners alike: 40 000 persons settle in the province each year, and its population now exceeds 3.8 million - 12 percent of Canada's total. Nearly 60 percent live in the Victoria (capital of the province) and Vancouver areas. Vancouver, the largest dry cargo port on the Pacific coast of North America, is home to more than 1.8 million people, which makes it the third-largest Canadian city.
The Economy
The economy is based on the province's great natural resources, primarily its vast forests, which cover 56 percent of its total area. Conifers from these forests are converted into lumber, newsprint, pulp and paper products, shingles and shakes - about half the total softwood inventory of Canada.
Tourism is the next most important economic sector. Each year, about 15 million people visit British Columbia. With over five million hectares of parkland, the Rocky Mountains remain the biggest attraction. Coastal B.C., with its beaches, hiking trails, artists' colonies, wildlife reserves, whale-sighting locales and other attractions, is not far behind. Of increasing attraction to visitors are the Queen Charlotte Islands, large parts of which have recently been set aside as parkland. The area contains untouched wilderness and unique species of flora. The abandoned Haida village of Ninstints is of such historical and cultural importance that it has been designated a world heritage site by UNESCO.
Mining is the province's third most important economic sector. Copper, gold and zinc are the leading metals extracted from B.C.; sulphur and asbestos are the leading industrial minerals. The most valuable resources, however, are coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Agriculture and fishing, especially salmon fishing, are two other key sectors of the economy of British Columbia, whose dairy cattle are among Canada's most productive. The valleys of the southern interior, principally the Okanagan Valley, are famous for cultivation of tree fruits and grapes and for their wine industry. The cooler, wetter climate of the lower Fraser Valley produces rich crops of berries and vegetables.
Manufacturing in B.C. is still largely resource-based, but is being gradually diversified by high-tech and computer-based industries related to telecommunications and the aerospace and sub-sea industries. British Columbia has the most balanced export market of all Canada's provinces, with the United States, Japan, the European Union and the Pacific Rim countries as its clientele.
� 2003 Vancouver English Centre
| i don't know |
Which university has colleges called Ustinov, St. Aidan's and Grey? | Durham Hill Colleges Bar Crawl — Durham Uni Students
Butler Bar
Quite possibly the largest college bar, Butler College bar is huge. Perhaps cruelly compared to an aircraft hangar, the bar’s high ceiling and perfect white walls did feel barren when it opened alongside the college in 2006, but Butler students have since covered one wall entirely with posters, and there is much more furniture to chose from now, including some incredibly relaxing free-standing hammocks.
Butler Knowledge
Ustinov Bar
Ustinov College , a post graduate college, is an ideal bar for a quiet second drink to start the bar crawl, but its later opening hours (midnight on Friday and Saturday nights) also make it a possibility as a last stop in a bar crawl. The bar itself has plenty of chairs and tables, as well as sofas, and there are plenty of quiet corners to hide in for a while.
Ustinov Knowledge
Van Mildert bar is easily found just down the stairs from Mildert’s reception area, and whilst seating is limited, there is plenty of space to stand and talk in other areas of the JCR .
Van Mildert Knowledge
St Aidan’s Bar
St Aidan’s is the next stop, being a brisk walk away from Mildert. The bar isn’t too easily accessible through the main entrance – carry on walking around the side of the building, and you’ll get to the bar, which juts out from the side of the college. The entrance is around the back of the building. A small bar, Aidan’s has sudden extremes of quiet and loud with bar crawls coming and going which seem more noticeable in Aidan’s than elsewhere.
St Aidan’s Knowledge
St Aidan’s College has its roots in the late 1800s, at first being based on the bailey and dedicated to education of the very few female students at Durham University.
St Mary’s Bar
Down the hill from Aidan’s, across the road and down St Mary’s long drive, Mary’s bar is well hidden – it’s in the building to your right at the end of drive, through the main door, left again, right at the end of the corridor, and at the bottom of the stairs – and quite small. Renowned as Durham’s ‘worst bar’, Mary’s is often the last stop on bar crawls, but sneaking into it early in your bar crawl schedule should lessen your chances of being stuck behind another group on a bar crawl at the bar.
St Mary’s Knowledge
St Mary’s College adopted its name in 1920. It was previously located on Palace Green, near the cathedral.
Grey Bar
Grey College is next, after crossing South Road (past Mary’s main buildings). Grey’s bar is comfortable, and although the bar itself is small, Grey is usually quiet, forgotten by students who dismiss the bar as ‘too quiet’ and ‘hotel-like’.
Grey Knowledge
| Durham |
Which 14th century European national hero was the subject of an opera that premiered in Paris on August 3rd. 1829? | Durham's Colleges - Collingwood College JCR
Home » Prospective Students » About Durham » Durham’s Colleges
Durham’s Colleges
Belonging to a Durham College is very different from just living in Halls. Collingwood, your college, is where you will belong to Sports Teams, go to events, hang out in the bar, eat your meals and join societies. This creates a real sense of community, and each College is very different and has a different personality. At Collingwood, we don’t take ourselves very seriously. We work hard and give our all to everything but we aren’t afraid to get stuck in. This is the place to try a sport you’ve never played before, head a committee, run for a position and do anything else that takes your fancy without hesitation!
Hill vs Bailey
The House of York vs The House of Lancaster. Montagues vs Capulets. TayTay vs Katy Perry. David vs Goliath. Drake vs Meek Mill. The Hill vs The Bailey.
Of all the great rivalries of history, The Hill vs The Bailey is probably the most dramatic, important and bitter. Collingwood is a Hill College – Hill Colleges are found on Elvet Hill along South Road. They are the newer, generally larger and less traditional colleges. The Bailey is home to more traditional (read: boring) colleges housed in older buildings, or maybe even the odd castle. They do things like bang their spoons at formal and have rules which mean you can’t leave the dinner even if you need to go to the loo (yeah. weird.). We’re generally having too much fun to pay attention to them. Summer term sees an immense battle take place between the two rival camps, in the form of the Hill vs Bailey Charity Rugby Matches.
Hill Colleges
Collingwood – The King of The Hill. The one, the only. You know this one.
Grey – our neighbours. There is a saying “Grey by name, Grey by nature” but Grey Students are probably some of the nicest people you will meet here. Their Fireworks Display is the only place to be come Bonfire Night. They’re a gowned college, so their formals are a little lack lustre in our opinion, but their larger events are quite good.
Van Mildert – Mildert has its very own lake and its very own spinning feather statue (yeah, we don’t get it either). Mildert host some great events, and their JCR is a great space.
Trevelyan (Trevs) – Hexagonal. Their bar is weird, feels a bit like an airport lounge. Trevs, somewhat unfairly, has a rep for being ‘the weird college’. But (in the author’s opinion at least), people from Trevs tend to be very sweet and easy to get along with.
Josephine Butler (JoBo) – Durham’s only Self Catered college, but weirdly the furthest away from Tesco. JoBo students live in a little bit of their own bubble, because it’s so far up the hill. They have a little ‘mound’ and comparisons have been drawn to Tellytubbie land.
Ustinov – The Postgraduate college, Ustinov is somewhere you will probably never venture or properly get to know anyone from. Has a great bar that is worth the journey further up the hill!
St Mary’s – Mary’s was, until very recently, Durham’s female only college. They have absolutely gorgeous buildings and grounds. Anyone you meet from here will probably be grumbling about their termly room ballot, and we don’t blame them. They also have an absolutely terrible bar, but host a great Midsummer Ball.
St Aidan’s – SO. MANY. STEPS. Once you get to the top, Aidan’s is an okay place to be. Nothing to write home about, but a generally friendly and cool crowd.
Bailey Colleges
Hatfield – Everyone loves to hate Hatfield. They have a rep for being posh and stuck up, but very few people actually conform to this stereotype. Their huge events are amazing – their Lion in Winter ball being a particular highlight. Their formals, however are a little average to poor. They have weird rules and they happen so often they lose their magic. Also, their bar is reminiscent of a golf club.
University (Castle) – They will go on and on and on and on about belonging to an actual Castle, when in fact they probably don’t live in the castle at all. Apparently very cliquey, the castle crowd is hard to read. For all the stick, they have amazing events (try and get a pal to invite you along to a formal, or even better their summer ball – if you can afford it!) and their bar is really something to be experienced. And I guess it would be fun to live like Harry Potter…
St Chad’s – Small and lovely. They have a beautiful sheltered courtyard in the centre of their lovely building. They’re a very small college, but very sweet too.
St Cuthbert’s Society – Nope, we couldn’t tell you why they’re a ‘society’ not a college. Cuth’s are a great group of people. Very chill and generally very normal. You will probably end up with a very good course friend from Cuths. Despite the fact their main building is on The Bailey, a large proportion of it’s students actually live in it’s Parson Fields building, on the other side of the river.
St John’s – This used to be the Theology college, and still draws a very religious intake. They tend to stick to themselves, but are nice and friendly.
St Hild and St Bede (HildBede) – A weird one. Despite not being situated on either the Hill or the Bailey, HildBede aligns itself with The Bailey colleges. Its the second biggest college in terms of student numbers, and boasts very impressive college grounds. HildBede students are ‘edgy’ and slowly are over taking Hatfield as the college everybody loves to hate. They have great events and know how to have a good time. It is a bit of a trek though, so you might not ever actually go here…
| i don't know |
In physics, what is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time? | Required math: algebra, functions, limits
Required physics: elementary kinematics
Physics frequently requires the calculation of the rate of change of one variable with respect to another. (For a discussion of one such case – the notion of velocity – see here .) If, for example, we want to calculate the velocity of a mass, we can begin by measuring its position at two distinct times and then dividing the distance travelled by the time taken to travel that distance. This will give us the average velocity over that time interval, but it won’t tell us what precise velocity the mass had at any specific time within that interval. We can get a better and better approximation to the velocity at a particular time by taking measurements at time intervals that are closer and closer together, but we are still calculating just the average velocity over a time interval, no matter how short that interval may be. If we tried to use this measurement technique for finding the velocity at once exact instant in time, we would need to take two measurements of the mass’s position at the same time. These two measurements would, of course, be identical so if we attempted to calculate the velocity at that time by dividing the distance travelled by the time interval, we would have to divide zero by zero, which is mathematically forbidden.
As we showed here , the mathematical idea of the limit of a function can be used for finding the value of that function at places where such as things as division by zero occur. So what we would like to do is to define a function that gives the average speed of the mass by the usual method of dividing the distance travelled by the time interval, and then take the limit of that function as the time interval approaches zero. Hopefully, this limit will yield a finite value that we can interpret as the velocity at a specific time.
This notion of the rate of change of one quantity with respect to another is the motivation for the derivative of a function
with respect to the variable
. The derivative gives us the rate of change of a function at each individual point. Going back to the discussion about our speed as we walk along a north-south path, suppose we represent our position
on the path as a function of time:
. The method we used earlier to calculate our average velocity was to measure how far we moved and then divide by the time taken to move that far. If we are at a position
at time
(that’s our starting point) and then we move to position
at time
is
Clearly we can’t use this formula directly if both times are the same (
) since that would involve dividing zero by zero. However, as we saw in the page where we discussed limits, that is exactly the kind of problem we solved there.
We can change the notation slightly so we have a better grasp of what we’re trying to do. If we take
as the reference time, then we can write the later time
as
and the speed formula becomes
Now if we can calculate the limit as the time interval
goes to zero, we should get what we’re looking for: a formula that gives us the speed at one specific point, rather than an average speed over a finite time interval.
In order to proceed further, we would have to know the function
, but we have the general idea of a derivative here. The derivative of a function
is the rate of change with respect to t of the function at each point (provided the original function is defined at that point). The usual notation for the derivative is:
When you study differential calculus, you will encounter formulas for finding the derivatives of all the standard functions such as polynomials, exponentials, trigonometric functions, logarithms and so forth. However, all of these derivatives satisfy the definition we have just given.
As an example, the page on which kinetic energy is discussed shows that if a constant force
acts on a mass located at the origin for a time
, then the mass’s position at that time is
where
is the acceleration produced by the mass (which is just
from Newton’s law). We also showed on that page that the mass’s velocity at time
is
Now, since we know that velocity is rate of change of position, then if we calculate the derivative of
with respect to time
, we should get the equation for the velocity. Those who have studied calculus before will see that this is true already, but let’s apply the definition of the derivative above and see if we can prove it.
We want to calculate
as we hoped. Note that we are able to take the factor of
outside the limit, since
is a constant here.
The key to calculating formulas for derivatives is to transform the expression of which you want the limit to a form where you’re not dividing by zero, and we managed to achieve this above in the second-to-last line, where we were able to cancel the factor of
off the numerator and denominator.
There are formulas which can be derived in similar ways for all the standard algebraic, logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions, as well as standard formulas for products and quotients of functions and for compound functions (functions of other functions). However, what is important to us here is that the derivative is the answer to the physics problem of how to calculate rates of change at specific points.
| Acceleration |
Who played the lead role in the Richard Bean comedy 'One man, Two Guvnor's' in London, and has recently opened in the New York version? | Acceleration - Physics Video by Brightstorm
Acceleration
M.Ed., George Washington University
Dept. chair at a high school
Matt is currently the department chair at a high school in San Francisco. In his spare time, Matt enjoys spending time outdoors with his wife and two kids.
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M.Ed., George Washington University
Dept. chair at a high school
Matt is currently the department chair at a high school in San Francisco. In his spare time, Matt enjoys spending time outdoors with his wife and two kids.
Share
acceleration rate of change velocity
Okay let's talk about acceleration. You've all heard about acceleration when you watch a car advertisement, this car goes 0 to 60 in 5.2 seconds. What they're really telling you how well that car accelerates. So acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, how quickly it can get from a low speed 0 to a very high speed okay?
So let's first look at the units because the units for acceleration can often times be confusing okay? So we have the rate of change of velocity so we have a final velocity minus an initial velocity over time okay? Now remember velocity is like like meters per second it's a distance over time, so if you have a distance over time minus the distance over time we end up with distance over time divided by time, so what we're going to do is we're going to move both of our time units down to the denominator and we're going to have a distance over time squared okay? So let's look at an example of how we could solve an acceleration problem okay? Like that car that was accelerating, how fast was that rate of acceleration okay? So let's say that car goes from 0 kilometers per hour to 100 kilometers per hour in 10 seconds okay? I need to take my final velocity 100 kilometers an hour minus my initial velocity 0 kilometers an hour, remember to include your units, sometimes you can get confused if you drop your units and you don't know what you're talking about okay? So we've got that over 10 seconds okay? Now notice I have seconds here and hours here, is that a problem? No it's not, we can actually use units where we have hours, second hours or hours seconds those are fine okay? So when we solve that 100-0 is a 100 divided by ten equals 10 kilometers per hour second okay? So that is our rate of acceleration 10 kilometers per hour second.
One final note about acceleration, remember we're talking about changes in velocity and velocity involves not only a distance over time but in direction so we have going the same speed but we're changing direction our velocity is changing and our acceleration will be accelerating as we go around the curve so it's not just accelerating going straight we can also as we turn keeping the same velocity we can also accelerate even our speed remains the same and that's important to remember that acceleration.
| i don't know |
Which 'Doctor' has been played on television by Bill Simpson and David Rintoul? | David Rintoul Actor - About Aberdeen
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David Rintoul
Biography of actor David Rintoul from Aberdeen who is famous for playing Doctor Finlay on TV and Baby's Dad Dr Jake Houseman in Dirty Dancing
The actor David Rintoul was born on the 29 November 1948 in Aberdeen, Scotland. His birth name was David Wilson. He was educated at Robert Gordon's College in the City and was brought up in Rubislaw Den North.
He started acting at a young age and attended the Aberdeen Children's Theatre and was a Scottish Country dancer at Queen's Cross Church where he won many awards.
His father was Doctor Leslie Wilson who helped advance elderly care services throughout Aberdeenshire. His mother, Helen, was a PE teacher.
He graduated from Edinburgh University with an MA and then attended RADA. His first role after RADA was in Aladdin at the Connaught Theatre in Worthing, Sussex.
The Drummer Boy
is my latest novel about the ghost of a Gordon Highlander Drummer Boy from the Battle of Waterloo who haunts a modern day army nurse.
Chapters take place in modern day Aberdeen, at the Noose & Monkey bar and restaurant as well as His Majesty�s Theatre and Garthdee. Other scenes take place at Tidworth and during the Napoleonic War.
on most devices.
David Rintoul Actor
In 2013 he became the official patron of the Arts Centre and Theatre Aberdeen (ACT) which was rebranded from the Aberdeen Arts Centre for its 50th anniversary.
He is engaged to actress Vivien Heilbron who was Detective Sergeant Louise Colbert in Target and as Beatrice Protheroe in The New Statesman. She has had various parts on the stage including productions of Shakespeare's plays at Stratford such as Olivia in Twelfth Night and Titania in A Midsummer Night's Dream. In March 2008 she starred in the production The Life of Grassic Gibbon at HMT Aberdeen. Their engagement was announced after the show and their wedding date announced as the 3 August 08. Vivien Heilborn had previously starred in the 1971 BBC production of Sunset Song, a Lewis Grassic Gibbon book, where she was the lead role Chris Guthrie.
McLevy - The Blue Gown
He played the part of Andrew Crichton in the BBC radio 4 afternoon play McLevy on 29 November 2011.
Midsomer Murders
He added being a cowboy to his biography when he played the part of a Marshall in a cowboy re-enactment group in Midsomer Murders in the episode Blood in the Saddle. His character in this episode of Midsomer Murders was called Jack Fincher. David Rintoul was a bit of a baddie in Blood in the Saddle as he rode into the village at the beginning of the episode and shot dead a dog with his rifle. His character, Jack Fincher, had an affair and then was killed in cowboy style after the Wild West Fair when he was lassooed around his ankles and dragged by a horse until his death. Midsomer Murders Blood in the Saddle was broadcast as part of series 13 on the 8 September 2010.
Lady Chatterley's Lover
Lady Chatterley's Lover was broadcast on BBC Radio 7 in October 2010. He starred as Sir Malcolm, Lady Chatterley�s father, in this production of the DH Lawrence novel.
House of Mercy
The House of Mercy was broadcast as a Woman's Hour Drama in June 2010 where he starred as Stewart. Other actors in House of Mercy, a Victorian London murder mystery written by Bruce Young and dramatised by Chris Dolan included Melody Grove, Sam Dale, Timothy West, Alexander Morton, Tracy Wiles, Tony Bell, Alison Pettitt and Keely Beresford.
If you like this page and would like to easily share it with your friends and family please use the social networking buttons below:
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Baggage
In August 2009 he stared in Baggage on Radio 4. Baggage is a comedy play about four friends in Edinburgh. He was Hector the father of Caroline. Hector is a former gambler recently addicted to online poker. Baggage is written by Hilary Lyon who acts the part of Caroline and also stars Phyllis Logan, Adie Allen, Robin Cameron and Moray Hunter.
Dirty Dancing
He is currently playing the role of Baby's Dad Dr Jake Houseman in the production of Dirty Dancing at the Aldwych Theatre in West End London. This musical is based on the 1987 film Dirty Dancing which starred Jennifer Grey as Frances 'Baby' Houseman, Patrick Swayze as Johnny Castle and Jerry Orbach as Doctor Jake Houseman.
The plot is about the family of Housemans who go on vacation to a holiday camp. Their youngest daughter who is nicknamed Baby takes dancing classes with a dance teacher called Johnny. They fall in love despite being from different cultures. The stage show includes the popular hit songs Time Of My Life, Do You Love Me? and She's Like The Wind and some that have been specially written for the theatre production by the writer Eleanor Bergenstein. The director is James Powell and it is produced by Jacobsen Entertainment and Karl Sydow in association with Lions Gate Films and Eleanor Bergenstein. Other members of the cast include Isabella Calthorpe, Nigel Williams, Rae Baker, Billy Boyle, Richard Dempsey, Jason Griffiths, Richard Lloyd King, Richard O'Brien, Ursula Smith, Lucy Banfield, Ian Banham, Sarah Bowden, Melissa Keyes, Paul Kitson, Tanya Perera and Emma Woods.
Doctor Finlay
His most famous television role was as Doctor Finlay opposite to Ian Bannen as Doctor Cameron in the 1993 remake of the popular TV series about two Scottish Doctors in a small village. It also starred Annette Crosbie as the housekeeper Janet MacPherson. It ran to three series from 1993 to 1996. There were 24 episodes.
The original Doctor Finlay's Casebook was shown on BBC1 from 1962 to 1971 and run for 8 series with 191 episodes. The stars were Bill Simpson as Dr. Finlay, Andrew Cruickshank as Dr. Cameron and Barbara Mullen as Janet.
His first TV role was in 1973 when he played Archie Weir in Weir of Hermiston. Other small parts soon followed including a part in a Lord Peter Wimsey mystery called Five Red Herrings where he was Jock Graham. In the 1977 production of The Hunchback of Notre Dame he played Jehan.
Within a few years he gained larger parts such as Dr John Willis in Prince Regent (1979) and Dick Mallen in The Mallens. In 1980 he was Mr Fitzwilliam Darcy in the TV mini series of Pride and Prejudice.
Like most Scottish actors he has appeared in Taggart. He had two roles - in 1990 he was Alistair Balmain in the episode Death Comes Softly and then Assistant Chief Constable Torrance in the episode The Ties That Bind (2005). Other crime dramas that he has acted in includes Agatha Christie's Poirot in the story The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1990) where he played John Cavendish. He was Sir John Phillips in the Ngaio Marsh's Inspector Alleyn Mysteries in The Nursing Home Murder in 1993.
He has appeared in the highly popular Hornblower as Dr Clive the Ship's Surgeon. Some could say his strong Scottish burr and calm bedside manner has type cast him to play Doctors! Though we won't mention the panned Sweet Medicine ITV programme that was dropped after one series. Though he did act the part of a roguish Doctor with an eye for the lassies well! His character was called Andrew Sweet and he was certainly no sweetie! A real contrast to the delightful Doctor John Finlay.
He appears often on the stage and has even been back to Aberdeen to act in a pantomime at His Majesty's Theatre .
Peppa Pig
He provided many of the voice for Peppa Pig such as Grandad Dog, Dr Brown Bear and Mr Bull the dustman. As well as Peppa Pig he has voiced over the role of McBiscuit in the video game Wallace & Gromit's Grand Adventures: Muzzled!
The Making of Modern Medicine Radio 4 Series
In 2007 he was a reader and played some of the characters in Radio 4 factual serial The Making of Modern Medicine. In was on every weekday afternoon at 3:45 in February and March. Other readers and character actors were Peter Capaldi and Jason Watkins, the narrator and writer was Andrew Cunningham. The 30 part radio series The Making of Modern Medicine narrated and told the story of modern Western medicine through the centuries with historical accounts of ancient Greek and Roman medicine.
Lewis Grassic Gibbon Recital
In August 2007 David Rintoul and his partner, Vivien Heilbron, took part in a recital on the life of Lewis Grassic Gibbon . The script was written by North East author Jack Webster. Vivien Heilbron has had previous links with the Aberdeenshire author when in 1971 she played Chris Guthrie in Sunset Song which was based on one of his novels. Vivien Heilbron narrated the recital whilst husband David Rintoul played the part of Mearns writer Lewis Grassic Gibbon. The recital took place at the Lewis Grassic Gibbon centre at Arbuthnott on 19 August 2007.
The daughter of Lewis Grassic Gibbon, Rhea, was in attendance.
| Doctor Finlay |
What was the surname of the father of US President Bill Clinton, who died before his birth? | Watch Doctor Finlay Free Online
Watch Doctor Finlay Free Online
Release Date:
Categories: TV Drama Medical Medical drama Miniseries
Based on Cronin's novella entitled Country Doctor, the storylines centered on Dr. Finlay's general medical practice in the fictional Scottish town of Tannochbrae during the late 1920s. The main characters were Dr. Finlay, a junior partner in the practice,... Show More
Based on Cronin's novella entitled Country Doctor, the storylines centered on Dr. Finlay's general medical practice in the fictional Scottish town of Tannochbrae during the late 1920s. The main characters were Dr. Finlay, a junior partner in the practice, played by Bill Simpson, Dr. Cameron, the craggy senior partner, played by Andrew Cruickshank, and Janet, their unflappable housekeeper and receptionist at Arden House, played by Barbara Mullen. Dr. Finlay returned to television with the ITV series, Doctor Finlay, which featured David Rintoul as Dr. Finlay, Ian Bannen as Dr. Cameron, and Annette Crosbie as Janet. It later aired in the U.S. on PBS' Masterpiece Theatre. Show Less
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Which resort is the site of the Grand Hotel, damaged by shelling by the German Navy in 1914 and the North Marine Road Ground, the site of an annual Cricket festival? | ° Guide: Olivers Mount in United Kingdom (England) | Tripmondo
Day: 3°C (38 °F)
Night: 2°C (36 °F)
Light rain, gentle breeze, scattered clouds.
Webcam Collection
Olivers Mount: Scarboroug...
lat/lng: 54.268 / -0.393
0.7 mi from city centre The cam " Olivers Mount: Scarborough South Bay " is located in Olivers Mount and has been submitted by user CrownSpaHotel. This citycam has been viewed 8,393 times.
Scarborough: Surf Camera
lat/lng: 54.276 / -0.4
1 mi from city centre The cam " Scarborough: Surf Camera " is located in Scarborough and has been submitted by user CrownSpaHotel. This citycam has been viewed 6,630 times.
Scarborough: Crown Spa Ho...
lat/lng: 54.277 / -0.399
1.1 mi from city centre The cam " Scarborough: Crown Spa Hotel − View looking South from South Cliff " is located in Scarborough and has been submitted by user CrownSpaHotel. This citycam has been viewed 26,366 times.
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Map of local sightseeing hints
Distances are based on the centre of the city/town and sightseeing location. This list contains brief abstracts about monuments, holiday activities, national parcs, museums, organisations and more from the area as well as interesting facts about the region itself. Where available, you'll find the corresponding homepage. Otherwise the related wikipedia article.
Oliver's Mount
More reading: Wikipedia Article
Oliver's Mount is an area of high ground overlooking Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It offers impressive views of the town, a tribute monument to the war dead, camping and caravanning at selected times of the year and a cafe but may be primarily known for its motorcycle races (however cars have raced here twice, in 1955 and 1956). Oliver's Mount first held a motorcycle race in 1946, and continues to hold motorcycle circuit today, and also holds car rally and car hill-climb events. The site is also to host a new family friendly music festival from summer 2012. Opening 'International Bike Week', the 'Future Of Music - Oliver's Mount Festival' will celebrate local, new music and will be held at Mount Farm, Oliver's Mount. It is being organised by the resident racing club 'Auto 66' and local music management and Promotion company 'Red Cherry Music'. It was held over 16 and 17 June 2012. The site also houses the broadcasting transmitter which provides TV and radio services to Scarborough and the surrounding areas. Oliver's Mount is named after Oliver Cromwell, as it was thought that he had sited guns there, although there is no evidence that Cromwell visited Scarborough during the Civil War. This name was in use by 1804; previously the hill was known as Weaponness, which now refers to the area of the town around Oliver's Mount and Filey Road, and one of the wards of the borough.
Oliver's Mount
Oliver's Mount is an area of high ground overlooking Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It offers impressive views of the town, a tribute monument... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Motorsport venues in England
More reading: Scarborough funiculars homepage
The British town of Scarborough has had a total of five cliff railways, two of which remain open to the public. Two of these funiculars were on Scarborough's North Bay and three on South Bay; both of the North Bay railways have been demolished, and one on South Bay is extant but out of use since 2006.
Scarborough funiculars
The British town of Scarborough has had a total of five cliff railways, two of which remain open to the public. Two of these funiculars were on Scarbo... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
4ft gauge railways
Funicular railways in the United Kingdom
Standard gauge railways in England
Transport in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
McCain Stadium
More reading: McCain Stadium homepage
The McCain Stadium was a football stadium located on Seamer Road in Scarborough, England. It was the home of Scarborough FC, a defunct football club who last played in the English Conference North before they were dissolved on 20 June 2007 with debts of £2.5 million. The ground was first opened in 1898, when Scarborough FC moved from playing at Scarborough Cricket Club. It was then called the Athletic Ground. In 1988, under a sponsorship deal, Scarborough FC sold the naming rights of the Athletic Ground to McCain Foods and, until its closure in 2007, the stadium was known as the McCain Stadium. Demolition of the stadium began in September 2011 and was completed in November 2011. The gates at the entrance to the ground are to be preserved and incorporated into a new sports village complex to serve as a lasting reminder of the former Athletic Ground/McCain Stadium.
McCain Stadium
The McCain Stadium was a football stadium located on Seamer Road in Scarborough, England. It was the home of Scarborough FC, a defunct football club w... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Defunct football venues in England
Sport in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Crown Spa Hotel
More reading: Crown Spa Hotel homepage
For other hotels with a similar name see Crown Hotel (disambiguation) The Crown Spa Hotel (formerly the Crown Hotel) is a large hotel in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. This is Scarborough's first purpose-built hotel, completed in May 1844 and opened for business on 10 June 1845. It overlooks the town's South Bay and is privately owned by a local family. The hotel was designed by the architect John Gibson, and when completed in 1844, was one of the first purpose-built hotels in the world, as well as the first purpose-built hotel in Scarborough. John Gibson chose a site overlooking the South Bay Beach and North Sea Views and designed the hotel on a Greco-Roman theme. The hotel's heyday was arguably during Victorian times, when wealthy society made up the establishment's clientele. The hotel has been featured in television and film, chiefly being Little Voice, Heartbeat, The Royal, the Acid Bath Murders and many more. The hotel lost its four-star rating in the 1990s, and then put up for sale in 1999. The present owners, who had bought the Crown Hotel in February 2000, made a commitment to re-establish the hotel as a four-star hotel. In 2003, the hotel was renamed to the Crown Spa Hotel, to reflect the new facilities within the hotel. In May 2008, after months of hard work and dedication to service, the hotel was awarded the four-star status by the AA.
Crown Spa Hotel
For other hotels with a similar name see Crown Hotel (disambiguation) The Crown Spa Hotel (formerly the Crown Hotel) is a large hotel in Scarborough, ... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Buildings and structures in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Grade II* listed buildings in North Yorkshire
Hotel buildings completed in 1844
Hotels established in 1845
More reading: Wikipedia Article
The Holbeck Hall Hotel was a clifftop hotel in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England, owned by English Rose Hotels. The hotel had scenic views of the sea and surrounding area. It was built in 1879 by George Alderson Smith as a private residence, and was later converted to a hotel. On 3 June 1993, a landslide began beneath the hotel. This increased, and finally on 5 June 1993, a day of heavy rain, parts of the building dramatically fell into the sea, making news around the world. The remainder of the building had to be demolished by contractors. Although it was on a clifftop, an information board at the top of the cliff states that the incident was nothing to do with the sea, blaming it on soil creep. This is a common problem in Scarborough, with several paths and pavements clearly starting to slip down the hill. Before the cliff collapsed, there had been some very heavy rainfall, resulting in the muddy cliff turning into sludge. This flowed downhill – quite rapidly for a muddy bank – and ultimately took the hotel with it. In total 27,000m² of mud fell into the sea, and protruded 100 metres further into the sea than the original coastline. In 1997, it became the subject of a significant court case in English civil law (Holbeck Hall Hotel Limited and another v. Scarborough Borough Council QB 836) when the owners of the hotel attempted to sue Scarborough Borough Council for damages, alleging that as owners of the shoreline they had not taken any practical measures at all to prevent the landslip – from soft, to hard engineering, nothing was done. The claim was rejected on the grounds that the Council was not liable for the causes of the landslide itself. The case is important for students of both geography and law.
Holbeck Hall Hotel
The Holbeck Hall Hotel was a clifftop hotel in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England, owned by English Rose Hotels. The hotel had scenic views of the ... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
1993 in England
More reading: Grand Hotel (Scarborough) homepage
The Grand Hotel is a large hotel in Scarborough, England, overlooking the town's South Bay. It is now a Grade II* listed building that is owned by Britannia Hotels, and has undergone a £7 million refurbishment. The hotel was designed by the Hull architect Cuthbert Brodrick, and when completed in 1867 was one of the largest hotels in the world, as well as one of the first giant purpose-built hotels in Europe. The hotel's distinctive yellow brickwork was made locally in Hunmanby. The building is designed around the theme of time: four towers to represent the seasons, 12 floors for the months of the year, 52 chimneys symbolise the weeks, and originally there were 365 bedrooms, one for each day of the year. The hotel itself is in the shape of a 'V' in honour of Queen Victoria. The hotel's heyday was arguably during Victorian times, when wealthy holidaymakers made up the establishment's clientele. As Scarborough was a famous spa town, the building's baths originally included an extra pair of taps, so guests could wash in seawater as well as fresh. The hotel was badly damaged when the German Navy bombarded the town in 1914. Nowadays, the hotel caters towards the budget end of the spectrum. The hotel was bought by Butlins, the company better-known for its holiday camps, in 1978, and run as an inexpensive choice of accommodation until it was sold to Britannia in 1998. Three blue plaques outside mark where the novelist Anne Brontë died in 1849, the contribution of the RAF trainees stationed at the hotel during World War II, and the original opening of the building.
Grand Hotel (Scarborough)
The Grand Hotel is a large hotel in Scarborough, England, overlooking the town's South Bay. It is now a Grade II* listed building that is owned by Bri... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Buildings and structures in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Buildings with blue plaques
The Brunswick Shopping Centre is the name of several shopping centres in England.
Brunswick shopping centre
The Brunswick Shopping Centre is the name of several shopping centres in England.... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Buildings and structures completed in 1990
Buildings and structures in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Shopping malls established in 1990
Borough of Scarborough
More reading: Borough of Scarborough homepage
The Borough of Scarborough is a non-metropolitan district and borough of North Yorkshire, England. In addition to the town of Scarborough, it covers a large stretch of the coast of Yorkshire, including Whitby and Filey. It borders Redcar and Cleveland to the north, the Ryedale and Hambleton districts to the west and the East Riding of Yorkshire to the south. The district was formed on 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972. It was a merger of the urban district of Filey and part of the Bridlington Rural District, from the historic East Riding of Yorkshire, along with the municipal borough of Scarborough, Scalby and Whitby urban districts, and Scarborough Rural District and Whitby Rural District, from the historic North Riding. In 2007, the borough was threatened with extinction. In March of that year, North Yorkshire County Council was shortlisted by the Department for Communities and Local Government to be a unitary authority. If the bid had been successful then the Borough of Scarborough would have—along with all other districts and boroughs in the present county of North Yorkshire—been abolished. The bid, however, was unsuccessful and the districts remain as they were previously constituted. The political composition of the council as a result of the 2011 election was as follows:
Borough of Scarborough
The Borough of Scarborough is a non-metropolitan district and borough of North Yorkshire, England. In addition to the town of Scarborough, it covers a... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Local government districts of North Yorkshire
Local government districts of Yorkshire and the Humber
Non-metropolitan districts of North Yorkshire
Scarborough (borough)
More reading: The Spa, Scarborough homepage
The Spa, Scarborough known officially as the Scarborough Spa Complex is located in Scarborough’s South Bay and is a venue for conferences, exhibitions, entertainment and events on the Yorkshire Coast. Originally built around the source of Scarborough's spa waters, it is currently owned and managed by Scarborough Borough Council. The complex includes: The Spa Grand Hall which seats nearly 2,000 and hosts live entertainment including the Scarborough Spa Orchestra and an annual Jazz Festival, which is the fifth biggest in Europe. The Spa Theatre which is a 600 seat Victorian Theatre and is home to Summer Season Shows and Christmas Pantomimes. The Spa Ocean Room, used for dances, conferences and other events including the Soundwave Festival. A Victorian Cliff Tramway links the Spa complex with the South Cliff district, 200 feet above the South Bay. The Spa Complex is currently undergoing a £3 million refurbishment to make improved facilities available, including a wireless internet facility.
The Spa, Scarborough
The Spa, Scarborough known officially as the Scarborough Spa Complex is located in Scarborough’s South Bay and is a venue for conferences, exhibitio... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Buildings and structures in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Grade II* listed buildings in North Yorkshire
Visitor attractions in North Yorkshire
Opera House Casino, Scarborough
More reading: Opera House Casino, Scarborough homepage
The Opera House Casino is a casino located in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It took three years to build and was expected to employ about 110 people, when it opened in October 2005. The casino was a £7 million development funded by the Shaw family, headed by Nikolas Shaw and was the biggest entertainment investment in Scarborough for over thirty years. It was the first privately funded casino in the UK since the gambling laws were amended by the Gambling Act 2005. The casino is some 23,000 square feet in size. On opening it was reported to have eleven gaming tables, twenty electronic gambling terminals and the same number of slot machines, as well as a restaurant and a number of bars. It holds Texas Hold'em Poker tournaments in one of its bars where up to 55 players can be seated. The casino broke British records by signing up over 5,000 members before it had even opened.
Opera House Casino, Scarborough
The Opera House Casino is a casino located in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It took three years to build and was expected to employ about 110... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Buildings and structures in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Casinos completed in 2005
North Marine Road Ground, Scarborough
Located at 54.27, -0.4 (Lat. / Lng.), less than 1 mi away.
More reading: Wikipedia Article
North Marine Road Ground, formerly known as Queen's, is a cricket ground in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It is the home of Scarborough Cricket Club which hosts the Scarborough Cricket Festival and the Yorkshire County Cricket Club plays a series of fixtures in the second half of the season each year. The current capacity is 11,500, while its record attendance is the 22,946 who watched Yorkshire play Derbyshire in 1947. The two "ends" are known as the Pavilion End and the Trafalgar Square End. Cricket was first staged at the ground in 1863, when tenancy of Jackson's field on North Marine Road was obtained, matches having been played at Castle Hill in Scarborough since 1849. Yorkshire has played there since 1878, when MCC beat Yorkshire by 7 wickets. The first County Championship game was held there in 1896, when Yorkshire beat Leicestershire by 162 runs. With the demise of the other 'out' grounds, Scarborough is the only regular venue for county cricket in Yorkshire other than Headingley Stadium, Leeds. The end-of-season Scarborough Festival, staged to capitalise on the large numbers of Yorkshire tourists in the seaside resort, saw touring teams, county teams and Yorkshire play in a mixture of friendly, championship and one-day cricket. The Fenner Trophy, a one-day competition featuring four counties, ran from 1971 to 1996 under the names of various sponsors. The centenary of the festival was celebrated in 1986, with Sir Len Hutton as president. The ground has also staged two One Day Internationals, pitting England against the West Indies and New Zealand in 1976 and 1978. In 2005, Yorkshire signed a new deal with the ground authorities which ensured that the county would continue to play there until 2010. The ground is situated close to the sea and features a raised cricket pavilion built at a cost of £2,150 in 1895. A new seating enclosure was added in 1902 and further extended over the next five years. A concrete stand was added in 1926, at a cost of £6,700 and in 1956 a new West Stand was erected, costing £16,000. More recently, the Jack Knowles Building was completed in 1995 at a cost of £210,000, new all-weather nets and a press box were constructed in 1997 for £50,000 and the enclosure and tea rooms were refurbished in 1998 for £95,000. After the 2010 county season The Guardian named North Marine Road their Ground of the Year. The ground is known to have a fast-scoring outfield and a pitch which is often receptive to spin. The ground hosts Senior Premier League matches while ECB representative games, under-19 and Women's Test matches have also been held there in recent years. At different stages of the club's history, the stadium has also contained a Velodrome, hosted athletics events, was the original home of Scarborough F.C. and, in more recent times, was a venue for Scarborough Hockey Club fixtures. The pavilion facilities are utilized throughout the year for a variety of functions. \t\t \t\t\tNorth Marine Road Scoreboard. jpg \t\t\t North Marine Road scoreboard \t\t\t \t\t \t\t \t\t\tNorth Marine Road trafalgar square end. JPG \t\t\t Trafalgar Square End \t\t\t \t\t \t\t \t\t\tNorth Marine Road2. jpg \t\t\t Pavilion End \t\t\t \t\t \t\t \t\t\tNorth Marine Road tea room. jpg \t\t\t Tea Room enclosure
North Marine Road Ground, Scarborough
North Marine Road Ground, formerly known as Queen's, is a cricket ground in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It is the home of Scarborough Crick... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Buildings and structures in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Cricket grounds in North Yorkshire
Sport in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Scarborough Mere
More reading: Wikipedia Article
Scarborough Mere is a natural lake in the Weaponness Valley, in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. Formerly measuring 40 acres in area, the construction of the York and North Midland Railway line from York to Scarborough bisected the Mere in 1845. Due to that and other factors, including drainage and landscaping, the surface area of the lake is now approximately 16 acres . In the 20th century, the Mere was a popular tourist attraction owned by Scarborough Corporation, with rowing boats, a cafe and putting green. There was also a miniature Spanish galleon - the Hispaniola - which made trips across to 'Treasure Island' where holidaymakers could dig for Doubloons. Unfortunately dredging and maintenance of the lake decreased, and the increased silt & weed meant that waterborne activities stopped. The Mere is now part of the Oliver's Mount Country Park, and is managed by the Scarborough Mere Angling Club as a fishing lake, with the southern end used by waterskiers. A map dated 1766 by Thomas Bowen in 'The Gentlemans Magazine' shows Scarborough Mere as "a lake called Byard's Lake".
Scarborough Mere
Scarborough Mere is a natural lake in the Weaponness Valley, in Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. Formerly measuring 40 acres in area, the constr... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Visitor attractions in North Yorkshire
St James with Holy Trinity Church, Scarborough
Located at 54.27, -0.4 (Lat. / Lng.), less than 1 mi away.
More reading: St James with Holy Trinity Church, Scarborough homepage
St James with Holy Trinity Church, Scarborough, is located in Seamer Road, Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It is an active Anglican parish church in the deanery of Scarborough, the archdeaconry of East Riding, and the diocese of York. The church has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II listed building.
St James with Holy Trinity Church, Scarborough
St James with Holy Trinity Church, Scarborough, is located in Seamer Road, Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. It is an active Anglican parish chur... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
19th-century Church of England church buildings
Church of England churches in North Yorkshire
Diocese of York
Gothic Revival architecture in North Yorkshire
Grade II listed buildings in North Yorkshire
Grade II listed churches
St Martin-on-the-Hill is a parish church in Scarborough, North Yorkshire in the Church of England.
St Martin-on-the-Hill, Scarborough
St Martin-on-the-Hill is a parish church in Scarborough, North Yorkshire in the Church of England.... Read details
This attraction is classified as:
Church of England churches in North Yorkshire
Grade I listed buildings in North Yorkshire
Religious buildings completed in 1863
More facts and things to research:
More facts related to this place you might find interesting: Clifton Hotel (England), Scarborough General Hospital, Peasholm railway station, Manor of Northstead, Peasholm Park, Scalby Mills railway station, Yorkshire Coast College, Raincliffe School, Cornelian Bay, North Yorkshire, North Bay Railway, Raincliffe Woods, Scarborough Fair Collection, A165 road and Sherburn Rural District
Hotels & Hostels: Places to stay
See the Olivers Mount hotels overview to get more hotels for this place. Or directly pick one of these popular hotels below to learn more about it.
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Which Central American country lies between Panama and Nicaragua? | ° Guide: Scalby in United Kingdom (England) | Tripmondo
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Steps To St Laurence's
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Village Scene, Scalby
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St Lawrence Church
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| i don't know |
Ralph Boston won gold at the 1960 Olympics, silver at the 1964 Olympics and bronze at the 1968 Olympics, in which athletics event? | Ralph Boston
Inducted to Hall of Fame: 1975
Profile
Mt. SAC Relays Highlights
Career Highlights
It's a pretty impressive set of bookends on a career to say that you were the person who broke Jesse Owens' long jump world record (which had stood for 25 years), and Bob Beamon was the person who broke your world record with his prodigious jump in Mexico City (a record which stood for 23 years). Only Ralph Boston can claim this distinction.
After winning the NCAA championship in 1960, Ralph set the first of his six world records (26-11 1/4) on the Mt. SAC track just two weeks before the Olympics. In Rome, he edged teammate Bo Roberson by one centimeter to win the gold medal.
Finishing third in Rome was Igor Ter-Ovanesya of the Soviet Union. Ralph and Igor would engage in a game of leapfrog the next seven years, repeatedly beating or tying each other's world record. Fittingly, they retired with identical PRs of 27-4 3/4 (8.35m), although Igor's was set at altitude in Mexico City.
In 1961, Ralph began a run of six consecutive national championships. He also captured three consecutive Mt. SAC Relays' titles. At the Tokyo Olympics in 1964, he won a silver medal. And Ralph got an up-close view of Beamon's record-breaking jump at the 1968 Olympics, as he was on hand to win a bronze medal. (It's interesting to note that Beamon's world record leap was the only jump in his career which exceeded Boston's previous world record.)
Born: 1939
1964: 1st, 25-10 1/4 (7.88m)
1965: 1st, 26-5w (8.05m)
1966: 1st, 26-4 1/4 (8.03m)
1967: 2nd, 25-11
Broke World Record 6 times:
1960: 26-11 1/4 (8.21m)
1964: 27-3 1/4 (8.31m) - tied WR
1964: 27-4 1/4 (8.34m)
| Long jump |
In which Swiss resort does the World Economic Forum hold its annual meeting? | Ralph Boston | National Track & Field Hall of Fame | ZoomInfo.com
National Track & Field Hall of Fame
Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Health for the State of Tennessee
Chief Financial Officer
President and Chief Executive Officer
ServiceMaster Services
www.theforrestgroupusa.com, 17 Nov 2007 [cached]
Ralph Boston is Vice Chairman for The Forrest Investors Group, LLC.
Mr. Boston is responsible for all aspects of overseeing the company's financial status, projections, tracking, and reporting.
Mr. Boston is the former President and CEO of ServiceMaster Services, an industrial and commercial cleaning and restoration company operating out of various locations in the State of Georgia . Mr. Boston is an appointed member of the Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Health for the State of Tennessee . Mr. Boston also has served as Chairman of the Board of Directors for the Tennessee Sport Fest.
Mr. Boston is very involved in community service and has developed athletic programs for inner city and disadvantaged youth.
Mr. Boston medaled in 3 consecutive Olympic long jumps - gold (1960), silver (1964), and bronze (1968).Mr. Boston set a world record of 26 feet, 111/4 inches in the long jump on August 12, 1960 , breaking the mark set by Jesse Owens twenty-five years before.
...
The Forrest Group - Press Release
www.theforrestgroupusa.com, 3 Mar 2003 [cached]
ATLANTA , GEORGIA - The Forrest Investors Group, LLC announced the appointment of Ralph Boston as Chief Financial Officer of the Atlanta-based real estate company.
In
his
new role, Mr. Boston is responsible for all aspect of overseeing the company's financial status, projections, tracking, and reporting.
Mr. Boston is the former President and CEO of ServiceMaster Services, an industrial and commercial cleaning and restoration company operating out of various locations in the State of Georgia . Mr. Boston is an appointed member of the Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Health for the State of Tennessee . Mr. Boston also has served as Chairman of the Board of Directors for the Tennessee Sport Fest.
Mr. Boston is very involved in community service and has developed athletic programs for inner city and disadvantaged youth.
Mr. Boston medaled in 3 consecutive Olympic long jumps - gold (1960), silver (1964), and bronze (1968).Mr. Boston set a world record of 26 feet, 111/4 inches in the long jump on August 12, 1960 , breaking the mark set by Jesse Owens twenty-five years before.
...
Mr. Boston is a graduate of the Tennessee State University were after retirement for track and field
he
served as an administrator.
Mr. Boston is a council member of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sport, National Track & Field Hall of Fame, and the Olympic Hall of Fame.
Commenting on the appointment of Mr. Boston, Joe Forrest, CEO of the Forrest Investors Group, said "Mr.
...
Boston has a wealth of knowledge in business as well as experience in handling high profile projects, which will help the company reach new levels of performance and increase its profile as a leading real estate company in the Atlanta area."
is one such ...
www.thecitizennews.com, 29 Aug 2014 [cached]
Ralph Boston is one such celebrity. In 1961, Ralph broke the long-jump world record that had been held by Jesse Owens for 25 years.
...
knoxheritage.org [cached]
In 1974, Ralph H. Boston moved into the house and still owns the house today.
Boston has lived in Knoxville since 1968 and was a general partner in the ownership of WKXT-TV, Channel 8 in Knoxville.
Until the age of 29, Boston competed successfully in a variety of track and field competitions, capped by the Olympic Games.
He
won a Gold medal in 1960 for the long jump, a silver medal in 1964, and a bronze in 1968. Inducted into the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame in 1985, Boston held many prominent positions in Knoxville.
Boston worked as an account executive in management for South Central Bell, program coordinator in the city's community and economic development department, and director of city parks and recreation.
He
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Who wrote the series of novels featuring the adventurer 'Dirk Pitt'? | Dirk Pitt - Book Series In Order
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About Dirk Pitt:
Dirk Pitt, while being a fictional character from the mind of Clive Cussler, through his complex and realistic personality he has become a character that many readers have come to know as if he were a real human being. Dirk Eric Pitt, his full name, is perhaps best known as a wild and unstoppable renegade adventurer who will stop at nothing to save the day. One of the character traits of Dirk Pitt that has made him a memorable character for so many fans is that he pushes the envelope, he’s a loose canon, and he does what he needs to do to get things done.
Physically, Dirk Pitt is a tall man – approximately 6 feet and three inches, with dark, thick hair, and a medium build. In the books by Clive Cussler, it is frequently described that the most recognizable of all of Dirk Pitt’s physical features is that he has deep green eyes which are viewed as alluring by his friends, and intimidating by anyone that stands in his way.
One of the most common themes in Dirk Pitt novels is a love of the sea. Dirk is known to love its mysterious allure, which is an interest and obsession that he clearly shares with the author of the novels, Clive Cussler.
One of the greatest aspects of Dirk Pitt novels is his fast paced style, something that resonates through the writing style of his novels as well. Dirk Pitt stories frequently follow a fairly predictable storyline, but the quality that makes every Dirk Pitt story so unique is the delivery of it. Dirk loves adventure, and loves the unpredictable, his embracing of his circumstances makes him a character who always delivers exciting new events.
While Dirk Pitt is typically out traveling and living a life of utmost wild adventure, he occasionally retires to his crazy home which is a refurbished hangar on the grounds of Washington National Airport. His home is part house, part maze of inventions with his eccentric car collection (Dirk Pitt is a serious car fanatic, and this is a part of his personality that surfaces in some form in every single one of his books), several different aircraft, a Pullman railroad dining car, and even a totem pole. Dirk Pitt, being a fairly eccentric and adventurous soul, keeps a home that is equally wild and exciting.
Dirk Pitt’s Backstory
Dirk Pitt is the child of Senator George Pitt. He is a graduate of the United States Air Force Academy, along with his lifetime best friend Al Giordino. Many people consider Dirk Pitt to be the star, and Al Giordino to be his side kick – but truly everything that Dirk Pitt does is with the help of his trusty pal, Al Giordino. They work as a team and need each other quite a lot through out the series.
Pacific Vortex!
This is the very first of all of the Dirk Pitt stories, however this frequently leads to some confusion, because it was not the first story to be published. It is the sixth book in the series according to publication dates, but Clive Cussler wrote this story about Pitt before any of the other ones.
Not only has Clive Cussler confirmed that he wrote this story first, but he has stated that it is sort of an exception to the series. He had not fully found his style of writing yet and so this one, he believes, is published more as a piece of history than as a part of the series. He feels that Dirk Pitt really finds his feet in the future stories of the series.
In this first story, Dirk is sitting around enjoying himself on Oahu beach when he sees something floating in the water; swimming out to discover what it might be, he discovers it is a communication device used to send messages back and forth between ships and submarines. The message inside: word from the The Starbuck, a U.S. Navy nuclear submarine that had disappeared unexplainably into the Pacific Vortex more than 30 years ago.
The Mediterranean Caper
This book, sometimes published as just Mayday, is more traditionally considered the very first Dirk Pitt novel. It certainly is the first published Dirk Pitt novel, and the beginning of the series as most of Dirk’s fans know of it.
In this adventure, Dirk Pitt is forced to infiltrate an international drug smuggling ring, which is lead by an ex German pilot who fought in the World Wars.
Dirk Pitt, along with his best friend and trust comrade Al Giordino, are traveling on their own assignment in the Aegean Sea (where this particular adventure takes place), when they come across a distress call from Brady Air Force Base. Apparently there is an old German WWI plane, an antiquated plane with a low speed and very little ability, that is attacking the base by strafing runways and firing at immobile vehicles. Dirk Pitt and Al Giordino engage in an all out dogfight with the German place, before leaving with victory in their hands.
This is all just how the adventure begins. The story continues with more excitement and attacks as Dirk Pitt is forced to content with the evil Bruno Von Till, who turns out to be the mastermind behind the drug smuggling organization that is causing all of the trouble. It is a long and complex tale with plenty of twists and turns that will surprise readers, as is typical of all of the Dirk Pitt adventure stories.
Iceberg
Iceberg is the next story in the long, winding series of adventure novels about Dirk Pitt. This time he is forced off of his vacation early, as he is needed for a top secret mission involving a ship that has crashed into an iceberg sometime in the past.
As usual, he and his comrade Al Giordino, go off in search of answers to this mysterious set of events, this time under the command of Admiral Sandecker, who becomes a regular, returning character in the adventures of Dirk Pitt and Al Giordino.
This is just the third installment (the second by some people’s standards) of the series and there are dozens more novels after this one, documenting the adventures of both Dirk and Al as they work for the government on top secret missions, often risking their lives to defend the world from evil.
| Clive Cussler |
The film '24 Hour Party People' follows the development of which Manchester record label in the '70's and '80's? | Dirk Pitt - OrderOfBooks.co.uk
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Dirk Pitt
The Dirk Pitt series of books is a long-running series of adventure stories written by the prolific American author Clive Cussler. The series focuses around the titular character of Dirk Pitt, who is a world-renowned adventurer, who is often called upon to save the day in times of trouble. Pitt works for the National Underwater and Marine Agency, initially in the role of Director of Special Projects, after leaving the United States Air Force. Clive Cussler has drawn a lot on his own life to develop the character of Dirk Pitt, naming him after his own son, and projecting his love of cars onto Pitt. The Dirk Pitt series has become one of the longest running and most-loved series of books from the pen of Clive Cussler.
Book List:
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The first book to be released in the Dirk Pitt series was The Mediterranean Caper, which was released in 1973, and received wide critical acclaim, picking up a nomination for an Edgar in the same year for the Best Paperback Original Novel. In our first meeting with Dirk Pitt, he is trying to deal with a smuggling operation run by the villain of the piece, Bruno Von Till, a German veteran of World War I and World War II. Both Pitt and second-in-command, Al Giordino, are sent to an area in the Aegean Sea to help combat this operation. However, while travelling to their intended destination, the men received a mayday call from the island of Thasos, which is home to Brady Air Force Base, which is claiming to be under attack from a World War I German warplane. This is only the start of things to come for our hero, as he must combat the evil Baron Von Till and try and stop his smuggling operation.
Although The Mediterranean Caper was the first book to be released in the Dirk Pitt series, it is not actually the first book chronologically. The first book chronologically in the Dirk Pitt series is actually Pacific Vortex, which was released in 1983. It is set before The Mediterranean Caper, even though it was released ten years later, and is the sixth book to be released in the Dirk Pitt series. We pick the action up with Pitt holidaying on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. He comes across a communication capsule which is primarily used by submarines looking to communicate with the surface without having to come up and breach the water. Upon examining the contests of the capsule, Pitt comes across a message from a nuclear submarine which had disappeared in the six months prior to the book in an area known as the Pacific Vortex, which is a fictional take on the Bermuda Triangle. Being a natural adventurer, this message sets Pitt off on a journey to find out what happened to the missing submarine and the crew which also vanished with it.
There has so far been two film adaptations of the Dirk Pitt series. In 1980, the third book to be released in the series, Raise The Titanic, which was released in 1976, was adapted into a film, featuring Richard Jordan in the lead role of Dirk Pitt. It was a box office flop, grossing only one-third of its budget. The second film adaptation was of the 11th book in the series, Sahara. This time, Matthew McConaughey took on the role of the leading man, and the film was released in 2005. Again, the film was a commercial flop, taking around half of the film’s budget at the boxes office.
Despite being flops at the box office, the Dirk Pitt series continues to have a loyal following, and Cussler has created a well-loved character that has had many adventures all over the world, while doing it with an air of class and style, all the while maintaining a fantastic collection of vintage cars.
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What was the name of the nurse played by Lynda Barron in 'Open All Hours'? | Open All Hours (TV Series 1973–1985) - IMDb
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Arkwright is a tight-fisted shop owner in Doncaster, who will stop at nothing to keep his profits high and his overheads low, even if this means harassing his nephew Granville. Arkwright's ... See full summary »
Stars:
Arkwright decides to take Nurse Gladys away to a hotel. This leaves Granville in a position to make his play for the milk round lady, but Arkwright, hands on as ever and never keen to be too far away...
8.2
To the envy of Granville who has never attended one,Arkwright is taking Nurse Gladys to a wedding and has taken his old suit out of moth-balls, but it still reeks of camphor. Nurse Gladys makes him ...
8.1
When Arkwright finds himself with a surplus of Jamaican Ginger cakes he tries various marketing ploys in order to sell them off, but hits the jackpot when he claims that the cakes contain drugs, ...
8.1
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Title: Open All Hours (1973–1985)
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The prison life of Fletcher, a criminal serving a five-year sentence, as he strives to bide his time, keep his record clean, and refuses to be ground down by the prison system.
Stars: Ronnie Barker, Brian Wilde, Fulton Mackay
Long running BBC comedy show consisting of sketches and humourous musical routines involving the large Ronnie Barker and the small Ronnie Corbett. Most sketches involved both men, but ... See full summary »
Stars: Ronnie Barker, Ronnie Corbett, The Fred Tomlinson Singers
Having inherited the shop from his uncle, it's business as usual for Granville at Arkwright's corner shop.
Stars: David Jason, James Baxter, Stephanie Cole
This prison comedy is based on the popular British television series of the same name. Long time Slade prison inmate Fletcher is ordered by Grouty to arrange a football match between the ... See full summary »
Director: Dick Clement
Victor Meldrew is a retiree who attracts bad luck. If he's not driving his long suffering wife Margeret crazy with his constant moaning, he's fighting with neighbors.
Stars: Richard Wilson, Annette Crosbie, Doreen Mantle
Classic 1960s British comedy series about a middle aged man and his elderly father who run an unsuccessful 'rag and bone' business (collecting and selling junk). Harold (the son) wants to ... See full summary »
Stars: Wilfrid Brambell, Harry H. Corbett, Frank Thornton
Going Straight (TV Series 1978)
Comedy
Following his release from Slade prison, Fletcher tries to stick to the straight and narrow, but it isn't easy!
Stars: Ronnie Barker, Patricia Brake, Richard Beckinsale
Accident-prone Frank Spencer fails to navigate the simplest tasks of daily life, while also trying to look after his wife and baby.
Stars: Michael Crawford, Michele Dotrice, Jessica Forte
Terry and Bob from The Likely Lads (1964) continue their life after Terry arrives home from serving in the Army to discover that Bob is about to marry his girlfriend Thelma. Can Thelma lead... See full summary »
Stars: James Bolam, Rodney Bewes, Brigit Forsyth
During WW2, in a fictional British seaside town, a ragtag group of Home Guard local defense volunteers prepare for an imminent German invasion.
Stars: Arthur Lowe, John Le Mesurier, Clive Dunn
Popular sitcom set in a seedy bedsit lorded over by the mean, vain, boastful, cowardly landlord Rigsby. In each episode, his conceits are debunked by his long suffering tenants.
Stars: Leonard Rossiter, Don Warrington, Frances de la Tour
The misadventures of a ragtag group of elderly Home Guard local defense volunteers at the onset of WW2.
Director: Norman Cohen
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Storyline
Arkwright is a tight-fisted shop owner in Doncaster, who will stop at nothing to keep his profits high and his overheads low, even if this means harassing his nephew Granville. Arkwright's only weakness is his love - Nurse Gladys Emanuel. Written by Roy Clarke
20 February 1976 (UK) See more »
Also Known As:
David Jason was 26 years older than Granville's 19 years of age. See more »
Goofs
Arkwright is supposed to be engaged (on and off) to Nurse Gladys Emmanuel, yet in several episodes, he is wearing a wedding ring. It's particularly noticeable when he's counting money from the till. See more »
Quotes
(Derby, England) – See all my reviews
Open All Hours has to be one of the best comedies ever made, along with Dad's Army, Fawlty Towers and Only Fools And horses.
This one is about a Northen shopkeeper, Arkwright and his nephew who works for him, Granville. His lover, Nurse Gladys Emmanual lives across the road. We get to see a variety of customers coming into the shop and also Granville's love for the milk woman. This series was filmed in Doncaster.
The brilliant cast includes the late, great Ronnie Barker as Arkwright, David Jason (Only Fools And Horses) as Granville and Linda Baron as Nurse Gladys. Others appearing as customers over the years include Kathy Staff (Last Of the Summer Winw) and Stephanie Cole (Waiting For God).
Open All hours is certainly a comedy classic and the BBC still regularly repeat episodes and is much better than any comedy made today. They don't make 'em like this anymore.
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In area measures, how many acres make up a square mile? | Open All Hours: New series with David Jason and Lynda Baron teased by show's producer - Mirror Online
Ganville will be in charge for the one-off special (Photo: FameFlynet)
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Open All Hours is set to return for a new series after this year's Christmas special , according to reports.
The show's producer Gareth Edwards has hinted at a proper return for the classic comedy, saying: "We shall see - there is a lot of optimism to take this project forward."
Speaking during filming for the Christmas special, Edwards said, "There is a lot of life in the world that writer Roy Clarke has created," report The Sheffield Star.
The Christmas special will see Sir David Jason's Granville working in the corner shop he has inherited from Arkwright, as well as the return of characters including unlikely sex symbol nurse Gladys Emmanuel (Lynda Baron).
Edwards says the the half-hour Christmas episode is still their focus, though: “There has been so much interest in the return of Open All Hours that we have to get the programme right - that’s our first priority."
The original show, which starred Sir David with late comic Ronnie Barker as stammering Albert Arkwright, ran from 1973 to 1985.
The one-off episode has been written by Roy Clarke, who penned the original series.
When filming was announced Sir David said: “I am sure there is an audience out there who would like to see what Granville has been getting up to in the corner shop.
"It will be a great family show for Christmas and a fitting tribute to the legacy of Arkwright.”
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The German navy only built two 'Bismark Class' battleships. One was 'Bismark'. What was the name of the other? | German battleship Bismarck | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Main article: Bismarck-class battleship
Bismarck was ordered under the name Ersatz Hannover ("Hannover replacement"), a replacement for the old pre-dreadnought SMS Hannover , under contract "F". [1] The contract was awarded to the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg, where the keel was laid on 1 July 1936 at Helgen IX. [2] [3] The ship was launched on 14 February 1939 and during the elaborate ceremonies was christened by Dorothee von Löwenfeld, granddaughter of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , the ship's namesake. Adolf Hitler made the christening speech. [3] Fitting-out work followed the launch, during which time the original straight stem was replaced with a raked "Atlantic bow" similar to the Scharnhorst-class battleships . [4] Bismarck was commissioned into the fleet on 24 August 1940 for sea trials, [5] which were conducted in the Baltic. Kapitän zur See Ernst Lindemann took command of the ship at the time of commissioning. [6]
3D rendering of Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung
Bismarck displaced Script error as built and Script error fully loaded, with an overall length of Script error, a beam of Script error and a maximum draft of Script error. [1] The battleship was Germany's largest warship, [2] and displaced more than any other European battleship, with the exception of HMS Vanguard , commissioned after the end of the war. [3] Bismarck was powered by three Blohm & Voss geared steam turbines and twelve oil-fired Wagner superheated boilers, which developed a total of Script error and yielded a maximum speed of Script error on speed trials. The ship had a cruising range of Script error at Script error. [1] Bismarck was equipped with three FuMO 23 search radar sets, mounted on the forward and stern range-finders and foretop. [2]
The standard crew numbered 103 officers and 1,962 enlisted men. [3] The crew was divided into twelve divisions of between 180 and 220 men. The first six divisions were assigned to the ship's armaments, divisions one through four for the main and secondary batteries and five and six manning anti-aircraft guns . The seventh division consisted of specialists, including cooks and carpenters, and the eighth division consisted of ammunition handlers. The radio operators , signalmen, and quartermasters were assigned to the ninth division. The last three divisions were the engine room personnel. When Bismarck left port, fleet staff, prize crews , and war correspondents increased the crew complement to over 2,200 men. [4] Roughly 200 of the engine room personnel came from the light cruiser Karlsruhe , which had been lost during Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of Norway. [5] Bismarck's crew published a ship's newspaper titled Die Schiffsglocke (The Ship's Bell); [6] this paper was only published once, on 23 April 1941, by the commander of the engineering department, Gerhard Junack. [7]
Bismarck was armed with eight 38 cm SK C/34 guns arranged in four twin gun turrets : two super-firing turrets forward—"Anton" and "Bruno"—and two aft—"Caesar" and "Dora". [lower-alpha 1] Secondary armament consisted of twelve Script error L/55 guns, sixteen Script error L/65 and sixteen Script error L/83 , and twelve Script error anti-aircraft guns. Bismarck also carried four Arado Ar 196 reconnaissance floatplanes , with a single large hangar and a double-ended catapult . [1] The ship's main belt was Script error thick and was covered by a pair of upper and main armoured decks that were Script error and Script error thick, respectively. The Script error turrets were protected by Script error thick faces and Script error thick sides. [1]
Service history
Edit
Bismarck in port in Hamburg
On 15 September 1940, three weeks after her commissioning, Bismarck left Hamburg to begin sea trials in Kiel Bay . [2] Sperrbrecher 13 escorted the ship to Arcona on 28 September, and then on to Gotenhafen for trials in the Gulf of Danzig . [3] The ship's power-plant was given a thorough workout; Bismarck made measured-mile and high speed runs. While her stability and manoeuvrability were being tested, a flaw in the ship's design was discovered. While attempting to steer the ship solely through altering propeller revolutions, the crew learned that Bismarck could be kept on course only with great difficulty. Even with the outboard screws running at full power in opposite directions, they generated only a slight turning ability. [4] Bismarck's main battery guns were first test-fired in late November. The tests proved she was a very stable gun platform. [5] Trials lasted until December; Bismarck returned to Hamburg, arriving on 9 December, for minor alterations and the completion of the fitting-out process. [2]
The ship was scheduled to return to Kiel on 24 January 1941, but a merchant vessel had been sunk in the Kiel Canal and prevented usage of the waterway. Severe weather hampered efforts to remove the wreck, and Bismarck was not able to reach Kiel until March. [2] The delay greatly frustrated Lindemann, who remarked that "[Bismarck] had been tied down at Hamburg for five weeks ... the precious time at sea lost as a result cannot be made up, and a significant delay in the final war deployment of the ship thus is unavoidable." [6] While waiting to reach Kiel, Bismarck hosted Captain Anders Forshell, the Swedish naval attaché to Berlin. He returned to Sweden with a detailed description of the ship, which was subsequently leaked to Britain by pro-British elements in the Swedish Navy . The information provided the Royal Navy with its first full description of the vessel, although it lacked specificity on important facts, including top speed, radius of action, and displacement. [7]
Bismarck on trials; note the lack of rangefinders, which had not yet been installed
On 6 March, Bismarck received the order to steam to Kiel. While en route, the ship was escorted by several Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and a pair of armed merchant vessels , along with an icebreaker . At 08:45 on 8 March, Bismarck briefly ran aground on the southern shore of the Kiel Canal, though she was freed within an hour. The ship reached Kiel the following day, where her crew stocked ammunition, fuel, and other supplies and applied a coat of dazzle paint to camouflage her. British bombers attacked the harbour without success on 12 March. [8] On 17 March, the old battleship Schlesien , now used as an icebreaker, escorted Bismarck through the ice to Gotenhafen, where the latter continued combat readiness training. [9]
The Naval High Command ( Oberkommando der Marine or OKM), commanded by Admiral Erich Raeder , intended to continue the practice of using heavy ships as surface raiders against Allied merchant traffic in the Atlantic Ocean. The two Scharnhorst-class battleships were based in Brest, France, at the time, having just completed Operation Berlin , a major raid into the Atlantic. Bismarck's sister ship Tirpitz rapidly approached completion. Bismarck and Tirpitz were to sortie from the Baltic and rendezvous with the two Scharnhorst-class ships in the Atlantic; the operation was initially scheduled for around 25 April 1941, when a new moon period would make conditions more favourable. [10]
Work on Tirpitz was completed later than anticipated, and she was not commissioned until 25 February; the ship was not ready for combat until late in the year. To further complicate the situation, Gneisenau was torpedoed while in Brest and damaged further by bombs when in drydock. Scharnhorst required a boiler overhaul following Operation Berlin; the workers discovered during the overhaul that the boilers were in worse condition than expected. She would also be unavailable for the planned sortie. [11] Attacks by British bombers on supply depots in Kiel delayed repairs to the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Admiral Hipper . The two ships would not be ready for action until July or August. [12] Admiral Günther Lütjens , Flottenchef (Fleet Chief) of the Kriegsmarine, chosen to lead the operation, wished to delay the operation at least until either Scharnhorst or Tirpitz became available, [13] but the OKM decided to proceed with the operation, codenamed Operation Rheinübung , with a force consisting of only Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen . [11]
Operation Rheinübung
Main article: Operation Rheinübung
Bismarck, photographed from Prinz Eugen, in the Baltic at the outset of Operation Rheinübung
On 5 May, Adolf Hitler and Wilhelm Keitel , with a large entourage, arrived to view Bismarck and Tirpitz in Gotenhafen. The men were given an extensive tour of the ships, after which Hitler met with Lütjens to discuss the upcoming mission. [14] On 16 May, Lütjens reported that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen were fully prepared for Operation Rheinübung; he was therefore ordered to proceed with the mission on the evening of 19 May. [15] As part of the operational plans, a group of eighteen supply ships would be positioned to support Bismarck and Prinz Eugen. Four U-boats would be placed along the convoy routes between Halifax and Britain to scout for the raiders. [16]
By the start of the operation, Bismarck's crew had increased to 2,221 officers and enlisted men. This included an admiral's staff of nearly 65 and a prize crew of 80 sailors, which could be used to crew transports captured during the mission. At 02:00 on 19 May, Bismarck departed Gotenhafen and made for the Danish straits . She was joined at 11:25 by Prinz Eugen, which had departed the previous night at 21:18, off Cape Arkona . [17] The two ships were escorted by three destroyers — Z10 Hans Lody , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , and Z23 —and a flotilla of minesweepers . [18] The Luftwaffe provided air cover during the voyage out of German waters. [19] At around noon on 20 May, Lindemann informed the ship's crew via loudspeaker of the ship's mission. At approximately the same time, a group of ten or twelve Swedish aircraft flying reconnaissance encountered the German force and reported its composition and heading, though the Germans did not see the Swedes. [20]
An hour later, the German flotilla encountered the Swedish cruiser HMS Gotland ; the cruiser shadowed the Germans for two hours in the Kattegat. [21] Gotland transmitted a report to naval headquarters, stating: "Two large ships, three destroyers, five escort vessels, and 10–12 aircraft passed Marstrand , course 205°/20'." [19] The OKM was not concerned about the security risk posed by Gotland, though both Lütjens and Lindemann believed operational secrecy had been lost. [21] The report eventually made its way to Captain Henry Denham, the British naval attaché to Sweden, who transmitted the information to the Admiralty . [22] The code-breakers at Bletchley Park confirmed that an Atlantic raid was imminent, as they had decrypted reports that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had taken on prize crews and requested additional navigational charts from headquarters. A pair of Supermarine Spitfires were ordered to search the Norwegian coast for the flotilla. [23]
German aerial reconnaissance confirmed that one aircraft carrier , three battleships, and four cruisers remained at anchor in the main British naval base at Scapa Flow , which confirmed to Lütjens that the British were at that point unaware of his operation. On the evening of 20 May, Bismarck and the rest of the flotilla reached the Norwegian coast; the minesweepers were detached and the two raiders and their destroyer escorts continued north. The following morning, radio-intercept officers on board Prinz Eugen picked up a signal ordering British reconnaissance aircraft to search for two battleships and three destroyers northbound off the Norwegian coast. [24] At 7:00 on the 21st, the Germans spotted four unidentified aircraft, though they quickly departed. Shortly after 12:00, the flotilla reached Bergen and anchored at Grimstadfjord . While there, the ships' crews painted over the Baltic camouflage with the standard "outboard grey" worn by German warships operating in the Atlantic. [25]
Aerial reconnaissance photo taken by Flying Officer Michael Suckling shows Bismarck anchored in Norway
While in Norway, a pair of Bf 109 fighters circled over Bismarck to protect her from British air attacks. Nevertheless, Flying Officer Michael Suckling managed to fly his Spitfire directly over the German flotilla at a height of Script error and snap several photos of Bismarck and her consorts. [1] Upon receipt of the information, Admiral John Tovey ordered the battlecruiser HMS Hood , the newly commissioned battleship HMS Prince of Wales , and six destroyers to reinforce the pair of cruisers patrolling the Denmark Strait. The rest of the Home Fleet was placed on high alert in Scapa Flow . Eighteen bombers were dispatched to attack the Germans, but weather over the fjord had worsened and they were unable to find the German warships. [2]
Bismarck failed to replenish her fuel stores while anchored in Norway, as her operational orders did not require her to do so. She had left port Script error short of a full load, and had since expended another Script error on the voyage from Gotenhafen. Prinz Eugen, meanwhile, took on Script error of fuel. [1] At 19:30 on 21 May, Bismarck, Prinz Eugen, and the three escorting destroyers left Bergen. [2] At midnight, when the force was in the open sea and headed toward the Arctic Ocean, Raeder finally disclosed the operation to Hitler, who only reluctantly consented to the raid. The three escorting destroyers were detached at 04:14 on 22 May, while the force steamed off Trondheim. At around 12:00, Lütjens ordered his two ships to turn toward the Denmark Strait to attempt the break-out into the open Atlantic. [3]
By 04:00 on 23 May, Lütjens ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to increase speed to Script error to make the dash through the Denmark Strait. [1] Upon entering the Strait, both ships activated their FuMO radar detection equipment sets. [2] Bismarck led Prinz Eugen by about Script error; mist reduced visibility to Script error. The Germans encountered some ice at around 10:00, which necessitated a reduction in speed to Script error. Two hours later, the pair had reached a point north of Iceland. The ships were forced to zigzag to avoid ice floes . At 19:22, hydrophone and radar operators aboard the German warships detected the cruiser HMS Suffolk at a range of approximately Script error. [1] Prinz Eugen's radio-intercept team decrypted the radio signals being sent by Suffolk and learned that their location had indeed been reported. [2]
Lütjens gave permission for Prinz Eugen to engage Suffolk, though the captain of the German cruiser could not clearly make out his target and so held his ship's fire. [3] Suffolk quickly retreated to a safe distance and shadowed the German ships. At 20:30, the heavy cruiser HMS Norfolk joined Suffolk, but approached the German raiders too closely. Lütjens ordered his ships to engage the British cruiser; Bismarck fired five salvoes, three of which straddled Norfolk and rained shell splinters on her decks. The cruiser laid a smoke screen and fled into a fog bank, ending the brief engagement. The concussion from the 38 cm guns' firing disabled Bismarck's FuMO 23 radar set; this prompted Lütjens to order Prinz Eugen to take station ahead so she could use her functioning radar to scout for the formation. [4]
At around 22:00, Lütjens ordered Bismarck to make a 180-degree turn in an effort to surprise the two heavy cruisers shadowing him. Although Bismarck was visually obscured in a rain squall, Suffolk's radar quickly detected the manoeuvre, allowing the cruiser to evade. [5] The cruisers remained on station through the night, continually relaying the location and bearing of the German ships. The harsh weather broke on the morning of 24 May, revealing a clear sky. At 05:07 that morning, hydrophone operators aboard Prinz Eugen detected a pair of unidentified vessels approaching the German formation at a range of Script error, reporting "Noise of two fast-moving turbine ships at 280° relative bearing!" [1]
Battle of the Denmark Strait
Main article: Battle of the Denmark Strait
At 05:45, German lookouts spotted smoke on the horizon; this turned out to be from Hood and Prince of Wales, under the command of Vice Admiral Lancelot Holland . Lütjens ordered his ships' crews to battle stations . By 05:52, the range had fallen to Script error and Hood opened fire, followed by Prince of Wales a minute later. [1] Hood engaged Prinz Eugen, which the British thought to be Bismarck, while Prince of Wales fired on Bismarck. [lower-alpha 1] Adalbert Schneider , the first gunnery officer aboard Bismarck, twice requested permission to return fire, but Lütjens hesitated. [3] Lindemann intervened, muttering "I will not let my ship be shot out from under my ass." [4] He demanded permission to fire from Lütjens, who relented and at 05:55 ordered his ships to engage the British. [4]
Bismarck as seen from Prinz Eugen after the Battle of the Denmark Strait
The British ships approached the German ships head on, which permitted them to use only their forward guns, while Bismarck and Prinz Eugen could fire full broadsides . Several minutes after opening fire, Holland ordered a 20° turn to port, which would allow his ships to engage with their rear gun turrets. Both German ships concentrated their fire on Hood; about a minute after opening fire, Prinz Eugen scored a hit with a high-explosive Script error shell; the explosion detonated Unrotated Projectile ammunition and started a large fire, which was quickly extinguished. [1] After firing three four-gun salvos, Schneider had zeroed in the range to Hood; he immediately ordered rapid-fire salvos from Bismarck's eight 38 cm guns. He also ordered the ship's 15 cm secondary guns to engage Prince of Wales. Holland then ordered a second 20° turn to port, to bring his ships on a parallel course with Bismarck and Prinz Eugen. [2] Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to shift fire and target Prince of Wales, to keep both of his opponents under fire. Within a few minutes, Prinz Eugen scored a pair of hits on the battleship that started a small fire. [3]
Lütjens then ordered Prinz Eugen to drop behind Bismarck, so she could continue to monitor the location of Norfolk and Suffolk, which were still some Script error to the east. At 06:00, Hood was completing the second turn to port when Bismarck's fifth salvo hit. Two of the shells landed short, striking the water close to the ship, but at least one of the 38 cm armour-piercing shells struck Hood and penetrated her thin deck armour. The shell reached Hood's rear ammunition magazine and detonated Script error of cordite propellant. [1] The massive explosion broke the back of the ship between the main mast and the rear funnel; the forward section continued to move forward briefly before the in-rushing water caused the bow to rise into the air at a steep angle. The stern similarly rose upward as water rushed into the ripped-open compartments. [2] Schneider exclaimed "He is sinking!" over the ship's loudspeakers. [1] In only eight minutes of firing, Hood had disappeared, taking all but three of her crew of 1,419 men with her. [3]
Bismarck firing her main battery during the battle
Bismarck then shifted fire to Prince of Wales. The British battleship scored a hit on Bismarck with her sixth salvo, but the German ship found her mark with her first salvo. One of the shells struck the bridge on Prince of Wales, though it did not explode and instead exited the other side, killing everyone in the ship's command centre, save Captain John Leach , the ship's commander, and one other. [4] The two German ships continued to fire upon Prince of Wales, causing serious damage. Guns malfunctioned on the recently commissioned British ship, which still had civilian technicians aboard. [5] Despite her problematic main battery, Prince of Wales scored three hits on Bismarck in the engagement. The first struck her in the forecastle above the waterline, but low enough to allow the crashing waves to enter the hull. The second shell struck below the armoured belt and exploded on contact with the torpedo bulkhead , inflicting minimal damage. The third shell passed through one of the boats carried aboard the ship and then went through the float plane catapult without exploding. [6]
At 06:13, Leach gave the order to retreat; only two of his ship's ten Script error guns were still firing and his ship had sustained significant damage. Prince of Wales made a 160° turn and laid a smoke screen to cover her withdrawal. The Germans ceased fire as the range widened. Though Lindemann strongly advocated chasing Prince of Wales and destroying her, [1] Lütjens obeyed operational orders to shun any avoidable engagement with enemy forces that were not protecting a convoy, [2] firmly rejected the request, and instead ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to head for the North Atlantic. [3] In the engagement, Bismarck had fired 93 armour-piercing shells and had been hit by three shells in return. [4] The forecastle hit allowed Script error of water to flood the ship, which contaminated fuel oil stored in the bow. Lütjens refused to reduce speed to allow damage control teams to repair the shell hole which widened and allowed more water into the ship. [1] The second hit caused some flooding and splinters damaged a steam line in the turbo-generator room, though Bismarck had sufficient generator reserves that this was not problematic. The flooding from these two hits caused a 9-degree list to port and a 3-degree trim by the bow. [2]
The chase
Edit
After the engagement, Lütjens reported, "Battlecruiser, probably Hood, sunk. Another battleship, King George V or Renown, turned away damaged. Two heavy cruisers maintain contact." [3] At 08:01, he transmitted a damage report and his intentions to OKM, which were to detach Prinz Eugen for commerce raiding and to make for Saint-Nazaire for repairs. [4] Shortly after 10:00, Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to fall behind Bismarck to discern the severity of the oil leakage from the bow hit. After confirming "broad streams of oil on both sides of [Bismarck's] wake", [5] Prinz Eugen returned to the forward position. [5] About an hour later, a British Short Sunderland flying boat reported the oil slick to Suffolk and Norfolk, which had been joined by the damaged Prince of Wales. Rear Admiral Frederic Wake-Walker , the commander of the two cruisers, ordered Prince of Wales to remain behind his ships. [6]
The Royal Navy ordered all warships in the area to join the pursuit of Bismarck and Prinz Eugen. Tovey's Home Fleet was steaming to intercept the German raiders, but on the morning of 24 May, was still over Script error away. The Admiralty ordered the light cruisers Manchester , Birmingham , and Arethusa to patrol the Denmark Strait in the event that Lütjens attempted to retrace his route. The battleship Rodney , which had been escorting RMS Britannic and was due for a refit in the Boston Navy Yard , joined Tovey. Two old Revenge-class battleships were ordered into the hunt: Revenge , from Halifax, and Ramillies , which was escorting Convoy HX 127. [1] In all, six battleships and battlecruisers, two aircraft carriers, thirteen cruisers, and twenty-one destroyers were committed to the chase. [2] By around 17:00, the crew aboard Prince of Wales restored nine of her ten main guns to working order, which permitted Wake-Walker to place her in the front of his formation to attack Bismarck if the opportunity arose. [3]
With the weather worsening, Lütjens attempted to detach Prinz Eugen at 16:40. The squall was not heavy enough to cover her withdrawal from Wake-Walker's cruisers, which continued to maintain radar contact. Prinz Eugen was therefore recalled temporarily. [4] The cruiser was successfully detached at 18:14. Bismarck turned around to face Wake-Walker's formation, forcing Suffolk to turn away at high speed. Prince of Wales fired twelve salvos at Bismarck, which responded with nine salvos, none of which hit. The action diverted British attention and permitted Prinz Eugen to slip away. After Bismarck resumed her previous heading, Wake-Walker's three ships took up station on Bismarck's port side. [5]
Although Bismarck had been damaged in the engagement and forced to reduce speed, she was still capable of reaching Script error, the same maximum speed as Tovey's King George V . Unless Bismarck could be slowed, the British would be unable to prevent her from reaching Saint-Nazaire. Shortly before 16:00 on 25 May, Tovey detached the aircraft carrier Victorious and four light cruisers to shape a course that would position her to launch her torpedo bombers . [1] At 22:00, Victorious launched the strike, which comprised six Fairey Fulmar fighters and nine Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers. The inexperienced aviators nearly attacked Norfolk on their approach; the confusion alerted Bismarck's anti-aircraft gunners. [2] Bismarck even used her main and secondary batteries to fire at maximum depression to create giant splashes in the paths of the incoming torpedo bombers. [3] Nevertheless, none of the attacking aircraft were shot down. Bismarck evaded eight of the nine torpedoes launched at her. [2] The ninth struck amidships on the main armoured belt and caused minor damage. The concussive shock threw one man into a wall and killed him; five others were injured. [4]
The explosive shock from the torpedo hit caused minor damage to electrical equipment, though the high speed and erratic manoeuvres used to evade the torpedoes inflicted more serious damage. The rapid shifts in speed and course loosened collision mats, so that flooding from the forward shell hole increased; eventually the port side number 2 boiler room had to be abandoned. The loss of now two boilers on the port shaft, coupled with decreasing fuel levels and the increasing bow trim, forced a reduction in speed to Script error. Divers repaired the collision mats in the bow, after which speed increased to Script error. The command staff had determined that this was the most economical speed for the voyage to occupied France. [1]
Shortly after the Swordfish departed the scene, Bismarck and Prince of Wales engaged in a brief artillery duel. Both ships failed to score any hits. [2] Bismarck's damage control teams resumed work after the short engagement. The sea water that had flooded the number 2 port side boiler threatened to enter the number 4 turbo-generator feedwater system, which would have permitted saltwater to reach the turbines. The saltwater would have destroyed the turbine blades and thus greatly reduced the ship's speed. By morning on 25 May, the danger had passed. The ship slowed to Script error to allow divers to pump fuel from the forward compartments to the rear tanks; two hoses were successfully connected and a few hundred tons of fuel were transferred. [1]
As the chase entered open waters, Wake-Walker's ships were compelled to zig-zag to avoid German U-boats that might be in the area. This required the ships to steam for ten minutes to port, then ten minutes to starboard, to keep the ships on the same base course. For the last few minutes of the turn to port, Bismarck was out of range of Suffolk's radar. [2] At 03:00 on the morning of 25 May, Lütjens ordered the ship increase to maximum speed, which at this point was Script error. He then ordered the ship to circle away to the west and then north. This manoeuvre coincided with the period during which his ship was out of radar range; Bismarck successfully broke radar contact and circled back behind her pursuers. Suffolk's captain assumed that Bismarck had broken off to the west and attempted to find her by steaming west, too. After half an hour, he informed Wake-Walker, who ordered the three ships to disperse at daylight to search visually. [1]
The Royal Navy search became frantic, as many of the British ships were low on fuel. Victorious and her escorting cruisers were sent west, Wake-Walker's ships continued to the south and west, and Tovey continued to steam toward the mid-Atlantic. Force H , centred on the aircraft carrier Ark Royal and steaming up from Gibraltar , was still at least a day away. [2] Unaware that he had shaken off Wake-Walker, Lütjens sent long radio messages to Naval Group West, based in Paris. These signals were intercepted by the British, from which bearings were determined. They were erroneously plotted, which kept Tovey's fleet on wrong courses for seven hours. By the time the mistake had been discovered, Bismarck was gone. [3]
The aircraft carrier Ark Royal with a flight of Swordfish overhead
British code-breakers were able to decrypt some of the German signals, including an order for Lütjens to make for Brest. The French Resistance provided the British with confirmation, as Luftwaffe units were relocating to Brest to provide support. Tovey could now turn his forces toward France to converge in areas through which Bismarck would have to pass. [4] A squadron of Coastal Command PBY Catalinas based in Northern Ireland joined the search, covering areas where Bismarck might be headed in her attempt to reach occupied France. At 10:30 on 26 May, a Catalina piloted by Ensign Leonard B. Smith of the US Navy located her, some Script error northwest of Brest. [lower-alpha 1] At her current speed, she would have been close enough to reach the protection of U-boats and the Luftwaffe in less than a day. There were no British forces close enough to stop her. [2]
The only possibility for the Royal Navy was Ark Royal with Force H, under the command of Admiral James Somerville . [3] Victorious, Prince of Wales, Suffolk, and Repulse were forced to break off the search due to fuel concerns; the only heavy ships remaining apart from Force H were King George V and Rodney, but they were too distant. [4] Ark Royal's Swordfish were already searching nearby when the Catalina found her. Several torpedo bombers also located the battleship, about Script error away from Ark Royal. Somerville ordered an attack as soon as the Swordfish returned and were rearmed with torpedoes. He detached the cruiser Sheffield to shadow Bismarck, though Ark Royal's aviators were not informed of this. [1] As a result, the Swordfish, which were armed with torpedoes equipped with new magnetic detonators , accidentally attacked Sheffield. The magnetic detonators failed to work properly, and Sheffield emerged unscathed. [2]
A Swordfish returns to Ark Royal after making the torpedo attack against Bismarck
Upon returning to Ark Royal, the Swordfish loaded torpedoes equipped with contact detonators. The second attack comprised fifteen aircraft and was launched at 19:10. At 20:47, the torpedo bombers began their attack descent through the clouds. [3] While the Swordfish approached, Bismarck fired her main battery at Sheffield, straddling the cruiser with her second salvo. Shell fragments rained down on Sheffield, killing three men and wounding several others. [4] Sheffield quickly retreated under cover of a smoke screen. The Swordfish then attacked; Bismarck began to turn violently while her anti-aircraft batteries attempted to destroy the incoming bombers. She evaded most of the torpedoes, though two found their mark. [5] One hit amidships on the port side, just below the bottom edge of the main armour belt. The force of the explosion was largely contained by the underwater protection system and the belt armour, but some structural damage was effected, which allowed minor flooding. [6]
The second torpedo struck Bismarck in her stern on the port side, near the port rudder shaft. The coupling on the port rudder assembly was badly damaged and the rudder could not be disengaged, locked in a 12° turn to port. The explosion also caused major shock damage. [7] The crew repeatedly attempted to regain steering control. They eventually managed to repair the starboard rudder, but the port rudder remained badly jammed. A suggestion to sever the port rudder with explosives was dismissed by Lütjens, as damage to the screws would have left the battleship helpless. [8] [9] At 21:15, Lütjens reported that the ship was unmanoeuvrable. [10]
Sinking
Main article: Last battle of the battleship Bismarck
With the port rudder jammed, Bismarck was now steaming in a large circle, unable to escape from Tovey's forces. Though fuel shortages had reduced the number of ships available to the British, the battleships King George V and Rodney were still available, along with the heavy cruisers Dorsetshire and Norfolk. [11] Lütjens signalled headquarters at 21:40 on the 26th: "Ship unmanoeuvrable. We will fight to the last shell. Long live the Führer." [12] The mood of the crew became increasingly depressed, especially as messages from the naval command reached the ship. Intended to boost morale, the messages only highlighted the desperate situation in which the crew found itself. [13] In the growing darkness, Bismarck briefly fired on Sheffield, though the cruiser quickly fled. Sheffield lost contact in the low visibility; Captain Philip Vian 's group of five destroyers were now tasked with keeping contact with Bismarck throughout the night. [14]
The ships encountered Bismarck at 22:38; the battleship quickly engaged them with her main battery. After firing three salvos, she straddled the Polish destroyer ORP Piorun . The destroyer continued to close the range until a near miss at around Script error forced her to turn away. [1] Throughout the night and into the morning, Vian's destroyers continually harried Bismarck, illuminating her with star shells and firing dozens of torpedoes, none of which hit. Between 05:00 and 06:00, Bismarck's crew attempted to launch one of the Arado 196 float planes to carry away the ship's war diary, footage of the engagement with Hood, and other important documents. The third shell hit from Prince of Wales had damaged the steam line on the aircraft catapult, rendering it inoperative. Unable to launch the aircraft, the crew simply pushed it overboard. [2]
Rodney firing on Bismarck
After daybreak on 27 May, King George V led the attack. Rodney followed off her port quarter; Tovey intended to steam directly at Bismarck until he was about Script error away. At that point, he would turn south to put his ships parallel to his target. [1] At 08:43, lookouts on King George V spotted her, some Script error away. Four minutes later, Rodney's two forward turrets, a total of six Script error guns, opened fire, then King George V's Script error guns began firing. Bismarck returned fire at 08:50 with her forward guns; with her second salvo, she straddled Rodney. [1]
As the range fell, the ships' secondary batteries joined the battle. Norfolk and Dorsetshire closed and began firing with their Script error guns. At 09:02, a 16-inch shell from Rodney struck Bismarck's forward superstructure, killing hundreds of men and severely damaging the two forward turrets. According to survivors, this salvo probably killed both Lindemann and Lütjens and the rest of the bridge staff. [1] The forward main battery was now effectively disabled, though it would manage to fire one last salvo at 09:27. [2] One of Bismarck's shells exploded 20 feet off Rodney's bow and rendered her starboard torpedo tube useless—the closest Bismarck came to a direct hit on her opponents. [3] The main gunnery control station was quickly destroyed. Lieutenant von Müllenheim in the rear control station took over firing control for the rear turrets. He managed to fire three salvos before a shell destroyed the gun director, disabling his equipment. He gave the order for the still active guns to fire independently, but by 09:31, all four main battery turrets had been neutralised. [4]
By 10:00, Tovey's two battleships had fired over 700 main battery shells, many at very close range; Bismarck had been reduced to a shambles, aflame from stem to stern. She suffered from a 20° list to port and was low in the water by the stern. Rodney closed to Script error, point-blank range for guns of that size, and continued to hammer away at the battered hulk. Tovey could not cease fire until the Germans struck their ensigns or it became clear they were abandoning ship. [1] Rodney fired two torpedoes from her port-side tube and claimed one hit. [2] According to Ludovic Kennedy this claim, "if true, [is] the only instance in history of one battleship torpedoing another". [3]
HMS Dorsetshire picking up survivors
First Officer Hans Oels ordered the men below decks to abandon ship; he instructed the engine room crews to open the ship's watertight doors and prepare scuttling charges. [4] Gerhard Junack, the chief engineering officer, ordered his men to set the demolition charges with a 9-minute fuse, but the intercom system broke down, and so he sent a messenger to confirm the order to scuttle the ship. The messenger never returned, and so Junack primed the charges and ordered the crew to abandon the ship. [5] Junack and his comrades heard the demolition charges detonate as they made their way up through the various levels. [6] In the meantime, Oels rushed throughout the ship, ordering men to abandon their posts. After he reached the deck a huge explosion killed him and about a hundred others. [7]
The four British ships fired more than 2,800 shells at Bismarck, and scored more than 400 hits, but were unable to sink Bismarck by gunfire. At around 10:20, running low on fuel, Tovey ordered the cruiser Dorsetshire to sink Bismarck with torpedoes, and sent his battleships back to port. [8] Dorsetshire fired a pair of torpedoes into Bismarck's starboard side, one of which hit. Dorsetshire then moved around to her port side and fired another torpedo, which also hit. By the time that these torpedo attacks took place, the ship was already listing so badly that the deck was partly awash. [6] It appears that the final torpedo may have detonated against Bismarck's port side superstructure, which was by then already underwater. [9] Around 10:35, Bismarck capsized to port and slowly sank by the stern, disappearing from the surface at 10:40. [10] Some survivors reported they saw Captain Lindemann standing at attention at the stem of the ship as she sank. [11] Junack, who had abandoned ship by the time it capsized, observed no underwater damage to the ship's starboard side. [5] Von Müllenheim-Rechberg reported the same assessment, but assumed that the port side, which was then under water, had been more significantly damaged. [11] Around 400 men were now in the water; [5] Dorsetshire and the destroyer Maori moved in and lowered ropes to pull the survivors aboard. At 11:40, Dorsetshire's captain ordered the rescue effort abandoned after lookouts spotted what they thought was a U-boat. Dorsetshire had rescued 85 men and Maori had picked up 25 by the time they left the scene. [12] A U-boat later reached the survivors and found three men, and a German trawler rescued another two. One of the men picked up by the British died of his wounds the following day. Out of a crew of over 2,200 men, only 114 survived. [10]
Bismarck was mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht (armed forces report) three times during Operation Rheinübung. The first was an account of the Battle of the Denmark Strait; [13] the second was a brief account of the ship's destruction, [14] and the third was an exaggerated claim that Bismarck had sunk a British destroyer and shot down five aircraft. [15] In 1959, C. S. Forester published his novel Last Nine Days of the Bismarck . The book was adapted for the movie Sink the Bismarck! , released the following year. For dramatic effect the film showed Bismarck sinking a British destroyer and shooting down two aircraft, neither of which happened. [16] That same year, Johnny Horton released the song "Sink the Bismarck". [17]
Wreckage
File:Bismarck illustration.png
The wreck of Bismarck was discovered on 8 June 1989 by Dr. Robert Ballard , the oceanographer responsible for finding the RMS Titanic . Bismarck was found to be resting upright at a depth of approximately Script error, [1] about Script error west of Brest. The ship struck an extinct underwater volcano, which rose some Script error above the surrounding abyssal plain , triggering a Script error landslide. Bismarck slid down the mountain, coming to a stop two-thirds down. [1]
Ballard's survey found no underwater penetrations of the ship's fully armoured citadel . Eight holes were found in the hull, one on the starboard side and seven on the port side, all above the waterline. One of the holes is in the deck, on the bow's starboard side. The angle and shape indicates the shell that created the hole was fired from Bismarck's port side and struck the starboard anchor chain. The anchor chain has disappeared down this hole. [2] Six holes are amidships, three shell fragments pierced the upper splinter belt, and one made a hole in the main armour belt. [3] Further aft a huge hole is visible, parallel to the aircraft catapult, on the deck. It is unclear whether this was a result of an internal magazine explosion due to a shell penetration of the ship's armour. The submersibles recorded no sign of a shell penetration through the main or side armour that could have caused this; it is likely that the shell penetrated the deck armour only. [4] Huge dents showed that many of the 14 inch shells fired by King George V bounced off the German belt armour. [5]
Ballard noted that he found no evidence of the internal implosions that occur when a hull that is not fully flooded sinks. The surrounding water, which has much greater pressure than the air in the hull, would crush the ship. Instead, Ballard points out that the hull is in relatively good condition; he states simply that "Bismarck did not implode." [6] This suggests that Bismarck's compartments were flooded when the ship sank, supporting the scuttling theory. [7] Ballard added "we found a hull that appears whole and relatively undamaged by the descent and impact". They concluded that the direct cause of sinking was scuttling: sabotage of engine-room valves by her crew, as claimed by German survivors. [8] Ballard kept the wreck's exact location a secret to prevent other divers from taking artefacts from the ship, a practice he considered a form of grave robbing . [9]
The whole stern had broken away; as it was not near the main wreckage and as of 2010 had not been found, it can be assumed this did not occur on impact with the sea floor. The missing section came away roughly where the torpedo had hit, raising questions of possible structural failure. [10] The stern area had also received several hits, increasing the torpedo damage. This, coupled with the fact the ship sank "stern first" and had no structural support to hold it in place, suggests the stern detached at the surface. In 1942 Prinz Eugen was also torpedoed in the stern, which subsequently collapsed. This prompted a strengthening of the stern structures on all German capital ships. [8]
Subsequent expeditions
Edit
In June 2001, Deep Ocean Expeditions, partnered with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute , conducted another investigation of the wreck. The researchers used Russian-built mini-subs. William N. Lange, a Woods Hole expert, stated, "You see a large number of shell holes in the superstructure and deck, but not that many along the side, and none below the waterline." [11] The expedition found no penetrations in the main armoured belt, above or below the waterline. The examiners noted several long gashes in the hull, but attributed these to impact on the sea floor. [11]
An Anglo-American expedition in July 2001 was funded by a British TV channel. The team used the volcano—the only one in that area—to locate the wreck. Using ROVs to film the hull, the team concluded that the ship had sunk due to combat damage. Expedition leader David Mearns claimed significant gashes had been found in the hull: "My feeling is that those holes were probably lengthened by the slide, but initiated by torpedoes". [11]
The 2002 documentary Expedition: Bismarck , directed by James Cameron and filmed in May–June 2002 using smaller and more agile MIR submersibles , reconstructed the events leading to the sinking. These provided the first interior shots. His findings were that there was not enough damage below the waterline to confirm that she had been sunk rather than scuttled. Close inspection of the wreckage confirmed that none of the torpedoes or shells had penetrated the second layer of the inner hull. Using small ROVs to examine the interior, Cameron discovered that the torpedo blasts had failed to shatter the torpedo bulkheads. [11]
Despite their sometimes differing viewpoints, these experts generally agree that Bismarck would have eventually foundered if the Germans had not scuttled her first. Ballard estimated that Bismarck could still have floated for at least a day when the British vessels ceased fire and could have been captured by the Royal Navy, a position supported by the historian Ludovic Kennedy (who was serving on the destroyer Tartar at the time). Kennedy stated, "That she would have foundered eventually there can be little doubt; but the scuttling ensured that it was sooner rather than later." [8] When asked whether Bismarck would have sunk if the Germans had not scuttled the ship, Cameron replied "Sure. But it might have taken half a day." [11] In Mearns' subsequent book Hood and Bismarck, he conceded that scuttling "may have hastened the inevitable, but only by a matter of minutes." [11] Ballard later concluded that "As far as I was concerned, the British had sunk the ship regardless of who delivered the final blow." [12]
Footnotes
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bismarck (ship, 1939) .
Notes
Gardiner, Robert; Chesneau, Roger, eds (1980). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1922–1946 . Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-913-9 . OCLC 18121784 . http://books.google.com/?id=bJBMBvyQ83EC .
Garzke, William H.; Dulin, Robert O. (1985). Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-101-0 .
Gröner, Erich (1990). German Warships: 1815–1945. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-790-6 .
Grützner, Jens (2010) (in German). Kapitän zur See Ernst Lindemann: Der Bismarck-Kommandant – Eine Biographie. Zweibrücken, DE: VDM Heinz Nickel. ISBN 978-3-86619-047-4 .
Jackson, Robert (2002). The Bismarck. London: Weapons of War. ISBN 978-1-86227-173-9 .
Kennedy, Ludovic (1991). Pursuit: The Sinking of the Bismarck. London: Fontana. ISBN 978-0-00-634014-0 .
McGowen, Tom (1999). Sink the Bismarck: Germany's Super-Battleship of World War II. Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0761315101 .
Miller, Nathan (1997). War at Sea: A Naval History of World War II. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511038-8 .
Niemi, Robert (2006). History in the Media: Film and Television. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-952-2 .
Polmar, Norman; Cavas, Christopher P. (2009). Navy's Most Wanted. Washington, DC: Potomac Books. ISBN 978-1-59797-226-0 .
von Müllenheim-Rechberg, Burkhard (1980). Battleship Bismarck, A Survivor's Story. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-096-9 .
Williamson, Gordon (2003). German Battleships 1939–45. Oxford, England: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-498-6 .
(in German) Die Wehrmachtberichte 1939–1945 Band 1, 1. September 1939 bis 31. Dezember 1941. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH & Co. KG. 1985. ISBN 978-3-423-05944-2 .
Zetterling, Niklas; Tamelander, Michael (2009). Bismarck: The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship. Drexel Hill, PA: Casemate. ISBN 978-1-935149-04-0 .
Online sources
Jurens, Bill; Garzke, William H.; Dulin, Robert O.; Roberts, John; Fiske, Richard (2002). "A Marine Forensic Analysis of HMS Hood and DKM Bismarck" . http://www.sname.org/SNAME/SNAME/Libraries/ViewDocument/Default.aspx?DocumentKey=57f1943b-72c9-440c-81d0-9d58d9893dd0 . Retrieved 31 October 2012.
Further reading
Ballard, R. (1990). The Discovery of the Bismarck. New York, NY. Warner Books Inc. ISBN 978-0-446-51386-9
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What is the national flower of India? | Nazi Germany's Battleship Bismarck vs. America's Iowa Class: Who Wins? | The National Interest
Nazi Germany's Battleship Bismarck vs. America's Iowa Class: Who Wins?
A World War II showdown that never was.
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Despite the vast scope of the Second World War, the navies of the United States and Nazi Germany fought few, if any, direct surface engagements. By the time of America’s entry into the war the Royal Navy had already sunk or neutralized the lion’s share of Hitler’s Kriegsmarine, with only Hitler’s U-boats remaining a substantial German threat.
But what if the UK’s Royal Navy hadn’t been as successful as it was, and the U.S. was forced to hunt down the German Navy’s major surface combatants? What if the Iowa-class fast battleships had been sortied into the Atlantic to square off against their counterparts, the Bismarck-class battleships?
The Bismarck-class battleships were the largest surface ships built by Germany before and during the Second World War. Germany had been prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles to build warships over 10,000 tons, but the Anglo-German Naval Treaty of 1935 implicitly allowed them—though the German Navy was not to exceed thirty five percent the size of the Royal Navy.
With that restriction out of the way, Germany immediately began construction on the Bismarck-class battleships. Two ships, the Bismarck and Tirpitz, were planned. The ships were 821 feet long and displaced up to 50,000 tons fully loaded. Twelve high-pressure boilers powered three turbines, giving the ship a top speed of 30.1 knots. Three FuMo-23 search radars could detect surface targets at more than thirteen miles.
The Bismarck class had eight fifteen-inch guns, each capable of hurling an armor piercing, capped round up to 21.75 miles. The 1,764-pound killer shell traveled at 2,960 feet per second out the bore, faster than the bullet of a high-powered rifle. At 11 miles, it could penetrate 16.5 inches of armor, or roughly to the horizon at sea level, although it could theoretically hit targets much further.
Both battleships were heavily protected, with 12.5 inches of steel at the main belt, 8.7 inch armored bulkheads, and 14.1 inches of armor on the main gun turrets. The eight guns were installed in four turrets of two guns each. This spread the battleship’s main armament out among more protected turrets, increasing their survivability in a gunfight.
Overall, the Bismarck class was an impressive combination of firepower, speed, and protection.
The Iowa-class battleships were the most powerful battleships built for the U.S. Navy. Four ships: Iowa, New Jersey, Missouri, and Wisconsin were built. Each was approximately 861 feet long and weighed 52,000 tons. Eight water boilers connected to General Electric steam turbines propelled the battleships along at a speedy 32.5-knot maximum speed.
Iowa had nine sixteen-inch guns. Each Mark 7 gun could launch a 2,700 pound armor piercing shell 11.36 miles to penetrate 20 inches of steel plate—and even farther to a lesser penetration. In addition to search radar, the Iowas had Mk 13 fire control radars , allowing them to engage targets at extreme ranges and at night. The Mk 13 had a theoretical range out to 45 miles, and could even spot where the Iowa’s errant rounds landed, making aiming corrections much easier.
The Iowas too were heavily armored, with 12.1 inches at the main belt, 11.3-inch bulkheads, and an amazing 19.7 inches of armor on the main turrets. The ship’s vital combat information center and ammunition magazines were buried deep in their armored hulls.
Now, on to the battle. It’s 1942, and the new American battleship Iowa has been rushed into service to hunt the Bismarck. Bismarck, her sister ship Tirpitz, and other large German combatants have made the Atlantic too dangerous to send convoys across, something the United Kingdom desperately needs.
A fast battleship designed to operate alongside aircraft carriers, Iowa can cover a lot of ocean. Operating alone, she detects Bismarck—also operating alone. The duel is on.
Despite the Bismarck’s well-trained crew, good design and powerful weapons, Iowa has one technological innovation the German battlewagon doesn’t: radar-directed main guns. Iowa can fire much more accurately at longer distance targets. This allows Iowa to “out-stick” the Bismarck, which must close to within visual range for its fire control systems and procedures to work effectively. While Bismarck would avoid a nighttime duel, Iowa would welcome it—and its 2.5-knot advantage in speed means it can force a night battle if it wants to, chasing Bismarck down before sunrise.
Iowa’s combination of the Mk 13 fire control radar and Mk 7 shells means it can fire first, hit first, and hurt first. While Bismarck’s armor protection and distributed firepower could help ensure it lasts long enough above the waves to damage Iowa, it’s unlikely could save itself, damaging the American battleship enough to make it break off the attack.
Iowa wins.
The larger context of the battle—the U.S. Navy being forced to take on the German Navy—would have had serious repercussions for the Pacific theater. Germany was, after all, considered the primary threat, with Japan second and Italy third. A more powerful German Navy (or weaker Royal Navy) would have had second order consequences for the Pacific, delaying the Solomons campaign, including the invasion of Guadalcanal, the Battle of the Coral Sea, and even the Battle of Midway.
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