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Who wrote the novel ‘Tess of the D’Urbervilles’? | Pictured: The beautiful farm girl who inspired Thomas Hardy to write Tess of the D'urbervilles | Daily Mail Online
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The TV adaptation of Thomas Hardy's romantic saga Tess of the D'urbervilles is topping the ratings. And now a photograph of the the real-life inspiration for the central character is published for the first time.
Augusta Way was 'Tess Durbeyfield' of the novel. In the book, Tess was the eldest daughter in a poor, rural working family - a fresh, pretty country girl with a good heart and a sensitive soul.
The middle-aged woman pictured below with her husband, was just 18 when Hardy spotted her milking a cow on a Wessex farm.
Historic character: Augusta Way with her husband Arthur Bugler. Years before this picture was taken, Augusta helped inspire Thomas Hardy to pen Tess of the D'urbervilles when she was spotted milking a cow on a Wessex farm
He was so attracted to the beautiful teenager that he had her in mind three years later when he wrote his famous novel in 1891.
The full title was Tess of the d'Urbervilles: A Pure Woman Faithfully Presented. A four-part BBC adaptation starring Gemma Arterton as Tess started last night.
In another photo, Augusta is seen with her daughter Gertrude who was later chosen by Hardy to play Tess in a stage show 33 years after he wrote the book.
He selected her for the lead role in the production by the Hardy Players because she looked so much like her mother, who had inspired the character.
Her younger sister Norrie Woodhall, now 102, who has found the pictures, said Hardy described Gertrude as 'the impersonator of Tess'.
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Happy family: Augusta, second right, at a picnic with her husband Albert and their daughters Norrie, left, and Gertrude. The daughters went on to star for the Thomas Hardy players, with Gertrude taking the lead as Tess in the play of the book because she looked like her mother
She said that the literary great wanted her to go on stage in London with him, but Hardy's wife Florence put an end to Gertrude's acting career due to jealousy.
She said: 'Thomas Hardy told us that he used to walk past our mother each day when she was milking.
'She was a beautiful woman. He said himself that the memory must have entered his mind when he was creating the character of Tess.
'So when we did the play years later he cast Gertrude in the role.
'She must have been, for him, a reincarnation of the real Tess in our production.
'Gertrude was very good and wanted to be an actress but Florence put a stop to that.' Hardy first spotted Augusta Way in 1888 when she was just 18.
The author, who was 48 at the time, regularly walked past her grandfather's dairy farm on his way to the Kingston Maurward estate near Dorchester, Dorset.
Star turn: Actress Gemma Arterton who plays Tess in the BBC 1 adaptation of Tess of the D'urbervilles which started last night. The four-part dramatisation has already attracted millions of viewers
Inspired: Author Thomas Hardy who wrote Tess of the D'urbervilles in 1891
Then in 1891 he used his memory of Augusta milking cows when writing Tess.
Norrie, who is a member of the Hardy Players today, said: 'Hardy used to walk to Kingston Maurward as the lady who lived there thought he was clever and gave him great encouragement.
'On his way he would walk past a grey manor house where my mother Augusta and three other families lived.
'My grandfather ran a dairy there and my mother and her sisters would sit outside and milk the cows.
'It was before my mother married when she was about 18 years old. She was very beautiful and must have caught his eye.
'I do not believe Hardy ever spoke to my mother though as he was a very shy person. He would never have made advances.' Augusta married Arthur Bugler soon after and went on to have daughters Eileen, Gertrude, Norrie and a son also called Arthur.
Norrie and Gertrude joined the local Hardy Players as teenagers and were directed by Hardy himself.
Widow Norrie, whose full name is Augusta Noreen, said: 'My mother gave me her name but I didn't look like her and never grew as tall.
'But Gertrude and my mother were very much alike - Gertrude was beautiful like her.
'When I was a teenager my sister and I were in the Hardy Players and Thomas Hardy would direct us.
Survivor: Norrie Bugler pictured in the 1920s and today, aged 102. She lost out on the part of Tess because she never looked like her mother and failed to grow to the same height. Gertrude was picked out by Hardy
'In 1924, we did a production of Tess of the d'Urbervilles and Thomas Hardy cast Gertrude as Tess. He made it a condition that she play the lead role.
'I was very shy so was given a smaller part of her sister Liza-Lu.
'Gertrude was a great success in the play and Thomas Hardy sat in the audience and enjoyed it no end.
'Hardy would call her 'the impersonator of Tess'.' Norrie said her sister was so good playing Tess that Hardy asked her to continue with the role when it moved to London.
But she said his wife Florence forced her to turn down the part.
Norrie said: 'Gertrude became the absolute lead - the London people were noticing and coming down.
'Florence never liked the Hardy Players and she was insanely jealous of Gertrude.
'She kept on at her until she wrote a letter of refusal to Thomas Hardy which really she didn't want to do.
Thespian dreams: Thomas Hardy players in 1918. Gertrude is centre, Norrie front right
'Shortly after, Florence disbanded the players. She was a very deceitful woman and Hardy died not knowing the truth.' Norrie believes that if it was not for Florence, her's and Gertrude's lives could have been very different.
She added: 'Recently I saw a letter in the Dorchester Museum in which Hardy suggested I should go with Gertrude to London.
'He said I should accompany her as London is a very lonely place.
'I also liked acting and believe that if it was not for Florence, my life would have been different.' There is another claimant to the title of the woman who inspired Tess: Agatha Thornycroft, whom Hardy sat with at dinner in 1889.
Some believe she was the visual model for the character.
| Thomas Hardy |
Butt, Barrel and Butterfly are all types of what? | SparkNotes: Tess of the d’Urbervilles: Plot Overview
Tess of the d’Urbervilles
Thomas Hardy
Context
Character List
The poor peddler John Durbeyfield is stunned to learn that he is the descendent of an ancient noble family, the d’Urbervilles. Meanwhile, Tess, his eldest daughter, joins the other village girls in the May Day dance, where Tess briefly exchanges glances with a young man. Mr. Durbeyfield and his wife decide to send Tess to the d’Urberville mansion, where they hope Mrs. d’Urberville will make Tess’s fortune. In reality, Mrs. d’Urberville is no relation to Tess at all: her husband, the merchant Simon Stokes, simply changed his name to d’Urberville after he retired. But Tess does not know this fact, and when the lascivious Alec d’Urberville, Mrs. d’Urberville’s son, procures Tess a job tending fowls on the d’Urberville estate, Tess has no choice but to accept, since she blames herself for an accident involving the family’s horse, its only means of income.
Tess spends several months at this job, resisting Alec’s attempts to seduce her. Finally, Alec takes advantage of her in the woods one night after a fair. Tess knows she does not love Alec. She returns home to her family to give birth to Alec’s child, whom she christens Sorrow. Sorrow dies soon after he is born, and Tess spends a miserable year at home before deciding to seek work elsewhere. She finally accepts a job as a milkmaid at the Talbothays Dairy.
At Talbothays, Tess enjoys a period of contentment and happiness. She befriends three of her fellow milkmaids—Izz, Retty, and Marian—and meets a man named Angel Clare, who turns out to be the man from the May Day dance at the beginning of the novel. Tess and Angel slowly fall in love. They grow closer throughout Tess’s time at Talbothays, and she eventually accepts his proposal of marriage. Still, she is troubled by pangs of conscience and feels she should tell Angel about her past. She writes him a confessional note and slips it under his door, but it slides under the carpet and Angel never sees it.
After their wedding, Angel and Tess both confess indiscretions: Angel tells Tess about an affair he had with an older woman in London, and Tess tells Angel about her history with Alec. Tess forgives Angel, but Angel cannot forgive Tess. He gives her some money and boards a ship bound for Brazil, where he thinks he might establish a farm. He tells Tess he will try to accept her past but warns her not to try to join him until he comes for her.
Tess struggles. She has a difficult time finding work and is forced to take a job at an unpleasant and unprosperous farm. She tries to visit Angel’s family but overhears his brothers discussing Angel’s poor marriage, so she leaves. She hears a wandering preacher speak and is stunned to discover that he is Alec d’Urberville, who has been converted to Christianity by Angel’s father, the Reverend Clare. Alec and Tess are each shaken by their encounter, and Alec appallingly begs Tess never to tempt him again. Soon after, however, he again begs Tess to marry him, having turned his back on his -religious ways.
Tess learns from her sister Liza-Lu that her mother is near death, and Tess is forced to return home to take care of her. Her mother recovers, but her father unexpectedly dies soon after. When the family is evicted from their home, Alec offers help. But Tess refuses to accept, knowing he only wants to obligate her to him again.
At last, Angel decides to forgive his wife. He leaves Brazil, desperate to find her. Instead, he finds her mother, who tells him Tess has gone to a village called Sandbourne. There, he finds Tess in an expensive boardinghouse called The Herons, where he tells her he has forgiven her and begs her to take him back. Tess tells him he has come too late. She was unable to resist and went back to Alec d’Urberville. Angel leaves in a daze, and, heartbroken to the point of madness, Tess goes upstairs and stabs her lover to death. When the landlady finds Alec’s body, she raises an alarm, but Tess has already fled to find Angel.
Angel agrees to help Tess, though he cannot quite believe that she has actually murdered Alec. They hide out in an empty mansion for a few days, then travel farther. When they come to Stonehenge, Tess goes to sleep, but when morning breaks shortly thereafter, a search party discovers them. Tess is arrested and sent to jail. Angel and Liza-Lu watch as a black flag is raised over the prison, signaling Tess’s execution.
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The perfume L’Interdit by Givenchy was created in 1957 for which actress? | L`Interdit Givenchy perfume - a fragrance for women 1957
TillyWave
Iris and Dark Powder Bomb
I find that L'Interdit is all iris, orris, powder, and dark woods. It belongs on the skin of women with lacquered hair, red nail polish, stockings, and white gloves. Not loud at all but reminiscent of older grooming products--powder, white bar soap, lipstick, hairspray on a style that was set at the beauty parlor yesterday, and a few drops of perfume, from a glass dabber bottle, pressed on pulse points.
I'm sure that the 20 mls of L'Interdit that I have have started to turn--I cannot detect any strawberry/peach/bergamot/fruit note at all (too bad!) and for a few minutes the floral notes have nailpolish edges. But the aldehyde topnotes are of the old fashioned skanky variety, I do understand the comparison to Chanel no 5, because it smells just like those bottles--skanky, musky, kind of off putting, but interesting if you hang in there because it doesn't last long. I am sure that these notes have aged in themselves, but still, aldehydes don't smell like this today.
This perfume really reminds me of Chanel Misia--it is so, so powdery, the violet is prominent, the iris and orris are very dark, and the other florals are faint whispers, and the sandalwood is STUNNING. Beautiful base. L'Interdit wears pretty close to the skin but has good longevity, 6+ hours.
Aug
2016
Chanel4Evah
Simply Exquisite! The Vintage 1.oz bottle I snagged for a Good price on eBay just arrived today and it is PURE LOVELINESS!!! Very much like No.5 to start, but it becomes less intense and prickly in the dry down, more Elegant and Smooth. No.5 is meant to GRAB your attention, L'interdit is meant to gently seduce your attention! It succeeds Blissfully so! Merveilleuse!
Aug
2016
Southern Blonde
Vintage miniature dab on bottle. A beautiful spring fragrance of innocence, charm and sweetness. This was made for Audrey Hepburn to wear and she wore it well. Unselfishly she allowed other women to experience this beauty and when it hit the fragrance market in the 50's and 60's it was immediately hailed as a successor to Chanel No. 5. It has a few things in common. This is a French perfume and it has aldehydes and roses but in my opinion it's sweeter, softer and more enjoyable. Also it lacks the musk in No. 5. This is just a lovely youthful perfume for girls. I smell the peach and strawberry fruity sweet concentrated fruit. Because of those aldehydes however and the big strawberry as well as the rose it becomes slightly like a beauty salon scent. It definitely does smell of nail polish. In fact I had my own red nail polish bottle open to smell it and then smelled L'Interdit to see if the scents matched up. They do but this is a softer sort of nail polish scent. I like nail polish though. The fragrance lasts a long time and softens as it dries down. It then becomes like soft rose powder and violets, iris. Then it turns into a light sandalwood. Classy, beautiful, timeless, soulful and sweet like Audrey Hepburn.
May
2016
RosieRachel
Enchanting. I sought out a sample of L'Interdit because of Audrey Hepburn, and I've been in love with it ever since. I am now fortunate enough to own a bottle and I consider this the gem of my tiny collection. Givenchy really has captured the essence of a stylish Hepburn, as this is elegant, graceful and feminine. I understand why she loved it so much.
The opening is characterised by soft, soapy aldehydes, followed by the sweetest, most beautiful strawberry you can imagine. The strawberry in this perfume is my absolute favourite. The warmth of my skin then brings out a softly sweet peach, before the heart of a feather-weight floral powder, which is so incredibly delicate, and a beautiful, creamy sandalwood-amber dry-down to finish. I consider this the most perfect "posh hand cream scent" I've ever encountered. It settles very well on my skin, and is never too overwhelming, impeccably well-blended and quintessentially French. Soft to moderate sillage, longevity is for about 6 hours. Love.
Apr
SuzanneS
French feminine wiles in iconic Givenchy style.
Beautiful for spring with her powdery iris rose. Thus has a gentle soul. Not many perfumes can capture this delicacy.
The parfum is a little tricky, too much you get nail polish. The lightest hand you get all her fabulous notes. Again back to her theme of gentleness and delicacy. The parfum has an oily quality about it for adherence. The edt is slightly lighter but the fragrance is similar to one another. The drydown with the powdery sandalwood is wonderful in the EDP. Not to be missed.
I love to wear it to soften my being. The world we find ourselves in is quite harsh and this seems to being balance to me. This is from another time when women could be feminine, dress beautifully and put together for the sake of it..and not being asked what function was the reason for such a dressed up occasion. This is simply, because I am a woman.
Apr
2016
endge
I have a small decant of the original L'Interdit and a full bottle of the re-issued Les Mythiques version. The difference on me is this: the modern version smells from the beginning like what the vintage arrives to after half an hour, and I much prefer it that way. In fact, the top of the vintage seizes up my nose and all I get in first half an hour is bitter almond (which is not even there supposedly, but that's what it translates into in my brain).
Mar
2016
theladymay
An incredibly beautiful fragrance. I'm fortunate I guess, as I've never gotten any sort of nail polish scent from it. I have the parfum in the bright red presentation boxes and pre-barcode edts in the gold boxes with the flower stems on them. Very, very softly aldehydic - much, much less than Arpege, Chanel, Caleche. Well blended florals - I can think hard and pick things out but overall it's just the impression of lovely soft flowers to me. I don't get any dominant rose, iris or violet. The strawberry notes are lovely and strong, and there's some peach that dances through at times. Gorgeous creamy sandalwood, amber and orris make a powdery drydown to die for. While I believe that perfume has no gender L'Interdit feels so very feminine to me. This is one of the greats that I've replaced every time I've used up a bottle.
Jan
Gigi The Fashionista
The Forbidden Fragrance of Audrey Hepburn
In 1957, after three years after being the only woman on the planet who wore a perfume made exclusively for her to wear by French fashion designer and friend Hubert de Givenchy, Audrey Hepburn consented for her fragrance to be sold and commercialized in the mass fragrance market. The perfume was L'interdit which in French means "Forbidden". It was thus named because Audrey was reported to have been so enchanted by the fragrance that she said to Givenchy "I forbid you to commercialize this fragrance". They made a deal that Audrey would wear the fragrance for about 3 or 4 years and that it would not be sold to the public. She was the only woman wearing this between the years of 1954 and 1957. I have two versions of this fragrance, an old vintage one from about 1959 which still smells great and the current reformulation which is also very nice, but like a faint, soft skin scent eau de toilette version of the original eau de parfum.
Notes in L'interdit:
2015
lotus and jasmine
The softest aldehyde I've encountered. I'm getting rose, LoV, iris...lots of iris. This is buttery, powdery soft, pretty, a little quirky. The sandalwood is nicely creamy.
It's more Funny Face than Breakfast at Tiffany's. L'interdit definitely suits the Hepburn persona. The dry down becomes *quite* spice forward on my skin- not sweet spice, but actual heat in the sinuses when I sniff my wrists. Vetiver supports. And there's a touch of violet....and a huge dose of powder. Fluffy, puffy, mounds of it.
Spunky, funky, not sweet. Not at all. Quirky, yes. Very soft. Very nice!
Apr
2015
risarii
I have a vintage EDT of this from the 70s that was my mother's. I don't know if this is the original version or if they reformulated it between the 50s and 70s but wow, it's beautiful! I get a blast of aldehydes at first spray (which I love; aldehydes make a perfume smell expensive and classic) and then sandalwood, rose, powdery iris with a hint of strawberry.
It really is a tragedy that it isn't available anymore. I cannot for the life of me understand why Givenchy doesn't re-release this (as close to the vintage as possible or even slightly modernized by bringing down the aldehydes and musk slightly and focus on the flowers, benzoin, strawberry and the other fruits and tonka bean) and use Audrey Hepburn as it's model. It would sell like hotcakes! Audrey is HUGE, especially in Asia, where they could release an EDT version that's a bit lighter. People would pay a lot to smell like her! I think Givenchy has missed a golden opportunity. I hope they decide to re-release this in my lifetime. S’il vous plaît, Givenchy!
Jan
2015
nexangelus
Vintage L'Interdit, have a little sample in its little display case. Bought as part of an incomplete Givenchy set that has been well looked after.
They do not make perfume like this anymore (maybe they do?!).Strong aldehyde and citrus opening with powdery amber and slightly floral (the notes come and go so nicely) ending. It is so strong that I used the tiniest amount on my wrist and it is such a pretty, classic scent. I thought I would not like the strong soapy, sandalwood type scents as Chanel number 5 has never been on my to have list...but I am older now and this has such a depth to it, it is hard to explain. I might have to revisit some of the classics that many go on about, just to find one I like and that is me. This one is a soft floral and soft oriental mix/hybrid.
This scent reminds me of my grandmother's drawer liners and her wardrobe as you opened it.
Dec
2014
viewdemonde
L'Interdit (the original, conceived for Audrey Hepburn)is indefineable - like the woman who wears it. You only need a dab here and there - don't spray it on lavishly!
Nov
2014
Mistressvoodoodolly
I really thought this was a lot like Chanel No. 5 but the parfum, on the drydown is deeper with more amber and vanilla, something sweet and spicy. It's wonderful. I just wish the sillage was better, especially for a parfum, but it is vintage so it probably lost some oomph. Also I do not smell any citrus or light florals at the end, and barely any aldehydes. I may have to get a bigger bottle!
Oct
2014
Elbereth
After learning that L'Interdit was Audrey Hepburn's signature fragrance (absolutely adore her!), I acquired a tiny 3mL vintage bottle, and wow, absolutely beautiful and stunning!
I can definitely see why others compare it to Chanel No. 5 because of the strong aldehyde note, but where Chanel No. 5 seems reserved for someone who is a little more mature, L'Interdit is absolutely ageless. Without a doubt, I love Chanel No. 5, but I ended up giving away my bottle because as a twenty-six-year-old, I felt like a child in their mother's oversized pumps clumsily trapsing around when I wore it.
L'Interdit in turn felt like having an inherited piece of jewelry from a grandmother. It is without a doubt not modern in the least, but it is more beautiful and unique because of that. And like an inherited vintage piece, L'Interdit is special to wear; it's special because of it's history and definitely not something that's thrown on for day to day use. It has an appropriateness and elegance the same way an old locket would have, and it's classy and sophisticated. Not provactive, yet alluring. It's easy to see why someone like Audrey would have loved it.
Jun
2014
Nirhtuc
I'm just not an aldehydes person- it does work sometimes, as in the case of the old Gucci 1. I got a sample of this from The Perfumed Court (the original/vintage version, not the re-issued current one), and I dabbed some on an hour or so ago. I can't comment on longevity, but sillage is soft to moderate. The perfume itself reminds me a lot of the inside of my mother's handbag, lipstick and money, and of perfumes like Red Door, which I don't really enjoy. I guess I might have liked the perfume if I was living back in the 50s or 60s. The notes that stand out the most on me are aldehydes (unfortunately) and heady jasmine. I can't really picture someone like a young Audrey Hepburn wearing this...
Jun
2014
jana.hullinghorst
I just received a tiny bottle of this from LittleMissCharming (thank you so much!!) This is soooo good! It's beautiful, classy, inoffensive, soft whispers of mossy powder projecting from my skin.. it's a cross between mitsouko and dioressence. This is going to be my next big bottle purchase for sure!
Jan
2014
katieathens
I bought it a long time ago when I read that it was Audrey's favorite perfume. I really really liked it. To me it was very flowery but not in a bad way! It reminded me of spring and Easter time, of breezy sping evenings. I have a little bit left, but the bottle is at my parents house, so I can't sniff it...:-(
Jan
2014
StopHammertime
Never in a million years did I think I was going to like this perfume. I hate aldehydes and jasmine. I got a really tiny mini of the parfum because I thought the little bottle was so cute. I heard that Audrey Hepburn loved this perfume, so I had to see what it was about. OMG I love it! It reminds me of Chanel No. 5, but in a more wearable way. So classy! The minute I dabbed a bit on my hand it was magic! I was so surprised by how much I love it. It smells soapy, powdery, a little sweet, a little flowery. It makes me want to be the lady that wears this!
Jul
2013
bluemlein
this young-girl scent doesn't like my body chemistry and vice versa. all i get from it is a generic chemical catch in the back of my throat, so i have done the best thing i could with it:
given it to the people who collect dresses and accessories to help teens who have nothing go to the prom. after all, perfume is the touch that pulls it all together.
Mar
2013
drummagick
Received a vintage bottle today with a little bit left in it. The notes seem to be intact. In the beginning there was a burst of what I think must be aldehydes (not ever having smelled them by themselves, I'm not sure what they smell like!), then a light floral with just a hint of strawberry. As time went on it turned to complete powder on my skin. I have never smelled a perfume this powdery. It brings to mind a plump little white haired grandma :) I can parse out some really nice sandalwood in the base, a little musk, a bit of tonka. Very pretty, but I like my perfumes a little more on the strange side.
Jan
2012
acavicchi
My mother has a bottle of vintage L'Interdit by Givenchy that had belonged to my late grandmother. It was my grandmother's favourite perfume and, though there is almost nothing left in the bottle, the very faint scent that remains immediately evokes memories of her.
L'Interdit, to me, is clean, pretty and comforting. I have a hard time isolating certain notes as there is so very little left in the bottle and I'm almost afraid that if I smell if too often, it will disappear, but it is a powdery, clean scent. It is very well balanced so that the florals aren't overpowering, but complementary to the other notes in the fragrance. I also believe there is a warm, mildly spicy, mildly herbal or aromatic note to it that really sets it apart from other perfumes.
There are certain times when I feel really grateful for scent and its ability to bring back memories of happy times or to remind you of people you have lost. When I smell L'Interdit, I remember the feeling of being loved and cared for by someone very special to me.
Jun
2012
missk
Vintage L'Interdit is a very special perfume. I can most definitely imagine Audrey Hepburn wearing this fragrance, and I find it a much better pairing than Marilyn Monroe with Chanel No.5.
I shelled out the money to smell the original formula, and I'm so glad I did. It's a very classic scent, powdery aldehydes inclusive, yet I find it far more complex than people give it credit for.
L'Interdit EDT opens with a bright, sparkling burst of aldehydes, peach and strawberry. The powdery aspect is thankfully not overpowering, although dominant. The fruits give L'Interdit a beautiful, juicy and Spring-like feel.
The scent itself is rather subtle which surprised me at first, however I much prefer it this way when I come to think of it. After the fruitiness subsides, the floral accords become much more pronounced, with a rather strong focus on powdery rose and iris. The way the heart settles brings a smile to my face as I picture Audrey Hepburn decked out in her expensive Givenchy gown with an elegant string of pearls setting off her slender neck. She was a woman that stunned the world with her beauty and style, yet it came so naturally to her. L'Interdit has managed to capture the essence of her in a bottle.
In some ways, this fragrance is quite refined and elegant, although its delicacy hints at something a lot more intimate and sensual. The powderiness is somewhat similar in composition to the infamous Chanel No.5, however L'Interdit caters to a variety of tastes, throwing in an array of fruits and berries, and further developing into a spicy incense drydown.
Unfortunately my skin chemistry has not done justice to this fragrance, turning the peach note into something a little too fizzy and bitter. I envy those who can maintain L'Interdit's smoothness on their skin with no rude interruptions. Audrey Hepburn must have been an amazing smelling woman in her day.
Mar
2012
tiuku03
this is my first review here. L'interdit was my signature scent for years until it ran out of stock here in Finland. It is my all time favorite ever to exist. The original eau de parfum has not been available since the 80's. I have only had eau de toilettes since then. My last bottle of the original ran out before the year 2000. I have now gotten bottles of the Les Mythiques 2007 version on Ebay. The price and availability of that is also not good any more. So I am on a long and hard quest for something like this as a signature scent in the future.
The best part of this for me is the wonderful old fashioned powderiness of the drydown. L'interdit is a subtle soft sensual scent on me. It never gives me a migraine. I love it at all times of the day and year. It is great for work, play and everything. The eau de toilette does not have a lot of staying power. That is its major con. If anyone suggest a new signature scent for a L'interdit lover I am open to suggestions. I also like the original Ferre by ferre but that feels a bit overpowering sometimes. And also a discontinued hard to find scent.
Feb
2012
MrPerfumeKing
A futher note on this legendary scent, it was infact worn by Audrey Hepburn, a very close friend of Mr Hubert De Givenchy, and according to legend, the name "L'interdit" came from Audrey Hepburn whom told Mr Hubert de Givenchy "I forbid you to commercialise My perfume" and so came the name "L'interdit" "the forbidden" fascinating story from a truely luxurious perfume and fashion house.
Jan
2012
tessture
A classic aldehydic fruit with smoky woods. Very lovely, very addicting. There is something about it that reminds of a different era, a different world and there's a bit of longing in there for things past. That being said, it's also slightly dated, but for the woman with attitude, this will never be an issue.
Dec
2011
jena6867
Aaaah, so beautiful, dont buy the version of this age, it is nothing like the original, sadly not available anymore
Jul
2011
viewdemonde
Smokey and deep. One feels a million dollars wearing this scent. Best for a gala, intimate, evening event, where you will be sitting close to your loved one. Apply sparingly and let the perfume do the rest. It wafts and does not nag incessently like some modern perfumes.
May
2011
Kiku
L'Interdit captures the essence of the enchanting woman, Audrey Hepburn, who inspired it -- elegant, sophisticated, lovely. It's composition is like almost every other classic fragrance: a fruity/spicy opening followed by a soft floral heart, an earthy base. What sets L'Interdit apart is the large amount of orris and violets in the center. They give a soft, dry, powdery calmness. This perfume has a gentle heart. For the Audrey that's in every woman.
Mar
2011
mymlan
I got my hands on a vintage edp that I bought blindly only on basis of notes and reviews. First I found the top a bit strange and almost unbalanced, so I had to give it a few tries before I begun to understand it.
It is usually a good sign when I have to give a fragrance several tries. My crush for them seems to be both harder and deeper if I overcome the first hesitation.
l'Interdit starts off a bit sour from the bergamot that mixes with a cold aldehydic wind. Then it suddenly gets warm from the spices and some sweetness from the peach and strawberrys joins in. Alltogether a quite interesting concoction that may be puzzling at first.
But then the flowery heart reveals it's beauty and fulfils all hopes that I had from reading about its notes. Violet, powdery iris, sensual rose and jasmine plays along in such small doses each that the result is a warm, powdery, slightly sweet and innocently sexy air that rests on my wrist for hours and hours. I find the main theme both creamy and a little powdery but not in a milky baby powder way. The initial basenotes provides the flowery heart with character. Also, handful strawberries from the top dances around the heart in order to keep it young and happy. I find l'Interdit utterly feminine with an ooze of innocent sensuality in an almost teengirlish kind of way.
Beeing one of the classics It also surprises me in two major ways. First: It is so soft... and second: the strawberry note so recognizable. Usually fruits and berries in classics are so much blended in to the scent that you only get fragments from it. But not here. The strawberry is natural and clear on top of all the other goodies.
If you love classics you should really give original l'Interdit a try. It's such a lovley gem, yet with a modern twist eventhough it was created already in the 50's.
Apr
2010
Amethyststar
I nearly fell over from the scent--much too heavy, and as it dried down it seemed to smell like a perfume my mom used to wear called Blue Carnation. I would not buy this!
Mar
2010
Mals86
I'm testing the Les Mythiques 2007 version. It is definitely a classic-style aldehydic floral. However, the aldehydes are a softer version, a la No. 5 Eau Premiere, much pleasanter to modern sensibilities, and they are sweetened by just a hint of fruit in the topnotes. The florals are so well-blended that it is difficult to identify individual notes, although I do get quite a lot of what I think of as traditional Rose-Jasmine Accord, with some iris underpinning. Base notes are rich, elegant, and powdery.
If you like the great classic perfumes - Chanel No. 5 and Joy - you will probably enjoy L'Interdit. I find both of those a shade on the too-powdery side for me, but I like and would happily wear L'Intedit. Classic, beautiful, appropriate for nearly any occasion.
May
2009
fotolux
It is very old fashioned classic scent. Aldehydic at the beginning and powdery-floral in base. It is warm, elegant and feminine. It`s reminds me about a wonderful lady which like it so much. Stylish woman in fantastic black hat in "Breakfast at Tiffany's". About Audrey Hepburn.
May
2009
Leesee
Legend has it this scent was created especially for Audrey Hepburn, and was worn exclusively by Ms. Hepburn for several years before Givenchy released it to the public. It is easy to see why Audrey Hepburn would have fallen for the scent -- its combination of flowers, fruit, and spices, anchored by a musky and resinous base, sits on the skin like a dream, and never hits a false note from start to finish. So, whether L'Interdit's origins are fantasy or fact, it is a scent that is as lovely and as graceful as Ms. Hepburn herself. Wear it and release "the Hepburn within."
Mar
2009
eskarina62
Bought it after I had read an article in a magazine - it was already a fragrance hard-to-find.
The article went to to say that all women in the 60s were wearing it - it had become a madness...
I think, though that it is not my piece of cake - lacks in sweetness and sensuality - something I definitely look for in perfumes.
A friend, though fell in love with it, so I gave it to her.
She has been thanking eversince :-)
With those unafraid of curiosity lol, it is a MUST
very very different from fleurs d'interdit
Jan
L'interdit by Givenchy EDT Spray 3.3 oz New Packaging for Women
This page contains information, reviews, perfume notes, pictures, new ads, vintage posters and videos about Givenchy L`Interdit fragrance but we do not warrant the accuracy of information. Trademarks and logos belong to respected companies and manufacturers and are used solely to identify products and companies. If you have more information about Givenchy L`Interdit, you can expand it by adding a personal perfume review. Fragrantica has a unique user-driven classification system and you may classify L`Interdit by Givenchy. Click on the appropriate options on the fragrance classification form below the perfume picture. Also, you can find links to 3rd party websites/Internet stores, but Fragrantica has no access or control over those websites. We do not make guarantees nor accept responsibility for what you might find as a result of these links, or for any future consequences including but not limited to money loss. User reviews of L`Interdit by Givenchy represent the views of the credited authors alone and do not reflect Fragrantica's views.
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| Audrey Hepburn |
‘Viernes’ is Spanish for which day of the week? | GIVENCHY
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GIVENCHY
Givenchy is a luxury French brand of haute couture clothing, accessories and, as Parfums Givenchy, perfumes and cosmetics. The house established a reputation for its unique blend of French elegance and American glamour, embodied particularly in the look of actress Audrey Hepburn. Givenchy created a personal wardrobe for the actress as well as creating costumes for her film roles. The company's chic fashions were favored by many celebrities in the 1960s.
Parfums Givenchy was founded in 1957, and their first fragrance was L'Interdit, again inspired by their most famous client, Audrey Hepburn. Their first men's scent, Monsieur de Givenchy, was launched in 1959.
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Who starred as mathematician John Nash in the 2001 film ‘A Beautiful Mind’? | 'Beautiful Mind' mathematician John Nash killed in crash - BBC News
BBC News
'Beautiful Mind' mathematician John Nash killed in crash
24 May 2015
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Media captionThe BBC's Caroline Hawley looks back at the life of John Nash
US mathematician John Nash, who inspired the Oscar-winning film A Beautiful Mind, has died in a car crash with his wife, police have said.
Nash, 86, and his 82-year-old wife Alicia were killed when their taxi crashed in New Jersey, they said.
The mathematician is renowned for his work in game theory, winning the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1994.
His breakthroughs in maths - and his struggles with schizophrenia - were the focus of the 2001 film.
Russell Crowe, who played him, tweeted : "Stunned... My heart goes out to John & Alicia & family. An amazing partnership. Beautiful minds, beautiful hearts."
The film's director, Ron Howard, also tweeted his tribute to the "brilliant" John Nash and his "remarkable" wife.
Alicia Nash helped care for her husband, and the two later became prominent mental health advocates.
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption Game theorist John Nash (left) was portrayed by Russell Crowe in the 2001 film A Beautiful Mind
The two were thrown from their vehicle, police said. Media reports said the couple may not have been wearing seatbelts when they crashed.
Their taxi driver, and a passenger in another car, were also injured.
'Genius'
Born in Bluefield, West Virginia, Nash first studied in Pittsburgh before moving to Princeton.
His recommendation letter contained just one line: "This man is a genius."
Nash married Alicia Larde in 1957, after publishing some of his breakthrough works in game theory, which is the mathematical study of decision-making.
But he developed severe schizophrenia soon after, and Alicia had him committed for psychiatric care several times. The couple divorced in 1962.
Image copyright Reuters
Image caption Nash and his wife attended the Oscars in 2002
"I was disturbed in this way for a very long period of time, like 25 years," Nash said in an interview on the Nobel website.
The two stayed close, and his condition had begun to improve by the 1980s. They remarried in 2001.
The President of Princeton, Christopher Eisgruber, said he was "stunned and saddened" to hear of their deaths.
"John's remarkable achievements inspired generations of mathematicians, economists and scientists who were influenced by his brilliant, groundbreaking work in game theory," he said.
Even this week, Nash received the Abel Prize , another top honour in the field of mathematics.
Nash Equilibrium, by John Moriarty, Manchester University
Great new mathematical ideas have a balance to strike - they must be precise enough to allow detailed conclusions to be drawn, and yet sufficiently loose that they can be useful in a wide range of problems.
The Nash Equilibrium, for which he won a Nobel Prize, is just such an idea. It offered something truly new - the ability to analyse situations of conflict and co-operation and produce predictions about how people will behave.
Nash's famous equilibrium has grown to be perhaps the most important idea in economic analysis and has found application in fields as diverse as computing, evolutionary biology and artificial intelligence.
More recently it has been used in studies of corruption and also name-checked amidst the Greek financial crisis.
| Russell Crowe |
What is the first day of Lent called? | 'Beautiful Mind' mathematician John Nash dies in crash - CNN.com
No charges have been filed in the accident, which is still under investigation, Williams said.
A woman 'essential to his survival'
Nash, widely regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of the 20th century, was known for his work in game theory, and his personal struggle with paranoid schizophrenia. Alicia Nash, an MIT physics major from an aristocratic Salvadoran family, has been credited with saving his life after schizophrenia derailed his career in the 1960s, letting him into her home and looking after him even after they divorced in 1963.
As the couple's biographer, Sylvia Nasar , wrote in the 1998 book "A Beautiful Mind," "It was Nash's genius ... to choose a woman who would prove so essential to his survival."
That chapter of their relationship did not make it into the Hollywood version of their lives, the 2001 Oscar-winning film "A Beautiful Mind" starring Russell Crowe and Jennifer Connelly. The film, which has been called "a piece of historical revisionism," also left out his child from a previous relationship and glossed over his reputation for being difficult to work with. But it drew accolades for its depiction of mental illness while bringing attention to Nash's accomplishments, which earned him the 1994 Nobel Prize in Economics.
Nash called the film an "artistic" interpretation based on his life of how mental illness could evolve -- one that did not "describe accurately" the nature of his delusions or treatment. Unlike Crowe's character, who comes to rely on medication for treatment, Nash said in a 1994 interview it had been decades since he had taken medication.
He spoke of mental illness as often having "an unfavorable course with history in the sense that people never really recovered to what you can call mentally well. They become what are called consumers of mental health organizations. They are always taking some sort of a pill."
News of the couple's deaths drew tributes from academia and Hollywood.
"We are stunned and saddened by news of the untimely passing of John Nash and his wife and great champion, Alicia. Both of them were very special members of the Princeton University community," Princeton University President Christopher L. Eisgruber said.
"John's remarkable achievements inspired generations of mathematicians, economists and scientists who were influenced by his brilliant, groundbreaking work in game theory, and the story of his life with Alicia moved millions of readers and moviegoers who marveled at their courage in the face of daunting challenges," Eisgruber added.
"RIP Brilliant #NobelPrize winning John Nash & and his remarkable wife Alicia. It was an honor telling part of their story #ABeautifulMind," director Ron Howard tweeted .
Crowe expressed condolences to the family on Twitter , calling the couple an "amazing partnership" with "beautiful minds" and "beautiful hearts."
Stunned...my heart goes out to John & Alicia & family. An amazing partnership. Beautiful minds, beautiful hearts. https://t.co/XF4V9MBwU4
— Ron Howard (@RealRonHoward) May 24, 2015
'This man is a genius'
Nash was born in 1928, in Bluefield, West Virginia, a former coal town in the Appalachian Mountains. The son of an engineer and a Latin teacher, he began showing signs of mathematical talent in elementary school. He was one of 10 winners of the George Westinghouse Award, which got him a full scholarship to the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he first earned the label genius, according to Nasar , his biographer.
He so impressed one professor that his letter of recommendation for Princeton had just one line: "This man is a genius."
Nash received his doctorate from Princeton in 1950 based on a dissertation on the fields of mathematics and economics.
In 1951, he joined the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, where he met his future wife, Alicia Larde, a student in his advanced calculus class. The daughter of a doctor, Larde's extended family "hobnobbed with the intelligentsia of El Salvador" before arriving in the United States in 1944. One of 16 women to enter the MIT class of 1955, a classmate described her as "an El Salvadoran princess with a sense of noblesse oblige."
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1994: John Nash talks about the future of mankind 01:08
They became a couple after spending time together in the university's music library, where Larde worked.
"He was very, very good looking, very intelligent," Alicia Nash told Nasar . "It was a little bit of a hero worship thing."
Nash began to experience what he called "the mental disturbances" in the early months of 1959, when Alicia Nash was pregnant, he wrote in his Nobel biography . Consequently, he resigned from his position as an MIT faculty member and spent 50 days under observation at the McLean Hospital in Massachusetts.
He spent the next few years in and out of hospitals, "always on an involuntary basis and always attempting a legal argument for release," he said -- despite Alicia Nash's efforts to keep him hospitalized. During periods of mental clarity, in which he was able to renounce his "delusional hypotheses," he returned to research that built his reputation as one of the most influential American mathematicians of his time.
In addition to the Nobel, Nash received the John von Neumann Theory Prize in 1978 and the American Mathematical Society's Steele Prize for a Seminal Contribution to Research (1999). Just last week, he was in Norway to accept the 2015 Abel Prize for mathematical contributions with longtime colleague Louis Nirenberg.
Nirenberg called Nash's death a "horrible loss" especially considering "the wonderful week" they had just shared.
"He was truly a great mathematician, a most remarkable mathematician," Nirenberg said. "He made deep contributions with every paper he wrote."
"His wife was also a wonderful person. She looked after him after all these years. She was very special."
The couple stayed together through it all, marrying for a second time in 2001.
"We thought it would be a good idea," Alicia Nash said in a PBS documentary . "After all, we've been together most of our lives."
Photos: People we lost in 2015
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Which is the second largest state in the US? | 10 Largest States In The United States - 10 Most Today
10 Largest States In The United States
Lists Of Countries
The following list contains the 10 largest states in the USA, by area
1. Alaska – 1,723,337 km2 (665,384 mi2) – Alaska is by far the largest state in the USA. It’s also the largest state by land area and by water area
Alaska – the largest state in the USA
2. Texas – 695,662 km2 (268,596 mi2) – The Lone Star State is the second largest state, but it’s less than half the size of Alaska
Texas – second largest state in the USA
3. California – 423,967 km2 (163,694 mi2) – The Golden State is the third largest state in the United States
The Golden State is the third largest state in the United States
4. Montana – 380,831 km2 (147,039 mi2) – Montana, nicknamed The Treasure State, is the fourth largest state
Largest States In The United States: Montana is fourth largest
5. New Mexico – 314,917 km2 (121,590 mi2)
New Mexico: 5th largest state
6. Arizona – 295,234 km2 (113,990 mi2) – The Copper State, home to the Grand Canyon, is the 6th largest state
Arizona: 6th largest state
7. Nevada – 286,380 km2 (110,571 mi2) – The Silver State, home to Las Vegas, is the 7th largest state
Nevada: 7th largest state in the United States
8. Colorado – 269,601 km2 (104,093 mi2)
Largest States In The United States: 8th place: Colorado
9. Oregon – 254,799 km2 (98,378 mi2) – The Beaver State is less than 1/6 of Alaska
Largest States In The United States: 9th place: Oregon
10. Wyoming – 253,335 km2 (97,813 mi2) – The Equality State closes our list with almost the same area as Oregon
10th largest state in the United States: Wyoming
| Texas |
The ‘Brabazon Course’ is the main tournament course of which British golf resort? | Second Largest Canyon in the United States - Review of Palo Duro Canyon State Park, Canyon, TX - TripAdvisor
“Second Largest Canyon in the United States”
Reviewed April 14, 2013
My daughter and I visited this park over a decade ago. I returned this weekend with a fun group of outdoor enthusiasts and was happy to see that not much has changed, other than a few new trails and some new or renovated facilities. It's still uncommercialized and very rustic. There is a store, a grill that serves burgers and such, stables for horseback rides and miles and miles of wonderful trails to explore! I hiked the Lighthouse trail, most of the new Rock Garden trail and part of the CCC trail. All were beautiful, but on an extremely windy day, be careful on the CCC trail! (I almost lost my hat!) Spectacular views all over the park. Bring lots and lots of water! Wildlife viewed included deer, a lizard, butterflies, wild turkeys and a raccoon running away with my Cheetos. Shortly after leaving the park I spotted a roadrunner and then a coyote running across the road!
My only complaints are that there was no bathroom near the Fortress or Cliffs campgrounds. They have bathrooms where they have full hookups for RV's, but no facilities for tent campers. Doesn't make a lot of sense. And the local State Park Police were kind of a hassle. There are no signs or clear markings on where you should or should not park in the tent camping areas. It was a very windy weekend, so some friends had parked their vehicle to block some of the wind. In the middle of the night an officer woke them up and made them move their vehicle. He kept shining his light in their vehicle virtually 'searching' it without cause. I don't understand why they have to treat people like that. I get that cars shouldn't park on vegetation, but there really wasn't any where their car was...
Visited April 2013
“Best camping night of our trip”
Reviewed April 13, 2013
Last October we caravaned out to Albuquerque NM, with 5 other RVs. I had been told it was worth the side trip to go visit Palo Duro. Our travel-mates weren't interested, so we broke away from the pack for one night and camped down in the Canyon. First I will say that we were worried about hauling the 5th wheel down and back up.....I mean, really nervous about it. It was fine.....the road is paved, the grades not too steep so as to tax the engine. Piece of cake.
The canyon was beautiful, the campground clean, sites not too close together. Lots of wildlife around.......at one point there were two deer munching on grass about three feet from the camper steps. We drove the loop, hiked some trails, took lots of photos. Late in the day, the colors get very rich. Hiked again at sunset, with a glorious pink sky overhead. No TV or cell phone reception down there. Didn't miss it! Highly recommend a camping stop here, it was a real back-to-nature experience.
Visited September 2012
“Not as big or as commercialized as the Grand but very good to visit.”
Reviewed April 13, 2013
My son in law and I arrived on our Harleys around 10am on Friday 12th April upon arrival you pay a fee which for us was $5 each. We then rode around the road which goes down and around the canyon and it was fantastic. Lots of facilities for campers, cyclists etc in the Canyon with a museum and gift shop at the top. The museum is full of details on the origins of the canyon the native American Indians who lived there before being over run by the invaders from Europe, who took possession of their lands and killed their buffalo. It is also the place of a famous battle between the native Americans and the then US calvary something not to be very proud of in my view. Then into the depths of the Canyon there is an eating house, coffee and gift shop where the staff are super friendly including a very nice lady who is a native American. The food also was very good as was the coffee. After our visit we left by the same road we came in on making our way to Lubbock.
A real part of American splendour and whilst not as big as the Grand Canyon it was great to see it was a lot less commercialized.
Visited April 2013
“Hike - Palo Duro Canyon State Park”
Reviewed April 11, 2013
I have always loved the idea of hiking. But never really went until last October. To be out in the open. Be connected to nature. Enjoy the warmth of the sun and wind on your skin. Listen to the wild and enjoy the beauty of Mother Earth's offerings. Sounds too inviting to miss. I am certain all Parks offers up all that. But since this was my first hike, I might just be romanticizing it more.
My boyfriend and I hiked Palo Duro Canyon last October 2012. This Park is so amazing. I could not believe we were in Texas. The majority of us who have never hiked before [I am speaking about myself] thought Texas was flat, dry and just boring. But that is not so, when we arrive there, I was thinking 'Gosh this reminds me of Grand Canyon.'
So, a little bit about the Park. There is a nominal fee to enter the Park. Once in the Park, one could venture just about anywhere. This Park offers many different types of hikes with varying degrees of difficulty. So, first timers {like myself} would need to select wisely. We chose the shortest and least complicated hike. It was a little over 3 miles. Signs were a plenty so it was easy to follow the trail. Do remember to bring bottles of water for quenching as you will not find any water fountains up and down the trial.
I suggest going during Autumn when the sun is not too scorching and weather more giving. I know you will enjoy the hike when planning is correct.
Happy Hiking at Palo Duro Canyon State Park
Visited October 2012
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The Clee hills are in which English county? | Brown Clee Hill | Brown Clee Hill (1,772 ft) is the highest … | Flickr
Tony Garofalo By: Tony Garofalo
Brown Clee Hill
Brown Clee Hill (1,772 ft) is the highest point in the English county of Shrophsire. It is located 8.5 miles north-east of Ludlow (“Hill by the Noisy Stream”) and belongs to a range of hills known as the Clee Hills (“Bell-shaped Hills” or “Rounded Hills”). The Clee Hills run for some 15 miles in a north-to-south direction and lie within the Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.
Brown Clee Hill consists of two principal tops and on both of these there once stood an Iron Age hill fort. The summit is located at the northern end of the hill and is called Abdon Burf (“Abba’s Farmstead Fort”) and the lower southern top is called Clee Burf (“Clee Fort”). The eastern slopes of Brown Clee Hill are extensively wooded but the western slopes are grassy and here much of the area is Open Access Land. The geology of the hill is very different from that of the nearby Church Stretton (“Street Town with a Church”) Hills. The rocks hereabouts are much more recent and consist largely of Old Red Sandstone, capped with lava that has prevented erosion of the coal measures. As a consequence, Brown Clee Hill has been extensively quarried and the last of the quarries only closed during the 1940s. Sadly the hill forts on both Abdon Burf and Clee Burf were badly damaged by the quarrying activities but lower down on the western flanks of the hill there is a third Iron Age hill fort called Nordy Bank. This large fort has survived almost intact and is thought to have been occupied up until the time of the Roman invasion. In more recent times, telecommunication masts have been installed on both Abbon Burf and Clee Burf that play a role in air traffic control. Before they were built the hill claimed quite a tally of air crash victims and a memorial on the southern slopes of Abdon Burf commemorates the 23 Allied and Luftwaffe aircrew who were killed here during World War 2.
Brown Clee Hill is probably best climbed from the west, starting near Clee St Margaret. A short but pleasant circuit of only approximately 7 miles can be made, taking in the summits of Clee Burf and Abdon Burf and returning via The Five Springs and Nordy Bank hill fort. The hill really is a superb viewpoint and on a clear day Snowdonia, Pumlumon ( www.flickr.com/photos/67668518@N08/8748621334/in/photostr... ), the Brecon Beacons, the Malvern Hills and the Cotswalds can all be espied. The picture I have uploaded was taken looking northwards towards Abdon Burf from near the top of Clee Burf.
Done
| Shropshire |
What does ‘Habeas corpus’ translate to in English? | Clee Hills (Ludlow, England): Top Tips Before You Go - TripAdvisor
“Freedom, fresh air stunning views”
Reviewed September 13, 2016
Both Brown Clee and the Titterstone Clee are worth more than a passing visit. The Brown Clee is the higher of the two and has 2 summits Clee Buff and Abdon Buff and has an Ironage hill fort at Nordy Bank. The views across South Shropshire are amazing giving panoramic views to the Wrekin, in the north, Wenlock Edge and... More
Helpful?
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Which men’s sport was transferred permanently from the Summer Olympics to the Winter Olympic Games from 1924? | Olympic Games | Ice Hockey Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Medalists
Ice hockey tournaments have been staged at the Olympic Games since 1920. The men's tournament was introduced at the 1920 Summer Olympics and was transferred permanently to the Winter Olympic Games programme in 1924. The women's tournament was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics . The Olympic Games were originally intended for amateur athletes until 1988, and the National Hockey League (NHL) did not allow its players to compete until 1998. From 1924 to 1988, the tournament started with a round-robin series of games and ended with the medal round. Medals were awarded based on points accumulated during that round. The games of the tournament follow the rules of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), which differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL . The tournament follows the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) rules on Use of performance enhancing drugs and the IIHF maintains a Registered Testing Pool, a list of top players who are subjected to random in-competition and out-of-competition drug tests. Several players have tested positive for banned substances since the 1972 Winter Olympics .
In the men's tournament, Canada was the most successful team of the first three decades, winning six of seven gold medals. Czechoslovakia , Sweden and the United States were also competitive during this period and won multiple medals. Between 1920 and 1968, the Olympic hockey tournament was also counted as the Ice Hockey World Championship for that year. The Soviet Union first participated in 1956 and overtook Canada as the dominant international team, winning seven of the nine tournaments in which they participated. The United States won gold medals in 1960 and in 1980 , which included their " Miracle on Ice " upset of the Soviet Union. Canada went 50 years without a gold medal, before winning one in 2002 , and following it up with another in 2010 . Other nations to win gold include Great Britain in 1936 , the Unified Team in 1992 , Sweden in 1994 and 2006 and the Czech Republic]] in 1998 . Other medal-winning nations include Switzerland,Germany,Finland and Russia]].
In 1986, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games held after 1988. The NHL was initially reluctant to allow its players to compete because the Olympics are held in the middle of the NHL season, and the league would have to halt play if many of its players participated. However, NHL players were allowed to compete starting in 1998. The format of the tournament was adjusted to accommodate the NHL schedule; a preliminary round was played without NHL players or the top six teams—Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden and the United States—followed by a final round which included them. The tournament format was changed again in 2006; every team played five preliminary games with the full use of NHL players.
In July 1992, the IOC voted to approve women's hockey as an Olympic event; it was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano. The Nagano Organizing Committee was hesitant to include the event because of the additional costs of staging the tournament, but an agreement was reached that limited the field to six teams, and ensured that no additional facilities would be built. The Canadian and American teams have dominated the event, typically losing only to each other. The United States won the first tournament in 1998, while Canada won in 2002, 2006 and 2010.
Contents
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The first Olympic ice hockey tournament took place at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp , Belgium . [1] At the time, organised international ice hockey was still relatively new. [2] The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), the sport's governing body, was created on May 15, 1908, under the name Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace. [3] At the 1914 Olympic Congress in Paris, ice hockey was added to the list of optional sports that Olympics organisers could include. [4] The decision to include ice hockey for the 1920 Summer Olympics was made in January, three months before the start of the Games. [5] Several occurrences led to the sport's inclusion in the programme. Five European nations had committed to participating in the tournament and the managers of Antwerp's Palais de Glace stadium refused to allow the building to be used for figure skating unless ice hockey was included. [5] The IIHF considers the 1920 tournament to be the first Ice Hockey World Championship . From then on, the two events occurred concurrently, and every Olympic tournament until 1968 is counted as the World Championship. [6] The Olympic Games were originally intended for amateur athletes, so the players of the National Hockey League (NHL) and other professional leagues were not allowed to play. [7]
The first Winter Olympic Games were held in 1924 in Chamonix , France. [8] Chapter 1, article 6, of the 2007 edition of the Olympic Charter defines winter sports as "sports which are practised on snow or ice". [9] Ice hockey and figure skating were permanently integrated in the Winter Olympics programme. [10] The IOC made the Winter Games a permanent fixture and they were held the same year as the Summer Games until 1992. Following that, further Winter Games have been held on the third year of each Olympiad. [11]
Events
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The men's tournament held at the 1920 Summer Olympics was organised by a committee that included future IIHF president Paul Loicq . The tournament used the Bergvall System, in which three rounds were played. [12] The first round was an elimination tournament that determined the gold medal winner. The second round consisted of the teams that were defeated by the gold medal winner; the winner of that round was awarded the silver medal. The final round was played between teams that had lost to the gold or silver medal winners; the winner of that round received the bronze medal. [13]
The tournament was played from April 23 to April 29 and seven teams participated: Canada Czechoslovakia , the United States ,Switzerland , Sweden , France and Belgium. Canada chose to send the Allan Cup -winning Winnipeg Falcons . The Americans began a tournament to determine their representative team but abandoned it, deciding instead to send an all-star team that included four Canadian-born players. The Swedish team consisted of mostly bandy players, many of whom had only started playing hockey in preparation for the tournament. [13] Canada won all three of the team's games in the first round and won the gold medal, defeating Sweden in the final and outscoring opponents 27–1. [14] In the two subsequent rounds, the United States and Czechoslovakia won the silver and bronze medals respectively. [15] The Bergvall System was criticised, especially in Sweden, because the Swedish team had to play six games (winning three) while the bronze medal winning Czech team only had to play three (winning one). Erik Bergvall , the creator of the system, stated that it was used incorrectly and that a tournament of all of the losing teams from the first round should have been played for the silver medal. [13] Because of these criticisms, the Bergvall System was not used again for ice hockey. [13]
1924–1952
Edit
In 1924, the tournament was played in a round-robin format, consisting of a preliminary round and a medal round. The medals were awarded based on win–loss records during the medal round.[16] This format was used until 1992, although the number of teams and games played varied slightly. The Toronto Granites, representing Canada, became one of the dominant hockey teams in Olympic history, outscoring opponents 110–3, led by Harry Watson, who scored 36 goals.[17] The United States won silver and Great Britain won bronze.[18] Watson's 36 goals remains the tournament record for career goals. He also set the record for career points with 36 (assists were not counted at the time), which was later matched by Vlastimil Bubník of Czechoslovakia, and Valeri Kharlamov of the Soviet Union. In 2010, Teemu Selänne of Finland broke the record.[19] A game between Canada and Sweden during the 1928 Winter OlympicsEleven teams participated in the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland. The Canadian team was given a bye to the medal round and won all of its games by a combined score of 38–0.[20] The Swedish and Swiss teams won their first medals—silver and bronze respectively—and a German team participated for the first time, finishing ninth.[21] At the 1932 Winter Olympics, Canada won gold in a tournament that consisted of four teams that played each other twice.[22] Germany won bronze, the nation's first medal in the sport.[23] The bronze medal winning 1936 American Olympic team.Two days before the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, Canadian officials protested that two players on the British team—James Foster and Alex Archer—had played in Canada but transferred without permission to play for clubs in the English National League. The IIHF agreed with Canada, but Great Britain threatened to withdraw the team if the two were barred from competing. To avoid a conflict, Canada withdrew the protest shortly before the Games began. The tournament consisted of four groups and fifteen teams. Great Britain became the first non-Canadian team to win gold; Canada won silver and the United States bronze.[24] World War II forced the cancellation of the 1940 and 1944 Winter Olympics.[25]
During the run-up to the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, a conflict broke out between two American ice hockey bodies, the American Hockey Association (AHA) and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU). The AAU, which had run amateur hockey in the United States since 1930, was expelled by the IIHF in 1947 when it refused to support a team composed of players from the AHA. The AAU stated that the AHA players were "openly paid salaries"; at the time, the Olympics were strictly for amateur players.[26] The Swiss Olympic Organizing Committee (SOOC) had accepted the AHA's application, but Avery Brundage of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) threatened to withdraw the entire American team if the AHA participated in the Olympics. The IIHF countered by threatening to withdraw hockey from the Games if the AHA were banned. The IOC suggested that both American teams be banned but the SOOC rejected this proposal. The IOC decided to switch hockey to an unofficial event but relented when a compromise was reached. The AHA team was allowed to compete but would not be considered an official participant or allowed to win a medal. The AHA team finished fourth in the standings.[26][27][28] Both Czechoslovakia and Canada won seven games and tied when they played each other. The gold medal winner was determined by goal difference: Canada won the gold because it had an average of 13.8 goals per game compared to Czechoslovakia's average of 4.3.[29] Czechoslovakia's team was quickly improving; it won the 1947 and 1949 World Championships.[30]
At the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway, the gold medal was won by Canada's team for the second consecutive Games. It would be the last time that a Canadian team would win a gold medal in hockey for 50 years.[31] The United States won silver and Sweden won bronze. A team from Finland competed for the first time.
1956–1976
Edit
Vladislav Tretiak is the only male athlete to have won one silver and three gold medals in ice hockey.
The Soviet Union competed in its first World Championship in 1954 , defeating Canada and winning the gold medal. [16] At the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo , Italy, the Soviet team]] went undefeated and won its first gold medal. Canada's team lost to the Soviets and the United States in the medal round, winning the bronze. [16] The 1960 Winter Olympics , in Squaw Valley , United States, saw the first, and to date only, team from Australia compete in the tournament. Canada , the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games, but were all defeated by the American team , which won all seven games en route to its first Olympic gold medal. Canada won the silver medal and the Soviet Union won the bronze. [17]
At the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck , Austria, the Soviet team won all seven of its games, earning the gold medal. Canada finished the tournament with five wins and two losses, putting the team in a three-way tie for second place with Sweden and Czechoslovakia . Before 1964, the tie-breaking procedure was based on goal difference in games against teams in the medal round; under that system, Canada would have placed third ahead of the Czechoslovakian team. During the tournament the procedure was changed to take all games into consideration, which meant that the Canadians finished fourth. [18] At the time, the Olympics counted as the World Championships; under their (unchanged) rules, Canada should have received bronze for the World Championships. [19] [20] [21]
Soviet domination continued at the 1968 Winter Olympics held in Grenoble , France, as the team won its third gold medal. Czechoslovakia and Canada won the silver and bronze medals. [22] It was the last time that the Olympics were counted as the World Championships. In 1970, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition following a dispute over the use of professional players, [23] and the team did not participate in the 1972 or 1976 Winter Olympics . [23] Led by goaltender Vladislav Tretiak and forwards Valeri Kharlamov , Alexander Yakushev , Vladimir Petrov and Boris Mikhailov , the Soviet team won gold at both the 1972 Games in Sapporo , Japan and 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria. [24] In 1971, the United States finished last at the World Championships and was relegated to Pool B . The team qualified for the 1972 Olympics and won silver, making it the first Pool B team to win an Olympic medal. [25] Czechoslovakia won the bronze medal in 1972. [26] In 1976,Czechoslovakia won the silver and West Germany]] won bronze. [27] Along with Canada, the Swedish, East German and Norwegian teams did not participate in the 1976 tournament in protest of their inability to use professional players. [28]
1980: The "Miracle on Ice"
Main article: Miracle on Ice
The Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid, New York in 1980 . Twelve teams participated in the tournament , including Canada for the first time since 1968. The Soviet Union entered the tournament as heavy favourites and were considered natural rivals with the American team due to the Cold Wa . [29] The Americans, coached by Herb Brooks and consisting mainly of college students, tied Sweden and scored an upset win over Czechoslovakia in the preliminary round. They finished with four wins and a tie and advanced to the medal round, which also consisted of Sweden,Finland and the Soviet Union. [29]
The tournament became most famous for the "Miracle on Ice", the February 22 medal-round game between the Soviet Union and the United States that took place at the Olympic Center (now known as the Herb Brooks Arena). The Soviets scored first, then took a 2–1 lead, but the Americans tied the game with one second left in the first period. [30] In the second period, Soviet goaltender Vladislav Tretiak was replaced by Vladimir Myshkin . [29] The Soviets regained the lead early in the second period but the Americans kept the game close thanks to the goaltending of Jim Craig . In the final period, the Americans tied the game and captain Mike Eruzione scored with exactly 10 minutes to play in the contest to give the Americans a 4–3 lead. [30] Craig withstood another series of Soviet shots to finish the match with the win. In the final seconds of the game, American Broadcasting Company sportscaster Al Michaels delivered his famous line: "Do you believe in miracles? Yes!" [29] [31]
A common misconception is that the Americans won gold the night they beat the Soviets. [32] However, the medals were awarded based on points accumulated against teams that made the medal round. The Americans did not win the gold until February 24, when they defeated Finland 4–2 and finished the tournament undefeated. The Soviets defeated Sweden and won the silver; Sweden won the bronze. In 2008, the IIHF picked the Miracle on Ice as the top international hockey story of the past 100 years. [29]
1984–1994
Edit
At the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo , Yugoslavia , the Soviet Union won its sixth gold medal. Czechoslovakia and Sweden won the silver and bronze medals. [33] The 1988 Winter Olympics were held in Calgary , Alberta , Canada, where the Soviet team captured its seventh and final gold medal. The Soviets' last Olympic game was a loss to Finland . The Finnish team was not considered a serious medal contender—it had competed in the World Championships since 1939 and had not won a single medal. However, Finland upset the Soviets 2–1 and won silver. [34] The IIHF decided to change the tournament format because in several cases, the gold medal winner had been decided before the final day of play. During a congress in 1990, the IIHF introduced a playoff system. [35] The new system was used at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville , France. Preliminary round-robin games were held and followed by an eight-team cup-system style medal round that culminated in a gold medal game. [6] Before 1989, players who lived in the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and other nations behind the Iron Curtain were not allowed to leave and play in the NHL. [36] Soviet officials agreed to allow players to leave following the 1989 World Championships . [37] Many of the Soviet Union's top players left to play in the NHL, including the entire " Green Unit "— Igor Larionov , Viacheslav Fetisov , Vladimir Krutov , Sergei Makarov and Alexei Kasatonov . [38] The Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991. Nine former Soviet states became part of the IIHF and started competing internationally, including Belarus , Kazakhstan , Latvia and Ukraine . [39] At the 1992 Olympics, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine and Uzbekistan competed as one entity, known as the Unified Team . [40] In the final, the Unified Team defeated Canada to win gold while Czechoslovakia won the bronze. [40]
Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in January 1993. The IIHF recognized the Czech Republic as the successor to Czechoslovakia, allowing the team to retain its position in the top World Championship division, while Slovakia started in the lowest division ( Pool C ) in 1994 and was forced to work its way up. [41] Both nations competed in the tournament at the 1994 Winter Olympics , as did Russia . Slovakia and Finland both finished the preliminary round undefeated. Slovakia lost their medal round quarter-final game to Russia, who later lost to Finland in the bronze medal game. In the gold medal game between Sweden and Canada , both teams finished regulation and overtime play with a 2–2 tie. In the resulting shootout , the first in Olympic competition, [42] both nations scored two goals, which resulted in a sudden death shootout. Peter Forsberg of Sweden scored one of the most famous goals in Olympic history by faking a forehand shot, then sliding a one-handed backhand shot past goaltender Corey Hirsch . [43] [44] [45] Canada's final shooter did not score and Sweden won the game and its first gold medal. [46]
1998–2010
Edit
The 1998 gold medal game between Russia and the Czech Republic was the first played between teams consisting mainly of NHL players.
In 1995, an agreement to allow NHL players to participate in Olympics was reached between the IOC, IIHF, NHL, and NHL Players' Association (NHLPA). [47] The format of the 1998 tournament was adjusted to accommodate the NHL's schedule. On February 7, a preliminary round without NHL players or the "Big Six" teams ( Canada , the Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States ) began. The NHL had games on that day, but then halted play for the next 17 days to allow participating players to fly to Japan and recover from fatigue. [48] The tournament format drew criticism for not allowing all teams the full use of their NHL players during the entire event. [49] The top six teams were given a bye to the final round and began play on February 13. Canada, considered a pre-tournament favourite, was upset in the semi-final round by the Czech Republic and then lost the bronze medal game to Finland. [50] Led by goaltender Dominik Hašek , the Czech team defeated Russia, winning its first gold medal in the sport. [7] During the tournament, Swedish player Ulf Samuelsson was discovered to have applied for American citizenship. Under Swedish law, when one acquires a foreign passport, their citizenship is annulled. Samuelsson was ejected after having played the first game against Belarus, although Sweden kept their points from the win. The Czech National Olympic Committee felt that Sweden should lose the points and filed a protest with the Court of Arbitration for Sport, which was rejected. [51] Following the tournament, NHL commissioner Gary Bettman commented that it "was what we had predicted and hoped for from a pure hockey perspective, [it was] a wonderful tournament". [52]
With 37 points, Teemu Selänne of Finland is the all-time leading scorer in the men's tournament. [53]
The same tournament format was used at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , United States. The NHL's Olympic break did not start until the second week of the Games. Because the Olympics were in the United States, where the majority of NHL teams are located, teams participating in the preliminary tournament were allowed to use NHL players who were not obligated to play with their NHL club. [54] Slovakia was particularly affected by the inability to use all of its NHL players, and the team failed to advance to the final round. [49] Three months later, Slovakia won gold at the 2002 World Championships . [55] Finnish centre Raimo Helminen became the first ice hockey player to compete in six tournaments. [56] In the quarter-finals, Belarus defeated Sweden in one of the biggest upsets since the Miracle on Ice. [57] [58] The team advanced to the bronze medal game, but lost to Russia . [59] The Canadian team rebounded from a disappointing first round and defeated the American team in the gold medal game, winning their first Gold Medal in 50 years. [60]
The tournament format was adjusted for 2006 . The NHL went on hiatus for the duration of the games, allowing all players to compete. [61] The number of teams was lowered to 12; the top six teams did not get a bye and played five preliminary round games. [62] Sweden won the gold medal over Finland and the Czech Republic won the bronze medal. Three months later, Sweden won the 2006 World Championships and became the first team to win the Olympic and World Championship gold in the same year. [63] The 2010 Winter Olympics were held in Vancouver , Canada, the first time since NHL players were allowed to compete that the Olympics were held in a city with an NHL team. For the first time, Olympic games were played on a narrower NHL-sized ice rink, measuring 61 metres × 26 metres (200 ft × 85 ft), instead of the international size of 61 m × 30 m (200 ft × 98.5 ft). This change saved an expected $10 million (CAD) in construction costs and allowed more spectators to attend games. [64] Games were played at the UBC Winter Sports Centre [65] and General Motors Place , which was renamed Canada Hockey Place during the event because corporate sponsorship is not allowed for an Olympic venue. [66] [67] Twelve teams qualified for the men's event and were split into three groups of four teams. At the NHL's request, the number of preliminary games was lowered to three. [68] Following the completion of the preliminary round, all teams were ranked 1 through 12 based on points. The top four ranked teams received byes to the quarter-finals, and the other eight teams played for the remaining four positions. Following that, the final eight teams competed in a playoff. [69]
Teemu Selänne of Finland scored his 37th point, breaking the record of 36 first set by Canadian Harry Watson in 1924 and later tied by Vlastimil Bubník of Czechoslovakia, and Valeri Kharlamov of the Soviet Union. [53] Slovakia made the final four for the first time, but lost the bronze medal game to Finland. [70] In the gold medal game, Canada and the United States ended regulation play with a 2-2 tie, making it only the second Olympic gold medal match to go into overtime. Canadian player Sidney Crosby scored the winning goal seven minutes into overtime play to give Canada its eighth gold medal in men's hockey. [71]
Women's tournament
Edit
Canadian Hayley Wickenheiser is the all-time leading scorer in the women's tournament [72] and was named tournament MVP twice. [73]
At the 99th IOC Session in July 1992, the IOC voted to approve women's hockey as an Olympic event beginning with the 1998 Winter Olympics as part of their effort to increase the number of female athletes at the Olympics. [74] Women's hockey had not been in the programme when Nagano, Japan had won the right to host the Olympics, and the decision required approval by the Nagano Winter Olympic Organizing Committee (NWOOC). The NWOOC was initially hesitant to include the event because of the additional costs of staging the tournament and because they felt their team, which had failed to qualify for that year's World Championships , could not be competitive. [75] According to Glynis Peters, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association 's (CAHA) head of female hockey, "the Japanese would have to finance an entirely new sports operation to bring their team up to Olympic standards in six years, which they were also really reluctant to do." [76] In November 1992, the NWOOC and IOC Coordination Committee reached an agreement to include a women's ice hockey tournament in the programme. [75] Part of the agreement was that the tournament would be limited to six teams, and no additional facilities would be built. The CAHA also agreed to help build and train the Japanese team so that it could be more competitive. [76] The IOC had agreed that if the NWOOC had not approved the event, it would be held at the 2002 Winter Olympics . [75] The format of the first tournament was similar to the men's: preliminary round-robin games followed by a medal round playoff. [77]
1998–2010
Edit
Before 1998, women's hockey had been dominated by Canada. Canadian teams had won every World Championship up to that point; however, by 1997, the American team had improved and was evenly matched with Canada. In thirteen games played between the two teams in 1997, Canada won seven and the United States won six. The 1998 Olympic tournament also included teams from Finland, Sweden, China and host Japan. Canada and the United States dominated the round-robin portion. In their head-to-head match, the United States overcame a 4–1 deficit to win 7–4.[95] The two teams met in the final, which the United States won 3–1 to become the third American ice hockey team to win Olympic gold.[96] A women's preliminary round game between Sweden and the United States in 2002For the 2002 Winter Olympics, the number of teams was increased to eight and Russia, Germany and Kazakhstan qualified for the first time.[97] The Canadian and American teams went undefeated in the first round and semi-finals, setting up a gold medal rematch that the Canadian team won 3–2.[98] Following the game, members of the Canadian team accused the Americans of stomping on a Canadian flag in their dressing room, although an investigation later proved the rumour false.[99] The Swedish team won the bronze medal over Finland, the nation's first in women's ice hockey.[100]
In 2006, Italy and Switzerland participated for the first time. The Italian team, at the time ranked 17th in the world, had qualified because Italy was the host nation.[101] They were outscored 32–1 in three games and IIHF president René Fasel declared his intention to make future tournaments more competitive and not allow host nations to automatically qualify.[102] The Canadian team started the tournament by outscoring opponents 36–1 over three games. American defenceman Angela Ruggiero accused the team of running up the score and warned that the event's Olympic status could be called into question due to a perceived lack of competitive teams. In response, René Fasel stated that other women's teams were improving and that there was similar dominance in the early years of the men's tournament but the sport continued to grow. He added, "I promise you that it won't take the [Swedish] women 64 years to win"—in reference to the Swedish men's team inability to defeat Canada in Olympic play until 1984[106] (the Swedish women's team defeated Canada for the first time at the 2008 4 Nations Cup).[107]
In its semi-final game, the American team was upset by Sweden, marking the first time that it had lost to an opponent other than Canada.[108] The upset drew comparisons to the Miracle on Ice from 1980.[109][110] In the medal games, Canada defeated Sweden to claim its second consecutive gold medal, while the Americans beat Finland to win the bronze.[111][112] The medal ceremony for the women's tournament at the 2010 Winter Olympics, left to right: the United States (silver), Canada (gold) and Finland (bronze).In 2010, eight teams participated, including Slovakia for the first time.[113] The Canadian and American teams outscored opponents in the preliminary round by 41-2 and 31-1 margins, respectively.[114] This brought on more criticism about uneven competition.[115] IOC president Jacques Rogge said, "There is a discrepancy there, everyone agrees with that. This is maybe the investment period in women's ice hockey. I would personally give them more time to grow but there must be a period of improvement. We cannot continue without improvement."[116] Swedish team coach Peter Elander said it is hard for other nations to compete because of a lack of funding and a smaller pool of players to choose from. He said, "The finances for all teams have to be the same. ... If you want to have a close tournament in Sochi (for the 2014 Olympics), have (comparable) national programs in all countries."[117] Some critics suggested that a mercy rule be implemented to prevent such lopsided scores.[118] René Fasel said the IIHF would consider adding one.[119] A number of coaches, including Chinese team coach Hannu Saintula, whose team was defeated 12-1 by the Americans, stated that they were against the idea.[120]
In the gold medal game, Canada defeated the United States 2-0 to win their third consecutive gold. The Finnish team won the bronze medal, their first since 1998
Rules
Edit
Since 1976, 12 teams have participated in the men's tournament, except in 1998 and 2002, when the number was raised to 14. The number of teams has ranged from 4 (in 1932) to 16 (in 1964). After the NHL allowed its players to compete at the 1998 Winter Olympics, the "Big Six" teams (Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden and the United States) were given automatic qualification and byes to the final round. [48] The number of teams was increased to 14 so that a preliminary round-robin tournament consisting of eight teams could be held. The top two teams from the preliminary round (Belarus and Kazakhstan) joined the "Big Six" in the finals. A similar system was used in 2002. [54] For the following tournament, the number of teams was lowered to 12 so that all teams played fewer games. [62] Qualification for the men's tournament at the 2010 Winter Olympics was structured around the 2008 IIHF World Ranking . Twelve spots were made available for teams. The top nine teams in the World Ranking after the 2008 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships received automatic berths. Teams ranked 10th through 30th had an opportunity to qualify for the event. Teams ranked 19th through 30th played in a first qualification round in November 2008. The top three teams from the round advanced to the second qualification round, joined by teams ranked 10th through 18th. The top three teams from this round advanced to the Olympic tournament. [69] [78]
The women's tournament uses a similar qualification format. The top six teams in the IIHF Women's World Ranking after the 2008 Women's World Ice Hockey Championships received automatic berths. Teams ranked 13th and below were divided into two groups for a first qualification round in September 2008. The two group winners advanced to the second qualification round, where the teams ranked seventh through twelfth joined them. [79]
Players
The IIHF lists the following requirements for a player to be eligible to play in international tournaments: [80]
"Each player must be under the jurisdiction of an IIHF member national association."
"Each player must be a citizen of the country he represents."
If a player who has never played in an IIHF competition changes their citizenship, they must participate in national competitions in their new country for at least two consecutive years and have an international transfer card (ITC). [80] If a player who has previously played in an IIHF tournament wishes to change their national team, they must have played in their new country for four years. A player can only do this once. [80] The original IOC rules stated that an athlete that had already played for one nation could not later change nations under any circumstances. [5]
Use of professional players
Edit
Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the IOC, was influenced by the ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the Independent school (UK)|English public schools . [81] The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education and there was a prevailing concept of fairness in which practicing or training was considered cheating. [81] As class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated. [81] The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis. [82] Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism. [83]
The Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the IIHF and IOC. Avery Brundage , president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, was opposed to the idea of amateur and professional players competing together. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players [23] at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg , Canada. [84] The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. [23] In response, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition" was instituted. [23] [85] Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC's amateur-only policy. [86]
Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL-contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. [87] This made five players on Olympic rosters—one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians—ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues—such as the World Hockey Association —were allowed to play. [87] Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs. [88] Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. [89] In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988, [90] but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals. [91]
NHL participation
Edit
The NHL decided not to allow all players to participate in 1988, 1992 or 1994 because the Winter Olympics typically occur in February, during the league's regular season. To allow participation, the NHL would have been forced to take a break in its schedule. [92] In 1992, National Basketball Association (NBA) players participated in the 1992 Summer Olympics. The [[USA men's national basketball team – The Dream Team dominated the tournament, and NHL commissioner Gary Bettman (an NBA executive in 1992) commented that the "[NBA]'s worldwide awareness grew dramatically". He hoped that NHL participation would "get exposure like the world has never seen for hockey". [47] The typical NBA season is held in the winter and spring, so the Summer Olympics do not conflict with the regular season schedule. Bettman "floated a concept of moving hockey to the Summer Games", but this was rejected because of the Olympic Charter. [47] In March 1995, Bettman, René Fasel, IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch and NHLPA executive director Bob Goodenow met in Geneva, Switzerland. They reached an agreement that allowed NHL players to participate in the Olympics, starting with the 1998 Games in Nagano , Japan. [47] The deal was officially announced by the NHL on October 2, 1995. Bettman said: "We're doing this to build the game of hockey, pure and simple, we think whatever benefits are recouped, it will end up making this game bigger, stronger and healthier." [93]
In 2002, Slovakia's team (pictured) was affected by NHL's late-season break as they were denied the full use of their top players in the preliminary round. [49]
The 2004–05 NHL season was locked out and eventually cancelled because of a labour dispute between the league and its players. In January 2005, Bettman commented that he was hesitant to allow league participation in the Olympics because he did not like the idea of stopping play mid-season after the cancellation of the previous season. [94] The lockout was resolved in July 2005 and the newly negotiated NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement allowed league participation in the 2006 and 2010 Winter Olympics . Some NHL team owners were against their players participating in the tournament because of concerns about injury or exhaustion. Philadelphia Flyers owner Ed Snider commented that "I'm a believer in the Olympics and I think it's good for the NHL to participate, having said that, the people who participate should be the ones who are absolutely healthy." [95] Some NHL players used the break as an opportunity to rest and did not participate in the tournament, [96] and several players were injured during the Olympics and were forced to miss NHL games. Bettman said that several format changes were being discussed so that the tournament would be "a little easier for everybody". [97] being held in Russia, a number of Russian NHL players, including Alexander Ovechkin , have stated that they will play in the tournament with or without the NHL's approval. [98] ]] As of 2010 [update] , it has not yet been decided if the NHL will participate in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia. A deal will have to be negotiated between the NHL and NHLPA in the Collective Bargaining Agreement . [99] NHL management is hesitant to commit to the tournament; Bettman argues the Olympic break is a "strain on the players, on the schedule and on fans", adding that "the benefits we get tend to be greater when the Olympics are in North America than when they're in distant time zones." [100] According to Bettman, most of the NHL team owners agree with his position, and feel that the league does not receive enough benefits to justify the schedule break and risk of player injuries. [101] René Fasel wants NHL participation and vowed that he would "work day and night to have NHL players in Sochi". [102] At a October 2008 press conference, then-NHLPA executive director Paul Kelly stated that the players want to return to the Olympics and will try to include the ability in the next agreement. [101] Russian NHL players Alexander Ovechkin and Evgeni Malkin have stated that they want to participate in the tournament and will do so without the permission of the NHL, if necessary. [98] Paul Kelly also believes that the NHL's strained relationship with the Ice Hockey Federation of Russia and the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) could affect participation. [99] In a 2009 interview, KHL president Alexander Medvedev claimed that the unwillingness of NHL officials to immediately commit to the Sochi Games was "an instrument of pressure" to force a transfer agreement between the two leagues. [103]
Game rules
Edit
At the first tournament in 1920, there were many differences from the modern game: games were played outdoors on natural ice, forward passes were not allowed, [13] the rink (which had been intended to be used only for figure skating) was 56 m × 18 m (165 ft × 58.5 ft) [5] and two 20-minute periods were played. [12] Each team had seven players on the ice, the extra position being the rover . [6] Following the tournament, the IIHF held a congress and decided to adopt the Canadian rules—six men per side and three periods of play. [13] The tournaments follow the rules used by the IIHF. At the 1969 IIHF Congress, officials voted to allow body-checking in all three zones in a rink similar to the NHL. Before that, body-checking was only allowed in the defending zone in international hockey. [104] Several other rule changes were implemented in the early 1970s: players were required to wear helmets starting in 1970, and goaltender masks became mandatory in 1972. [6] In 1992, the IIHF switched to using a playoff system to determine medalists and decided that tie games in the medal round would be decided in a shootout . In 1998, the IIHF passed a rule that allowed two-line passes . Before then, the neutral zone trap had slowed the game down and reduced scoring. [105]
The current IIHF rules differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL . [106] One difference between NHL and IIHF rules is standard rink dimensions: the NHL rink is narrower, measuring 61 m × 26 m (200 ft × 85 ft), instead of the international size of 61 m × 30 m (200 ft × 98.5 ft) [107] The larger international size allows for a faster and less physical style of play. [108] [109] Another rule difference between the NHL and the IIHF rules concerns how icing is called. In the NHL, a linesman stops play due to icing if a defending player (other than the goaltender) touches the puck before an attacking player is able to, [110] in contrast to the IIHF rules in which play is stopped the moment the puck crosses the goal line. [110] The NHL and IIHF also differ in penalty rules. The NHL calls five-minute major penalties for more dangerous infractions of the rules, such as fighting, in addition to the minor and double minor penalties called in IIHF games. [111] This is in contrast to the IIHF rule, by which players who fight are ejected from the game. Beginning with the 2005–06 season , the NHL instituted several new rules. Some were already used by the IIHF, such as the shootout and the two-line pass. [112] Others were not picked up by the IIHF, such as those requiring smaller goaltender equipment and the addition of the goaltender trapezoid to the rink. [113] However, the IIHF did agree to follow the NHL's league's zero-tolerance policy on obstruction and required referees to call more hooking , holding, and interference penalties. [114] [115]
Each team is allowed to have between 15 and 20 skaters ( forwards and defencemen) and two or three goaltenders, all of whom must be citizens of the nation they play for. [68] [116]
Banned substances
Edit
The IIHF follows the World Anti-Doping Agency 's (WADA) regulations on Use of performance enhancing drugs in sport|performance-enhancing drug . The IIHF maintains a Registered Testing Pool, a list of top players who are subjected to random in-competition and out-of-competition drug tests. [117] According to the WADA, a positive in-competition test results in disqualification of the player and a suspension that varies based on the number of offences. When a player tests positive, the rest of their team is subjected to testing; another positive test can result in a disqualification of the entire team. [118] In 2001, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) pushed for American NHL players who were potential Olympians to be subject to random drug tests. The USOC requires all Olympic-bound athletes to be randomly tested by the United States Anti-Doping Agency , but had exempted NHL players in 1998. The NHL preferred a more uniform method, in which all players would undergo the same number of tests from the WADA. [119] [120] An agreement was reached that the WADA would start testing players after the NHL playoffs were finished. [121]
Players who have tested positive for banned substances
Athlete
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In 1930, Australian cricketer Don Bradman scored a world record how many runs in 415 minutes at Sydney Cricket Ground? | winter olympic games - 必应
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Winter Olympic Games
The Winter Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques d'hiver)[nb 1] is a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years. Unlike the Summer Olympics, the Winter Olympics feature sports practiced on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, was held in Chamonix, France. The original five sports (broken into nine disciplines) were bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, Nordic skiing (consisting of the disciplines military patrol,[nb 2] cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, and ski jumping), and skating (consis ... (展开) ting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating).[nb 3] The Games were held every four years from 1924 until 1936, after which they were interrupted by World War II. The Olympics resumed in 1948 and was again held every four years. Until 1992, the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years, but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four-year cycles in alternating even-numbered years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994. The Winter Games have evolved since its inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such as Alpine skiing, luge, short track speed skating, freestyle skiing, skeleton, and snowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic program. Others (such as curling and bobsleigh) have been discontinued and later reintroduced, or have been permanently discontinued (such as military patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it).[nb 2] Still others, such as speed skiing, bandy and skijoring, were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It created an income stream, via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address several criticisms, internal scandals, the use of performance-enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians, as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics. Nations have used the Winter Games to showcase the claimed superiority of their political systems. The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by eleven different countries. The United States has hosted the Games four times (1932, 1960, 1980, 2002); France has been the host three times (1924, 1968, 1992); Austria (1964, 1976), Canada (1988, 2010), Japan (1972, 1998), Italy (1956, 2006), Norway (1952, 1994), and Switzerland (1928, 1948) have hosted the Games twice. Germany (1936), Yugoslavia (1984), and Russia (2014) have hosted the Games once. The IOC has selected Pyeongchang, South Korea, to host the 2018 Winter Olympics and Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics. No country in the southern hemisphere has hosted or even been an applicant to host the Winter Olympics; the major challenge preventing one hosting the games is the dependence on winter weather, and the traditional February timing of the games falls in the middle of the southern hemisphere summer. Twelve countries – Austria, Canada , Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden , Switzerland and the United States – have sent athletes to every Winter Olympic Games. Six of those – Austria, Canada , Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States – have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games, and only one – the United States – has earned gold at each Games. Germany and Japan have been banned at times from competing in the Games.
2014年连云港中考试题Beijing and Zhangjiakou ()applying to host the 2022 Winter Olympic Games in 2013
本结果选自907项相关网络资源
Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city of the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time since the breakup of the Soviet Union that Russia hosted a Winter Olympics. Over 2800 athletes from 88 countries participated in 98 events. The Olymp...
every four years可以换成every fourth year吗
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every four years可以换成every fourth year吗
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The history of the winter olympic games has been more trouble than---of the Summer Games A.oneB.thatC.itD.this选择什么???为什么 请给详解 谢谢
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第一个选 B ，如果是 one 的话，一定要是 the one , 但是 since 句子中没有 the ,所以 A 是错的。第二个选 D，译：初学者被要求在上课之前，先熟读教材的内容。 词组：be familiar with 对...熟悉
Winter Olympic Games2014
Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city of the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time since the breakup of the Soviet Union that Russia hosted a Winter Olympics. Over 2800 athletes from 88 countries participated in 98 events. The Olymp...
The 2014 Winter Olympic Games will take place in Russia, from Fe...
The 2014 Winter OlympicGames will take place in Russia,from February 7 to 23. As the world’s 41 athletes will competethere, Russiais preparing for it well.It will be broadcastedin Russia’stwo 42 languages—English and Russian. Billionsof television viewers worldwide will 43 the opening ceremony of the 2014 WinterOlympic Games. Athletes from more than 80 44 will compete in 86 medal events over 17 days.Then the Paralympics(残奥会) will 45 from March 12. Russia has 46 millions of dollars preparing. Thousands ofspectators（观众）will visit the country. Russia will be 47 it all.The building of Olympicgyms began in 2010. Opening and closing ceremonies will be held indoors, at BCPlace Stadium. It’ll 48 55,000 seats. Some competitions, 49 ski, and bobsled, will take place in Whistler.It’s a ski village. During the Games, roads will be closed. More than 15,000policemen will work to 50 the peace throughout the Games.Russia is the first time to host the Winter Games fourtimes. Team Russiahopes 2014 will be a golden year.41. A. worst B. best C.cleverest D. tallest42. A. special B. unusual C.official D. ordinary43. A. watch B. collect C.look D. hear44. A. cities B. towns C. villages D. countries45. A. happen B. begin C. stop D.end 46. A. paid B. took C.cost D. spent47. A. full of B. ready for C.worried about D. afraid of48. A. give B. serve C.hold D. host49. A. with B. including C.as D. so50. A. keep B. make C.let D. protect
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Winter Olympic Games Sports
Chapter 1, article 6 of the 2007 edition of the Olympic Charter defines winter sports as "sports which are practised on snow or ice." Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme; which include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports. The results are more parity in the national medal tables, more interest in the Winter Olympics and higher global television ratings.
Demonstration events
Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992. Military patrol, a precursor to the biathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960. The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Bandy (Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it's considered a national sport. It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria. The ski ballet event, later known as ski-acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992. Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928. A sled-dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932. Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics. Winter pentathlon, a variant of the modern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It was composed of cross-country skiing, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horse riding.
Early years
A predecessor, the Nordic Games, were organized by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926. Balck was a charter member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic program but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Four figure skating events were contested, at which Ulrich Salchow (10-time world champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles.
Three years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. The organizers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports. The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.
The first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Summer Olympics, were held in Antwerp, Belgium, and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games. At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate "International Winter Sports Week" under the patronage of the IOC. Chamonix was chosen to host this "week" (actually 11 days) of events. The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events. Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined. Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the Winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate Olympic Winter Games and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics.
St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host the second Olympic Winter Games in 1928. Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games. Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed-skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled. The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games: Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she would hold for 74 years.
The next Winter Olympics was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated. This was less than in 1928 as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was a long and expensive one for most competitors who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports. Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and it was not until mid-January that there was enough snow to hold all the events. Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title and Eddie Eagan, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold in the men's bobsleigh event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics.
The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held on 6–16 February. This would be the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals. Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games.
1948 to 1960
St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. Switzerland's neutrality had protected the town during World War II and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice. Twenty-eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited. Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these Games, during which 10 countries won gold medals—more than any Games to that point.
The Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo, was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis. Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, though only Norway, Sweden and Finland fielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations. They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition.
After not being able to host the Games in 1944, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron. These were the first Winter Games to be televised and the first Olympics ever broadcast nationwide, though no television rights would be sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation. Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia, when he placed second in the slalom.
The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. Since the village was underdeveloped, there was a rush to construct infrastructure and sports facilities like an ice arena, speed-skating track, and a ski-jump hill. The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney. The Squaw Valley Olympics had a number of notable firsts: it was the first Olympics to have a dedicated athletes' village, it was the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time, because the organising committee found it too expensive to build the bobsleigh run.
Winter Olympic Games Controversy
Main article: Olympic Games scandals and controversies § Winter Olympics
The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games. Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials. Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member. The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games (both summer and winter) since 1988. For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as "astronomical". Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities.
Host city legacy
According to the IOC, the host city is responsible for, "...establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services etc., as well as operations during the Games." Due to the cost of hosting an Olympic Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment. For example, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion. By comparison the Torino Games of 2006 cost $3.6 billion to host. The organisers claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee hoped that the exposure of the Olympic Games, and the expedited access to Nagano from Tokyo, would be a boon to the local economy for years afterward. Nagano's economy did experience a two-year post-Olympic spurt, but the long-term effects have not materialised as planned. The possibility of heavy debt, coupled with unused sports venues and infrastructure that saddle the local community with upkeep costs and no practical post-Olympic value, is a deterrent to prospective host cities.
To mitigate these concerns the IOC has enacted several initiatives. First it has agreed to fund part of the host city's budget for staging the Games. Secondly, the IOC limits the qualifying host countries to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation. This eliminates a large portion of the developing world. Finally, cities bidding to host the Games are required to add a "legacy plan" to their proposal. This requires prospective host cities and the IOC, to plan with a view to the long-term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region.
Doping
In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics. The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player, but his team was still allowed to compete. During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs. The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug-testing protocols. The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999.
The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin (EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue. The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross-country ski team's residence during the Games where they seized blood-doping specimens and equipment. This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of hemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping.
Cold War
The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. Soviet and American politicians used the Olympics as an opportunity to demonstrate the superiority of their respective political systems. The successful Soviet athlete was feted and honoured. Irina Rodnina, three-time Olympic gold medallist in figure skating, was awarded the Order of Lenin after her victory at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck. Soviet athletes who won gold medals could expect to receive between $4,000 and $8,000 depending on the prestige of the sport. A world record was worth an additional $1,500. In 1978 the United States Congress responded to these measures by passing legislation that reorganised the United States Olympic Committee. It also approved financial rewards to medal-winning athletes.
The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics. In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games. East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team. The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes. The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host-city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes.
Boycott
The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the "People's Republic of China" (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name "Republic of China" (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem. The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the "Republic of China". The IOC renamed the island "Chinese Taipei" and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies. Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day.
Map of Winter Olympics locations. Countries that have hosted one Winter Olympics are shaded green, while countries that have hosted two or more are shaded blue.
Games Year Host Opened by Dates Nations Competitors Sports Disci-
plines Events Ref
Total Men Women
I 1924 Chamonix, France Undersecretary Gaston Vidal 25 January – 5 February 16 258 247 11 6 9 16
II 1928 St. Moritz, Switzerland President Edmund Schulthess 11–19 February 25 464 438 26 4 8 14
III 1932 Lake Placid, United States Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt 4–15 February 17 252 231 21 4 7 14
IV 1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany Chancellor Adolf Hitler 6–16 February 28 646 566 80 4 8 17
1940 Awarded to Sapporo, Japan; cancelled because of World War II
1944 Awarded to Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy; cancelled because of World War II
V 1948 St. Moritz, Switzerland President Enrico Celio 30 January – 8 February 28 669 592 77 4 9 22
VI 1952 Oslo, Norway Princess Ragnhild 14–25 February 30 694 585 109 4 8 22
VII 1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy President Giovanni Gronchi 26 January – 5 February 32 821 687 134 4 8 24
VIII 1960 Squaw Valley, United States Vice President Richard Nixon 18–28 February 30 665 521 144 4 8 27
IX 1964 Innsbruck, Austria President Adolf Schärf 29 January – 9 February 36 1091 892 199 6 10 34
X 1968 Grenoble, France President Charles de Gaulle 6–18 February 37 1158 947 211 6 10 35
XI 1972 Sapporo, Japan Emperor Hirohito 3–13 February 35 1006 801 205 6 10 35
XII 1976 Innsbruck, Austria President Rudolf Kirchschläger 4–15 February 37 1123 892 231 6 10 37
XIII 1980 Lake Placid, United States Vice President Walter Mondale 13–24 February 37 1072 840 232 6 10 38
XIV 1984 Sarajevo, Yugoslavia President Mika Špiljak 8–19 February 49 1272 998 274 6 10 39
XV 1988 Calgary, Canada Governor General Jeanne Sauvé 13–28 February 57 1423 1122 301 6 10 46
XVI 1992 Albertville, France President François Mitterrand 8–23 February 64 1801 1313 488 6 12 57
XVII 1994 Lillehammer, Norway King Harald V 12–27 February 67 1737 1215 522 6 12 61
XVIII 1998 Nagano, Japan Emperor Akihito 7–22 February 72 2176 1389 787 7 14 68
XIX 2002 Salt Lake City, United States President George W. Bush 8–24 February 78 2399 1513 886 7 15 78
XX 2006 Turin, Italy President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi 10–26 February 80 2508 1548 960 7 15 84
XXI 2010 Vancouver, Canada Governor General Michaëlle Jean 12–28 February 82 2566 1522 1044 7 15 86
XXII 2014 Sochi, Russia President Vladimir Putin 7–23 February 88 2873 1714 1159 7 15 98
XXIII 2018 Pyeongchang, South Korea 9–25 February Future event 7 15 102
XXIV 2022 Beijing, China 4–20 February Future event 7 15 102
XXV 2026 Selection: 2019 Future event
Unlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads, the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves.
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The dairy product ‘Skyr’ originated in which country? | Icelandic dairy company, producer of skyr & other healthy dairy products - Mjólkursamsalan
Skyr.is
Iceland's Best Kept Secret
Our Skyr is the only product made with Original Icelandic Skyr Cultures. But what does that really mean?
The art of making Skyr is especially noteworthy. Skyr is made from skimmed milk which is a naturally fat free milk product. When making Skyr a large amount of milk is used but about three to four times more milk is needed to produce one can of skyr than one can of yogurt.
We strive to stay close to Icelandic roots and traditions by using the Original Icelandic Skyr Cultures. The distinctive Skyr Cultures ensure the connection to Skyr‘s origin – that is Iceland. Making it the original and most delectable Skyr there is. That beeing said, the Skyr Cultures might just be Iceland‘s best kept secret.
About us
MS Iceland Dairies (Mjólkursamsalan) is a cooperative organisation that includes over 700 of Iceland’s family-run dairy farms and other milk producers across the country. We have over 450 employees in non-farm roles.
The mission of the company centres on milk production and the making of high-quality skyr, cheeses, butter, and other dairy products. We are proud to serve both our domestic and representing Iceland in export markets.
MS Iceland Dairies and the global environment
Iceland is one of Europe’s last pristine places. As citizens of a country very sensitive to global warming and the quality of our terrestrial and oceanic resources, we are committed to progressive green policies in our operations.
All our products are made using only 100% carbon-free electricity. This advantage exceeds the environmental counterbalance for the methane output inherent in local ruminant agriculture.
We are also advocates of the ethical and humane treatment of animals and our member farms are compliant with progressive Iceland standards for domestic livestock welfare.
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What is the name of comic hero Desperate Dan’s pet dog? | Iceland's Yogurt Makers Are Dumping Byproducts in the Country's Largest River | MUNCHIES
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Icelandic skyr is supposed to be one of those guiltless foods, clean and fresh as the North Atlantic country that popularized it. Though it’s technically a cheese , it’s largely eaten as a yogurt. It’s high in protein, no fat to low fat, and has very little naturally occurring sugar. But like the river in Iceland where much of the country’s skyr byproduct is released, the real cost runs much deeper.
Not long after Greek yogurt production started booming in the US, skyr followed suit. Iceland’s largest skyr manufacturer, MS, began selling to Whole Foods in 2006, sending its skyr to the US by plane weekly. Skyr also took off in northern Europe, and MS licensed production to companies in Denmark, Norway, and Finland. In 2012 alone, Finns ate 1,000 tons of skyr, or almost three pounds per person during that year.
Icelanders have been eating skyr for centuries, but manufacturers there have never produced as much as they are today—and regulations regarding a major byproduct of skyr, called acid whey, haven’t kept up.
READ: Agricultural Runoff Is Putting Babies and Viagra Users in Danger
It takes a lot of milk to make a little skyr. Like Greek yogurt, skyr is considered a ‘filtered yogurt.’ The high protein content is due to a process of filtering out liquid from curd created by fermented milk and bacteria cultures. The result you eat is the super-rich, super-concentrated, protein-laden dairy product. The other result is a bunch of liquid, mostly water, as well as lactose and micronutrients like protein, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, nitrogen, and potassium—this is acid whey.
Acid whey became a much more well-known substance after the magazine Modern Farmer published a story in 2013 by reporter Justin Elliott called “Whey Too Much: Greek Yogurt’s Dark Side.”
It’s illegal to dump acid whey in the U.S., and what Elliott discovered was that many manufacturers with a stake in the US’s $2 billion Greek yogurt industry had been scrambling for a solution to dealing with all of the acid whey they were producing. The Northeast of the US produced more than 150 million gallons of acid whey in 2012, according to his report, none of which was allowed to be dumped. Many producers had begun paying farmers to take it for use in animal feed or fertilizer.
Acid whey can’t simply be dumped down the drain in large quantity because of its acidity and the micronutrients phosphorous and nitrogen. According to an affidavit by Dr. Michael D. Swolen—professor emeritus in the Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering Department at Oklahoma State University—acid whey has similar amounts of phosphorous and nitrogen as animal manure, but a higher chloride content and lower, more acidic pH.
The pH scale is a range used to measure acidity, where 7 is neutral and anything less is more acidic. Acid whey is a 4.2 on this scale, which is also the pH of tomato juice, orange juice, and your average drop of acid rain in the US. The phosphorous and nitrogen are troublesome in streams and wastewater, because in large quantity they can deplete oxygen from the water, killing aquatic species and allowing bacteria and algae to grow. In 2007, 30,000 gallons of either acid or sweet whey, the latter being a byproduct of cheese production, was accidentally released into the Milwaukee River, killing about 300 fish. Both acid and sweet whey are alike, with sweet whey containing more protein.
Iceland doesn’t have any laws barring the dumping of acid whey, but there is one—the Regulation of Sewers and Sewage—requiring pH neutralization before anything goes to sewage, according to press and information officer Þórir Hrafnsson at Iceland’s Ministry of Industries and Innovation. Most of Iceland’s skyr manufacturers do not follow this to the book, and it does not account for micronutrient pollution.
There are only three manufacturers of skyr in Iceland, but MS has 94 percent of that market and 100 percent of the country’s skyr export market. Of the two smaller companies, Mjólka bottles and sells their acid whey as a drink or pickling agent called Mysa (Icelanders have used acid whey to pickle things for centuries). The other, organic Biobú, bottles some of their acid whey. But according to Elki Gunnarsson, the company’s managing director, “Right now the supply is greater than the demand.” The rest gets dumped down drains. Gunnarsson said their skyr production is so small that they believe it doesn’t have much of an impact, but they are trying to transition from dumping some to using all of the acid whey.
The production of these two companies pales in comparison to the 2,500 tons of skyr produced each year by MS. Of that, about 380 tons are exported and over the next few years, MS hopes to double exports, according to Jón Axel Pétursson, managing director of the sale and marketing division there.
At MS’s major production facility in the South Iceland town of Selfoss, the acid whey produced is put into a tank where oxygen is added to help particles degrade for 24 hours, according to quality manager Marjaana Hovi. By the time it is dumped into the glacial river Ölfusá, the largest river in Iceland and a major resource for the country’s salmon industry, the acid whey has a pH of 5, that of soy sauce or black coffee. It is carried by the river for 16 miles to the Atlantic Ocean.
Both Hovi and Hrafnsson believe the river is cold enough and large enough to dilute the acid whey and prevent ecological harm to the salmon there. However, this 16-mile stretch of the river has never had so much acid whey dumped in it. No major studies have been conducted to conclude whether or not this will have a lasting impact.
Karen Smith, a dairy processing technologist at the Center for Dairy Research at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, said that by adding oxygen to the acid whey, “it doesn’t just disappear, it changes form. It’s still another substance that doesn’t normally run around in the water.”
She said not only is it a bad move environmentally, it’s a bad move as a business.
“In the long term, dumping just doesn’t make sense,” she said. “Even from just a financial standpoint you’ve got to think, there’s got to be something better to do with this.”
She and other researchers at the Center for Dairy Research are studying alternative uses of acid whey from Greek yogurt production, including isolating the micronutrients to be sold as ingredients in other products, and using the acid whey to make biogas that can be turned into electricity.
This is what Siggi Hilmarsson, founder of Siggi’s, the most popular brand of Skyr in the US, does with his company’s acid whey. His production in upstate New York expanded greatly when he began selling to Whole Foods in 2008, two years after MS. Hilmarsson said when the company was small, they sold their acid whey to a pig farmer who put it in his feed, but as the company grew, they started selling it to a farm that had a digester that could use the acid whey to make electricity.
Throughout the European Union, of which Iceland is not a member, it is up to individual countries to decide how they choose to dispose of their acid whey. At Thise Mejeri, the Danish company that has a license from MS to produce skyr, they use their acid whey in pig feed. In Norway, where the MS licensee Q-Meieriene produces skyr, they have a special permission from the Norwegian government to dispose of their whey into a local sewage system until they can find a better solution.
According to Hovi, MS is experimenting with turning their acid whey into a marketable drink. Until then, it continues to be dumped into Ölfusá and to unknown consequence. The company is seeking out a licensee to make their skyr in the US, as the current model of flying the yogurt from Iceland to the US weekly is presumably as bad or worse than the acid whey dumping.
| i don't know |
The cocktail ‘Death in the Afternoon’, consisting of Absinthe and Champagne, was invented by which American author? | Ernest Hemingway's Death in the Afternoon - Drink Recipe – How to Make the Perfect Ernest Hemingway's Death in the Afternoon
Ernest Hemingway's Death in the Afternoon
champagne flute
Instructions:
Pour absinthe into a champagne flute and add iced brut champagne until it clouds up -- at least 4 ounces.
Short of foreign travel, if you lack the kind of decadent friends who engage in pretentious pursuits like bootlegging absinthe, there are a couple of legal alternatives. For what our dear editor likes to call the "Near Death Experience," use Absente, the new -- legal -- absinthe substitute that's been promoted of late; it's 110-proof (the real stuff is always real strong, whatever its other attributes). If you prefer to keep the Man in Black safely at arm's length, try using a mere ounce of Pernod (or other 80-proof pastis). We'll call that the Paper Cut.
The Wondrich Take:
There's a bit near the beginning of Virgil's Georgics (in which the poet explains, at length, the art of farming; weird, but no weirder than, say, David Foster Wallace) where a peasant, busting sod on an old battlefield, turns up the bones of some of the slaughtered -- and they're huge; almost a different species. That's how we feel contemplating Hemingway's original instructions for this wicked potion (he claims to have cooked it up with some Brits after a spot of nautical unpleasantness): "Pour 1 jigger of absinthe into a champagne glass. Add iced champagne until it attains the proper opalescent milkiness. Drink three to five of these slowly." The liver that man must've had!
Unfortunately, absinthe's still illegal here. But if you're in Europe this summer and your better half has just left you, perhaps citing your persistent sniggering at her (or his) ostentatious mastery of the local parley-voo, you might want to embark on a course of these. You can get real absinthe there -- and, seeing as how the authentic wormwood-powered stuff has a tendency to taste like Raid, the champagne can only help it. Just make sure you leave your documents and most of your money in the hotel safe before you commence treatment.
Level: Easy
| Ernest Hemingway |
Cavendish, Orinoco and Lady Finger are all varieties of which fruit? | Captains Hour: Episode 1"Death in the Afternoon" - YouTube
Captains Hour: Episode 1"Death in the Afternoon"
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Published on Nov 29, 2014
Ahoy there mateys, today Your old friend Andy is going to show you how to make some amazing cocktails to impress the ladies.
This one is a drink invented by American author Ernest Hemingway, called death in the afternoon, named after his book of the same name. The original recipe called for a measure of absinthe and champagne poured on top until it emulsifies to form a nice milky colour. However I took a few liberties with this drink altering the recipe slightly to suit my tastes.
Overall I give my rendition of the cocktail a 6/10. The anise of the absinthe mixes with the fruitiness of the red wine, and the subtle flavours of the pepsi to create an aroma similar to toothpaste mixed with a lingering toilet shit. Intense vomiting and diarrhea may follow afterwards however your mileage may vary.
Category
| i don't know |
The two small pieces of dark meat at the back of poultry near the thigh are commonly known by what name? | Delicious Weird Eats
Delicious Weird Eats
San Francisco Bay Area 62
Delicious Weird Eats
I will try basically anything a restaurant serves. I often meander into entrees that include popular ingredients like beef, chicken, fish, vegetables, lamb, et cetera. I will also try dishes that have ingredients that are foreign to most people’s palates (Escargot? Count me in. Cow intestines? Please?). Growing up in a Filipino household, I would encounter dishes made with ingredients that are, well, uncommon compared to typical American cuisine, i.e., pig’s blood, and I loved every morsel of it. However, there are people that might cringe at the thought of mixing their appetite with things that may go bump in the night. I say, “Don’t knock it until you’ve tried it.” These unfamiliar ingredients that many people dare not go near have been used since the conception of most European and Asian fare. In the hands of talented chefs, they are the center pieces of many fantastic dishes that can stimulate anyone’s culinary senses. Many of our restaurants feature dishes created with uncommon ingredients, and trust me, they are created by the skillful hands.
Table 926
Owner and Executive Chef of Table 926 in Pacific Beach, Matt Richman, is no stranger to exposing guests’ taste buds to new and different flavor combinations. Constructing his entrées with in-season ingredients, Chef Richman blends Californian cuisine with Mediterranean and Latin American flavors. His Glazed Pork Cheeks with guajillo-tamarind glaze, braised greens and polenta is a perfect example. Pork cheek, also known as guanciale, is often unsmoked Italian bacon, similar to hog jowl used as seasoning in Southern soul food. However, Chef Richman has used this part of the pig to create a dish that touches base on his own culinary philosophy and offers a delicious dish that is tender and savory.
Geoge's California Modern
Located in Downtown La Jolla on Prospect Street, George's California Modern offers an a la carte dinner menu that boasts a wide range of exquisite selections that focus on California ingredients with a modern twist. Executive Chef and partner Trey Foshee showcases his culinary genius by taking traditional entrees and ‘turning them inside out’. He uses a part of the cow that many people wouldn’t dare to eat: the tongue. Chef Foshee’s Warm Beef Tongue is paired with grilled onions, avocado mousse, habanero, smoked garlic tomato vinaigrette and house pickles. Beef tongue is very high in fat, with almost 75% of its calories coming from it, and that is what makes it so delicious. The high fat content added with the taste of beef gives diners a fabulous mixer that ultimately makes a wonderfully savory main dish.
Robata Ya Oton
While Japanese restaurants may be a dime-a-dozen now, many manipulate diners into thinking what they serve is actually traditional Japanese cuisine. However, it’s generally accompanied by Western-style characteristics (Do you think the crunchy roll’s origin was from Japan? Yeah, I didn’t think so, either) masked behind low-grade ingredients. Very few establishments in San Diego are genuine Japanese cuisine. Guests at Robata Ya Oton, however, can engulf all their culinary senses in a traditional Japanese menu that exceeds the boundaries of teriyaki chicken and white rice. Head Chef Aiko Ishito has created a classic menu that features entrees like Shio Chanko and Miso Chanko—hot pot dishes that consist of a variety of vegetables, mushrooms, tofu, seafood, chicken and pork in a flavorful broth—and a full list of Yakimono, grilled entrees featuring common meats such as beef, chicken, and pork. In addition to the meats on the Yakimono list, Robata Ya Oton offers other protein choices that are a little bit, unusual by western diners' standards. Dishes like grilled chicken oysters, gizzards and hearts are only the tip of the iceberg. First, a chicken oyster isn’t what the syntax might lead people to believe (no, they’re not oysters filled with chicken, promise). Chicken oysters are two small, round pieces of dark meat on the back of poultry near the thigh, regarded as the most flavorful and tender part of the bird. Chicken gizzards are, on the other hand, less ambiguous than chicken oysters, but still an uncommon part of the chicken that many people do not eat. The gizzard is an organ found in the digestive tracts of animals such as birds, reptiles, certain gastropods and some fish. Gizzards are commonly served in the southeastern region of the United States and countries such as Haiti, Indonesia, Uganda, Cameroon, and Japan. They are usually deep fried and taste somewhat like liver, with a chewy consistency similar to the heart. This makes it an ideal part of the chicken for those who enjoy these unique flavors and textures. Chicken hearts need no explanation of location. The taste is comparable to the dark meat of the chicken and has a slight metallic aftertaste. For fans of the mineral taste of liver, the heart and gizzard are other options to try that have a slightly different consistencies, making the epicurean experience into the unknown that much more exciting.
As far as I’m concerned, food is food. Whether it’s a juicy, tender filet mignon or a juicy, tender beef tongue, they both can be made into a delicious entrée in the right hands. Of course we all have our likes and dislikes (I can’t stand chicken feet), but I would never know if I didn’t try it, at least once. I figure; I might as well find what all the fuss is about, considering people all over the world are eating these uncommon parts of livestock on a day-to-day basis. Who knows, maybe you will discover your new favorite treat. You'll never know until you take the chance.
Copyright TableAgent.com
| Oyster |
According to the Bible, which fruit was Moses told by God must be worn on the hem of the robes for ministering service? | 599
Poultry
Poultry is the classification of all edible domestic birds. Poultry meats have always been popular food items because they are low in cost and can be prepared using most cooking methods. Poultry meats are quite tender and easy to digest when cooked properly. Poultry is low in fat, calories, and cholesterol if the skin is removed before cooking. The two most common poultry meats are chicken and turkey. Other varieties of poultry include duck, goose, guinea fowl, squab, ostrich, pheasant, and quail.
Chapter Objectives:
1. Contrast the eight varieties of poultry.
2. Describe common forms of market poultry and list factors to consider before deciding which form to purchase.
3. Explain the meaning of the USDA inspection stamp and the USDA grades for poultry.
4. Identify the main precautions to take when handling and storing poultry.
5. Demonstrate techniques used for fabricating poultry.
6. Identify factors to consider when determining the appropriate cooking method for poultry.
7. Give examples of cuts of poultry that are commonly deep-fried or pan-fried.
8. Identify considerations for saut�ing poultry.
9. List the main factors to consider when grilling or broiling poultry.
10. Explain the role of temperature in roasting small, medium, and large birds.
11. Demonstrate techniques used to carve poultry.
12. Compare the simmering method of cooking poultry to the poaching method.
13. Describe two different ways poultry can be braised or stewed.
Key Terms
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POULTRY COMPOSITION
Poultry is the collective term for the various kinds of birds raised for human consumption. Poultry is an extremely popular menu choice because of its versatility, availability, and low cost. Some birds have both light and dark meat, while others have only dark meat. Leg and thigh meat are always dark meat, but breast and wing meat can be either light or dark. Whether the bird can fly determines the color of the meat. If a bird flies, the breast and wing muscles get more exercise, which causes more blood to flow through them. Blood contains the protein myoglobin, which causes darkening of muscle tissue. The more a particular muscle group is worked, the tougher and darker the muscle becomes.
If a particular bird, such as a chicken, does not fly, the breast and wing muscles get less exercise and do not receive as much blood flow. The result is that those areas have lighter-colored "white" meat. However, chickens spend their entire day walking around. Thus, chickens have dark meat in their legs and thighs. Birds that fly, such as ducks, have dark meat throughout their entire bodies, because all the muscle groups get exercise when a bird flies.
In all meats, there are two different kinds of fat. The first kind of fat is highly visible and is located outside of each muscle portion. For example, the skin that surrounds the breast meat of the chicken has a layer of fat attached to the underside.� This layer of fat serves to protect the muscle from damage and to insulate it from the outside environment. The second kind of fat is intramuscular fat, or marbling. This type of fat makes a piece of meat juicy and moist.
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While most animals have both kinds of fat, poultry has almost no marbling. The fat in poultry can be found just beneath the skin and around the tail and the abdomen. Because poultry has little intramuscular fat, poultry can become very dry if it is even slightly overcooked.
As poultry ages, the breastbone changes from being flexible to being thick and hard. The meat and skin also toughen, and the overall flavor of the bird intensifies. Therefore, younger birds are often desired for their tenderness and mild flavor.
KINDS OF POULTRY
The six different kinds of poultry recognized by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) are chicken, turkey, duck, goose, pigeon, and guinea fowl. Each kind of poultry is subdivided into classes based on the age and tenderness of a bird. Although the USDA identifies only these six kinds of birds as poultry, there are two additional groups of edible birds: ratites and game birds are also served in food service establishments.
A ratite is any of a large variety of flightless birds that have small wings in relation to body size and flat breastbones. Ratites include ostriches, emus, and rheas. Although ratite is considered poultry, the flavor of the meat is similar to beef, but sweeter. Ratite meat is dark red and looks like beef after it is cooked.
A game bird is a wild bird, such as quail, partridge, pheasant, or grouse, that is hunted for human consumption. While it is legal to hunt these animals for personal use, it is illegal to sell game that has been hunted in the wild. Farm-raised game birds are game birds that are raised for sale and can be sold legally under state regulations. Game birds are considered poultry. Their meat is white, but darker than chicken or turkey breast. Poultry, ratites, and game birds can be cooked using many of the same cooking methods used to prepare other meats and meat dishes.
Chicken
Chicken is the most popular kind of poultry. Chickens can be cooked whole or in parts, which allows great flexibility in preparation. Younger chickens are very tender and can be cooked using almost any cooking method. Older chickens have developed more connective tissue and tougher muscular tissue, and are therefore better either stewed or braised.
602
Chickens are classified by age and weight. Chicken classifications include Cornish game hens, fryers and broilers, roasters, capons, and hens or stewing chickens.
A Cornish game hen is a male or female chicken between 5 and 6 weeks old. The meat of a Cornish game hen is very tender and flavorful, with minimal fat. They can be prepared in a wide variety of ways including broiling, grilling, or roasting.
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Fryers and broilers are young male or female chickens under 13 weeks old. They have very tender flesh and smooth skin, and contain a slightly higher percentage of fat than a Cornish game hen. Although either term is used to represent this class, the weight of a broiler usually is between 11/2 lb and 2 lb, while a fryer typically weighs between 2 lb and 31/2 lb. Any cooking method can be used to prepare fryers and broilers.
Roasters are young male or female chickens ranging in age from 3 months to 5 months old. They have tender meat and smooth skin, but have a higher ratio of meat to bone than do birds in the previously mentioned categories. This means that if a broiler and a roaster had the same amount of bone, the roaster would have more meat than the broiler. Roasters range in weight from 31/2 lb to 5 lb. Roasters can be prepared using any cooking method.
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A capon is a surgically castrated male chicken. Capons are castrated to produce a large, well-formed breast with flesh that is more tender and better flavored than that of an average chicken. The result is thicker portions of meat, more moisture (due to a higher fat content), and a higher proportion of light meat to dark meat than in other chicken varieties. Once a bird is castrated, the tenderness of the flesh is affected very little as the bird ages. Capons are usually between 5 months and 8 months old. The average weight of a capon is 5 lb to 8 lb. They are most often prepared by roasting.
A hen, or stewing chicken, is a female chicken that has laid eggs for one or more seasons and is usually more than 10 months old. The flesh and skin of these birds are tough due to the age of the birds. The tougher flesh and skin require slow moist-heat cooking methods, such as stewing or braising, to make the meat tender enough to consume. Hens average in weight from 3 lb to 8 lb. Many people do not care for the flavor of hens, as they are stronger in flavor than any other type of chicken.
Turkey
Turkeys are native to North America and are the second-most-popular poultry consumed in the United States. Turkeys are economical, regularly available, and have low fat content. They are most often roasted, sometimes stuffed. Other preparations include saut�ed turkey cutlets, grilled turkey tenderloins, and ground turkey meat. Virtually any method can be used for preparing ground turkey meat.
Turkeys are bred as lightweights and heavyweights. Lightweights are bred for fast growth and a more marketable size. Heavyweights are bred to be larger-sized turkeys and are used mostly in food service establishments. Heavyweight turkeys have more meat in proportion to bone and sell at a lower cost per pound than lightweights.
Like chicken, turkeys are also classified by age and weight. Common classes of turkeys include fryers or roasters, young turkeys, yearlings, and mature turkeys.
Fryers and roasters are lightweight male or female turkeys less than 16 weeks old. They are very tender with soft, flexible skin. They average in weight from 4 lb to 8 lb. Male fryers and roasters are commonly called "toms." Female turkeys are commonly called "hens." Common preparation methods include roasting, frying, or broiling.
A young turkey is a male or female turkey less than 8 months old. These turkeys have tender, lean meat, with smooth skin and a flexible breastbone. Young lightweights average in weight from 6 lb to 10 lb. Young heavyweight turkeys average 12 lb to 16 lb. Young turkeys are best when roasted, boiled, or stewed.
605
A yearling is a mature bird between 8 months and 15 months old. The meat of a yearling is still tender, but it is very lean. Yearlings range in weight from 10 lb to 30 lb and are commonly sold in supermarkets at a cheaper price per pound than young turkeys or roasters.
Mature turkeys are turkeys more than 15 months old, with toughened meat and a hardened breastbone. Like yearlings, mature turkeys can range in weight from 10 lb to 30 lb. However, mature turkeys are usually used only in processed foods or to produce lean ground turkey meat. Mature turkeys have a strong flavor that does not lend itself to dry-heat cooking methods.
When purchasing whole poultry, it is common to find a small bag inside the cavity of the bird containing the giblets. Giblets is the collective name for a bird�s neck, heart, liver, and gizzard (the bird�s second stomach).� The neck, heart, and gizzard are often used to make giblet gravy. The neck contains a good amount of 606 gelatin, which when used in stock makes the stock rich and flavorful. The gizzard, heart, and liver are not used to make stock because their strong flavors would overpower the flavor of the stock. The heart of a turkey can be served with a b�chamel sauce in a classic preparation called creamed hearts. Livers are classically used in p�t�s, can be breaded and fried, or can be saut�ed and served with caramelized onions. Gizzards can be cooked and served on their own by trimming off the tough connective tissue, and then breading or battering and frying them.
Duck
Ducks are the third-most-popular type of poultry consumed worldwide. Consumption of duck outranks that of turkey throughout much of Europe. Because they fly, ducks do not have white breast meat. Ducks also have less meat in proportion to bone and fat than do most other birds. A duck yields half as much meat as a chicken of the same size. This means that a 3 lb to 4 lb duck provides only two servings of meat, while a 3 lb to 4 lb chicken provides four servings of meat. Ducks are also very high in fat. The majority of fat in a duck is located in and just beneath the skin.
When cooking duck, the fatty skin must be rendered slowly or it becomes nearly inedible. Duck breasts are commonly seared in a saut� pan then finished in the oven and served medium rare. Duck legs are most often braised or roasted until well done and tender. Whole ducks are usually roasted on a rack to allow the fat to render, such as when making Duck � l�orange or Peking duck.
Like other forms of poultry, ducks are classified by age and weight. Classes of duck include broilers or fryers, roaster ducklings, and mature ducks. Broilers or fryers are ducks less than 8 weeks old that weigh between 3 lb and 4 lb. Broilers and fryers have very tender meat, a soft bill, and a soft windpipe. Roaster ducklings are ducks that are between 8 weeks and 16 weeks old that weigh between 4 lb and 6 lb. The meat of a roaster duckling is tender, and the bill and windpipe are just starting to harden. A mature duck is a duck more than 6 months of age that, on average, weighs between 4 lb and 6 lb. The flesh of a mature duck is fairly tough and the bill and windpipe are hardened.
Ducks are not raised in as tight a living space as chickens; therefore, they are not as prone to infection or contamination by biological hazards such as salmonella. Even though it is poultry, duck breast is most commonly served medium rare. When cooked, duck breast meat has the same appearance as a lean cut of beef. Duck breast is very dry and tough if overcooked.
Foie gras (pronounced fwah grah) is the fattened liver of a duck or goose. Foie gras is a delicacy that is considered a staple of classic 607 fine dining.� To make foie gras, ducks or geese are force-fed a rich diet of corn and other feed through a funnel and are prevented from exercising. Under these conditions, the liver swells to at least four times its normal size and becomes almost solid fat. The fattened liver is removed and sold as the most expensive component. Because the foie gras is almost all fat, it is typically seared quickly in a very hot saut� pan and served immediately. Foie gras can also be poached, cooled, and pur�ed to make a p�t� de foie gras.
Duck legs and thighs are most commonly prepared confit. Confit (pronounced cone-FEE) is a French term for meat that has been cooked and preserved in its own fat. The duck leg and thigh are salted, seared until well browned, and then simmered in rendered duck fat until tender. The confit can be served whole or the meat can be pulled from the bone and used in salads and other dishes as a flavorful ingredient. A traditional cassoulet is a dish that consists of white beans stewed with duck fat, fresh sausage, and whole duck confit.
Goose
Geese, like ducks, contain entirely dark meat and a large amount of fat in both the skin and flesh. Geese weighing less than 11 lb are considered light. Geese over 12 lb are considered heavy. They are classed into two groups: young and mature.
Young geese are usually less than 6 months of age. They have tender, dark flesh and a windpipe that is easily dented. The meat has a rich taste, due to a high fat content. Young geese weigh from 4 lb to 10 lb. There are large flaps of thick, fatty skin around the neck and tail portions of geese that should be removed with a knife or kitchen shears prior to cooking. Geese are commonly roasted at very high temperatures to aid in rendering some of the fat from the skin and the flesh. Young roasted goose is frequently served with an acidic fruit sauce to cut some of the fatty richness.
Mature geese are over 6 months of age. The flesh is tough and can be prepared only by braising or stewing. As in older ducks, the windpipe of a mature goose is hardened. Mature geese average from 10 lb to 18 lb and are not often used by food service establishments.
Guinea Fowl
Guinea fowl (or simply "guineas") have been domesticated in most parts of the world and are related to one of the most well-known game birds, the pheasant. Guinea fowl are agile, colorful birds with flesh that is darker than that of chickens. Guineas taste much like wild game. Guinea fowl have both light and dark meat that is lean and tender.
608
More popular in Europe than in the United States, guinea fowl are available as either young or mature guineas. Young guineas have tender, lean flesh with a flexible breastbone and weigh, on average, between 1 lb and 11/2 lb. Young guineas are most commonly roasted whole. Mature guineas are old guinea fowl that have tough flesh and a hardened breastbone and weigh, on average, between 1 lb and 2 lb. Mature guineas must be braised or stewed to make the meat tender enough to eat.
Pigeon
Pigeons are classified into two groups based on age: squab and pigeon. A squab is a young pigeon bred and raised for human consumption. These young birds have never flown, but they consist of exclusively dark meat because of a special diet used to produce meat that is extra tender. Squabs are marketed when they are 3 weeks to 4 weeks old and weigh between 6 oz and 14 oz. Squabs are expensive and are found on only upscale menus. Squabs are most commonly prepared using the roasting method, but can also be prepared by saut�ing or broiling.
A pigeon is a mature squab over 4 weeks old. The flesh of a pigeon is tough and strong in flavor, and can be prepared using only the stewing or braising methods. Pigeons weigh between 1 lb and 2 lb and are almost never served in food service establishments.
Ratites
Ratites are a group of flightless birds that have recently gained popularity as a food. Types of ratite birds include the ostrich, the rhea, and the emu. Since 2002, the USDA has required ratite meat to be inspected before being sold for human consumption. Ratites have dark red meat that is almost identical in color to beef. Ratites have almost no breast meat. Rather, meat is taken from the back, thigh, and forequarter. The tenderest cut is called the fan and is taken from a muscle in the thigh. Ratite meats are sold as steaks, fillets, medallions, and whole roasts, or as ground meat.
Ratite meats are prepared similarly to lean cuts of beef. Most cuts of ratite meat are best when prepared medium rare or medium using a quick dry-heat cooking method such as grilling, broiling, or saut�ing. If ratite meat is desired well done, it is best to prepare it using a slow moist-heat method, or a combination cooking method such as braising or stewing. Because ratite meat is very lean, preparing it well done using a dry-heat cooking method results in a dry, tough piece of meat. Cooked ratite meat is complemented by savory flavors such as mushrooms, garlic, red wine, and herbs. The rich, sweet flavors of sauces made with dried fruit, such as a cherry compote, also complement the flavor of ratites. Ratite meat is available year-round from some local and online sources.
609
Ostrich.
�Ostrich is the most popular of the ratites and the most readily available in the United States. Ostriches are also the largest of the ratites, yielding the most meat. A male ostrich can tip the scales at over 300 lb and can reach 9� in height.The tenderest cuts of meat are found in the loin. These cuts are best prepared with fast, dry-heat cooking methods. Other, tougher cuts are found in the leg, and these cuts are best prepared by first marinating or tenderizing the meat and cooking it with a dry-heat method until well done and tender, or cooking slowly using a combination cooking method.
Emu.
�The emu is a native to Australia and is second in size to only the ostrich. Commercial farming of emus began in 1987, and emu meat became available commercially in 1990. Today a number of countries produce emus, with over 1 million head of emu being raised each year in the United States alone. Emu chicks gain about 21/2 lb per week and are fully grown in about a year. Emu meat is prepared in the same manner as ostrich meat, with tender cuts cooked quickly using dry-heat methods, and tougher cuts slow-cooked using a combination cooking method and moist heat. The flavor of emu is slightly different from that of ostrich, although the two are very similar.
Rhea.
�The rhea is smaller than the emu, but is still one of the largest birds in existence. One variety of rhea, the American rhea, is the largest bird native to South America. Like all ratites, rhea chicks grow quite quickly and are considered fully grown at 1 year of age. Meat from a rhea is prepared using the same cooking methods as for ostrich and emu. Because they are the smallest of the ratites, they yield less meat than ostriches or emus. The meat is very lean, is similar in flavor to ostrich and emu, and is available through online suppliers.
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Game Birds
Game birds are birds that are found naturally in the wild and that have been hunted for sport and food. In the United States, birds caught or hunted in the wild cannot be sold, so it is illegal to serve such birds in restaurants. However, some farmers have started to domesticate and raise game birds on farms. These farm-raised birds can be purchased from licensed food service distributors and sold in restaurants. Farm-raised birds are inspected for wholesomeness by the USDA. It is important to note that, although they are inspected for wholesomeness, farm-raised game birds are not graded by the USDA and are not classified as poultry.
Because of their scarcity, farm-raised game birds are high in price. They are prepared similarly to domestic poultry, but require slightly different preparations to help preserve their game flavor. Older male game birds are tougher and have a stronger flavor than older female game birds. Because game birds are generally leaner than common poultry, overcooking these birds results in tough, stringy, dry meat. Game birds are usually aged or ripened for a short time in open air. The term "high" is used to refer to a bird that has been ripened for one to two weeks. Game birds lack a sufficient amount of fat covering to be aged longer. When a bird is high, the tail feathers pull out easily. Game birds include waterfowl, such as wild ducks and geese, and field fowl, such as wild turkeys, pheasants, quails, grouses, and partridges.
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Pheasant.
�Pheasant has long been the most popular game bird. The pheasant is a fairly large, long-tailed bird with dark, rich, gamey-tasting meat. Pheasants range in size from 11/2 lb to 2� lb and are prepared by roasting or braising. The female bird is preferred over the male because the female is more tender and moist. Pheasant meat is considered possibly the best game bird meat. A consomm� made from a pheasant carcass is also extremely flavorful.
Quail.
�Quail is the smallest of the common game birds. With breast meat weighing only about 1 oz to 2 oz, they are close in size to chicks. Because the amount of meat on a quail is so small, they are commonly boned out and cooked in one of the following ways: filled with stuffing, rice, or a forcemeat, then roasted and served whole; broiled; skewered and grilled; or saut�ed. One of the most common quail preparations is to season the boneless quail, saut� it over high heat, and deglaze the pan with balsamic vinegar and sherry.
Grouse.
�A grouse resembles small domestic fowl in appearance, but has thicker and stronger legs. There are more than 40 species of grouse found in North America. The most common types of grouse are the ruffled grouse, the sage grouse, and the blue or dusty grouse. All species have a fairly long, feathered tail, a medium-size wingspan, and a short, thick bill.
The grouse has dark meat that is recognized by gourmets and connoisseurs as one of the finest meats from any type of bird. Grouse can be prepared using different methods; however, large grouse are best roasted, and small grouse are best saut�ed. The flesh of the female bird is usually superior in flavor to that of the male.
Partridge.
�Partridges are smaller than pheasants and usually provide only enough meat to serve two people. A typical partridge weighs about 1 lb. The meat is white and must be cooked slightly on the done side to develop the desired succulent, gamey flavor. Roasting is the most popular method of cooking partridges, but they can also be broiled or saut�ed. The flavor of partridge is gamier than that of pheasant and the flesh is quite a bit tougher and chewier.
MARKET FORMS
Birds are sold after they have been inspected and the head, neck, feet, and feathers have been removed. They are eviscerated (the entrails and viscera are removed), washed, and sanitized. Birds can be either packed fresh or frozen, whole or cut up, boneless or bone in, whole, ground, or processed into another form such as chicken nuggets or deli meat. Many food service operations purchase fabricated (cut up) poultry or prepared forms to save on labor costs and for the convenience of having the processing work already done.
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Common prepared forms of poultry include breasts, tenders, tenderloins, wings, drumsticks, thighs, legs, halves, and quarters:
A breast is the top front portion of the meat above the rib cage, consisting of white meat in flightless birds, or dark meat in birds that fly.
A tender is a small strip of breast meat.
A tenderloin is the inner pectoral muscle that runs alongside the breastbone. Each chicken has two wings, which are divided into tips, flat wing tips, and wing drumettes.
A tip is the outermost section of wing. It is often reserved for making stocks as it contains little or no meat.
A flat wing tip (paddle) is the second section of wing located between the two wing joints.
A wing drumette is the innermost section of wing located between the first wing joint and the shoulder.
A drumstick is the lower section of leg located below the knee joint.
A thigh is the upper section of leg located below the hip and above the knee joint.
A leg consists of a drumstick and thigh.
A poultry half consists of a full half-length of bird split down the breast and spine.
A breast quarter is a half of a breast, a wing, and a portion of the back.
A leg quarter is a thigh, a drumstick, and a portion of the back.
Purchasing whole birds and fabricating them in-house can save a great deal of money, as the purchase price per pound is substantially reduced. Furthermore, poultry fabrication is relatively easy. With some training, kitchen staff can learn the many different ways to fabricate poultry.
Before choosing to purchase either fabricated (cut up) chicken or whole chicken, it is important to consider factors that can affect the outcome of the product, such as employee skill level, storage space, menu offerings, and labor costs. For example, it may be less expensive per pound to purchase whole chickens and debone them in-house. A manager, food service director, or food service buyer should ask the following questions:
Do the kitchen personnel have sufficient knife skills to process the chickens correctly and efficiently?
Does the establishment have storage space for the bones, trimmings, and scraps that can be made into stock or stored for later use?
Does the establishment have storage space for the fabricated pieces? (Note: Fabricated poultry products come packaged in boxes, allowing a chef to remove only as much product as needed and leave the rest in frozen or refrigerated storage.)
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When purchasing fabricated poultry products, will the increase in cost per pound be greater than the savings on labor cost?
Can the establishment use all parts of the chicken, including the fabrication by-products, in-house? Does the establishment have a use for leg and thigh meat? Does the establishment make fresh stock in-house?
Poultry Inspection
All poultry produced for human consumption must be inspected for wholesomeness by the USDA. The USDA inspection stamp is a guarantee by the USDA that the meat was processed under proper conditions, that it was inspected by trained personnel who verified its fitness for human consumption, and that the meat was wholesome at the time of inspection. The USDA inspection stamp is a round stamp.� The round USDA inspection stamp is found either on a tag attached to the wing of the bird or on a label on the packaging.
While this inspection is mandatory, it does not indicate the tenderness or overall quality of the bird. It guarantees only that the product was fit for human consumption at the time of processing. It is imperative to monitor the handling and processing of poultry when it enters a food service establishment to ensure that it continues to be safe to prepare and eat.
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Poultry Grading
In addition to the round inspection stamp, a shield-shaped USDA grading stamp may also be on a tag clipped to the poultry or stamped on the packaging material, indicating the quality of the bird.� Although grading inspection is not mandatory, most poultry sold in restaurants and the marketplace has been graded. Poultry is graded based on overall quality with respect to shape, distribution of fat, condition of the skin, and general appearance of the bird. USDA grades for poultry are Grade A, Grade B, and Grade C. For the most part, poultry sold to consumers is Grade A. To be classified as Grade A, the following standards must be met:
the bird must be free from deformities
the bird must not contain any unplucked pin feathers
the bird must not have any discoloration or bruising
the flesh should not have any cuts or tears
the carcass should not have any broken bones
if the poultry is frozen, it should be free from freezer burn and ice crystals
the bird should have plump, meaty flesh and a thin layer of fat under the skin.
Poultry not meeting these criteria receives a grade of either B or C, depending on the extent of the flaws. Grade B and Grade C birds are typically used for processed poultry items such as soups, chicken pot pies, or chicken nuggets.
Poultry Handling and Storage
Poultry spoils rapidly, and spoiled poultry is extremely dangerous. Although poultry develops an odor as it spoils, poultry may be unsafe for consumption prior to developing any odor. Fresh poultry should always be delivered packed in crushed ice. After it is received, it should be washed, packed with fresh crushed ice, and refrigerated as soon as possible. Poultry should be stored in the coldest part of the refrigerator between 32�F and 34�F and should always be stored beneath other foods to prevent poultry juices from dripping onto and contaminating other foods. It is generally best to store poultry in drip pans to catch any juices that may overflow or drip from it.
Fresh poultry should be purchased the day before use to eliminate a long holding period and decrease the chance of spoilage. If fresh poultry is not going to be used for two or three days, it should be frozen immediately after it is received to prevent loss of quality and possible spoilage. Frozen poultry, such as turkey or chicken breasts, should be 615 kept frozen in the original packaging, at or below 0�F. Frozen poultry products can safely be stored frozen for up to six months before their quality deteriorates.
When frozen poultry is needed for use, it should be moved into a refrigerator a day before use to thaw overnight to ensure proper food safety. Whole turkeys may need an additional day or two to thaw because of their size and density, but they should still be thawed in a refrigerator. Thawing frozen poultry in a refrigerator reduces the risk of spoilage. Poultry should never be refrozen once thawed.
Chickens are often raised in crowded living conditions and are often carriers of viruses and bacteria such as salmonella. To help reduce the potential for foodborne illness, all poultry should be washed prior to preparation. In addition, poultry must be cooked thoroughly to an internal temperature of 165�F (or to between 150�F and 155�F to allow for carryover cooking).
POULTRY FABRICATION
Fabricating poultry is a relatively easy skill to master with some practice. All birds have similar overall body and bone structure. Chicken is typically the easiest, most economical, and most readily available bird for fabrication training. Once the skill of poultry fabrication is learned, it can be applied to any bird raised for human consumption.
Trussing a Whole Bird
When roasting a whole bird, the bird is usually tied, or trussed, to keep it compact in shape. Trussing the bird pulls the legs and wings tightly to the body, which helps the bird to roast evenly and retain moisture as well as gives it a pleasing finished appearance. Prior to trussing the bird, a few steps are taken to produce the best results:
Remove the giblet bag from the cavity of the bird and refrigerate for later use.
Trim any excess or thick pockets of fat around the neck area and the tail portion of the bird.
Pull the skin tightly and evenly across the breast to fully cover any exposed breast meat. This helps prevent the breast meat from drying out during cooking.
If desired, remove the wing tips, as they have a tendency to burn during roasting. If the wings are left intact, tuck the first joint behind the second joint for a neater appearance.
After these steps have been performed, the bird is ready to be trussed and roasted. Butcher�s twine is the most commonly used trussing string.
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To truss a whole bird, apply the following procedure:
1. Cut a length of butcher�s twine approximately three times the length of the bird to be trussed.
2. With the breast up and the neck facing you, place the center of the twine beneath the bird, about 1" under the tail.
3. Bring the twine up around the legs and cross the ends, creating an "X" between the legs.
4. Pass the ends of the twine under the legs and pull tight.
5. Flip the bird over and tuck the wings, if they are still attached.Pull the twine across the wings and cross at the neck.
6. Tie a square knot around the neck to secure the truss.
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1. Bring the string up and around the top of the legs. Tie a knot to secure the legs together.
2. Flip the bird over. Bring the string around to the back of the bird and tie a square knot to secure the truss.
Cutting Techniques
There are many ways that poultry and other birds can be cut into controlled portion sizes or forms for use with various cooking methods. Typical cutting methods for birds include cutting them into halves, quarters, or eighths. They can also be cut to produce boneless breasts, boneless skinless breasts, and airline breasts or supr�mes. These cutting techniques can be applied to almost any type of bird because all birds have similar body structure.
Birds are commonly cut into halves for roasting or broiling. The bird is split from top to bottom between the breasts and along the backbone to the tail. This results in two equal portions.
To cut a bird in half, apply the following procedure:
1. Square the bird with hands, firmly squeezing the legs and wings in toward the body.
2. Place the bird back-side up and use a stiff boning knife to split the bird along both sides of the backbone from the neck to the tail.
3. Remove the backbone.
4. Open both sides of the bird to reveal the keel bone (breastbone). Cut through the keel bone and wishbone lengthwise from neck to tail. Use force by hitting the handle of the knife with the heel of the hand if necessary.
5. Using a knife, cut through the meat and skin behind the breastbone to separate the bird into two halves.
6. Make a small slit in the skin just beneath the leg and insert the end of the drumstick into the slit. This will hold the leg firmly to the body when cooking.
Birds are commonly cut into quarters with bones in for roasting, broiling, or grilling. The bird is divided and separated into leg and thigh sections and wing and breast sections. There are two of each section, yielding four quarters.
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To cut a bird into quarters, apply the following procedure:
1. Stand the bird on end and, with a stiff boning knife, split the bird along either side of the backbone from the neck to the tail.
2. Lay the bird breast-side down and remove the backbone.
3. Open both sides of the bird to reveal the keel bone. Cut through the keel bone and wishbone lengthwise from the neck to tail. Use force by hitting the handle of the knife with the heel of the hand if necessary.
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1. Using a knife, cut through meat and skin behind the keel bone to separate the bird into two halves.
2. Using a stiff boning knife, cut inside the joint between the breast and the thigh to separate the thigh from the breast. Note: Use care to not cut the small, tender portion of meat, known as the oyster, located just along the backbone in the hollow of the hip joint and at the top of each thigh. This tender, usable meat should be removed and reserved for later use.
Birds are commonly cut into eighths (bone in) for roasting, broiling, grilling, deep-frying, and pan-frying. To cut a bird into eighths, quarters are cut into two individual pieces (breast and wing, thigh and leg), yielding eight pieces from each bird. It is important to realize that the cooking time for individual pieces is less than for larger sections.
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To cut a bird into eighths, apply the following procedure:
1. Start with the bird cut into quarters.
2. Using one hand to hold the wing section, cut the wing from the breast at the wing joint with a stiff boning knife. Repeat for other breast and wing.
3. Holding the leg so that the inside thigh bone is visible, locate the thin line of fat that separates the leg and thigh muscles. With a stiff boning knife, cut along this line and separate the leg and thigh joint. Repeat for other leg and thigh.
4. Cut between the leg and thigh bones at the knee joint to remove the thigh bone.
5. Chop off the knee joint. Push the meat back away from the joint for a finished presentation. The thigh portion can be stuffed as desired.
Boneless breasts are the most popular poultry cut. They are also the most versatile poultry cut. They can be grilled, saut�ed, broiled, baked, pan-fried, poached, stuffed, or skewered, and can be used in an endless number of recipes and presentations. Unlike other cuts of poultry, they are almost as popular served cold on salads as they are when served hot. Larger breasts found on bigger birds such as turkey can be roasted whole or sliced into thin medallions (scallops) and saut�ed.
To cut boneless breasts, apply the following procedure:
1. Cut alongside the keel bone, following the rib cage, to remove the wing and breast meat completely.
2. Separate the leg and thigh sections from the bird by bending the legs and thighs backward until they touch, dislocating the hips.
3. Place the bird breast-side down. Using the tip of a stiff boning knife, cut along the backbone from neck to tail.
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1. Cut horizontally at the pelvis, slightly above the oysters. Oysters are two edible bits of muscle located in the hollow of the pelvic bone. Pull the thighs and legs away from the carcass.
2. With a boning knife, cut along the edge of the wishbone to remove completely.
3. Cut alongside the keel bone, following the rib cage, to remove the wing and breast meat completely. Note: When removing the breast meat, ensure that the small tenderloin is included and does not tear free of the breast meat. Repeat procedure on the other side to remove the second breast.
4. The first section of the wing (drumette) can be removed or left on if desired for presentation. If the drumette is left on, chop off the end knuckle and push back the meat for a finished presentation.
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If skinless breasts are desired, the skin can be removed by pulling it firmly from the breast meat. A flattened breast may also be desired, such as to be stuffed or saut�ed. To flatten a breast, a heavy piece of plastic wrap is wrapped around the breast meat and it is pounded with a mallet until the desired thinness or diameter is achieved. Plastic wrap makes this task easier because the mallet does not stick to or tear the flesh.
Boneless legs and thighs are a great way to use these less-utilized cuts of poultry. Leg and thigh meat are actually moister and more flavorful than breast meat, especially compared to white-meat breasts such as chicken breasts or turkey breasts. Legs and thighs have more flavor and moisture because they are dark meat and contain additional fat. Boneless legs and thighs are often stuffed and roasted. When stuffing and roasting legs and thighs, the bones are removed, taking care to keep the meat intact.
To prepare partially boneless legs and thighs to be stuffed, apply the following procedure:
1. Separate the leg and thigh sections from the bird, using the same procedure as for cutting a bird into quarters.
2. With a stiff boning knife, cut down the length of the thigh bone.
3. Scrape the thigh meat down off the thigh bone to the knee joint with the blade of the knife.
4. Cut between the leg and thigh bones at the knee joint to remove the thigh bone.
5. Chop off the knee joint. Push the meat back away from the joint for a finished presentation. The thigh portion can be stuffed as desired.
Leg and thigh meat can also be cut up into smaller pieces for use in dishes such as stir-fries, soups, and casseroles. If the meat is to be cut up, care does not need to be taken to keep the meat intact while removing the bone.
To prepare boneless legs and thighs, apply the following procedure:
1. Separate the leg and thigh sections from the bird, using the same procedure as for cutting a bird into quarters.
2. Place the leg and thigh on the cutting board with the inside of the thigh facing upward. With a stiff boning knife, cut down the length of the thigh and leg bones on each side and around the cartilage of the knee to free it from the thigh meat.
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1. Pull the meat away from the leg bone and cut the meat off where it connects to the end joint (shin).
2. With smooth, even strokes, cut around the knee joint until the L-shaped leg and thigh bones and the knee cartilage are free from the meat. Pull bones to remove and reserve for stock. Repeat with other leg.
If the skin is to be removed from a boneless leg or thigh, firmly grab the leg or thigh meat in one hand and the skin in the other and pull the skin from the meat. Flattened leg or thigh meat may also be desired if it is to be stuffed or saut�ed. The same procedure as for flattening breast meat is used. A heavy piece of plastic wrap is wrapped around the meat, and it is pounded with a mallet.
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Leg and thigh meat can be stuffed with forcemeat, grain, stuffing, or another combination of ingredients. The stuffed meat can be seared in a saut� pan and finished in the oven, or it can be braised or roasted. Before roasting, brush each stuffed leg with oil to provide moisture and to aid in achieving a golden brown color.
Boneless stuffed legs and thighs are commonly trussed or wrapped in caul fat before cooking to help to maintain the shape of the meat. Caul fat is a meshlike fatty membrane that surrounds sheep or pig intestines. It can be wrapped around meat to be roasted or seared to add additional moisture and maintain a consistent shape. Caul fat melts almost completely away during the cooking process, but not before it has helped set the shape of the item being cooked.
COOKING POULTRY
Poultry can be cooked using nearly any cooking method. The trick is to determine which cooking method is best for a particular part of the bird. As when cooking any cut of meat, it is important to understand the characteristics of a poultry cut to determine which cooking method would be best to prepare it. Smaller cuts of meat cook more quickly than larger cuts of meat. Leg and thigh meat have more connective tissue than breast or wing meat, lending them to moist-heat cooking methods and longer combination cooking methods. Breast meat must be cooked quickly but thoroughly, so as not to overcook. Because white meat has little fat or connective tissue, it cooks quickly and dries out if even slightly overcooked. Some birds, such as duck and pheasant, have breast meat that is considered red meat.
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Cooking procedures for poultry are similar to those used for other types of meat. Tougher meats are cooked using lengthier cooking methods, and more tender meats are cooked using quicker cooking methods. Regardless of the cooking method used, poultry should always be cooked well done, except in the case of duck, squab, and the breast meat of a few other game birds. This red meat should be cooked no more than medium to avoid drying it out.
Larger poultry should be cooked slowly to reduce shrinkage and retain moisture. Smaller poultry should be cooked at temperatures between 375�F and 400�F to avoid drying out the meat while cooking. In the professional kitchen, it is a common practice to stuff small birds, such as Cornish hens and squabs, but not larger birds. If stuffing is to be served with large birds, it is strongly recommended that it be prepared and baked separately.
Determining Doneness
Although most meat is cooked to a customer�s requested temperature, such as medium rare or medium, poultry is always cooked well done. The common exceptions to this rule are for duck and squab breasts, which are considered red meat and are most often cooked medium rare or medium. Preparing perfectly well done poultry is tricky. Perfectly well done meat should still be moist and juicy. Cooking even 10 min past perfectly well done results in dry, overcooked meat. There are four common ways of checking the doneness of poultry: temperature, touch, joints, and juices (TTJJ).
Temperature.
�Temperature is taken using a standard instant-read thermometer inserted into the thickest part of the meat. The thermometer should be inserted close to any large bones in the thickest portion of the flesh. Poultry should be cooked to an internal temperature of 165�F. The difficulty with using temperature to indicate doneness is that small items, such as a boneless chicken breast or a butterflied quail, may be too thin for the thermometer to provide an accurate reading.
Touch.
�Touch, although not as accurate as temperature, is a relatively good method for an experienced chef to determine doneness. Poultry, like any other meat, is soft and pliable when raw, but firmer and more solid when cooked. The firmness of the poultry increases in proportion to doneness. When raw or undercooked meat is touched, the finger sinks slightly into the meat, and the meat feels soft. When poultry is thoroughly cooked, the flesh springs back when touched and is much firmer. The difference is similar to the difference between touching the bicep of a relaxed arm and touching the bicep of a flexed arm.
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Joints.
�Joints between bones become soft and tender as the cartilage that holds them together cooks. The dissolving of the tough connective tissue between joints is an indication that the meat is fully cooked. When raw or undercooked, joints are firmly connected. If the ends of a connected leg and thigh portion are taken, one in each hand, twisting the joint typically does not cause the knee joint to come apart. However, if the same motion is applied to a perfectly cooked leg and thigh portion, the bones twist and separate at the knee joint.
Juices.
�Juices from raw poultry are red, just as from any raw meat. When poultry is fully cooked, the juices turn clear as the protein myoglobin coagulates. The change in color as poultry cooks can be used to explain why chicken stock, made from juices extracted from chicken meat and bones, is relatively clear. Tipping a roasted bird to see the juices run out or inserting a thermometer and watching the juices that run from the hole left behind are good methods of checking whether the item is fully cooked or not. When poultry is cooked well done, the juices run clear and have no signs of pink color.
Deep-Frying and Pan-Frying Poultry
Of all the cooking methods, pan-frying or deep-frying result in moist poultry. This is because portioned cuts are either breaded or battered to seal in the moisture when fried. Poultry cooked using either of these methods should have a crisp, golden brown exterior. The most popular cut used with both of these cooking methods is chicken that has been cut into eighths.� Boneless cuts of poultry such as breaded chicken breasts or turkey cutlets can also be deep-fried or pan-fried.
The pan-frying method is most commonly chosen to help fried foods retain a flat shape. For example, a boneless chicken breast that has been deep-fried curls and does not sit flat on a plate, while a boneless breast that has been pan-fried sits perfectly flat.
Seasoning.
�The most common seasoning method for fried poultry is simply to add salt and white pepper to the flour, bread crumbs, or batter. The following are ways to add flavor to deep-fried or pan-fried fowl:
Prior to breading, the meat can be soaked in a marinade containing salt and various herbs, seasonings, or flavorings. Salt and white pepper are most commonly used.
The flour, bread crumbs, or batter can be, and almost always are, seasoned to add flavor to the crispy coating.
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The fried poultry can be served with a flavorful sauce such as barbeque sauce, honey, or a Buffalo-style hot sauce. The fried items can be tossed and coated in the sauce, or the sauce can be served on the side for dipping.
Time and Temperature Requirements.
�When either deep-frying or pan-frying, the key to achieving proper cooking is having the fat hot enough to crisp the exterior, yet not so hot as to overcook or burn the exterior of the meat in the time required for the interior meat to fully cook. Fat used to fry poultry should be between 300�F and 375�F. Pan-frying usually requires a lower temperature and a slightly longer cooking time than deep-frying. The food is turned over when the side being fried becomes golden brown. Pan-frying is typically done closer to 300�F, while deep-frying is usually done closer to 375�F. When determining the appropriate temperature for the oil, it is important to remember that larger items need lower heat, while smaller items, especially those without bones, do best with higher heat.
The best method for determining doneness is to insert an instant-read thermometer into the thickest part of the flesh. The touch method does not work with fried poultry because the crunchy exterior prevents an accurate measure of firmness. The joint twisting method is also not recommended for testing doneness of fried poultry, because it would break the golden coating. Lastly, the juice method is not recommended, because the crunchy coating prevents most of the juice from dripping out, and the clear frying oil could easily be misinterpreted as clear juices.
Saut�ing Poultry
Because saut�ing is a fast dry-heat cooking process, it is important that meat to be saut�ed is tender and not too thick. Breast meat can be dredged in seasoned flour and saut�ed in dishes such as chicken Marsala and chicken saltimbocca. Turkey breast medallions are saut�ed for turkey picatta, and boneless leg and thigh meat from any bird can be saut�ed or stir-fried for a quick Asian meal.� Although it is most common to saut� boneless cuts of meat, smaller birds such as quail and squab are often saut�ed bone in.
Saut�ed items are often served with a pan sauce made in the same pan that was used to cook the food. Once the desired exterior color is achieved and the food is cooked through, it is removed from the 628 pan. While the pan is still hot, flavoring ingredients such as garlic, shallots, tomato product, or spices are added to the pan and saut�ed in the remaining fat. The pan is then deglazed with stock, wine, or another flavorful liquid and reduced to make a flavorful pan sauce. Other ingredients such as cream or fresh herbs can be added to the pan and reduced to make a richer and more flavorful sauce. The meat is usually added back to the pan to be glazed in the sauce and reheated for service.
Seasoning.
�Poultry meats are typically neutral in flavor and are lower in fat than most other meats. They greatly benefit from seasoning, basting, or marinating as a means of imparting moisture and flavor. Poultry seasonings can be as simple as salt and pepper or as complex as a Cajun spice blend. Many prepared spice blends are available and make creative seasoning much easier and more consistent from one dish to the next.
Prior to being saut�ed, poultry cuts are commonly dredged in seasoned flour. The seasoned flour helps seal in moisture and promotes even browning of the food while allowing seasonings to stick to the food. Fresh herbs, seasonings, and other flavorings can also be added to the pan while an item is being saut�ed.
Time and Temperature Requirements.
�Items to be saut�ed should be cooked over medium-high heat in a saut� pan. If a pan is too hot, the food or particles of flour can burn. If the saut� pan is not hot enough, the food absorbs some of the cooking fat and sweats in its own juices, preventing the appropriate color from being achieved. Larger and thicker items are not recommended for saut�ing, because a thermometer may be required to determine their doneness. The best cuts of poultry for saut�ing are boneless breasts and boneless dark meat, scallops, and medallions. An experienced chef can tell the doneness of thinner products such as these simply by touch.
Grilling or Broiling Poultry
Many types of poultry can be prepared by broiling or grilling. Very small game birds, such as quail, are typically skewered prior to cooking on a grill or broiler to make them lie flat across the grates. Any small bird, such as a Cornish hen, should be split in half (butterflied) and then broiled or grilled. Birds larger than a Cornish hen should be cut into quarters or eighths for broiling or grilling. Larger birds, such as whole turkeys, are too thick to be grilled or broiled because the exterior would burn and dry out long before the interior would be fully cooked. The heat from a broiler or a grill is intense, so care must be taken to not overcook or dry out poultry. In banquet and large-scale catering operations, grilled items are marked. To mark means to cook an item on a broiler or grill just long enough to produce crosshatch marks, and then finish the item in an oven later, just prior to service.
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When grilling or broiling poultry, it is important to remember that most bird meat contains very little fat and is prone to drying out when cooked using dry-heat cooking methods such as grilling and broiling. Both of these cooking methods use metal grates that leave caramelized markings on the meat being cooked. These markings, called crosshatch marks, are a signature of broiling or grilling in a professional kitchen.� Broiled or grilled items should have a well-browned exterior and should be moist, juicy, and cooked well throughout (with the exception of duck and squab breasts, which can be cooked to medium rare or medium).
The skin of most poultry burns quite easily on the grill or broiler due to the intense heat, so care should be taken to watch the skin closely. Some chefs prefer to remove the skin prior to cooking to avoid burning the skin as well as cut fat from the dish. For example, boneless and skinless grilled chicken breasts are used in many restaurants on salads and in many dishes. However, the chef must be aware of the potential for skinless cuts to become dry or overcooked due to the low amount of fat in the meat.
Seasoning.
�Grilled or broiled cuts of poultry are typically seasoned prior to cooking so that the flavors of the seasoning can penetrate the surface of the meat during cooking. A marinade is an effective way to add flavor to poultry and other birds, and works especially well with grilling and broiling methods. A marinade is a liquid commonly used to soak meat to add moisture and flavor to the meat. Poultry may be marinated by completely immersing the poultry in the marinade. Because poultry cuts are relatively thin and low in fat, they do not need to be left in a marinade for an extended period. Poultry cuts are marinated for approximately 30 min to 60 min prior to cooking. Typical marinades for poultry contain an acidic component such as wine or citrus juice. They also usually include an oil to add fat, and some combination of herbs and spices in addition to salt and pepper. Popular marinades for poultry include white wine and herb marinades, citrus marinades, and ethnically inspired marinades such as Asian (teriyaki) or Hispanic (mojo, pronounced mo-ho) marinades.
Marinade must be discarded after it is used. Care should be taken to make only enough marinade to flavor the amount of meat being prepared. Any remaining marinade used on raw poultry must be discarded immediately to avoid cross-contamination. Used marinade should never be used as a sauce. If stuffing poultry, marinate the poultry first.
Roasting Poultry
Roasting is one of the most common methods of cooking whole poultry. Larger birds such as turkeys or geese need longer times and lower temperatures to allow them to cook thoroughly without the outer meat becoming dry and overcooked. Smaller birds such as Cornish hens and chickens can be roasted at higher temperatures for shorter cooking times. The trick to roasting poultry perfectly is to determine how long the bird should be roasted and at what temperature.
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Some poultry and small game birds benefit greatly from barding during roasting, particularly small birds cooked at high temperatures. Barding is a preparation method where a food item is wrapped in a thin layer of fat before cooking. This additional layer of fat helps to keep the thin skin of the bird from burning while providing fat to very lean meat.
Seasoning.
�All poultry should be seasoned prior to cooking, but the size of the bird determines where the seasoning should be placed. For large birds such as turkey or capon, whole herbs or mirepoix are added to the internal cavity. These aromatics release their aromas and flavors to infuse the meat as the bird slowly roasts. Smaller birds can be seasoned directly on the skin with salt and pepper, as they are not in the oven long enough to release flavors of aromatics stuffed inside. Herbs should never be placed on the skin of any bird to be roasted, as they would simply burn in the oven.
Time and Temperature Requirements.
�The appropriate cooking temperature is determined by the product being roasted. Smaller birds can be roasted for shorter periods at higher temperatures, while larger birds need lower temperatures and longer times to be perfectly cooked.
Low-temperature roasting is used for larger birds such as turkeys and capons. In this case, the birds have a larger amount of meat on the carcass and therefore need a longer time to cook completely. If these large birds were roasted at higher temperatures, the skin would burn and the outer surface of the flesh would dry out before the minimum internal temperature of the bird was achieved. Large birds are roasted between 275�F and 325�F. Some chefs prefer to start larger birds at a temperature greater than 400�F for a few minutes to allow the skin to begin to brown, but this is not necessary as the extended cooking time should be ample to provide a beautiful golden brown skin, even at lower temperatures.
Medium-high-temperature roasting is used mainly for chickens, as they commonly fall into the 21/2 lb to 3 lb weight range. Chickens are smaller than the largest birds, so they require a shorter cooking time and a higher temperature. Chickens should be roasted at 350�F to 375�F to ensure a golden color and crisp skin by the time the meat is cooked perfectly.
High-temperature roasting is used for birds that are 2 lb or under, which includes small birds such as squab, pheasant, and Cornish hens. The birds are roasted between 375�F and 400�F to produce a crisp, golden brown skin quickly without drying out the meat. Because the birds are small, if they are roasted at lower temperatures for longer periods, they may not develop good color and crisp skin before they become overcooked.
Very-high-temperature roasting is used for very thick- or fatty-skinned birds such as duck or goose. The goal of very-high-temperature roasting is to render as much fat as possible from the skin, making the skin crispy and less greasy. If a duck or goose were roasted at a low temperature, the skin 631 would remain thick and fatty and would not be pleasant to eat. Roasting at a temperature between 400�F and 425�F allows the fat to melt out and away from the skin. As the hot fat seeps out of the skin, it fries the skin slightly, making the skin crispy and brown. It is important to prick the skin of fatty- or thick- skinned birds prior to roasting and again during the roasting process. Pricking the skin ensures that the skin is not seared in the high heat, which would prevent the rendered fat from escaping.
Basting.
�Basting poultry while roasting helps add additional moisture to the bird as it cooks. Birds should be basted only with fat, either with fat that escapes from the bird itself during cooking, or with butter or other fat that was added to the roasting pan prior to cooking. A common mistake is to baste a bird with stock or wine. It is important to remember that poultry and game birds differ from other meats, in that they do not have marbling or much internal fat. Basting with stock or wine dries out the bird by washing away any fat that would otherwise be absorbed by the meat.
The purpose of basting is to add fat to a lean bird as it roasts. Fatty birds such as duck or goose should not be basted. Basting can make fatty birds greasy and unpleasant to eat.
Carving.
�Poultry that is roasted or cooked whole using another cooking method are typically carved for service. Carving is cutting a large portion of cooked meat into smaller pieces. Roasted chickens and other small birds are commonly carved into quarters.
To carve a bird into quarters, apply the following procedure:
1. Cut on the inside of the thigh just below the breast meat to remove the leg and thigh portion. This is similar to the cut made when carving raw poultry into quarters.
2. With a carving fork and knife, bend the leg and thigh portion back to dislocate it at the hip joint, then cut it free from the carcass by cutting through the hip joint with the tip of the knife. Repeat on other leg and thigh portion.
3. While holding the bird with the fork against the backbone, begin to slice down along one side of the breastbone, alongside one of the breasts, following the rib cage. Continue to cut along the breast until reaching the wing joint.
4. With the tip of the knife, cut through the wing joint to completely separate the breast from the carcass. Repeat on other side of breast.
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To carve a bird into eighths, apply the following procedure:
1. Separate the leg and thigh sections from the bird, using the same procedure as for carving a bird into quarters.
2. Remove each breast section from the bird, using the same procedure as for carving a bird into quarters.
3. Cut through the knee socket at the top of each drumstick to separate the legs and thighs.
4. Cut through the wing joint at the base of each wing to separate the wings and breasts.
5. At the thickest end of the breast, begin to slice on a bias. Slicing on a bias makes the slices appear larger. Repeat on other breast half.
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To carve a large bird, apply the following procedure:
1. Remove both leg and thigh portions, as when cutting raw poultry into quarters.
2. To slice and portion thigh and leg meat, hold the leg with one hand for stability and slice the thigh in thin slices parallel to the bone. When the thigh meat is completely sliced, continue to the leg meat by slicing parallel to the bone. Repeat on other leg and thigh portion.
3. With the tip of the knife, trim along the wishbone around the neck and completely remove it.
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1. Begin to slice along the breastbone all the way down along the breast meat. Follow the natural curve of the rib bones to completely remove the breast meat from the carcass. Note: The breast can also be carved directly on the bird if desired, by making a horizontal slice just above the wing joint where it is joined to the breast. Starting at the neck end of the bird, begin to slice the breast on the bias.
2. At the thickest end of the breast, begin to slice on a bias. Slicing on a bias makes the slices appear larger. Repeat on other breast half.
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Simmering and Poaching Poultry
Simmering and poaching are similar moist-heat cooking methods. The main differences between simmering and poaching are in the temperature and the time required to fully cook an item. Simmering uses higher heat over a longer period, with moderate water movement. Poaching uses a lower heat over a shorter period, with almost no water movement. The appropriate cooking method is determined by the tenderness of the meat being cooked.
Birds that are a little older are tougher and are cooked using the simmering method. The slightly higher heat combined with a longer cooking time can help a tough piece of meat become more tender. Simmering is not recommended for more tender cuts, such as a chicken breast. Cooking a chicken breast using the simmering method can result in tough, stringy, overcooked meat. The flesh of the tender breast can shrink, curl up, and become dry. Simmering removes all of the internal moisture from the meat, because the moisture is forced out as the meat becomes pressurized in the hot water.
Poaching is used for tender cuts or parts of a bird that can be cooked slowly to keep them tender. Poaching a tender cut such as a chicken breast allows it to cook slowly while remaining moist and tender. Poaching generally takes less time than simmering. No matter which cooking method is chosen, it is important to ensure that the meat is completely submerged in the cooking liquid. If a portion of the meat is not submerged, it will not cook properly and may become tough and dry.
Seasoning.
�Seasoning the meat with salt and pepper has little or no effect on simmered or poached meat, because the seasonings would simply be washed off during the cooking process. Although the cooking liquid absorbs some flavor from the meat, the liquid also needs some additional flavor or seasoning added to it at the beginning of the cooking process. The flavor of the cooking liquid becomes the main flavor of the cooked meat. Typically, stock is used for the cooking liquid, because it has a great deal more flavor than plain water. There are many different ingredients that can be added to the poaching or simmering liquid to help flavor the meat such as a mirepoix, a bouquet garni, fresh herbs, wine, or lemon juice.
Time and Temperature Requirements.
�Poaching is a gentle cooking method used to produce moist and tender meat. A cooking temperature between 160�F and 170�F, with almost no steam or bubbles being formed in the pot, typically produces the most desirable results. Simmering is used to prepare tougher and older birds that can benefit from extended cooking times at higher temperatures. Simmering liquid is usually heated between 185�F and a maximum of 200�F. It is essential that simmering liquid never be allowed to come to a boil while an item is being simmered. Boiling would result in tough, stringy, and undesirable meat.
Whichever method is used, the most accurate method of determining doneness is to insert an instant-read thermometer into the thickest portion of the meat, near a large bone if possible. Most poultry should be cooked to an internal temperature of 165�F.
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Braising and Stewing Poultry
As with other meats, braising and stewing are used to prepare tough or less flavorful poultry that will benefit from cooking in a flavorful liquid for a long period. Braising is a cooking method that requires the food to be saute�d before it is simmered in a small amount of liquid. Stewing is a cooking method that requires the food to be boiled or simmered slowly in a slightly thickened cooking liquid. Braised and stewed poultry should be tender but should not fall off the bone when cooked properly. If the meat is falling apart, it has been overcooked. Almost all poultry that is prepared by braising or stewing is cooked either whole or as bone-in cuts. For example, whole bone-in duck leg and thigh portions are often braised, resulting in a moist and flavorful dish.
The majority of the flavor of the dish comes from the liquid the item is cooked in. Braised and stewed dishes are served in the cooking medium.� After the meat has been properly cooked, it is usually removed from the cooking liquid. The liquid is then checked for the proper consistency and is seasoned. Cooked poultry is always served in or with the braising or stewing liquid as its sauce.
Time and Temperature Requirements.
�Poultry can be braised or stewed in two different ways. Either the meat can be added raw to the cooking liquid and cooked at the proper temperature until done, or it can be seared or browned prior to adding it to the liquid. Whether or not to sear the meat depends on whether the sauce is to remain light colored or if it would benefit from the color and caramelized flavor of seared meat being cooked in it. For example, if the resulting sauce is to be a white sauce, raw meat is added to the cooking liquid. If the sauce is to be a rich, red wine sauce, such as is served with a coq au vin, the meat should be seared to caramelize it prior to adding it to the cooking liquid.
Any of the four indicators of doneness (temperature, touch, joints, and juices) can be used to determine the doneness of braised or stewed meat. Juices can be checked to see if they run clear, an instant-read thermometer can be inserted into the thickest portion to make sure it has reached 165�F, or the joints can be checked for tenderness. The touch method may also work, but the meat may be very hot while covered in the thickened sauce. Although the finished product should be tender and moist, the meat should not be falling apart or unable to stay on the bone for service. The temperature of each of these cooking methods should be between 205�F and 212�F.
SUMMARY
Poultry is popular due to ease of preparation, versatility, availability, and low cost. Poultry is separated into six different classifications recognized by the USDA. They are chicken, turkey, duck, goose, pigeon, and guinea. Each of these classifications is subdivided into classes based on the age and tenderness of the bird. In addition, ratites and game birds are also bred for human consumption 637 and referred to as poultry. Ratites are large flightless birds that have very small wings relative to their body size. This group includes the ostrich, emu, and rhea. Game birds include four varieties of birds that are sold for human consumption: quail, partridge, pheasant, and grouse.
Some birds have both light and dark meat, while others have only dark meat. Leg and thigh meat are always dark meat. The breast and wing meat can be either light or dark meat, depending on whether the bird flies. Fabricating poultry is a relatively easy skill to master with practice. Fabrication methods include techniques for trussing and cutting.
Poultry, ratites, and game birds are prepared using many of the same cooking methods used to prepare other meats. Cooking methods used for poultry are determined by the cut or part of the bird. Whole poultry requires more cooking time to produce evenly cooked meat. Poultry that has been cut into parts cooks more quickly. In addition, the age of the bird and the tenderness of the meat also determine the cooking technique used.
Review Questions
1. List the six different classifications of poultry recognized by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
2. List two other categories of birds that can be cooked using many of the same cooking methods as poultry.
3. What does the round USDA inspection stamp signify?
4. Identify the standards that must be met in order for poultry to be marked Grade A.
5. Between what temperatures should poultry be stored in the refrigerator?
6. Explain why poultry must be thawed in the refrigerator rather than at room temperature.
7. Explain the procedure for trussing a whole bird.
8. Explain the procedure for cutting a bird in half.
9. What are some of the reasons why boneless breasts are the most popular poultry cut?
10. Describe the four methods of determining the doneness of poultry.
11. Describe common seasoning methods used when saut�ing poultry.
12. Explain what it means to mark a piece of poultry.
13. Explain the procedure for carving a bird into eighths.
14. Highlight the differences between simmering and poaching poultry.
15. Describe the two states in which poultry or other birds can be started for braising or stewing.
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Lactuca Sativa is the Latin name for which common vegetable? | Lettuce and its Relatives - Notes - HORT410 - Vegetable Crops - Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture - Purdue University
Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture
Lettuce and its Relatives - Notes
Lettuce
Family name: Compositae (Asteraceae) [ Asteraceae Images ].
The Latin name (Lactuca) is derived from the Latin root word "lac" or milk.
"Lettuce" derived from the French "laitue" meaning "milk".
"Sativa" means grown from seed.
Harvested organ: leaves, eaten raw, often in salads.
Dicotyledon.
Evidence from Egyptian tomb paintings that lettuce was cultivated before 4,500 B.C.
Derived from the weed Lactuca serriola (prickly lettuce).
Prickly lettuce originally cultivated for forage and oil.
Prickly lettuce is extremely bitter.
Bitterness associated with the production of latex, the milky juice [ 30KB image ] still found in the cultivated varieties when they flower.
Bitter latex is known to be sleep-inducing.
Romans developed broad-leaved, non-heading, non-spiny types that were resistant to early seed stalk formation, had decreased latex content, and produced larger, uniformly germinating seed.
Romans blanched their lettuce (grew them for a period in the dark before harvest) to make them less bitter.
Lettuce history (TAMU) .
Modern lettuce types include:
1. Crisphead (iceberg types) - large, heavy, tightly folded heads; brittle or crisp textured; prominently veined leaves; wrapper leaves green; inner leaves whitish-yellow; predominantly outdoor types; widely used in N. America.
2. Butterhead (bibb or Boston lettuce types) - soft leaves; smooth texture; varieties bred for both outdoor summer conditions and greenhouse winter conditions; summer butterheads larger and firmer than the winter types; winter butterheads smaller and less compact; popular in N. Europe.
3. Cos ( romaine ) - elongated leaves developing into large loaf-shaped heads; slower to bolt than other lettuces; useful as a warm-weather crop; popular in S. Europe and the U.S. (CA and AZ).
4. Leaf - local marketing and home garden lettuce; grown mostly in greenhouses in the winter in northern and eastern regions; outdoor types of leaf lettuce have been developed and are grown mostly in CA and AZ.
Small-seeded.
Usually direct seeded; head-lettuce types sometimes transplanted.
Precision seeders required.
Seed often coated or pelletted.
Anticrustants often used to prevent the soil from crusting over after irrigation during pre-germination.
Days to harvest maturity: 40 days after seeding for leaf lettuce; 70 to 90 days for head lettuce.
CA is the major commercial lettuce producer, followed by AZ.
Lettuce for shipped is often kept fresh by vacuum cooling.
Self-pollinated.
Optimum growth temperature: 13 to 18 C.
Sensitive to both day length and high temperature.
late spring days and high temperatures prematurely bring on flower initiation causing bolting.
Breeding objectives: resistance to diseases and pests, increased yield and uniformity, improved quality, bolting resistance.
Soil pH optimum: 6.5 to 6.8.
Major insect pests of lettuce in the Midwest:
Harvested organ: leaves, eaten raw in salads or cooked.
Two major types; broad-leaved and curly-leaved.
Cultivated much like lettuce.
Sometimes blanched before harvest to reduce bitter flavor.
Witloof Chicory
Common names: witloof chicory , Belgian or French endive.
Latin name: Cichorium intybus.
Family name: Compositae (Asteraceae) [ Asteraceae Images ].
Diploid (2n = 18).
Perennial typically grown as a biennial.
Creamy white, elongated heads, about 5 cm in diameter and from 12 to 18 cm in length.
Blanched heads produced from fleshy storage roots by growing them in the dark at 10 to 15 C in pits, cold frames or houses.
Also grown outdoors for greens.
Dried, roasted, chicory root used as a coffee substitute.
Origin: Mediterranean region.
Grown by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.
May have originated from a cross between C. intybus and the wild annual species C. pumilum.
Globe Artichoke
Common name: globe artichoke , or French artichoke.
Latin name: Cynara scolymus.
Family name: Compositae (Asteraceae) [ Asteraceae Images ].
Diploid (2n = 34).
Thistle-like.
Harvested organ: immature flower bud, surrounded by many leaf-like bracts; the thickened bracts (phyllaries), heart (receptacle) and choke (flower buds) are eaten.
Origin: central and western Mediterranean over 2,500 years ago.
Closely related species: cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) and Cynara syriaca Boiss.
Globe artichoke probably developed these relatives by the Greeks and Romans.
Entire U.S. artichoke crop is produced in the mid-coastal area of CA.
Requires a moderate climate; frost-free winters and cool summers.
Propagation usually by division rather than by seeds.
Perennial - plantings productive for 3 to 7 years.
Mature plant grows to about 1.5 m.
Leaves blue-green, sometimes spiny.
Flower stalks bearing a central bud and 2 or 3 secondary buds also arise from the central crown.
Artichokes are harvested year-round but mostly in the spring.
Jerusalem Artichoke
Family name: Compositae (Asteraceae) [ Asteraceae Images ].
Cold-hardy, frost tolerant.
Harvested organ: tuberous, potato-like roots (rhizomes).
Origin: native of N. America
Cultivated by the American Indians before the 16th century.
Introduced to Europe in the 17th century.
Sources of information:
Welty, C., Weinzierl, R., Oloumi-Sadeghi, H. Leaf crops. In "Vegetable Insect Management With Emphasis on the Midwest", (ed. R. Foster, B. Flood), Meister Publishing Co., Willoughby, Ohio (1995).
Nonnecke, I.L. "Vegetable Production", Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY (1989).
Phillips, R., Rix, M. "The Random House Book of Vegetables", Random House, NY (1993).
Lorenz, O.A. Lettuce. In "The Software Toolworks Multimedia Encyclopedia", Version 1.5, Grolier, Inc. (1992).
Maynard, D.N. Artichoke, chicory, and endive. In "The Software Toolworks Multimedia Encyclopedia", Version 1.5, Grolier, Inc. (1992).
Kalloo, G. Chicory, Cichorium intybus L. In "Genetic Improvement of Vegetable Crops", (ed. G. Kalloo, B.O. Bergh), Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., pp. 535-540 (1993).
Kalloo, G. Endive, Cichorium endivia L. In "Genetic Improvement of Vegetable Crops", (ed. G. Kalloo, B.O. Bergh), Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., pp. 541-542 (1993).
Pink, D.A.C., Keane, E.M. Lettuce, Lactuca sativa L. In "Genetic Improvement of Vegetable Crops", (ed. G. Kalloo, B.O. Bergh), Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., pp. 543-571 (1993).
Pecaut, P. Globe artichoke, Cynara scolymus L. In "Genetic Improvement of Vegetable Crops", (ed. G. Kalloo, B.O. Bergh), Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., pp. 737-746 (1993).
Kalloo, G. Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus L. In "Genetic Improvement of Vegetable Crops", (ed. G. Kalloo, B.O. Bergh), Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., pp. 747-750 (1993).
| Lettuce |
Halloumi cheese originated on which Mediterranean island? | Lettuce | DermNet New Zealand
DermNet New Zealand
Author: Hon A/Prof Marius Rademaker, Dermatologist, Hamilton, New Zealand, 2002.
Common name:
Lettuce originates from the wild Lactuca serriola found in the Mediterranean and Near East (Persia).
Description:
All lettuce cultivars such as Cos, Leaf, Butterhead and Iceberg are regarded as being variants of Lactuca sativa. Lettuce has been transformed from an erect plant with bitter leaves to various cultivars including ones with distinctive heads of chlorophyll deficient leaves. The common and Latin name derive from the milky sap (latex) found in all parts of the plane {lac, lactis = milk}. The latex has a milky sedative effect and lettuce has been grown as an herb. {Note: there is no cross-reaction between lettuce latex and natural rubber latex}.
Uses:
A large number of different cultivars of lettuce have been bred and are now grown all over the World, mainly for use in salads.
Allergens:
Lactucin, lactucopicrin (?sesquiterpenes)
Allergy:
Lettuce is an occasional cause of allergic contact dermatitis particularly in food handlers, chefs and market gardeners. It tends to cause hand dermatitis, which spreads up the forearms. Unfortunately immediate hypersensitivity to lettuce has also been reported. This includes Urticaria and life threatening anaphylaxis . The allergy seems to cross react with chicory and endives so these vegetables may need to be avoided as well. It is a form of Compositae allergy so may also cross react with other members of this large plant family.
Cross reactions:
Chicory and endives
Other information:
Paintings of what appear to be Cos Lettuce have been found in Egyptian tombs dating back to as early as 4500 BC although there is some uncertainty about their identity. The first authenticated records of cultivated lettuce date back to Greek historical records in 450 BC. In the first century AD the Romans were growing a number of different cultivars.
Patch test:
Leaf as is, sesquiterpene lactone mix
Related information
References
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De Luca L. [Behavior of bronchial reactivity in 50 children before and after exclusion of food allergens]. Pediatr Med Chir. 1988 Nov-Dec;10(6):617-20. Italian.
Taylor SL, Bush RK, Selner JC, Nordlee JA, Wiener MB, Holden K, Koepke JW, Busse WW. Sensitivity to sulfited foods among sulfite-sensitive subjects with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1988 Jun;81(6):1159-67.
Hausen BM, Andersen KE, Helander I, Gensch KH. Lettuce allergy: sensitizing potency of allergens. Contact Dermatitis. 1986 Oct;15(4):246-9.
Panush RS, Stroud RM, Webster EM. Food-induced (allergic) arthritis. Inflammatory arthritis exacerbated by milk. Arthritis Rheum. 1986 Feb;29(2):220-6.
Fregert S, Sjoborg S. Unsuspected lettuce immediate allergy in a case of delayed metal allergy. Contact Dermatitis. 1982 Jul;8(4):265.
Krook G. Occupational dermatitis from Lactuca sativa (lettuce) and Cichorium (endive). Simultaneous occurrence of immediate and delayed allergy as a cause of contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis. 1977 Feb;3(1):27-36.
Lovell CR.1993, Plants and the Skin, Blackwell, Oxford.
Mitchell JC, Rook A, 1979, Botanical Dermatology, Plants and Plant products injurious to the skin, Greengrass, Vancouver.
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Traditionally made in Mexico, ‘bolillo’ is a type of what? | Bolillo | La Puente Bakery
La Puente Bakery
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Bolillo
A bolillo is a type of savory bread traditionally made in Mexico, where it originates. It is a variation of the baguette. It is about six inches long, in the shape of an oval, with a crunchy crust and a soft inside, known as migajón. A variation of the bolillo is the telera, which is very similar, though it has a more rounded shape, is divided in three sections, and is usually softer. Other variations include bolillos made of alternate ingredients such as whole wheat.
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| Bread |
What was the boot made of which actor Charlie Chaplin ate in the 1925 film ‘The Gold Rush’? | Texas, The Lone Star State: Bolillo (Mexican bread)
Recipe Tips
Bolillo Bread
A Mexican bread, made with a basic dough that is very similar to a French baguette dough. The bread has a crispy, flavorful crust and a soft, chewy crumb. The dough is usually formed into a football shaped roll. Occasionally, the dough is scored to create three sections along the length of the football shape, in which case the bolillo is known as a telera.
Bolillos are most often used for the Mexican sandwich known as a torta, which became popular after WWII. The torta sandwich usually contains mashed avocado, a spread made of black beans or refried beans, pickled jalapenos, lettuce, tomato, and onion. There are many versions of the sandwich including many Americanized varieties that have strayed from the original selection of ingredients.
Wise Geek
What is a Bolillo?
Very similar in taste and appearance to the baguette, the bolillo is a simple white bread that is popular in Mexico and several countries in South America. Distinguished by an oval shape that is usually around six inches in length, the bolillo is often used for popular ethnic sandwiches such as the torta and the mollete.
In Mexico, the bolillo is often referred to as a Pan de Agua. Brazil is one of the nations where the bolillo is widely enjoyed, and is often identified as pao frances or pao de sal. This designation is loosely based on the resemblance in taste and texture to french bread, particularly baguettes. In other places, the bolillo may be known as a barra or pan blanco.
Traditionally, the Mexican variety of the bolillo is prepared in large rock ovens. It is understood that this method of baking provides a crunchier crust for the bread, which is one of the most appealing features of the bolillo. Often, the bread is prepared fresh daily, and may be consumed at any meal. In some cases, the bolillo will be served with simple accompaniments, such as eggs and some sort of pan friend meat. However, a bolillo can also serve as a simple snack or dessert by splitting the bread and pouring milk or chocolate milk over the two pieces.
Wikipedia: Bolillo
A bolillo is a type of salty bread traditionally made in Mexico, El Salvador, Portugal, and Brazil. In Brazil it is known as pão francês or pão de sal. It is considered a variation of the baguette. In some places of Mexico it is also known as “Pan de Agua” (water bread)
It is about 6 inches long, in the shape of an oval, with a crunchy crust and a soft inside, known as migajón. It is the main ingredient for the tortas and the molletes. A variation of the bolillo is the telera, which is very similar, though it has a rounder shape, it is divided in three sections, and it is often a bit softer.
The Recipe Link
BOLILLO:
French style, crusty bread rolls made in the shape of a bobbin that is served with entrees and used for sandwiches. Source: Glossary of Spanish and Mexican Cooking Terms By James W. Peyton
BOLILLO (MEXICAN STYLE ROLLS)
Heat water, honey, butter, and salt together in a saucepan. Let cool to lukewarm.
Add yeast to the lukewarm mixture and let stand for 10 minutes.
In separate bowl combine flours with the yeast mixture; mix well. Turn out and knead for 10 minutes, adding more flour as necessary. Place in bowl, cover and let rise until doubled.
Punch down, divide into sixteen pieces and form into logs. Place rolls on greased baking sheet. Cover and let rise until doubled.
Preheat oven to 375 degrees F.
TO MAKE THE GLAZE:
While the dough is rising for the second time, mix water and cornstarch together until smooth in a saucepan; bring to boil until thick, let cool. Brush rolls with the glaze and lightly score top of rolls with sharp knife.
TO BAKE:
Bake rolls in preheated 375 degree F oven 35 minutes or until golden.
Makes 16
A Dictionary, Spanish and English and English and Spanish
by Joseph Baretti
1794
BOLILLO, f.m. a little nine-pin, or a bobbin to make lace.
17 August 1924, San Antonio (TX) Light, “Mexican Slang Much Like That Used in U.S.,” part 2, pg. 4, col. 2:
An American is not a Yankee, but a “gringo,” or “bolillo.” (...) Bolillo may mean anything from a bread roll to a wooden drumstick.
Prologue to Mexico: The Story of a Search for a Place
by Marian Storm
New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf
1931
Pg. 241:
They pile good, crusty rolls of pan bolillo upon fresh banana leaves in their flat baskets and, balancing them easily, trot from window to window to sell us wholesome..
A Preliminary Glossary of New Mexican Spanish
Compiled by F. M. Kercheville
The University of New Mexico Bulletin
Language Series
Volume 5, Number 3, Whole Number 247
University of New Mexico Press
Albuquerque, New Mexico
Pg. 132:
ORDINARY BREAD
The principal kinds of bread which are served usually with the mid-day meal are: bolillo, telera, flauta, Viennese, chalupas, bola, French, ...
New Voices in American Studies
West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press
1966
Pg. 114:
Names like “guero” (fairhaired) and “bolillo” (French bread), now used by Mexican-Americans and northern Mexicans for the Anglo-American, originally were used in Mexico for the French.
23 February 1966, Dallas (TX) Morning News, “Tolbert’s Texas” by Frank X. Tolbert, section A, pg. 10:
I stayed recently in a boarding house in Muzquiz, Mexico, where, for all meals, there was served small loaves or large rolls called “bolillo.” These hand-made small loaves were as good as any bread I’ve ever sampled in France, or any place where I’ve wandered.
Now A San Antonio company, called “Bolillo Inc.” has started baking what the proprietors, including two bakers from Mexico City and Acapulco, call the “only authetnic bolillo in the U.S.” They have special machinery and a hearth oven, and this does combine to give the bread the same, deep-crusted taste as that I had the other day in the Mexican boarding house.
As I understand it, “bolillo” is a Mexican term for a citizen of the U.S., hence “U.S. bread,” although it’s hard to find it that good in this country.
6 September 1967, San Antonio (TX) Light, “Simon Bakery Makes Bolillos,” pg. 33, cols. 4-5:
More and more restaurants across the city are switching to the Bolillo, the delicious Mexican roll that is so popular on the West Coast. Surprisingly, Bolillos are not only a hit in Mexican food restaurants but in “American” food restaurants as well.
Simon Bakery, the foremost producer of Bolillos in the San Antonio area, makes the roll, utilizing the identical recipe and ingredients used in Mexico. a year of experimenting was required in perfecting the Bolillo and adapting it to the needs of San Antonio. That is one of the “little things” that sets Simon Bakery Bolillos apart from mere copies.
Bolillos can be heated for five or six minutes before being served or can be served fresh from Simon Bakery. Any way it is served Bolillos are the perfect complement to any dinner.
21 October 1967, San Antonio (TX) Light, pg. 21, col. 4 ad:
F. L. SIMON BAKERY
Home of “Mexico City Style Bolillos”
8 October 1968, New York (NY) Times, “In Mexico City, Some Restaurants Deserve Gold Medals, Too” by Craig Claiborne, pg. 52:
The principal Mexican bread is a celestial creation, a hard roll, called bolillos. It resembles a French roll, is slightly sweet and has a fantastic texture.
Spanish-Speaking People in the United States
by American Ethnological Society
Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press
1969
Pg. 119:
bolillo. One of the many derogatory names for the Anglo… It seems to have been used originally for the French (bolillo is a small loaf of French bread), but later it was transferred to the North American.
Mexico: Her Daily & Festive Breads
by Barbara Howland Taylor
1969
Pg. 55:
Often selected are crisp salted Spanish rolls—the pointed bolillos and the flat teleras. Bolillos, spindles, according to one story, was the nickname of the long-legged americanos or gringos who came into Mexico during the North American Invasion of 1848, as the Mexicans called it.
(...)
In Veracruz, the bolillo is now called a cojinillo, little cushion. In Guadalajara and Sonora it is called a birote, a name derived from virote, a slender man. There are small birotes of standard size and there are large pieces like the long Spanish or French rolls that are sold in the United States.
The Peoples Guide to Mexico
by Carl Franz
Santa Fe, NM: John Muir Publications
1974
Pg. 147:
Pan, the Spanish word for bread, usually refers to the bolillo, a french style roll (called pan frances in Yucatan).
7 July 1977, San Antonio (TX) Light, “Pan Dulce At Its Best in S.A.,” pg. 3B, col. 3:
In Mexico they call bakeries that produce pan dulce and other types of breads, including the popular “bolillo” or french roll, “panificadoras.”
Mexican Americans in a Dallas Barrio
by Shirley Achor
Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press
1978
Pg. 39:
In place of “Anglo,” most barrio residents use the term bolillo (literally, a small piece of crusty white bread).
Jane Butel’s Southwestern Kitchen
by Jane Butel
Pg. 144:
BOLILLO
A short rolling pin that is a uniform two inches in diameter and eight or more inches long. (Coincidentally the bread rolls in Mexico bear the same name.) It fits ideally in the palm and rolls flour tortillas to a uniform thinness. I find the rustic type with no handles the easiest to work with. The bolillo is also perfect for rolling empanada and bizcochito dough.
Folklore and Culture on the Texas-Mexican Border
by Americo Paredes
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press (Center for Mexican American Studies - CMAS Books)
1995
Pg. 70:
Bolillo. One of the many derogatory names for the Anglo American. It seems to have been used originally for the French (bolillo is a small loaf of French bread), but later it was transferred to the North American.
Batos, Bolillos, Pochos, and Pelados:
Class and Culture on the South Texas Border
by Chad Richardson
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press
1999
Pg. 183:
Actually, a bolillo is a white bread roll produced by mexican bakeries. Its use as a synonym for Anglos is a gentle form of humor along both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border.
The Making of a Chicano Militant:
Lessons from Cristal
Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press
1999
Pg. 22:
For the Anglos we also had various names, such as gringo, gavacho, bolillo, blanco, pan blanco, hureo, americano, and norte americano. (...) The French-style bread, which is white on the inside, is called a bolillo. Napoleon III’s invasion of Mexico and subsequent occupation for a limited time had introduced French bread into the Mexican cuisine. These names refer not only to the whiteness of the Anglos’ skin but also to what was (Pg. 23—ed.) perceived as their sour body smell’ white bread has that color, and a sour smell from the yeast and preservatives.
Austin, TX: University of Texas Press
2005
Pg. 36 (Name That Pan Dulce!)
bolillo (bo-LEE-yo): A small, white, oval French bread.
June 19, 2006
When is a bolillo not a bolillo?
Not all bolillos are created equally, I recently leared from neighbor Alberto. There is a special type of bolillo made here in Guadalajara…
Wait, wait, wait. You don’t know what a bolillo is?!
Okay, a bolillo is similar to french bread, and is made with wheat flour. Usually, it’s bleached flour, but you can get delicious bolios at the pan integral (whole wheat) bakeries also.
Oh yeah, in Mexico, you often have bakeries that make just whole wheat things, including whole wheat raised, frosted donuts.
The bolillo is usually about five to seven inches long, has tapered ends making it oval in shape, and is cut across the top before baking to give it a slightly irregular surface and a little more crust.
Oh, that’s right. I should have mentioned before that the bolillo is crusty on the outside and very soft on the inside. That’s what makes it like french bread.
(...)
The point is, I learned recently from Alberto that the type of bolillo used in Guadalajara and surrounding environs is a special type of bolillo called a birote. Birotes are particular to Guadalajara, and are perhaps best described as sort of a sourdough bolillo. I don’t know the exact difference between the two, but the birote tastes slightly sour, like a light sourdough. People here describe them as salados when you go to buy them and they think that as a non-native tapatio you don’t realize the difference. However, they’re not called bolillos salados, they’re called birotes. Well, except on the little labels that the bakery at the supermarket sticks on the bags, in which case, then they’re just called bolillos.
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What is the favourite food of fictional characters Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles? | The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles' Favorite Pizzas, and More Fun Food Facts from the Franchise | Epicurious.com | Epicurious.com
The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles' Favorite Pizzas, and More Fun Food Facts From the Franchise
by Louise Hart
on 08/04/14 at 02:45 PM
Not a mutant and not a teenager. Photo: Shutterstock
This Friday, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles , a live-action reboot starring Megan Fox as April O'Neil, hits theaters. It's hard to believe, but this year marks the 30th anniversary of these four juvenile anthropomorphic turtles. And food -- in particular, pizza -- has been an integral part of the TMNT franchise from inception (creators, Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird, often ate pizza while working on the cartoon).
Here's a primer on all the important food facts you need to know before heading to see the latest TMNT film.
Michelangelo loves pizza the most out the bunch, and in the Archie Comics and 1987 television series, the Turtles try a variety of toppings, including clams, tuna, sauerkraut, chocolate, ice cream, bananas, jelly beans and peanut butter. James Rolfe, a.k.a. Angry Video Game Nerd, conducts a " Michelangelo Pizza Taste Test " with friends (video above).
Michelangelo's quote "peanut butter and clams is an acquired taste" may be the understatement of the century, but it wasn't the worst-tasting pizza the turtles tried; that might be butterscotch, onion, and anchovy pizza. Foodbeast managed to photograph 24 of the most disgusting TMNT pizza orders in a way that makes them only look semi-unappetizing. Butterscotch, onion, and anchovy is pictured, above.
Fun fact: Turtle fans will have noticed that in the 2003 television series, the Turtles liked pizza as kids ("Attack of the Mousers" and "The Lesson"), whereas in the 2012 television series, the Turtles subsist upon algae and worms growing up in the sewers, and it isn't until Raphael scares a pizza delivery guy from Antonio's that they discover pizza proper.
The Shredder is aware that pizzas are the Turtles' kryptonite and includes it in many of his plans to destroy them. Other pizza creations featured on TMNT include pizza noodle soup, p-shake (a combination of pizza and milkshake; pictured above), and pizza gyoza.
Turtleholics will remember Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles cereal. Introduced in 1989, the cereal featured crunchie sweetened ninja "nets" (that looked suspiciously like Chex cereal pieces) and "ninja turtle" marshmallows; pizza-shaped marshmallows were added later. You can still buy the cereal boxes, magnets, and turtle bowls on eBay .
In 1990, Hostess launched a Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle Pudding Pie with green sugar crust and vanilla pudding inside "fresh from the sewers to you." A Facebook group is trying to bring back the discontinued snack, and the Surfing Pizza blog tried to re-create them at home .
Slightly more impressive than the 1987 TMNT portable pizza thrower (commercial above) is the Pizza Hut-sponsored pizza thrower. Capable of throwing cardboard pizzas 30 feet at up to 20 feet per second, it debuted at Comic Con .
Pizza Hut also designed four cheesy bites pizzas "based upon the personalities of each Turtle": Michelangelo: pepperoni, smoked ham, pineapple, and jalepenos; Donatello: chicken, mushrooms, green peppers, Roma tomatoes; Leonardo: sweet red onions, black olives, green peppers, mushrooms; Raphael: pepperoni, sausage, bacon, and beef.
Since their launch on July 7, Raphael's meat-heavy pizza has been the most popular . Cowabunga.
| Pizza |
Which dessert is also known as ‘Tuscan Trifle’? | Pizza | TMNTPedia | Fandom powered by Wikia
Some TMNT stuff was always meant for grownups.
Pizza occasionally appeared in the Mirage universe .
" Totally Hacked! " - Using a million dollars he had in his pocket, Gnatrat buys a restaurant (employing Splinter as a waiter) and lures Supperman in with an All You Can Eat promotion. They prepare the final dish, which is unfortunately pizza, and it attracts the Ninja Turtles to the restaurant. Splinter begins to tell his sons to back off from the pie, but Gnatrat gets too absorbed in his “boss” role and starts ordering Splinter around. Incensed, Splinter feeds the pizza to the Turtles just to tick Gnatrat off.
" The Treaty " - Leo is racing across the rooftops of New York , hoping to get back to April ’s apartment with a fresh pizza. Unfortunately, he undergoes another one of the after effects from his recent time/space adventures and finds himself zapped to the world of Usagi Yojimbo yet again. While there Leo drops his pizza. Tomoe Ame picks up his trampled pizza box, disgusted by the quality of the contents within. Taking the pizza, Leo attempts to explain that normally it’s very appetizing, but before he can finish, the time/space effects wear off and he vanishes. Back in April’s apartment, the Turtles are a bit ticked that Leo’s taking so long with the pizza. Suddenly, he comes smashing through the window and lands face-first on the floor. Not only has he missed the entire movie and ruined the pizza, but now he’s broken April’s window.
"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Attack!!! Part 1" - The Turtles are arguing over where to stop for dinner. Michelangelo suggests pizza, but Leonardo vetoes the idea, as pizza makes him gag.
"The Name is Lucindra" - Raphael owes Lucindra a pizza after losing to her.
" Splinter Cell " - Michelangelo , using his nunchakus to deflect several slices of pizza being hurled in his direction.
Image Comics
In the Image comics Raphael talks about wanting pizza in issue #10.
In issue #17 April brings home pizza.
1987 TV Series / Archie Comics
The 1987 cartoons are, along with the comics based on them , a TMNT universe in which the Turtles all share an intense affinity for pizza, particularly Michaelangelo . They are hardly ever seen eating anything else; however they are very flexible with what toppings they like on their pizza, experimenting with all sorts of items in every possible combination including clams, tuna, sauerkraut, chocolate, ice cream, bananas, jelly beans and peanut butter.
The Turtles always get their pizzas by going on the streets to a pizza parlour, dressed so no one could see that they are mutant turtles. Sometimes all four go, sometimes only one goes.
Pizzas are also the Turtles weakness. The Shredder is aware of this, as many of his plans to destroy them involve pizza (like the episodes The Case of the Killer Pizzas , Pizza by the Shred etc.).
In some other TMNT universes, the Turtles eat other things, mostly sushi.
2003 TV Series
Pizza occasionally appeared in the 2003 TV series . Though not as much as they are also seen eating things such a Chinese food.
Michelangelo talked about wanting pizza in Enter the Dragons, Part 2 .
" SuperQuest " - The Admin Wizard 's player can be seen sleeping with a pizza box next to him.
Dreamwave Series
In the Dreamwave comic series , Leonardo can be seen eating pizza in Bend It Like Turtles .
2012 TV Series
Rise of the Turtles, Part 1 - In their fifteen years growing up in the sewers , the Turtles only ever ate algae and worms prepared in various dishes. When they were finally allowed to go up to the surface, Raphael playfully scares a pizza delivery guy and causes him to drop a box of Antonio's Pizza-Rama pizza. Not knowing what it was at first, the Turtles investigate it and Michelangelo volunteers to taste it. It was so good (his brain exploded from the flavor) Mikey at first tried to convince his brothers it was terrible so he could have it all to himself, but they weren't convinced - after eating the pizza they determined it was a huge improvement over worms and algae. Pizza had since become the Turtles' favorite food, particularly Mikey's.
Never Say Xever - After saving his life, Mr. Murakami offers a reward to the turtles, he asks what would they like to eat and as they answered pizza, Murakami created a new recipe, Pizza Gyoza .
It Came From The Depths - Mikey blended some pizza while trying new recipes, creating a "pizza milkshake", the P-Shake . None of his brothers liked the novelty, but Leatherhead fell in love with another of Mikey's recipes, the Pizza Noodle Soup .
New Girl in Town - Mikey was revived with a slice of pizza after a fight with Snakeweed left him unconscious.
Parasitica - When trying to get Leo back to his normal self, the turtles offer him some of his favorite pizza, pepperonni, jalapeños and jelly beans. But it was actually Mikey's favorite.
Pizza Face - Antonio turns into a mutant pizza man, who creates mind controlling pizzas, but Mikey defeats him by eating him up.
The Invasion, Part 2 - When permanently evacuating the Turtle Lair , Mikey puts Ice Cream Kitty in her red-and-white cooler, keeping her cold by placing her between two boxes of Hellio's frozen pizza.
The Croaking - Mikey watches Crognard The Barbarian with Ice Cream Kitty while eating Hellio's pizza. In the process, he makes a huge mess of the farmhouse's living room, managing to get slices of pizza stuck to the ceiling and walls. This is the first major appearance of Hellio's being eaten; it is distinctly different from other pizzas shown in the series in that all its slices are square-shaped.
Vision Quest - Mikey cooks some Hellio's pizza over a campfire.
Return to New York - The turtles find a new home in an abandoned Antonio Pizza-rama store.
Clash of the Mutanimals - When Pigeon Pete visits the Turtle Lair and craves bread, Mikey introduces him leftover pizza crusts, which Pete instantly loves.
Tale of the Yokai - After days trapped in the past without eating a single slice of pizza Michelagelo makes one up out of wood, berries, and spider eggs, later he forces Raphael to eat it.
Video Games
Pizza slices are often used as a health power-up in the TMNT video games . In Turtles in Time , one type of pizza grants the Turtles temporary high speed spin attack and invulnerability and they shout out "PIZZA POWER!!!"
Films
The turtles also eat pizza in the film series . Except in the third film , they are not seen eating pizza but despite it not appearing, pizza does get mentioned. The second film begins with a sequence of people eating pizza all over New York.
At the end of Turtles Forever , the Mirage Turtles , after having encountered the 1987 Turtles and their 2003 counterparts , suggest to go eat some pizzas. Since the Mirage Turtles rarely ate pizza in the Original Mirage Comics, they are obviously influenced by their '87 counterparts.
In the new 2014 film the Turtle's couch is made of Pizza Hut's pizza boxes, the Turtles also appear in the Pizza Hut cheesy bites tv commercial. See more at: Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2014 film)/Merchandise
Also in the 2014 film it is explained that April is the reason they love pizza as she fed it to them when they were little.
the real-life 99-cheese pizza
Trivia
Although Donatello stated that a pizza with 99 different types of cheese would be impossible, Johnny di Francesco, an Australian pizza maker and owner of the 400 Gradi pizzeria, took the challenge and created a 99 cheese pizza after the film.
See Also
Pizza Hut is awesome and so is that promo box!
2014-04-12T05:20:27Z
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‘The Dream of Gerontius’ is the 1900 work of which English composer? | The Dream of Gerontius | work by Elgar | Britannica.com
The Dream of Gerontius
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in Sir Edward Elgar
...in 1899, brought Elgar recognition as a leading composer and became his most frequently performed composition. In 1900 there followed another major work, the oratorio The Dream of Gerontius, which many consider his masterpiece. Based on a poem by John Henry Cardinal Newman, it dispensed with the traditional admixture of recitatives, arias, and choruses,...
in oratorio: Oratorio after 1750
A masterpiece of 20th-century English oratorio is Sir Edward Elgar’s Dream of Gerontius (1900). The poem by Cardinal Newman on which it is based has a dramatic framework within which the music could expand without becoming disorderly. Igor Stravinsky’s opera-oratorio Oedipus Rex (1927), with a Latin text, was most successful in the opera house. The Swiss Frank Martin was one of...
| Edward Elgar |
Who played Davy Crockett in the 1960 film ‘The Alamo’? | Sir Edward Elgar, Composer | Atlanta Symphony Orchestra
1857 - 1934
Biography
Sir Edward William Elgar, 1st Baronet OM, GCVO (2 June 1857 – 23 February 1934) was an English composer, many of whose works have entered the British and international classical concert repertoire. Among his best-known compositions are orchestral works including the Enigma Variations, the Pomp and Circumstance Marches, concertos for violin and cello, and two symphonies. He also composed choral works, including The Dream of Gerontius, chamber music and songs. He was appointed Master of the King's Musick in 1924.
Although Elgar is often regarded as a typically English composer, most of his musical influences were not from England but from continental Europe. He felt himself to be an outsider, not only musically, but socially. In musical circles dominated by academics, he was a self-taught composer; in Protestant Britain, his Roman Catholicism was regarded with suspicion in some quarters; and in the class-conscious society of Victorian and Edwardian Britain, he was acutely sensitive about his humble origins even after he achieved recognition. He nevertheless married the daughter of a senior British army officer. She inspired him both musically and socially, but he struggled to achieve success until his forties, when after a series of moderately successful works his Enigma Variations (1899) became immediately popular in Britain and overseas. He followed the Variations with a choral work, The Dream of Gerontius (1900), based on a Roman Catholic text that caused some disquiet in the Anglican establishment in Britain, but it became, and has remained, a core repertory work in Britain and elsewhere. His later full-length religious choral works were well received but have not entered the regular repertory. The first of his Pomp and Circumstance Marches (1901) is well-known in the English-speaking world.
In his fifties, Elgar composed a symphony and a violin concerto that were immensely successful. His second symphony and his cello concerto did not gain immediate public popularity and took many years to achieve a regular place in the concert repertory of British orchestras. Elgar's music came, in his later years, to be seen as appealing chiefly to British audiences. His stock remained low for a generation after his death. It began to revive significantly in the 1960s, helped by new recordings of his works. Some of his works have, in recent years, been taken up again internationally, but the music remains more played in Britain than elsewhere.
Elgar has been described as the first composer to take the gramophone seriously. Between 1914 and 1925, he conducted a series of recordings of his works. The introduction of the microphone in 1925 made far more accurate sound reproduction possible, and Elgar made new recordings of most of his major orchestral works and excerpts from The Dream of Gerontius. These recordings were reissued on LP record in the 1970s and on CD in the 1990s.
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Which 18th Century author wrote ‘Clarissa’ (or ‘The History of a Young Lady), said to be the longest novel in the English language? | Clarissa Harlowe or the History of a Young Lady, the longest novel in the English language, all 9 volumes in a single file by Samuel Richardson on iBooks
This book is available for download with iBooks on your Mac or iOS device, and with iTunes on your computer. Books can be read with iBooks on your Mac or iOS device.
Description
According to Wikipedia: "Samuel Richardson's Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady epistolary novel, published in 1748, tells the tragic story of a heroine whose quest for virtue is continually thwarted by her family. It is commonly cited as the longest novel in the English language." Richardson "was a major English 18th century writer best known for his three epistolary novels: Pamela: Or, Virtue Rewarded (1740), Clarissa: Or the History of a Young Lady (1748) and Sir Charles Grandison (1753). Richardson had been an established printer and publisher for most of his life when, at the age of 51, he wrote his first novel and immediately became one of the most popular and admired writers of his time."
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Print Length: 2139 Pages
Language: English
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| Samuel Richardson |
In 1951, Jean Lee was the last woman to be executed in which country? | Zadie Smith's book was a heartening promise that Britain really was a melting pot for different races, writes Williams [EPA]
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@KateWilliamsUK
Kate Williams is an author, historian and broadcaster on history, culture and the arts. She has written four history books and one novel. Her second novel, Storms of War, the first of a trilogy about a family from 1914 to 1939, will be out in July.
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In early April, the Baileys Prize shortlist for fiction by women was announced. Although it is a UK based prize, there are no authors who are sole citizens of the UK on the shortlist: Donna Tartt is American, Hannah Kent is Australian, Audrey Magee and Einnear McBride are Irish, Chimimanda Ngozi Adichie is from Nigeria and Jhumpa Lahiri holds joint US and British citizenship. Recently, the UK's major fiction prize, the Man Booker, changed its remit to include authors from all over the world. And readers of UK books are from across the world, thanks to online ordering and ebooks. The barriers which complicate ordering ebooks from different countries will probably come down in future years - giving a truly international readership.
All this is a very
In early April, the Baileys Prize shortlist for fiction by women was announced. Although it is a UK-based prize, there are no authors who are sole citizens of the UK on the shortlist: Donna Tartt is American, Hannah Kent is Australian, Audrey Magee and Eimear McBride are Irish, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie is from Nigeria and Jhumpa Lahiri holds both US and British citizenships.
Recently, the UK's major fiction prize, the Man Booker , changed its remit to include authors from all over the world. And readers of UK books are from across the world, thanks to online ordering and ebooks. The barriers which complicate ordering ebooks from different countries will probably come down in future years - resulting in a truly international readership.
All this is a very good thing: The readers of books from the UK might have been born and live in India, Saudi Arabia, Russia or anywhere else in the world. And their authors are drawn from all the cultures who have come to Britain. In the Victorian era, when Britain ruled a quarter of the world's population, the English novel was accepted as the pre-eminent form - Charles Dickens and George Eliot held up as examples to the world. The British novel was sent all over the globe and baffled readers in hotter climes as they ploughed through lengthy descriptions of English tea parties.
Now, Britain's Empire is crumbled - and the country has been changed for the better by the immigration of peoples from across the world. Zadie Smith's White Teeth burst onto the scene in 2000, a multi-cultural epic about North London, full of humour and friendship between different ethnic groups. Featuring two main characters, Archie Jones and Samed Iqbal - a Bengali Muslim from Bangladesh - who met in 1945 after World War II, Smith's brilliant book was a heartening promise that Britain really was a melting pot for different races.
Some of our best novels of the late 20th and early 21st century have charted the experience of our immigrants - such as Andrea Levy's prize-winning Small Island , about the experience of young Jamaicans in London around World War II.
Despite what the Victorian authors said, the novel as a form has never been just English.
This isn't literary fashion of the moment; it's the reflection of a changing Britain, one in which more than 10 percent of the population are from ethnic minorities. In a recent speech to mark the state visit of the president of the Irish Republic to Britain, the queen spoke of how Britain had been "hugely enriched" by the immigration of the Irish to Britain. The same could be said of all those who came from Uganda, Kenya, India, Pakistan, the European Union - and from other parts of the world.
Novelists reflect that - JK Rowling's recent picture of a typical English country town in her 2012 adult debut, The Casual Vacancy , featured mother and daughter Parvinder and Sukhvinder Jawanda. Parvinder, a doctor, is fully a part of local English life - she is on the Parish Council and her daughter is on the school rowing team.
The first novel
Despite what the Victorian authors said, the novel as a form has never been just English. A lot of writing on the novel form sticks to the European versions - but the first novel was not English nor even European, but probably Japanese: Murasaki Shikibu or Lady Murasaki 's early 11th century epic, Tale of Genji . Murasaki, a high-ranking lady-in-waiting, probably wrote chapters to amuse her fellow aristocratic women at court.
Her tale of a handsome court prince romancing his way through the Heian court is a masterpiece - and a precursor of the "rake's progress" novels of the 18th century (except Genji is a nice guy, really). Almost astonishing to the modern day reader is how Murasaki keeps track of hundreds of characters, who remain consistent and age correctly. It is useful that she was so careful - for the book is near impossible to read without a glossary of names since, at the time, calling someone by a name was uncouth and tied up in complex class structures, so Genji's lovers receive all kind of appellations, based on anything from their position at court to the colour of their dress.
By modern standards, Genji would certainly be a daring novel - since the main character is killed off about two thirds of the way through. There is no plot as such - events roll along and characters grow older rather than "develop" or change in what we'd see as a modern character arc. It also lacks a proper end because Murasaki died, although some scholars argue she would have just kept writing forever. But still for many - and for me - it is the first novel.
Scholars often say the first novels were written in the mid 18th century by Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding and Samuel Richardson. Richardson's 1748 Clarissa (the longest novel in English at a million words) is a masterpiece of psychological investigation as it tracks through letters between the characters, the abduction, sexual assault and finally death of its heroine, Clarissa. And yet all the celebrated 18th century novels - Pamela, Tom Jones and Robinson Crusoe - might have been beaten to it as investigations of the human psyche by the lengthy Chinese novel, The Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone.
Cao Xuequin probably wrote his sprawling family saga in the 1740s - he died in 1768, leaving it nearly complete. Scholars talk of the Four Great Novels in Chinese - although it is really five if one lets in the super-risque seventeenth-century Plum in the Golden Vase. (Plum gives E L James's best-selling Fifty Shades of Grey a run for its money with over 70 explicit sex scenes (phew!)). The best known of the Four is probably the 800,000-word 14th century Romance of the Three Kingdoms, a great romance of feudal lords beloved across China.
But Xuequin wins hands down for me - because it's a novel about character and it lays bare the thought processes of its many characters. The youthful boy it follows is a proto-Tom Jones as written by Fielding, cheeky, fond of women - desperately in love with the delicate aristocratic girl but, unlike Tom, he doesn't get the girl he wants. And the novel shows the decline of a great family - rather than, as Tom Jones, the old aristocracy being renewed by an outsider down on his luck.
From Pride and Prejudice to Great Expectations, some of the best novels have been English, but exploring lives over time or investigating the human psyche, is a world possession - not just that of England. Without books like Genji or Story of the Stone, world literature would be much the poorer. In his historical writing course for graduates at Columbia University, Simon Schama asks his students as a first exercise to write another chapter from Tolstoy's War and Peace. The writers of novels come from all over the world - and so do their readers.
Kate Williams is an author, historian and broadcaster on history, culture and the arts. She has written four history books and one novel. Her second novel, Storms of War, the first of a trilogy about a family from 1914 to 1939, will be out in July.
Source: Al Jazeera
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Which country singer was known as ‘The Man in Black’? | Johnny Cash Biography (Country Musician/Country Singer/Songwriter)
Died: 12 September 2003 (complications from diabetes)
Birthplace: Kingsland, Arkansas
Best known as: The singer of "Folsom Prison Blues"
Country singer Johnny Cash was nicknamed "The Man in Black," a nod to his wardrobe as well as to the darker themes of his music. He got his start with Sun Records in 1955. Like fellow Sun recording artists Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins and Elvis Presley , Cash used country and gospel influences in what was called rockabilly, an early form of rock 'n' roll. He wrote "Folsom Prison Blues" while serving in the Air Force and in 1956 the song became one of his first big hits. In the 1950s and '60s Cash toured relentlessly and had many more hits, employing his rumbling, mournful baritone on tunes like "I Walk the Line" and "Ring of Fire." In 1968 he married June Carter of the Carter Family Singers. Cash later performed with artists as diverse as Bob Dylan and U2 . He earned a new audience with his 1994 acoustic album American Recordings and continued to record new songs in spite of ongoing struggles with pneumonia, diabetes and a nervous system disease known as autonomic neuropathy. Cash was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1980 and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992. Two years before his death, in 2001, he received the National Medal of the Arts for artistic excellence.
Extra credit:
Johnny’s daughter, Roseanne Cash, is also a country singer… Johnny Cash was played by Joaquin Phoenix in the 2005 biographical film Walk the Line. June Carter Cash was played by Reese Witherspoon … A theatrical musical based on his life, Ring of Fire, opened in 2006.
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The Rimac River is in which South American country? | Johnny Cash | Rolling Stone
artists > J > Johnny Cash > Bio
Johnny Cash Bio
Johnny Cash was a towering figure in 20th century American music, a minimalist with a booming Old Testament baritone who could wrench an abundance of power from stark settings. At first Cash was backed by guitar and bass; in the end it was simply guitar. But when a voice can tell a story with as much resonance as Cash's could, not much else is needed.
Cash's songs – from his early gospel recordings and the resonant outlaw-country of Fifties classics like "Folsom Prison Blues" to late efforts like his unlikely, gut-wrenching cover of Nine Inch Nails' "Hurt" – influenced not only his fellow country musicians, but also rockers from Bono to Bob Dylan. By turns those songs were laden with pathos, whimsy, regret, hope, lust, and fury; they always cut to the heart of its subject matter, whether it be God, love or the plight of prisoners and Native Americans. Cash led a tumultuous life, battling drug addiction, chaffing against orthodoxy, and doing things his own way. But by the end The Man in Black became an icon, a man who earns almost universal respect among music fans.
The son of Southern Baptist sharecroppers, John R. Cash was born in 1932 and began playing guitar and writing songs at age 12. During high school, he performed frequently on radio station KLCN in Blytheville, Arkansas. Cash moved to Detroit in his late teens and worked there until he joined the air force as a radio operator in Germany. He left the service and married Vivian Liberto in 1954; the couple settled in Memphis, where Cash worked as an appliance salesman and attended radio announcers' school. They had four daughters, the oldest being singer Rosanne Cash, who was born in 1955.
With the Tennessee Two (guitarist Luther Perkins and bassist Marshall Grant) he began recording for Sam Phillips' Sun label in 1955. The trio recorded "Cry, Cry, Cry" (Number 14 C&W, 1955), and followed it with "Folsom Prison Blues" (Number Five C&W, 1956). 1956 brought Cash's most enduring hit, the million-selling "I Walk the Line" (Number 17, 1956). At Sun, he was also part of an impromptu gospel sing-along with label mates Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, and Jerry Lee Lewis that was widely bootlegged as The Million Dollar Quartet and finally released commercially in 1981 (on the U.K. label Charly).
His career fully established, Cash moved to Ventura, California in 1958, signing with Columbia, and beginning a nine-year period of alcohol and drug abuse. He released a number of successful country and pop hits, among them "Ring of Fire" (Number One pop, Number One C&W, 1963), written by June Carter of the Carter Family and Merle Kilgore. By then, he had left his family and moved to New York's Greenwich Village. Late in 1965 Cash was arrested by customs officials for trying to smuggle amphetamines in his guitar case across the Mexican border. He got a suspended sentence and was fined. After a serious auto accident and a near fatal overdose, Liberto divorced him. By then Cash had moved to Nashville, where he became friends with Waylon Jennings. Together they began what both have described as a drug-crazed year and a half.
But in Nashville, Cash began a relationship with June Carter, who by 1967 helped him kick his drug habit and reconverted him to fundamentalist Christianity. By the time Cash and Carter married in early 1968, they had been working together regularly. They had hit duets with "Jackson" (Number Two C&W, 1967), "Long-Legged Guitar Pickin' Man" (Number Six C&W, 1967), and versions of Bob Dylan's "It Ain't Me, Babe" (Number 58 pop, Number Four C&W, 1964) and Tim Hardin's "If I Were a Carpenter" (Number 36 pop, Number Two C&W, 1970).
Cash's 1968 live album, At Folsom Prison (Number 13), became a million-seller. Bob Dylan invited him to sing a duet ("Girl From the North Country") and write liner notes for Nashville Skyline, and in June of 1969 Dylan appeared in the first segment of ABC-TV's The Johnny Cash Show. The highly rated series, which lasted two years, developed a reputation as an eclectic showcase of contemporary American music, with guests ranging from Louis Armstrong to Carl Perkins to Bob Dylan to Joni Mitchell. Cash had a 1969 hit with Shel Silverstein's "A Boy Named Sue" (Number 2), a track from Johnny Cash at San Quentin; his best-selling album, the live album was Number One for four weeks.
In 1970 Cash performed at the Nixon White House. He and June Carter traveled to Israel in 1971 to make a documentary, Gospel Road Cash continued to tour and make hits through the Seventies, including "A Thing Called Love" (Number Two C&W, 1972) and "One Piece at a Time" (Number One C&W, 1976). He also became active in benefit work, particularly on behalf of prisoners, Native American rights, and evangelist Billy Graham's organization.
In 1982 Cash regrouped with fellow surviving Million Dollar Quartet members Carl Perkins and Jerry Lee Lewis to record The Survivors. Three years later Cash hooked up with Kris Kristofferson, Waylon Jennings, and Willie Nelson to form the Highwaymen, releasing Highwayman in 1985. The country supergroup performed together sporadically throughout the late Eighties and Nineties, recording Highwayman 2 in 1990 and Highwaymen: The Road Goes On Forever (produced by Don Was) in 1995.
Cash's 25-year relationship with Columbia Records ended in the mid-Eighties, and in 1986 he began an on and off relationship with Nashville's branch of Mercury Records. By the late Eighties, his long streak of country hits had ended, and Cash complained to an interviewer that he'd been "purged" from Nashville, replaced by contemporary "hat acts." He continued to perform constantly, however, usually with a package tour that included his wife and her sisters Helen and Anita Carter, as well as Johnny and June's son, John Carter Cash (other Cash and Carter siblings would sometimes show up too). Throughout these years, Cash turned to acting; as the years went by he participated in a long parade of Western-themed movies and TV shows. He also suffered from health problems and underwent heart surgery as well as drug treatment for an addiction to painkillers.
Already a member of the Nashville Songwriter's Hall of Fame (he has more than 400 songs to his credit) and the Country Music Hall of Fame, Cash was inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame in 1992. That year also saw the release of the critically acclaimed box set The Essential Johnny Cash. In 1993 he began his return to the forefront with a guest vocal on U2's Zooropa; he sang lead on the darkly haunting track "The Wanderer." The following year, Cash was toasted by alt-rock audiences with the release of American Recordings, on the label by the same name that was best known for its rap and rock artists. Label chief Rick Rubin's production emphasized Cash's brooding, deep vocals, backed by his own simple, but effective acoustic guitar. Featuring tunes by such artists as Nick Lowe, Leonard Cohen, and Tom Waits, the program veered from Cash's own "Redemption" to metalhead Glenn Danzig's "Thirteen." The move was the singer's boldest in years, revitalizing his artistry and earning him a sizable new audience. Appearing solo or backed by guitar, bass, and drums, Cash performed in several intimate venues that were a long haul from the summertime fairgrounds and theatre shows that he and June the Carters were used to playing. Though the album only reached Number 110 on the pop charts (Number 29 C&W), it received airplay on alternative-rock and college radio stations, and earned itself a wealth of critical raves.
In 1996 Cash released another well-received album, Unchained, on which he was backed by Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers and covered edgy songs by the likes of Beck and Soundgarden. The album won the Best Country Album Grammy, and Cash also garnered a Lifetime Achievement Award Grammy. Then, after experiencing dizziness and tremors in 1997, Cash was diagnosed with the degenerative nervous disorder Shy-Drager syndrome. He retired from the road and began treatments for his illness, but he kept giving interviews, kept working, and made some of the best music of his life.
In 1999 Cash was the subject of a televised tribute (featuring Dylan, U2, Springsteen, and others) and made his first public appearance since his diagnosis. In 2000 Cash's health seemed better, and his doctors were beginning to question if they'd made the right diagnosis. Cash released another critically acclaimed album, American III: Solitary Man, which won a Grammy for Best Contemporary Folk Recording. (It also brought him back to Columbia, which had begun distributing the American label.) In 2002, Cash's American IV: The Man Comes Around continued his commercial success with his rendition of Nine Inch Nails's cover "Hurt." The striking video for the song, directed by Mark Romanek, was awarded a Grammy for Best Video of the Year.
On May 15, 2003, June Carter Cash died while undergoing heart valve replacement surgery. Less than five months later, on September 12, Johnny Cash succumbed to respiratory failure due to complications from his long battle with diabetes. He was 71.
In 2005 Joaquin Phoenix starred as Johnny Cash in a biopic about the singer's turbulent and extraordinary life entitled Walk The Line. Reese Witherspoon played June. The Cash family homestead in Hendersonville, Tennessee, under the new ownership of Bee Gees singer Barry Gibb, was destroyed by fire in April 2007. Comprised of leftover tracks from the Cash-Rubin sessions, Volume V of the American Recordings series was released as A Hundred Highways in 2006; Volume VI: Ain't No Grave followed in 2010.
Just after Cash's death, Rolling Stone featured the singer on the cover of the October 16, 2003 issue. Among more than a dozen tributes to Cash in the issue – from Merle Haggard, Kris Kristofferson, Bono, Rick Rubin, Al Gore and many others – one of the most effusive came from a man not known for excessive praise: Cash's old friend Bob Dylan. "He is what the land and country is all about, the heart and soul of it personified and what it means to be here; and he said it all in plain English," Dylan said. "Listen to him, and he will always bring you to your senses."
Portions of this biography appeared in The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll (Simon & Schuster, 2001). Jim Macnie contributed to this story.
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Which British Prime Minister declared ‘Peace in our time’ in September 1938? | BBC ON THIS DAY | 30 | 1938: 'Peace for our time' - Chamberlain
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1938: 'Peace for our time' - Chamberlain
The British Prime Minister has been hailed as bringing "peace to Europe" after signing a non-aggression pact with Germany.
PM Neville Chamberlain arrived back in the UK today, holding an agreement signed by Adolf Hitler which stated the German leader's desire never to go to war with Britain again.
The two men met at the Munich conference between Britain, Germany, Italy and France yesterday, convened to decide the future of Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland.
Mr Chamberlain declared the accord with the Germans signalled "peace for our time", after he had read it to a jubilant crowd gathered at Heston airport in west London.
The German leader stated in the agreement: "We are determined to continue our efforts to remove possible sources of difference and thus to contribute to assure the peace of Europe."
But many MPs are bound to criticise it as part of the Prime Minister's "appeasement" of German aggression in Europe.
And Mr Chamberlain's personal pact will be little comfort to the Czechoslovakian Government which has been forced to hand over the region of Sudetenland to Germany, despite not being present at the conference.
After greeting members of the public at the airport, Mr Chamberlain appeared in front of another rejoicing throng on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with the King and Queen, and again later outside 10 Downing Street.
The British Prime Minister was forced to mobilise the Royal Navy four days ago when Germany announced it was building massive fortifications in Rhineland.
But the Conservative leader has always expressed his desire to find a peaceful solution to the Fuehrer's wish to create a new - and enlarged - German homeland in Europe.
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Which fictional TV family had pets called Spot, Igor and Kitty? | Munich Agreement | Europe [1938] | Britannica.com
Munich Agreement
France
Munich Agreement, (September 30, 1938), settlement reached by Germany , Great Britain , France , and Italy that permitted German annexation of the Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia . After his success in absorbing Austria into Germany proper in March 1938, Adolf Hitler looked covetously at Czechoslovakia, where about three million people in the Sudeten area were of German origin. It became known in May 1938 that Hitler and his generals were drawing up a plan for the occupation of Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovaks were relying on military assistance from France , with which they had an alliance. The Soviet Union also had a treaty with Czechoslovakia, and it indicated willingness to cooperate with France and Great Britain if they decided to come to Czechoslovakia’s defense, but the Soviet Union and its potential services were ignored throughout the crisis.
(Left to right) Italian leader Benito Mussolini, German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, a German …
Tramonto—age fotostock/Imagestate
Newsreel announcing that, thanks to the agreement struck with Germany by the leaders of Britain and …
Stock footage courtesy The WPA Film Library
As Hitler continued to make inflammatory speeches demanding that Germans in Czechoslovakia be reunited with their homeland, war seemed imminent . Neither France nor Britain felt prepared to defend Czechoslovakia, however, and both were anxious to avoid a military confrontation with Germany at almost any cost. In mid-September, Neville Chamberlain , the British prime minister, offered to go to Hitler’s retreat at Berchtesgaden to discuss the situation personally with the Führer. Hitler agreed to take no military action without further discussion, and Chamberlain agreed to try to persuade his cabinet and the French to accept the results of a plebiscite in the Sudetenland. The French premier, Édouard Daladier , and his foreign minister, Georges Bonnet, then went to London , where a joint proposal was prepared stipulating that all areas with a population that was more than 50 percent Sudeten German be returned to Germany. The Czechoslovaks were not consulted. The Czechoslovak government initially rejected the proposal but was forced to accept it reluctantly on September 21.
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Gentlemen’s Agreement
On September 22 Chamberlain again flew to Germany and met Hitler at Godesberg, where he was dismayed to learn that Hitler had stiffened his demands: he now wanted the Sudetenland occupied by the German army and the Czechoslovaks evacuated from the area by September 28. Chamberlain agreed to submit the new proposal to the Czechoslovaks, who rejected it, as did the British cabinet and the French. On the 24th the French ordered a partial mobilization; the Czechoslovaks had ordered a general mobilization one day earlier.
In a last-minute effort to avoid war, Chamberlain then proposed that a four-power conference be convened immediately to settle the dispute. Hitler agreed, and on September 29, Hitler, Chamberlain, Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini met in Munich , where Mussolini introduced a written plan that was accepted by all as the Munich Agreement. (Many years later it was discovered that the so-called Italian plan had been prepared in the German Foreign Office.) It was almost identical to the Godesberg proposal: the German army was to complete the occupation of the Sudetenland by October 10, and an international commission would decide the future of other disputed areas. Czechoslovakia was informed by Britain and France that it could either resist Germany alone or submit to the prescribed annexations. The Czechoslovak government chose to submit.
German Chancellor Adolf Hitler (left) and British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (third from …
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Munich Agreement - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
The pact of September 30, 1938, under which the leaders of Great Britain, France, and Italy allowed Nazi Germany to take over part of Czechoslovakia is known as the Munich Agreement, after the city where it was brokered. By 1938 Adolf Hitler was firmly in power in Germany, and the military buildup that led to World War II was well under way. He made no secret of his territorial ambitions in Europe, especially in the east. Austria had been annexed to Germany in March 1938. Next he cast his eyes on Czechoslovakia, which was home to some 3 million people of German origin, mainly in the section called the Sudetenland. Acquisition of this territory was to be the next step in what he considered Germany’s destined march eastward. By May it had become known to other European powers that the German General Staff was drawing up plans for the annexation of Czechoslovakia.
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Which part of the body does a cariogenic affect? | Diet, cariogenic | Article about Diet, cariogenic by The Free Dictionary
Diet, cariogenic | Article about Diet, cariogenic by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Diet%2c+cariogenic
Dental Caries
an affection of the solid tissues of the teeth manifested by their gradual destruction (enamel, dentin, cemen-tum) and the formation of cavities.
The causes of dental caries are varied and have not been completely determined. According to the chemical-parasitic theory, it results from the mineral part of the teeth being dissolved by acids formed in the mouth during the breakdown of the carbohydrates in food; the organic portion of the teeth is subsequently decomposed by microbes. Dental caries may also develop without the action of microbes as a result of metabolic disturbances in the dental tissues. Diet is an important factor in the origin of dental caries. Dental caries was induced experimentally by giving animals food containing a large quantity of sugar. In localities where the drinking water is low in fluorine, the incidence of dental caries is particularly high. The individual enzyme peculiarities of the body, diseases, a mother’s diet during pregnancy, improper artificial feeding of infants, and rickets also affect the incidence of dental caries.
Caries generally affects the teeth of the upper jaw, especially the fifth milk and first molar teech. The carious process is usually concentrated near natural depressions on the tooth surface and on the contiguous surfaces in the neck of a tooth (region next to the gum). The disease starts with the formation of a defect in the enamel or neck part of the cementum projecting freely into the mouth. On reaching the dentin, the process spreads wide and deep, forming a carious cavity. Once started, the process does not stop but gradually progresses. The enamel loses its luster and transparency at the site of dental caries, and pigmentation and roughness appear. When the integrity of the enamel is impaired, pain is felt on eating sweet, acid, salty, hot, or cold food. Dental caries is usually chronic. Acute dental caries is generally found in young people, and it is often due to a disturbance of internal secretion.
Treatment consists in restoration of the anatomical structure and function of the tooth by filling it. The procedure involves removal of the soft dentin and formation of a suitable cavity to hold the filling.
Prevention consists in taking action to increase tooth resistance to caries (providing the body with the essential salts, chiefly calcium and phosphorus, and vitamin D) during formation and mineralization of the teeth (from the fourth to fifth month of intrauterine development to age 11 years). After the teeth erupt prevention consists in proper diet and oral hygiene.
REFERENCES
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Which BBC Radio 2 host includes ‘The Tracks of My Years’ in his weekday programme? | Diet, cariogenic | Article about Diet, cariogenic by The Free Dictionary
Diet, cariogenic | Article about Diet, cariogenic by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Diet%2c+cariogenic
Dental Caries
an affection of the solid tissues of the teeth manifested by their gradual destruction (enamel, dentin, cemen-tum) and the formation of cavities.
The causes of dental caries are varied and have not been completely determined. According to the chemical-parasitic theory, it results from the mineral part of the teeth being dissolved by acids formed in the mouth during the breakdown of the carbohydrates in food; the organic portion of the teeth is subsequently decomposed by microbes. Dental caries may also develop without the action of microbes as a result of metabolic disturbances in the dental tissues. Diet is an important factor in the origin of dental caries. Dental caries was induced experimentally by giving animals food containing a large quantity of sugar. In localities where the drinking water is low in fluorine, the incidence of dental caries is particularly high. The individual enzyme peculiarities of the body, diseases, a mother’s diet during pregnancy, improper artificial feeding of infants, and rickets also affect the incidence of dental caries.
Caries generally affects the teeth of the upper jaw, especially the fifth milk and first molar teech. The carious process is usually concentrated near natural depressions on the tooth surface and on the contiguous surfaces in the neck of a tooth (region next to the gum). The disease starts with the formation of a defect in the enamel or neck part of the cementum projecting freely into the mouth. On reaching the dentin, the process spreads wide and deep, forming a carious cavity. Once started, the process does not stop but gradually progresses. The enamel loses its luster and transparency at the site of dental caries, and pigmentation and roughness appear. When the integrity of the enamel is impaired, pain is felt on eating sweet, acid, salty, hot, or cold food. Dental caries is usually chronic. Acute dental caries is generally found in young people, and it is often due to a disturbance of internal secretion.
Treatment consists in restoration of the anatomical structure and function of the tooth by filling it. The procedure involves removal of the soft dentin and formation of a suitable cavity to hold the filling.
Prevention consists in taking action to increase tooth resistance to caries (providing the body with the essential salts, chiefly calcium and phosphorus, and vitamin D) during formation and mineralization of the teeth (from the fourth to fifth month of intrauterine development to age 11 years). After the teeth erupt prevention consists in proper diet and oral hygiene.
REFERENCES
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In Sikhism, what is the practice of allowing one’s hair to grow naturally, as a symbol of respect for the perfection of God’s creation? | Sikhism Flashcards
a follower of Sikhism (or of or relating to Sikhs or Sikhism)
Term
Guru Nanak
Definition
The founder of the religion of Sikhism and the first of ten Sikh Gurus. Born Hindu and later had an inner conviction to create the Sikh religion.
Term
Ik Onkar
Definition
central tenet of Sikh religious philosophy. It is a symbol of the unity of God in Sikhism, and is found on all religious scriptures and places such as Gurdwaras. Refers to the existence of “one God.”
Term
Waheguru
Definition
meaning “wonderful teacher”, a term used in Sikhism to refer to God, the Supreme Being or the creator of all.
Term
The spiritual center for Sikhs, home to the Golden Temple and the gateway to Punjab.
Term
Khalsa
Definition
meaning “pure”, Khalsa’s are Sikhs which have undergone the sacred Amrit Ceremony initiated by the 10th Sikh Guru. The Khalsa baptism ceremony is undertaken as part of ones own personal spiritual evolution when the initiate is ready to fully live up to the high expectations of Guru Gobind Singh. All Sikhs are expected to be Khalsa or working towards that objective.
Term
Guru Granth Sahib
Definition
The final and eternal guru of the Sikhs. It is the religious text of Sikhism. Regarded as the teachings of the Ten Gurus. The role of Adi Granth, as a source of guide of prayer, is pivotal in worship in Sikhism.
Term
Gurudwara
Definition
meaning “the gateway to the Guru”, is a place of worship for Sikhs (similar to a church for catholics)
Term
balance (earn your money righteously and honestly) [one of three pilars]
Term
Vand Ke Chakko
Definition
generosity (share ones wealth with others in the community, to give to charity, to generally help others in the community who need help)[one of three pilars]
Term
Kesh
Definition
the practice of allowing one’s hair to grow naturally as a symbol of respect for the perfection of God’s creation. [one of five k's]
Term
Kangha
Definition
a small comb worn by Sikhs, one of the five articles of faith for Sikhs. [one of five k's]
Term
Katchera
Definition
specially made cotton underwear as a reminder of the commitment to purity, one of the five articles of faith for Sikhs. [one of five k's]
Term
Kara
Definition
a steel circle, worn on the wrist, signifying bondage to Truth and freedom from every other entanglement. One of the five articles of faith for Sikhs. [one of five k's]
Term
Kirpan
Definition
the sword, with which the Khalsa is committed to righteously defend the first line of the truth. One of the five articles of faith for Sikhs. [one of five k's]
Term
Mul Mantra
Definition
the most important composition contained within Adi Granth, the holy scripture of the Sikhs. It is the basis of Sikhsim. Mool Mantar mean “main chant” or “root verse”.
Term
| Kesh |
In humans, glossitis is the inflammation of which part of the body? | Sikhism Flashcards
a follower of Sikhism (or of or relating to Sikhs or Sikhism)
Term
Guru Nanak
Definition
The founder of the religion of Sikhism and the first of ten Sikh Gurus. Born Hindu and later had an inner conviction to create the Sikh religion.
Term
Ik Onkar
Definition
central tenet of Sikh religious philosophy. It is a symbol of the unity of God in Sikhism, and is found on all religious scriptures and places such as Gurdwaras. Refers to the existence of “one God.”
Term
Waheguru
Definition
meaning “wonderful teacher”, a term used in Sikhism to refer to God, the Supreme Being or the creator of all.
Term
The spiritual center for Sikhs, home to the Golden Temple and the gateway to Punjab.
Term
Khalsa
Definition
meaning “pure”, Khalsa’s are Sikhs which have undergone the sacred Amrit Ceremony initiated by the 10th Sikh Guru. The Khalsa baptism ceremony is undertaken as part of ones own personal spiritual evolution when the initiate is ready to fully live up to the high expectations of Guru Gobind Singh. All Sikhs are expected to be Khalsa or working towards that objective.
Term
Guru Granth Sahib
Definition
The final and eternal guru of the Sikhs. It is the religious text of Sikhism. Regarded as the teachings of the Ten Gurus. The role of Adi Granth, as a source of guide of prayer, is pivotal in worship in Sikhism.
Term
Gurudwara
Definition
meaning “the gateway to the Guru”, is a place of worship for Sikhs (similar to a church for catholics)
Term
balance (earn your money righteously and honestly) [one of three pilars]
Term
Vand Ke Chakko
Definition
generosity (share ones wealth with others in the community, to give to charity, to generally help others in the community who need help)[one of three pilars]
Term
Kesh
Definition
the practice of allowing one’s hair to grow naturally as a symbol of respect for the perfection of God’s creation. [one of five k's]
Term
Kangha
Definition
a small comb worn by Sikhs, one of the five articles of faith for Sikhs. [one of five k's]
Term
Katchera
Definition
specially made cotton underwear as a reminder of the commitment to purity, one of the five articles of faith for Sikhs. [one of five k's]
Term
Kara
Definition
a steel circle, worn on the wrist, signifying bondage to Truth and freedom from every other entanglement. One of the five articles of faith for Sikhs. [one of five k's]
Term
Kirpan
Definition
the sword, with which the Khalsa is committed to righteously defend the first line of the truth. One of the five articles of faith for Sikhs. [one of five k's]
Term
Mul Mantra
Definition
the most important composition contained within Adi Granth, the holy scripture of the Sikhs. It is the basis of Sikhsim. Mool Mantar mean “main chant” or “root verse”.
Term
| i don't know |
The Coco Cola prototype recipe was formulated in a drugstore in which US state? | Manufacturing Process Of Coca Cola Diagram Free Essays
Manufacturing Process Of Coca Cola Diagram
The Coca-Cola Company (KO) is the world's largest beverage company, and it owns or licenses more than 500 nonalcoholic beverage... brands. The company owns four of the world's top five nonalcoholic sparkling beverage brands: Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Fanta and Sprite. The prototype Coca-Cola recipe was formulated at the Eagle Drug and Chemical Company, a drugstore in Columbus, Georgia, by John Pemberton, originally as a coca wine called Pemberton's French Wine Coca. He may have been inspired by the formidable...
Bottle, Caffeine, Coca 1257 Words | 4 Pages
Motivational Process at Coca-Cola
The Motivation Theory Used Within The Coca-Cola Company The motivational process of The... Coca-Cola Company can best be described as one that identifies with Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory. The workplace productivity within The Coca-Cola Company is unmatched by many organizations today. Three essential elements make up Aldermen's ERG theory: The first part focuses on the existence needs within the company; the next part addresses the relatedness needs within the company; and the last part touches...
Employment, Fundamental human needs, Interpersonal relationship 1276 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola
its people and processes from current state to a desired future state is called change management. This process gives employees the ability to... accept changes in the existing environment of the business. Change can be of different type for example, change in technology, operations or strategies etc. company needs to implement individual strategies to cope with each type of change. Coca Cola Corporation is among one of the oldest corporations of the world. It has gone through many internal and...
Caffeine, Change management, Coca-Cola 1171 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola Case Study
Creating an effective organisational structure A Coca-Cola Great Britain case study Page 1: Introduction The... Coca-Cola Company is truly global, and its main product is recognised and consumed worldwide. The Company organises and structures itself in a way that reflects that fact. At the same time, the Company looks to meet the particular needs of regional markets sensitively and its structure also needs to reflect that fact. This Case Study illustrates the way in which the Company has built an...
Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, New product development 1787 Words | 6 Pages
Coca-Cola Supply Chain
Coca-Cola is the world’s largest beverage company. They employee over 146,000 employees offer over 3,000 products worldwide and... operate in over 200 countries. The company was founded in 1886 but it wasn’t until 1891 when an Atlanta business man secured the rights to the company that the vision of Coca-Cola was established and their expansion begun. In 1899 Coca-Cola’s first bottler relationship was established. This bottling relationship allowed the company to grow aggressively and expand into...
Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Inventory 1734 Words | 5 Pages
Coca Cola
Coca Cola Kalvin Williams MGT/445 August 23, 2010 Mr. Dennis Stroud Coca Cola The... Coca Cola Company begins in Jacob’s Pharmacy selling for five cents. Many years have past and the Coca Cola Company remains the leader in beverages, syrups, and non-alcoholic drinks. The following paragraphs will discuss how a complete performance management system and annual performance appraisals at Coca Cola are different and how effective various performance appraisals methods and relevant problems affect...
Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Human resource management 1518 Words | 5 Pages
Process of Quality Control in the Coca Cola Company
The Coca-Cola Company Process of Quality Control Quality Control Quality control is a... process employed to ensure a certain level of quality in a product or service. TCCSMS To ensure such quality, the Coca-Cola system is governed by The Coca-Cola Management System (TCCMS). TCCMS is an integrated quality management program, which holds all operations system-wide to the same standards for production and distribution of beverages. It guarantees the highest standards in the management...
Dasani, Drinking water, Management 492 Words | 3 Pages
Coca Cola Green Initiatives
Coca Cola Green Initiatives Nicole Johnson MGT/470 Green Initiatives Implementation of sustainability plans by small... businesses and global organizations have become one of the top priorities for businesses. Companies have become environmentally conscious of materials used in the production of goods, energy use in manufacturing, and modes of transportation for products. These organizations have become active in the effort to reduce greenhouse gases by using energy efficient facilities, recyclable...
Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Inca Kola 1018 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola - Organization Management
Abstract This paper is about “Coca-Cola” company which produces and manufactures soft drinks, and this product is well... known all around the world for many decades. The materials used to get the information about the company are from the internet, newspaper and the bottle itself. The paper will speak about how the product came to the final result as an output and what does it take to manufacture it. INTRODUCTION Coca-Cola is the most popular and biggest-selling soft drink in history...
Bottle, Coca-Cola, Management 2151 Words | 7 Pages
Marketing Ethics- Coca Cola
Marketing Ethics- Coca Cola Introduction The society is becoming increasing concerned about the ethical values adopted by its... companies. Marketing ethics addresses principle and standards that define acceptable conduct in the marketplace.(Linda) Marketing unethical means that the action is legal, but it actually is wrong. Some companies may promote the marketing ethics in order to increasing their reputation. However, some companies may violate the ethical values in order to earn more profits...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Zero 725 Words | 3 Pages
Coca Cola - Business Summary
COCA-COLA BUSINESS SUMMARY Abstract Dr. John Stith Pemberton is responsible for the discovery of the... drink that initially revolutionized the fountain drink industry and has continued its world-shattering hike for the past 126 years and has steadfastly transformed the modern day beverage market. Dr. Pemberton, on May 8, 1886, in Atlanta, Georgia, first introduced his product to Jacobs’ Pharmacy where it was sold for five cents a glass as a fountain drink. The Coca-Cola Company...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla, Coca-Cola Zero 1343 Words | 4 Pages
Coca-Cola on Operations Management
| Coca-Cola | Background Dr. John S. Pemberton invented Coca Cola in Atlanta, Georgia in... May 1886. Coca-Cola first began selling their product at a soda fountain in Jacob’s Pharmacy in Atlanta. The name came about when Dr. Pemberton’s bookkeeper, Frank Robinson suggested it. He even wrote out the script as seen today on the Coke bottles. Initially, Coca- Cola averaged nine drinks a day in the first year of their sales, adding up to $50 annual revenue. Today products of The Coca-Cola...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Zero 1447 Words | 5 Pages
Distribution Channel of Coca Cola
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Today cold drinks have become an important item of refreshment. Cold drinks are an important part of each and every occasion that... provides freshness. Worldwide, Coca-Cola and Pepsi are well known as the best soft drinks in the field of beverages. Under the present scenario companies are facing major problem that is “How to meet the consumer need.” The mind of the consumer is very unpredictable and it is very difficult to know what is going in the mind of the consumer. In today’s...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla 1446 Words | 5 Pages
Coca Cola
Coca-Cola Market research Link to case study here Overview: a case study of the... Coca-Cola portfolio of products and an examination of new product development. Learning objectives: ➢ to identify the existing portfolio of products owned by Coca-Cola ➢ to understand the type of market research undertaken by Coca-Cola ➢ to understand the Ansoff matrix in relation to Coca-Cola ➢ to examine new product development at Coca-Cola. Introduction (9 minutes) Introduce the lesson:...
Coca-Cola, Marketing, Qualitative research 1491 Words | 6 Pages
Coca-Cola
Coca cola 1. Market Size & Market Share The Coca-Cola Company focuses on manufacture,... distribution and marketing of soft drink beverage. Coca-Cola is number one in top 100 global brands, it is the world’s most valuable brand by $77,839 millions (Interbrand, 2013). Coca-Cola has gone from strength to strength and in the last decade has almost doubled its market share in the soft drink beverages market. According to Marketline (2013) and IBIS World (2013), the table below shows the comparison...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola C2 898 Words | 3 Pages
Coca-Cola
The public issue facing The Coca-Cola Company was its impact on availability and accessibility on water sources. A Public issue... is mostly the one that affects a person’s day to day life. The traditional use of land by communities and farmers on a diverse scale of production becomes much more difficult when water sources are at risk. (Hwang & Steward, 2008). Water conservation had become a huge issue in India and all over the world. A decade ago Coca-Cola faced a major crisis in south India...
Drinking water, Environmentalism, The Nature Conservancy 1003 Words | 2 Pages
Coca Cola
Organizations 1. How has the company changed over the years in order to survive a highly competitive marketplace? Coca-Cola... is a billion dollar global operating organization. They’ve been around for over a 100 years and they currently operate in over 200 countries. This is not a simple task, but Coca-Cola has found ways to manage by taking the right risks and evolving over time. Coca-Cola has over time invested in their brand, their quality, the right marketing, the availability of their product and...
Business Decision Mapping, Decision engineering, Decision making 1454 Words | 5 Pages
Diet Coke and Coca-cola
Mgt 230 Week 2 Ltc Paper Introduction Coca-Cola is a company that is found in almost every house in the world one other... thing is to strive not only to make profits but to be as a leader in diversity. This article will show you some of the reasons why Coca-Cola has made huge profits actually both, and became a leader in diversity through the use of globalization; technology, innovation, diversity and ethics for become one of the largest companies in the world. Internal and external factors...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Zero, Diet Coke 1523 Words | 5 Pages
Coca Cola
Coca Cola Abstract Coca Cola offers its product in many different countries along with many... different variations of their products even some that are not in the United States. In each country, the marketing strategy has its differences and in some cases different sweeteners. Coca Cola On May 8, 1886, Dr. John Stith Pemberton, a local pharmacist, produced the syrup for Coca Cola and carried a jug of the new product down the street to Jacobs’ Pharmacy, where it was sampled, and was pronounced...
Advertising, Brand, Coca-Cola 1685 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola
1. Consider Coca-Cola’s advertising throughout its history. Identify as many commonalities as possible for its various ads and campaigns. (For... a list of Coca-Cola slogans over the years, check out http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Colaslogans.) 2. Analyze the “It’s Mine” ad based on the process of creating an advertising message as outlined in the text. 3. Discuss issues of selecting advertising media for the “It’s Mine” ad. How might this process differ from that of other Coca-Cola campaigns? From...
Advertising, Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola slogans 1006 Words | 4 Pages
The world is flat - Coca-Cola
company, The Coca-Cola Company, is an American multinational beverage corporation and manufacturer, retailer and marketer of... non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups which is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. Coca-Cola, our flagship product which was invented in 1886 by pharmacist John Stith Pemberton in Columbus, Georgia. We proud of the Coca-Cola has played role of leadership in the beverage market in most countries. Its sales not only exceed its main competitor, Pepsi-Cola, but also included...
Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, John Pemberton 974 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola CSR
CSR Case Studies: Coca-Cola 1. Why did Coca-Cola Vietnam chose to work on water projects?... Coca Cola is a beverage company, a major consumer of water resources, it uses 2.43 liters of water to produce just 1 liter of beverage which makes it prone to criticism and consumer boycotts so to protects its brand image and defend its vision statement, which said be a responsible citizen, and run its business smoothly it decided to start water program to maintain its operations in Vietnam and build a CSR...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Cola 874 Words | 3 Pages
Coca Cola
Introduction : The below essay is about Coca-Cola company which is a beverage manufacturer established in the year 1892.The... company's primary product is Coca cola which was invented in the year 1886 and was first bottled in 1894.The focus of this essay will be on developing a marketing strategy for Classic Coca-Cola or Coke for first half of 2012.This will also discuss about the market segmentation ,pricing strategy and target market using micro and macroeconomics concepts. The economic forecast...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Zero 1741 Words | 5 Pages
Coca Cola
advertising team. The public relations process is composed of four well defined stages though which public relations professionals have to go... though in order to have a successful campaign. Stage one is "Defining Public Relations Problems," also known as SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats). The next stage in the public relations process is "Planning and Programming," this focuses mainly on "strategy". The third stage in the public relations process is "Taking action and Communicating...
Advertising, Coca-Cola, Cola 2724 Words | 7 Pages
Coca-Cola Back In Burma
opened doors for the world’s most recognizable beverage brand, Coca-Cola, to enter a rapidly growing consumer market.... However, Coca-Cola is challenged with developing a strategy to ensure direct investments are protected despite the Burmese legal system. Entering into the Burmese market poses many political, economic and legal issues. The important question that must be answered when analyzing this situation is how Coca-Cola will be able to mitigate the risks involved with the instability...
Decision making, Decision theory, Foreign direct investment 1696 Words | 6 Pages
Coca Cola
Coca Cola’s environment has been changing over time and there was increased competition from other beverage companies and local brands around... the world. With the ever-changing world, people were no longer satisfied with the norm and required new drinks that satisfied their needs. The environment that Coke was in changed right in front of their eyes and in an attempt to deal with the changing environment Coke’s strategy had to change. Coke shifted their strategy of focusing on just carbonated drinks...
Beer, Carbonation, Coca-Cola 1133 Words | 3 Pages
Coca-Cola Product Management
Product Management ‘Coca-Cola’ ‘Exploring a product, product line or product portfolio, in relation to a chosen company and... the positioning of the product in relation to market share, value and product lifecycle stage, considering tools and techniques that the company has or should employ to strengthen their market position.’ Jacob Parkinson N0444654 Content: | | * Product Management? | 2 | * ‘Coca-Cola’ | 3 | * Introduction | 3 | * New Product Development...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola C2, Diet Coke 2572 Words | 7 Pages
Coca-Cola and Its Evolution
Coca-Cola and its Evolution The Coca-Cola company started out as an insignificant one man... business and over the last one hundred and ten years it has grown into one of the largest companies in the world. The first operator of the company was Dr. John Pemberton and the current operator is Roberto Goizueta. Without societies help, Coca-Cola could not have become over a 50 billion dollar business. Coca-Cola was invented by Dr. John Pemberton, an Atlanta pharmacist. He concocted...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola C2, Cola 2197 Words | 6 Pages
Coca Cola Evaluation
The Coca Cola Company [Type the document subtitle] The Following involves the analysis of the costing techniques followed by... the company along with its Budgeting system. It also involves the Investment appraisal analysis for the given data. [Type the author name] [Pick the date] TABLE OF CONTENTS: CONTENTS: 1)INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………....03 2)FOUNDATION AND HISTORY…………………………………………………...03 3)COSTING TECHNIQUES…………………………………………………………..04 4)COCA COLA’S COSTING TECHNIQUE...
Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Inca Kola 2596 Words | 7 Pages
Coca Cola Marketing Analysis
Coca Cola Marketing Analysis Name: Course: Tutor: Date: In 1886, an Atlanta pharmacist by the name of Dr. John... S. Pemberton developed the first Coca-Cola Coke. The product was created by using flavored syrup and carbonated water at Pemberton’s local pharmacy. Frank M. Robinson, Dr. Pemberton’s business partner and bookkeeper, is credited for giving the product its name, Coca-Cola, as well as the trademark script on the product that is still used today. Prior to his death in 1888...
Coca-Cola 1686 Words | 8 Pages
Marketing and Coca Cola
Coca Cola Coca-Cola is one of the most widely used soft drink in the world. The company has very... efficient and extensive distribution system in the world. There is a great variety of brands offered by Coca-cola throughout the world like Diet coke, sprite, Fanta, Rc cola, Minute made etc. you can find the Coca-cola soft drinks anywhere in every country of the world. The 'Coca-Cola' brand has been adopted the strategy of global marketing. They are considering the whole world as single market place...
Advertising, Brand, Caffeine 1504 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola
Management Theory and Practices Abstract Jacksonville Consulting LLC is a small firm in Jacksonville Fl. In this paper we are using several... techniques to do research on the Coca Cola bottling Company. The research is to be used to evaluate the environmental issues and work force diversity of Coca Cola, also strategies and recommendations on these issues will be explored. Introduction: Jacksonville Consulting LLC is a small firm located in Jacksonville Florida. The President of the...
Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Inca Kola 1367 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola Business Paper
Production, Distribution, and Marketing of Coca Cola, by Lateifa Hope Lateifa Hope Organization & Management Fall 2011... December 2, 2011 The Production Raw Materials Coca-Cola consists of 94 % carbonated water. Carbon Dioxide acts as a mild preservative giving the beverage that special sparkle. Carbon dioxide is the main ingredient in all soft drinks because it’s non-toxic, cheap, and easy to liquefy. Sugar is the second main ingredient in Coca-Cola in which it makes up 7-12% of the beverage...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Cola 1562 Words | 17 Pages
Coca Cola: Unethical
In 2006, Coca-Cola made headlines in the United Kingdom for being “banned from students’ union over unethical practices.” The... students at Sussex University have decided that they can make a difference in exposing Coca-Cola for their unethical practices, unhealthy product, and the depletion of much needed ground water in rural Indian towns. They are not alone in believing that Coca-Cola contributes to the obesity of children; universities in the United States have also banned Coca-Cola, and a “quarter...
Coca-Cola, Ethics, Hazardous waste 1849 Words | 5 Pages
Coca Cola
Vision of Coca Cola Lula M Grundy Strategic Management 24 October, 2011 In an ever changing... economy, Coca-Cola continues to thrive in the business of non-alcoholic beverages. Its mission statement provides a purpose to endure without yielding and continue the company plans for the future. The vision statement renders the strategic roadmap that will guide the company to sustainable growth for the next ten years. The chosen values are adherently related to the mission...
Coca-Cola, Mission statement, Organization 1559 Words | 5 Pages
Coca Cola Supply Chain Management
through the process of supply chain such as Public v Private Primary, Secondary, Tertiary sectors, Financial, Retailing,... Manufacturing, Wholesale trades, Construction, Mining Quarrying/Farming, Services and Transport. Our lives moves and grows through supply chain management its part of a system in receiving our products, everyday goods, Raw materials, Packaging materials, Semi - finished goods, Finished goods , Machines & spares, Services and Office Equipment. It can be defined as a process of arranging...
Coca-Cola, Management, Manufacturing 1413 Words | 4 Pages
Coca-Cola Case Study
Coca-Cola May 17, 2013 I. Introduction Corporate Social Responsibility is the corporate initiative to assess and take... responsibility for the company's effects on the environment and impact on social welfare. The term generally applies to company efforts that go beyond what may be required by regulators or environmental protection groups. Corporate social responsibility may also be referred to as "corporate citizenship" and can involve incurring short-term costs that do not provide an...
Corporate social responsibility, Desalination, Litre 1586 Words | 5 Pages
Coca-Cola Amatil Feasible Study
PAGEREF _Toc273896654 \h 5 Competitor Strategies and Objectives PAGEREF _Toc273896655 \h 5 Introduction The aim of this report is to conduct an... investigation into the manufacturing processes and practices in the Brisbane area and the importance of efficiency in achieving business goals. The manufacturing industry ‘Coca Cola Amatil’ was used to observe and gather the primary information about the business operations management strategies and determine whether it is feasible for the company to...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Zero 1187 Words | 3 Pages
Application Process of Market Research (Coca-Cola Company)
Application Process of Market Research (Coca-Cola Company) Vas Gergő Teacher: Zsófia Kárász Whether... your goal is to expand into new markets, introduce a new product or service, or gauge customer reactions, even the smallest businesses can benefit from a simple but well-planned market-research study. Market research helps you to understand your market, your customers, your competitors, and larger industry trends. High-quality research will reveal details about your current customers and...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Market research 2260 Words | 7 Pages
The Coca-Cola Company - Standardisation & Adaptation
Abstract The Coca-Cola Company is the world’s leading beverage company, with markets in over 200 countries and over 1,100... brands under their portfolio. The company was founded in 1886 and is currently headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. This paper seeks to explain the impact of globalization on the standardization versus adaptation decision using examples from the Coca-Cola Company’s performance and strategies since their inception as a company. Introduction Globalisation can be defined...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola C2, Coca-Cola Zero 2222 Words | 13 Pages
Coca Cola Company
Assignment 3 The Coca Cola Company is a global business that operates on a local scale, in every community where the company... do business. There able to create a global reach with local focus because of the strength of Coca Cola System which comprises company and more than 250 bottling partners. The Coca Cola is not a single entity from legal or managerial perspective and the company does not own or control all of our bottling partners, while many view the company as simply Coca Cola the system operates...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Zero, Diet Coke 1619 Words | 5 Pages
coca cola price factors
Objectives The main objectives for the Coca-Cola Company are to be globally known as a business that conducts business... responsibility and ethically and to accelerate sustainable growth to operate in tomorrow's world. By having these objectives, it forms the foundation for companies in the decision making process. Strategy One of our goals is to maximize growth and profitability to create value for our shareholders. Our efforts to achieve this goal are based on: (1) transforming our commercial...
Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Distribution 1264 Words | 4 Pages
Tes of Coca Cola
Marion Hutagalung 130127025/ 03 PBU International Business Global Marketing presentation material Coca-Cola... Foundations The Coca-Cola Foundation Awards Over $19 Million to Communities Across the U.S. and Canada in 2010 The Coca-Cola Foundation, the philanthropic arm of The Coca-Cola Company, has awarded grants totaling $4 million to 38 organizations across the U.S. and Canada in the fourth quarter of 2010. In line with the Foundation's commitment to building sustainable communities...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Vanilla, Coca-Cola Zero 1905 Words | 7 Pages
Coca-Cola Wars
organizations profitability as compared to its competitors in the same industry by looking at 5 forces of stress. Coca-Cola... deals with a lot of pressure in the concentrate business, most specifically with Pepsi. I will analyze the 5 forces model to determine Coca-Colas overall profitability. The 5 forces model begins by looking at rivalry between established competitors. Coca-Cola has a direct rivalry with Pepsi in the fact that they make and distribute an almost identical product used for the...
Caffeine, Coca-Cola, Coffee 1166 Words | 3 Pages
Unethical Practices by Pepsi and Coca Cola
UNETHICAL PRACTICES BY COCA COLA AND PEPSI INTRODUCATION: AUTHORIZATION: This report is being submitted to DR. Muhammad... Khalili, Professor of business ethics, University of Wollongong in Dubai. The topic of the report is unethical issues of coca cola in comparison with Pepsi. Purpose of the Report: In today’s competitive world, many organizations are practicing unethical practices to increase their productivity and profit without caring for the consequences of their actions. In order to...
Coca-Cola, Cola, Diet Pepsi 2575 Words | 7 Pages
Capacity and Demand Planning in Coca- Cola
Profile of Coca-Cola Refreshments USA Briefly describe the line of business (product types etc.), noting the type of... environment (MTS, ATO or MTO). Coca-Cola is an American multinational beverage corporation that was found on 1892 by Asa Candler and is a manufacturer, retailer and marketer of non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups. Coca-Cola operate in a make- to -stock enviroment. This process can help to provide faster service to customers from available stock and lower costs considering...
Coca-Cola, Econometrics, Forecasting 678 Words | 3 Pages
Coca-Cola Goes Water Neutral
conflicts over water resources. The major source for of the Coca-Cola Company’s (TCCC) products is water. Even the company’s... CEO admits “that unless the communities where the company operated had access to water, they haven’t got a business” (Lawrence & Weber, 2011, p. 43). Coca-Cola and its bottlers using 80 billion gallons of water every year worldwide; in which two fifths goes into finished beverages and the rest use in the manufacturing process. TCCC partners with 300 bottlers and franchised with...
Drinking water, Hydrology, Water 1426 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola vs Pepsi in Bangladesh
Coca Cola vs Pepsi in Bangladesh Executive summary This report provides an analysis and evaluation of the Pepsi and... Coca cola in their customer segmentation models. This method of analysis includes Market Segmentation, Market Targeting, Market Positioning, as well as the Marketing Mix of Pepsi and Coca cola. The research draws attention to the Market segmentation of the both companies, while the soft drink industry has probably the widest and deepest customer base in the world and variable of Pepsi...
Coca-Cola, Cola, Diet Pepsi 2302 Words | 7 Pages
Business Elements of Pepsi & Coca Cola
Business Elements of Pepsi & Coca-Cola Introduction The following is a comparison and... contrast of the business elements based on a number of business elements like management and operations and on environmental aspects using SWOT and PEST. The two organizations chosen are Pepsi and Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola is a worldwide corporation that manufactures many different beverages. They also manufacture, distribute, and sell concentrates and syrups that are based in...
Coca-Cola, Cola, Management 1622 Words | 6 Pages
Coca Cola
Case Study Coca Cola Closing Case Chapter 12 Done By Desyani Rosadi National University June 14, 2011 Q&A 1. Why... do you think that Roberto Goizueta switched from a strategy that emphasized localization towards one that emphasized global standardization? what were the benefits of such a strategy localization is the process of adapting a product or service to a particular language, culture, and desired local "look-and-feel." Ideally, a product or service is developed so that localization...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla, Coca-Cola Cherry 1135 Words | 4 Pages
coca cola
The Coca Cola company is a long standing producer of flavored drinks. They are considered by many to be the original... cola drink. The drink was created in 1886 by a pharmacist named John Pemberton. Coca-cola is sold today in over 200 countries and has over 500 brands. The company has sustainability measures in place and believes in philanthropic endeavors. The company offers internships to up-and-coming business students looking for an opportunity to work with one of the largest and most storied companies...
Berkshire Hathaway, Coca-Cola, Diet Coke 984 Words | 3 Pages
Coca cola
Introduction Coca-Cola is a carbonated soft drink sold in stores, restaurants and vending machines internationally. It is... produced by The Coca-Cola Company in Atlanta, Georgia, and is often referred to simply as Coke or (in European and American countries) as cola, pop, or in some parts of the U.S., soda. Originally intended as a patent medicine when it was invented in the late 19th century by John Pemberton, Coca-Cola was bought out by businessman whose marketing tactics led Coke to its dominance...
Coca-Cola, Coca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla, Coca-Cola brands 1204 Words | 4 Pages
Coca Cola in Africa
COCA-COLA IN AFRICA THE DECISION Table of Content Integrative Cases Study – Page 3 Case Study Analyses –... Page 4 References – Page 6 Integrative Case 1.1 Coca-Cola in Africa 1. Why is Coca-Cola so interested in Africa, which is typically regarded as part of the base of the global economic pyramid? Coca-Cola is an organization that has been around since 1892. Coca-Cola is looking for new emerging growth markets and Africa has proven to be that. Combined, 12...
Africa, African Union, Case study 680 Words | 3 Pages
Coca Cola
Case Review #2 – Coca-Cola 1. Discuss the attitudes and related beliefs toward Coca-Cola of... intensely brand-loyal customers (perhaps like those who were upset by the New Coke in 1985). How might their attitudes and beliefs differ from those of less involved, less loyal consumers? What marketing implications would these differences have? Once a person’s salient beliefs are activated, it could influence a person’s preference for a certain brand (Olson). So having fond memories of Coke definitely...
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Here's my attempt at looking at Coca cola’s behavior using the theories listed: Egoism Coca cola also did not... look at the bigger impact on the German economy when it closed 7 plants in Eastern Germany. 2000 jobs were lost which impacted unemployment; however coca cola focused on the bigger picture that machinery was able to produce more at a lower cost by centralizing bottling plants. Coke focused on the global picture rather than the local situation of their factory in India. It tried to show...
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Marketing Management Introduction: Marketing- It means buying & selling (exchanging) of goods and services. It is a process of innovating... new goods & services, promoting it and finally delivers to the ultimate customers and firms. It is a process of aiming the resources and motive of the firm on environmental factors. (Keegan & Schlegelmilch, 2001). Global Marketing: It is a process of planning and carrying on the trading activities across the different countries for exchanging of goods & services...
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An Effective Organisational Structure - Coca-Cola Company background The Coca-Cola Company is... the world’s largest beverage company, refreshing consumers with nearly 500 sparkling and still brands. Coca-Cola is recognised as the world’s most valuable brand. The company’s portfolio includes 12 other billion dollar brands, including Diet Coke, Fanta, Sprite, Coca-Cola Zero, Vitaminwater, Powerade, Minute Maid and Georgie coffee. Globally, Coca-Cola is the number one provider of sparkling beverages...
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| Georgia |
Tuber melanosporum is a variety of which luxury food? | Why was Coca Cola invented ?
Why was COCA COLA invented ?
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This is an extract of the article, with small photos. You will find the complete article with full-sized photos in my e-book View America: South Atlantic - Part 2
In the travel series View America, South Atlantic - Part 2 covers Georgia, Virginia, and West Virginia. It is not a traditional travelogue, but a non-commercial and more or less objective chronicle of an in-depth exploration of these states. Each state is described with its own brief historical background and its main sights, tourist attractions and points of interest.
My book does not describe lodgings, restaurants or entertainment, except where these may interact with the narrative. It is illustrated with more than 100 full-sized photos.
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Anaesthetics in the 1800's
John Pemberton, the inventor of the Coca Cola syrup, had been severely wounded in April 1865, during the Battle of Columbus, Georgia. Like many wounded veterans in those days he became addicted to morphine. Being a brilliant chemist, he searched for a cure to his addiction, or at least a more modern substitute. Necessity is the mother of invention...
At the time, the only decent anaesthetic was laudanum, an opium derivative, that slowly began to be replaced by morphine, another opiate, that came out after 1820. The pharmaceutical options of that time were very limited, and soon morphine was mixed with everything imaginable : water, tea, whiskey, wine, brandy, but also more esoteric substances such as hashish, cayenne pepper, ether, chloroform, or belladonna.
Morphine became immensely popular, because ailments, pain, cholera and diarrhoea were simply everyday living conditions. Opiates were widely used as a soporific or relief for colds and pain. Furthermore, the substance was extremely cheap, being taxed as a medicine and not as an alcoholic beverage. It was actually less expensive than gin or wine ! But the enthusiastic use of these habit-forming drugs sparked an enormous and world wide drug addiction problem.
Vin Mariani
Around 1858, the prominent Italian neurologist Paolo Mantegazza visited South America, and witnessed the use of coca by the natives. Het tested it himself, and in 1859 he published a scientific paper with the flowery title "Sulle Virtù Igieniche e Medicinali della Coca, e sugli Alimenti Nervosi in Generale" (About the hygienic and medicinal virtues of coca, and about nervous nutrients in general). One of his observations was that the cocaine in coca leaves seemed to stimulate the cognitive processes.
Around 1863, Angelo Mariani, a French Corsican chemist, had read Mantegazza’s paper and became intrigued with coca and its financial potential. He concocted a beverage called Vin Tonique Mariani, which was made from Bordeaux wine and coca leaves. It was to be used as a substitute for the opiates.
Vin Mariani originally contained 6 mg of cocaine per fluid ounce of wine, but the wine that was exported contained 7.2 mg per ounce, in order to compete with the higher cocaine content of similar drinks in the United States. Vin Mariani became extremely popular in Europe, with famous users such as Queen Victoria, Thomas Edison , Pope Leo XIII, and Pope Pius X. Pope Leo even awarded a Vatican gold medal to the wine, and publicly endorsed it !
Coca Cola
With the growing concern about drug addiction and alcoholism, in 1885 Atlanta enacted Temperance Legislation to curb the use of alcohol. Pemberton again began experimenting to produce a non-alcoholic alternative to his French Wine Coca, and he ended up with a syrup, made of cane sugar and extracts of coca leaves and cola nuts (caffeine). The syrup was then diluted with water, and cooled with ice cubes. Coca Cola was born !
This formula contained 8.46 mg of cocaine, but its effects were enhanced by the caffeine from the cola nut. The drink was originally advertised as a cure for morphine and opium addictions, among a wealth of other health benefits.
On May 8, 1886, the soft drink was first sold to the public at the soda fountain in Jacob's Pharmacy in Atlanta, for five cents a glass. About nine servings were sold each day, and the first year's sales added up to a grand total of about $50. On May 29, Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage in the Atlanta Journal.
The difficult road for ownership of the Coca Cola formula
The dates of Pemberton's partnerships and companies, that led to the Current Coca Cola company, are hard to trace and very contradictory. Furthermore, in 1910, Candler had the earliest records of the company burned, obscuring its legal origins even more.
Pemberton never realized the potential of the beverage he created. He gradually sold stock to various partners, such as Margaret Dozier, Woolfolk Walker and Asa Candler, who was the owner of a pharmacy and drugstore.
In 1887, the company was again changed to Pemberton Medicine Company, a partnership between Pemberton, J.C. Mayfield, A.O. Murphey, C.O. Mullahy and E.H. Bloodworth.
In July 1888, Candler sold his beverage under the names "Yum Yum" and "Koke", but both failed to catch on.
By 1892, Candler's marketing genius had boosted the sales of Coca-Cola syrup nearly tenfold ! With his brother, John S. Candler, John Pemberton's former partner Frank Robinson and two other associates, Candler incorporated the (second and current) Coca-Cola Company, with an initial capital of $100,000. The trademark "Coca-Cola" was registered in the US States Patent Office on January 31, 1893.
On 12 March 1894, Coca-Cola was sold in bottles for the first time !
| i don't know |
Which female swimmer won six Olympic Gold Medals for East Germany in 1988? | Kristin Otto | German swimmer | Britannica.com
German swimmer
Michael Phelps
Kristin Otto, (born Feb. 7, 1966, Leipzig , E.Ger.), German swimmer, the first female athlete to win six gold medals at a single Olympic Games .
Swimmer Kristin Otto showing off the six gold medals she won at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, South …
© Getty Images
Otto entered a special sports school at age 11 after East Germany’s comprehensive scouting program identified her as a swimming prospect. In 1982 she set her first world record as a member of her country’s 4 × 100-metre medley relay team. A favourite to win a medal at the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles , Otto was unable to compete because of East Germany’s boycott . Later that year she cracked a vertebra and spent nine months in a neck brace; although physicians advised her to give up her sport, she returned to compete at the 1986 world championships in Madrid, winning four gold and two silver medals.
At the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul, South Korea , Otto entered six events and won gold medals in all of them. Her individual victories included the 100-metre butterfly, 50-metre freestyle, 100-metre freestyle, and 100-metre backstroke. She also swam the lead leg in East Germany’s 4 × 100-metre freestyle relay victory and the backstroke leg in the 4 × 100-metre individual medley relay. Prior to Otto’s achievement, no woman had won more than four gold medals at a single Olympics.
Otto was considered one of the most versatile female swimmers, winning world or Olympic championships in the backstroke, butterfly, freestyle, and individual medley. She retired after the 1988 Olympics.
Learn More in these related articles:
| Kristin Otto |
In which Scottish city is the Robert Gordon University? | Kristin Otto Bio, Stats, and Results | Olympics at Sports-Reference.com
Medals: 6 Gold (6 Total)
Biography
Kristin Otto, of the German Democratic Republic, won six gold medals at one Games (1988) to set a women's record for any sport at the Olympics. In Seoul Otto uniquely won gold medals in three different strokes, freestyle, backstroke and butterfly, and her overall performance at the 1988 Games ranks as one of history's greatest sporting achievements. Her gold medals came in the 50 freestyle, 100 freestyle, 100 backstroke, 100 butterfly, and both relays. In 1987 at the European Championships she had won five of the same six events, missing only the 50, in which she did not compete. At the World Championships (1982, 1986) she won seven gold medals. Otto set two individual world records and contributed to four relay world records in her career.
Personal Bests: 50 freestyle – 25.49 (1988); 100 freestyle – 54.93 (1994); 100 backstroke – 1:00.89 (1988); 100 butterfly – 59.00 (1988).
Results
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The Davis Cup is a challenge trophy contested by men in which sport? | Davis Cup - Tennis Topics - ESPN
Past Winners
The Davis Cup is the premier international team competition in men's tennis, contested annually by squads from countries throughout the world in knockout format to determine each year's champion. First played in 1900 (between the United States and the British Isles) and originally called the International Tennis Challenge Trophy, the Davis Cup has grown to include more than 130 nations competing for the annual prize, named for one of the event's founders who commissioned the trophy.
Twelve nations have won the Davis Cup over its 110-year history, with the United States capturing the most titles (32), followed by Australia (with 28). The Czech Repulic team defeated Spain in the 2012 Davis Cup final round to win its first title since 1980.
While teams from more than 100 countries compete annually in Davis Cup play, only 16 nations qualify for the elite World Group that determines each year's champion. All other countries compete in various groups of zonal play or the World Group playoffs, earning points to improve their standing within the International Tennis Federation's ranking system.
Those rankings help to determine the seedings for the World Group, with the previous year's finalists serving as the top two seeds for the initial round of 16 within the World Group -- the first of four weekends spaced throughout the year that narrow the field down in knockout format through best-of-five match "ties."
Winners of that first round of 16 move on to the quarterfinals and ensure their place in the following year's World Group, while the losers fall into the World Group playoffs to face zonal winners for a place in the top tier for the next year.
In the World Group, World Group playoffs, and Groups I and II of zonal play, each round or "tie" is contested in a best-of-five match format, and is played over three days (usually Friday to Sunday). On the first day (Friday) there are two singles matches, and then the doubles match takes place on the following day. The reverse singles take place on the final day (Sunday). Each of the five matches is worth one point, with the team earning the most points capturing the tie. All individual matches are best of five sets, unless one team has won the first three matches. Then the teams will often agree to a best-of-three sets scenario (for remaining singles matches).
Home teams within the competition are determined by the draw. In matchups between countries who have played each other in the past, the "away" team from the most recent matchup between the two is deemed the home side and allowed to choose a location for the tie.
The draw also specifies which weeks are set up during the year for Davis Cup play, with all of the quarterfinals usually played the same weekend in July and each of the semifinals held simultaneously in September. The finalists meet in December of each year to square off for one of sports' most historic prizes.
The idea behind the competition that would become known as the Davis Cup emerged in 1899, when a group of Harvard tennis players suggested a contest between players from the United States and the British Isles. Dwight F. Davis, one of the Harvard men, suggested a tournament format and commissioned a trophy for the initial challenge event, to be hosted by the Longwood Cricket Club in Boston.
Davis was a member of the U.S. team in that first competition, played in 1900 and known as the International Lawn Tennis Challenge Trophy. The Americans triumphed by a 3-0 score, and then took the second challenge event two years later in Brooklyn, N.Y.
The Brits won the competition for the first time in 1903, in their third attempt to top the Americans. France and then Australasia (comprised of players from Australia and New Zealand) joined in Davis Cup play the following two years, with Australasia becoming the third nation to win the event in 1907.
Although the first World War kept the Davis Cup from being played from 1915 to 1919, the competition's popularity continued to grow as additional countries became involved in the annual competition. In those early years, the Davis Cup's defending champion advanced directly to the final round to await an opponent that survived among the rest of the participating nations. With the event attracting more countries, organizers in 1923 split up the participating nations into two zones -- the America zone and Europe zone -- with the winners of each zone facing each other to determine which would meet the defending champion in the final round.
During that decade, the U.S. team won seven straight titles from 1920 to 1926 (a record for successful defenses that still stands). The next year marked the beginning of another country's dominance, as the "Four Musketeers" of France captured the first of six consecutive Davis Cup titles. That stretch not only ended the dominance of Australasia, Great Britain and the U.S., but saw the finals move from grass courts to the clay (of Stade Roland Garros in Paris) for the first time.
Fred Perry led Great Britain to four consecutive title victories in the mid-1930s, before Davis Cup competition was again put on hold (due to World War II) from 1940 through 1945. Once the event returned to the annual sports schedule, the United States and Australia began to dominate the competition and were the only countries to claim Davis Cup titles between 1937 and 1973.
The competition's structure was revised again during that period, as the increase in participating nations saw a separate "Eastern Zone" added in 1955, while European countries were split into two distinct zones a decade later. And by the 1972, the defending champion no longer advanced directly to the final round and was required to compete from the opening rounds each year.
South Africa, Sweden and Italy captured their first Davis Cup titles in the 1970s, and the Czech Republic earned its only championship in 1980. In the following year, the tiered competition of a World Group and various levels of zonal play established in 1981.
Sweden won the Davis Cup three times in the 1980s, advancing to seven straight finals from 1983 to 1989. In the last two years of that stretch, the Swedes were defeated by Germany, which earned its first-ever title in 1988 and then became just the third nation to repeat as champions after the abolition of the challenge round in 1972.
The 1990s saw another increase in participating countries, with 1993 marking the first time that 100 nations took part in the competition. Three years later, the Davis Cup was won in the fifth set of the fifth rubber (of the final) for the first time, when France defeated Sweden.
The competition's celebrated its centennial in 1999, with traditional power Australia claiming another championship. Spain and Russia each lifted the trophy for the first time within the next three years, before the Aussies claimed a 28th Davis Cup title in 2004.
In 2005, Croatia became the 12th nation -- and first unseeded team -- to win the Davis Cup by defeating Slovak Republic 3-2 in the World Group Final. Two years later, the U.S. claimed a record 32nd Davis Cup after topping Russia in the final round ending a 12-year gap between Davis Cup successes, the longest in the nation's history.
Rafael Nadal and Spain captured back-to-back Davis Cup titles in 2008 and 2009, but the two-time defending champions were knocked out of the 2010 competition in the quarterfinal round by France, which then fell to Serbia in the final round. The Spanish team then regained the trophy in 2011, defeating Argentina in the final round to win its fifth overall title and third within a four-year period.
All-Time Davis Cup Champions
Leander Paes: "100% available for Davis Cup selection"
Gaurav Kalra in Melbourne
Indian doubles star rejects AITA's suggestion to consider retirement after tie in February, says he is ready to play under Mahesh Bhupathi.
Czechs won't have Tomas Berdych in Davis Cup against Australia
Associated Press
Tomas Berdych says he won't return to Melbourne next month to play for the Czech Republic in the first round of Davis Cup against Australia.
Davis Cup perfect stage to retire: AITA tells Paes
Susan Ninan
AITA wants 43-year-old to go out on a high and avoid being dropped after next month's NZ tie.
Aljas Bedene considered quitting tennis over Davis Cup snub
PA Sport
Aljaz Bedene has revealed he almost quit tennis last year in the wake of the decision to forbid him from representing Great Britain in the Davis Cup.
Swiss team without Roger Federer, Stan Wawrinka in U.S. for Davis Cup
Associated Press
Roger Federer and Stan Wawrinka will not be with Switzerland when the team travels to the United States for the Davis Cup next month, which was expected as Olympic eligibility is not a factor.
| Tennis |
How many stars are on the national flag of Turkey? | 5 Most Famous Tennis Trophies
5 Most Famous Tennis Trophies
December 28th, 2010
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The sport of tennis enjoys many proud traditions and is often thought to be one of the most dignified sports. The trophies of each of the Grand Slam tournaments similarly carry a proud heritage and are symbolic for a variety of reasons.
Wimbledon
Wimbledon is the oldest and the most prestigious of all the tennis tournaments that take place around the world. Dating back to 1877, the tournament has taken place at the All England Tennis Club in Wimbledon, south west London. One of the distinguishing features of this tournament is that matches are played on grass courts.
For two weeks in the European summer, numerous singles and doubles matched are played on courts at the All England Tennis Club with all grand finals being played on the main court. Pending fine weather, the ladies’ final takes place on the final Saturday and the men’s final on the final Sunday of the tournament.
Trophies are awarded to those who win the men’s, women’s, doubles and juniors events, but it is only the victors of the men’s singles and ladies’ single titles that are awarded their trophies on the prestigious Number 1 Court.
Men’s Singles Champion:
The men’s singles champion is presented with the Gentlemen’s Singles Trophy, a silver gilt cup which was first presented to the first winner of the Wimbledon tournament in 1877. The inscription “The All England Lawn Tennis Club Single Handed Champion of the World” appears on the cup.
This trophy is 18.5 inches high and has a diameter of 7.5 inches. A classic design with handles on either side, the cup also has a raised foot lid with a pineapple on top. A head wearing a winged helmet also appears beneath each of the handles.
Since 1949, miniature replicas of the cup have been given to the men successful in becoming the Wimbledon men’s singles champion. However, on the day of the final the victor is always presented with the original trophy.
Ladies’ Singles Champion:
A silver salver known as either the ‘Rosewater Dish’ or ‘Venus Rosewater Dish’ is awarded to the woman who wins the ladies’ singles title.
This trophy is 18.75 inches in diameter and features mythological figures. It was first presented in 1886 and is believed to be a copy of a pewter creation of Caspar Enderlein which is now housed in the Louvre in Paris.
At Wimbledon, the trophies are usually presented by The Duke of Kent, who is the President of the All England Tennis Club.
Australian Open
The Australian Open is the first of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments held each year. Originally played on grass, the tournament was first held in 1905 and, since 1987, has been played on hard courts.
Men’s and women’s singles, men’s, women’s and mixed doubles, as well as juniors, wheelchair, exhibition and legends’ matches are all played as part of this tournament which takes place in Melbourne.
High attendance levels are characteristic of the Australian Open and the 2010 tournament achieved an overall attendance of 653,860 people. In 2010, the men’s singles title was won by Roger Federer and the women’s singles title was claimed by Serena Williams.
Men’s Singles Champion:
The winner of the men’s singles title is awarded with the Norman Brookes trophy for men. Norman Brookes was President of the Lawn Tennis Association for more than 28 years and a grand Slam Winner in the early 1900s.
Enjoying immense success at Australian and international tournaments, Brookes experienced his greatest successes at Wimbledon. He was the first left handed player and the first player from abroad to win the Wimbledon men’s singles title and, in 1939 he was knighted for his outstanding service to tennis.
Sir Norman Everard Brookes was inducted into the Tennis Hall of Fame in 1977.
Women’s Singles Champion:
At the Australian Open, the Daphne Akhurst trophy for women is awarded to the women’s singles champion.
This trophy honours Daphne Akhurst Cozens who impressed the world with her talent and an amazing run of singles and doubles titles between 1925 and 1930 (winning each title five times).
Tragically, Daphne Akhurst died at the age of 29.
Davis Cup
Distinct from the two Grand Slam tournaments previously mentioned, the Davis Cup is not a grand slam but an international team tennis event. Run by the International Tennis Federation, this event is contested between teams of male players from competing countries. A knock out format is used. In 1900 this competition began as a competition between Great Britain and the United States; 134 nations entered the event in 2005.
The trophy for the Davis Cup was most recently won by Spain. This trophy measures 110cm tall and is a silver cup on plinth. The Davis Cup trophy is also known as Dwight’s Pot.
The sport of tennis is certainly steeped in history and tradition and correspondingly, many of the best known tournaments of this sport have symbolic trophies.
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| i don't know |
Which artist said ‘Everything you can imagine is real’? | Everything you can imagine is real | High Existence
Everything you can imagine is real
Nakedape (@nakedape) 3 years, 9 months ago
What do you think Pablo Picasso meant when he said this?
April 4, 2013 at 6:39 am
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D.I. (26) (@thekingofthenorth) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
perhaps that our imagination is as true a medium of reality as the world beyond our minds. in a sense it comes down to the fact that nothing that we experience is really whats going on, just a sketch of the whole picture. so our perception is real to us and so to is our imagination. although, in a sense, neither of them are real.
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a Lotus Blossoms. (139)a philosopher, a musician, a curious mind ... (@ancientmystic) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
@nakedape , everything you see every day that is manmade had to be imagined before it could be built, and in being built, it left the land of thought and imagination to be born into the physical world. Thus anything you can imagine, you can create. Our minds are gardens where beautiful things grow.
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HJD (4)just a girl in a crazy messed up world, lo... (@Hayweeday) 2 years, 7 months ago ago
I really like this reply. It was a far better description of what i was thinking.
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Anonymous (2,653) (@) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
Maybe he followed the idea that if you can imagine it then it’s part of real life. In that sense it’s true. If he said that everything you can imagine is actual everyone would disagree.
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Patrick Phillips (19) (@crossingtheeventhorizon) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
The imagination is the mind functioning on a non-local quantum mechanical level. It is “seeing” from a higher dimensional perspective.
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@crossingtheeventhorizon , Well said.
I’d like to add that when you imagine something, especially something of you personally doing it, your brain actually fires the same way if you were to actually do it. So in essence, imagining to walk and actually walking is the same thing to your brain. Not to say your body, but your brain.
I think..someone correct me if this is bullshit.
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Dreamer (25) (@heartbeat) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
@nakedape , i would say everything you can imagine is already existing somewhere, we only don’t know where in this reality on planet earth or in another reality, but it has to come from somewhere, the imagination…
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Anonymous (68) (@) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
@nakedape , when you draw a dragon. is it real? ofc it is real! he is on that paper. lol
same with the thoughts. if they happened they are real :P
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drazzilblazin (99)currently adding everyone i can find livin... (@drazzilblazin) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
yes, everything you can imagine is real, but it is to what extent is it real? to what extent does it exist?how far along the scale from nothing into physical does it penetrate? what is real but only the experiencing of something
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Shivi Physcuman (0)A fifteen year old girl in India in an int... (@shivi666) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
Actually, this is something that has intrigued me for quite a while. Everyone perceives things differently, and that is the reality for us. But then how do we know what reality actually is like? For example, is the green I see the green you see? Can we really something is real without someone to perceive it, because we don’t really know what it actually is like, everything is just inside our mind, just memories and perceptions in our brains. What if it isn’t real, just a mass hallucination?
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Jason (68)Unknown, (@jasonmctw) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
Everything you can imagine is real. I would say once you imagine something it exists in your mind. Everything around you is perceve by your mind. Who can really tell the difference? Is there a difference?
@shivi666 , I was also thinking about that kind of idea. But if everyone has their own perceptions of the world around them and everyones is slightly different does this mean we have our own universe within us?
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drazzilblazin (99)currently adding everyone i can find livin... (@drazzilblazin) 3 years, 9 months ago ago
@jasonmctw , yes, but you don’t have the universe, you ARE that universe ( you-niverse), through which you translate yourself through your physical form as a way to experience this type of reality, in a similar way you translate yourself through the medium of a computer limited by the capabilities and functionality of it to experience the internet and other computer things
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Suereyya (164) (@drapetomania) 2 years, 7 months ago ago
It’s a tough question which can be answered in numerous ways – and that’s okay. I think the point of such quotes is not to find an absolute, true meaning behind it, but to interpret it in such a way that it is of meaning to you.
Since the phrase is from Picasso I would assume that he was referring to art; i’m not much of an artist and thus can’t make a whole lot of sense of it in that case.
I don’t think its meant in a “whatever stupid thing your beautifully twisted mind can come up with, like pink sheep living on a planet made of wool, does exist, somewhere” sort of way.
So, you would have to define “real”. In this case, to me, “real” doesn’t imply that something exists exactly as it is in my imagination. It only means that I believe it’s true, even if no one can prove its existence. What’s real to me, must not necessarily be real to you.
In my opinion, it means that whatever concept or idea comes to you, is real from your point of view. If you imagine that there’s some sort of force out there in the Universe, putting a sense in our existence and connecting each one of us, then it is real – maybe not to all of us, but certainly to you. It has a lot to do with believing in something and having faith in it.
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Kris (327)within all things, centering them, and wit... (@kjbaran) 2 years, 7 months ago ago
Because everything real is imagined. We exist as a thought-wave universe where your body is the electric record of your thinking. Verified.
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Whit (48) (@hwwbaseball) 2 years, 6 months ago ago
In an extreme such as drug induced state of mind, everything that you experience is just as real as your sober mind. Its all just on what perspective you give these many almost mini realities that make up the experience of life.
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MonkeyZazu (1,864)an explorer of consciousness and the metap... M (@monkeyzazu) 2 years, 6 months ago ago
In the plane of mental existence, everything you create or give form to is real (exist).
Even if you can’t express or convey the thought form in a tangible way, in which it can be perceived through the senses, the abstraction exist regardless.
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Almeida (304) (@xetado) 2 years, 4 months ago ago
He had a really comprehensive idea of reality, that’s it.
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Ray (4)A science fiction and fantasy fan and nove... (@brainofmorbius) 2 years, 4 months ago ago
Well, he took what he imagined, and created paintings out of it. I suppose any act of creation first comes from the imagination, whether it is building a bridge, writing a novel, starting a business…
So everything we imagine is what civilization itself has been built upon.
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Matt (18)I am studying Architecture My parents mad... (@mockingmatt) 2 years, 3 months ago ago
that’s simple. he meant the concept of perception.
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landisian (7)This is who I am. I'm a thinker. Psycho... (@landisian) 1 year, 10 months ago ago
You can’t imagine something that’s not real. We have a limited imagination. We can not imagine something that can not be so. Try to imagine a 4th primary color that looks nothing like the other three. You can’t.
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Kris (327)within all things, centering them, and wit... (@kjbaran) 1 year, 10 months ago ago
Imagining anything makes it real. Ever taken DMT? My theory is that what we interpret as “imagination” is actually a biological portal into the infinite.
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History of France
Military history of France">Military history
Colonial history
Timeline of French history
Portal France
The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right. The chronological era articles (highlighted in blue) address broad French historical, cultural and sociological developments. The dynasty and regime articles deal with the specific political and governmental regimes in France. The history of other cultural topics such as French art and literature can be found on their own pages. For information on today's France, see France . For other information, go to Portal:France.
Prehistory
Cave painting in Lascaux.
The Neanderthals , a member of the homo genus, began to occupy Europe from about 200,000 BCE, but seem to have died out by about 30,000 years ago, presumably out-competed by the modern humans during a period of cold weather. The earliest modern humans — Homo sapiens — entered Europe (including France) around 50,000 years ago (the Upper Palaeolithic). The caves paintings of Lascaux and Gargas (Gargas in the Hautes-Pyrénées) as well as the Carnac stones are remains of the local prehistoric activity.
Gaul
Covering large parts of modern day France, Belgium, and northwest Germany, Gaul was inhabited by many Celtic tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and who spoke the Gaulish language. On the lower Garonne the people spoke an archaic language related to Basque, the Aquitanian language. The Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded Tolosa (Toulouse).
Long before any Roman settlements, Greek navigators settled in what would become Provence. The Phoceans founded important cities such as Massalia (Marseilles) and Nicaea (Nice), bringing them in to conflict with the neighboring Celts and Ligurians. The Phoceans were great navigators such as Pytheas who was born in Marseilles. The Celts themselves often fought with Aquitanians and Germans, and a Gaulish war band led by Brennus invaded Rome circa 393 or 388 BC following the Battle of the Allia. However Gaulish tactics would not evolve and the Romans would learn to counter them, the Gauls would from then be defeated in battles such as Sentinum and Telamon.
When he fought the Romans, Hannibal Barca recruited several Gaulish mercenaries which fought on his side at Cannae . It was this Gaulish participation that caused Provence to be annexed in 122 BC by the Roman Republic. Later, the Consul of Gaul - Julius Caesar - conquered all of Gaul. Despite Gaulish opposition led by Vercingetorix, the Overking of the Warriors, Gauls succumbed to the Roman onslaught; the Gauls had some success at first at Gergovia, but were ultimately defeated at Alesia . The Romans founded cities such as Lugdunum (Lyon) and Narbonensis (Narbonne).
Roman Gaul
Vercingetorix surrenders to Julius Caesar after Alesia . Painting by Lionel-Noël Royer, 1899.
Gaul was divided into several different provinces. The Romans displaced populations in order to prevent local identities to become a threat to the Roman control. Thus, many Celts were displaced in Aquitania or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul. There was a strong cultural evolution in Gaul under the Roman Empire, the most obvious one being the replacement of the Gaulish language by Vulgar Latin . It has been argued the similarities between the Gaulish and Latin languages favoured the transition. Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries and the Celtic culture was then replaced by the Gallo-Roman culture.
Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the passage of time. For instance Marcus Antonius Primus, an important general of the Roman Empire, and Emperor Claudius were both born in Gaul, as were general Gnaeus Julius Agricola and emperor Caracalla; Antoninus Pius also came from a gaulish family. In the decade following Valerian’s capture by the Persians in 260 Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire, which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni, entered Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian's victory at Chalons in 274.
Gaul soldiers.
A migration of Celts appeared in the 4th century in Armorica. They were led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc and came from Britain. They spoke the now extinct British language which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages.
In 418 the Aquitanian province was given to the Goths in exchange for their support against the Vandals. Those Goths had previously sacked Rome in 410 and established a capital in Toulouse. The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all the barbarian raids, and Flavius Aëtius had to use these tribes against each other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used Huns against Burgundians and these mercenaries destroyed Worms, killed king Gunther, and pushed the Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by Aëtius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila became a greater threat, and Aëtius used the Visigoths against the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Chalons, in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila.
The Roman Empire was on the verge of collapsing. Aquitania was definitely abandoned to the Visigoths, who would soon conquer a significant part of southern Gaul as well as most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Burgundians claimed their own kingdom, and northern Gaul was practically abandoned to the Franks. Aside of the Germanic peoples the Vascones entered Wasconia from the Pyrenees and the Bretons formed three kingdoms in Armorica: Domnonia, Cornouaille and Broërec.
Frankish kingdoms (486-987)
Battle of Tours . This battle is often considered of macro-importance in European and Islamic history.
In 486, Clovis I, leader of the Salian Franks, defeated Syagrius at Soissons and subsequently united most of northern and central Gaul under his rule. Clovis then recorded a succession of victories against other Germanic tribes such as the Alamanni at Tolbiac. In 496, he adopted Christianity . This gave him greater legitimacy and power over his Christian subjects and granted him clerical support against the Visigoths. He defeated Alaric II at Vouillé in 507 and annexed Aquitaine, and thus Toulouse, into his Frankish kingdom. The Goths retired to Toledo in what would become Spain . Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian Dynasty but his kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among heirs, so four kingdoms emerged: Paris , Orleans, Soissons, and Rheims. When the majordome of Austrasia Pepin of Herstal defeated his Neustrian counterpart at Tertry the Merovingian dynasty eventually lost effective power to their successive mayors of the palace (majordomes). The House of Herstal was to become the Carolingian dynasty. By this time Muslims invaders had conquered Hispania and were threatening the Frankish kingdoms. Duke Odo the Great defeated a major invading force at Toulouse in 721 but failed to repel a raiding party in 732. The mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeated that raiding party at the Battle of Tours (actually the battle between Tours and Poitiers) and earned respect and power within the Frankish Kingdom. The assumption of the crown in 751 by Pippin the Short (son of Charles Martel) established the Carolingian dynasty as Kings of the Franks.
The coronation of Charlemagne
The new rulers' power reached its fullest extent under Pippin's son Charlemagne . With Charlemagne German influences become paramount in France. In 771 Charlemagne reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of division, subsequently conquering the Lombards under Desiderius in what is now northern Italy (774), incorporating Bavaria (788) into his realm, defeating the Avars of the Danubian plain (796), advancing the frontier with Islamic Spain as far south as Barcelona (801), and subjugating Lower Saxony (804) after prolonged campaigning.
In recognition of his successes and his political support for the Papacy , Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans, or Roman Emperor in the West, by Pope Leo III in 800. Charlemagne's son Louis I (emperor 814-840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive Louis I's death. Two of his sons — Charles the Bald and Louis the German — swore allegiance to each other against their brother — Lothair I — in the Oaths of Strasbourg, and the empire was divided among Louis's three sons ( Treaty of Verdun, 843). After a last brief reunification (884-887), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western realm which was to form the basis of the future French kingdom. The eastern realm, which would become Germany, elected the Saxon dynasty of Henry the Fowler.
Under the Carolingians, the kingdom was ravaged by Viking raiders. In this struggle some important figures such as Count Odo of Paris and his brother King Robert rose to fame and became kings. This emerging dynasty, whose members were called the Robertines, was the predecessor of the Capetian Dynasty, who were descended from the Robertines. Led by Rollo, the Vikings had settled in Normandy and were granted the land first as counts and then as dukes by King Charles the Simple. The people that emerged from the interactions between Vikings and the mix of Franks and Gallo-Romans became known as the Normans.
See also:
Early Middle Ages
France in the Middle-Ages (987-1453)
France was a very decentralised state during the middle age. The authority of the king was more religious than administrative. The eleventh century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states like Normandy, Flanders or Languedoc enjoyed a local authority comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The Capetians, as they were descended from the Robertines, were former powerful princes themselves who had successfully removed the weak and unfortunate Carolingian kings. The Carolingians Kings had nothing more than a royal title when the Capetian Kings added their principality to that title. The Capetians in a way had this double status of King and Prince, as king they held the Crown of Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personnal fief best known as Île-de-France. The fact the Capetians both held lands as prince as well as the title of King gave them a complicated status, thus they were involved in the struggle for power within France as princes but also gave them a religious authority over the Church of France. However and despite the fact the Capetians kings often treated other princes more as enemies and allies than subordonates his royal title was often recognised yet not often respected. The authority was so weak in some remote places that bandits were the effective power.
Some of the king's vassals would grow so powerful that they would be among the strongest rulers of western Europe. The Normans, the Plantagenets, the Lusignans, the Hautevilles, the Ramnulfids, and the House of Toulouse successfully carved lands outside of France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was the Norman Conquest of England following the Battle of Hastings by William the Conqueror because it linked England to France through Normandy. Although the Normans were now both vassals of the French kings and their equals as King of England, their zone of political activity remained centered in France. These Norman nobles then commissioned the Bayeux Tapestry. An important part of the French aristocracy involved itself in the crusades . French knights founded and ruled the Crusader states. An example of legacy left in the Mideast from these nobles is the Krak des Chevaliers' enlargement by the Counts of Tripoli and Toulouse.
The Early Capetians (987 - 1165)
A view of the remains of the Abbey of Cluny. This church was the centre of monastic life revival in the middle age and marked an important step of the cultural rebirth following the Dark Age .
Hugh Capet was elected by an assembly summoned in Reims on 5 June 988. Capet was previously "Duke of the Franks" and then became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). He was recorded to be recognised king by the Gauls, Bretons, Danes, Aquitanians, Goths, Spanish and Gascons. The Danes here are certainly the Normans (of Normandy), and the Spanish entry probably refers to the Carolingian Spanish marches. Hugh Capet's reign was marked by the loss of the Spanish marches as they grew more and more independent. Count Borell of Barcelona called for Hugh's help against Islamic raids, but even if Hugh intended to help Borell, he was otherwise occupied in fighting Charles of Lorraine. The loss of other Spanish principalities then followed. Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king, is not a well documented figure, his greatest achievement being certainly to survive as king and defeating the Caroligian claimant, thus allowing him to establish what would become one of Europe's most powerful house of kings.
Hugh's son — Robert the Pious — was crowned king of France before Capet's demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of France, met Emperor Henry II in 1023 on the borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the Peace and Truce of God and the Cluniac Reforms. Although a weak king in power Robert II's efforts were considerable. His surviving charters imply he was heavily relying over the church to rule France, much like his father did. Although he lived with a mistress — Bertha of Burgundy— and was excommunicated because of this, he was regarded as a model of piety for monks (hence his nickname, Robert the Pious). He crowned his son — Hugh Magnus— King of France to secure his succession, however Hugh Magnus rebelled against his father and died fighting him. The next King of France — Henry I— was crowned after Robert's death, which is quite exceptional for a French king of the times.
Henry I was one of the weakest King of France, his reign saw the rise of some very powerful nobles such as William the Conqueror. However his biggest source of concerns was his brother — Robert I of Burgundy— who was pushed by his mother to the conflict. Robert of Burgundy was made Duke of Burgundy by King Henry I and had to be satisfied with that title. From Henry I onward the Dukes of Burgundy were relatives of the King of France until the end of the Duchy proper. King Philip I, named by his Kievan mother with a typically Eastern European name, was no more fortunate than his predecessor.
Jerusalem .">
Godefroy de Bouillon, a French knight, leader of the First Crusade and founder of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
It is from Louis VI onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite unpopular, he was described as greedy and ambitious and that is corroborated by records of the time. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the royal image, reinforced the royal power. From 1127 onward the royal advisor was a skilled politician — Abbot Suger —. The abbot was the son of a minor family of knights however his policital advices would show extremely valuables to the king. Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of the robber barons. Louis VI often summoned his vassals to the court, those who did not show up often had their land possessions confiscated and then military campaigns were mounted against them. This drastic policy clearly imposed some royal authority on Paris and its surrounding areas. When Louis VI died in 1137 there still was a long way to go, however a lot of efforts had been done.
Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advices King Louis VII enjoyed the moral authority over France his predecessors should have got. Even more powerful vassals such as Henry Plantagenet paid homage to the French king. It was the Abbot who got Louis VII married with Eleanor of Aquitaine in Bordeaux. Louis VII was then Duke of Aquitaine from his wedding with Eleanor and enjoyed considerable power. However the couple was not getting on well at all because of the burning of more than a thousand people in Vitry during the conflict against the Count of Champagne. King Louis VII was deeply horrified by such event and sought penitence by going to the holy land. Louis then involved the Kingdom of France in the Second Crusade but his relationship with Eleanor did not improve. The marriage was ultimately annulated by the pope under the pretext of consanguinity and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy — Henry Fitzempress — who would become King of England as Henry II two years later. Louis VII was once a very powerful monarch and was now facing a much stronger vassal, who was his equal as King of England and his strongest prince as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine. Abbot Sugar's vision of construction became known as the Gothic Architecture during the later Renaissance . This style became standard for most French cathedrals built in the late middle-age.
The late Capetians (1165 - 1328)
The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than the earliest ones. While Philip I could hardly control his Parisian barons Philip IV, on the other hand, could dictate popes and emperors. The late Capetians, although they often ruled for a shorter time than their earlier peers, were often much more influencials. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, Kings of France and England and Holy Roman Emperor.
Philip II Augustus
The reign of Philip II Augustus marked an important step in the history of French monarchy. His reign saw the French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He had set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the Fair.
Philip II victorious at Bouvines thus annexing Normandy and Anjou into his royal domains. This battle involved a complex set of alliances from three important states, the Kingdoms of France and England and the Holy Roman Empire.
Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-called Angevin Empire, which was probably the greatest threat to the King of France since the rise of the Capetian dynasty. During the first part of his reign Philip II tried using Henry II of England's son against him. He allied himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II — Richard Lionheart — and together they launched a decisive attack on Henry's castle and home of Chinon and removed him from power. Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading during the Third Crusade however their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade. The two men were once again at odds and fought each others in France and Richard was on the verge of totally defeating Philip II. Adding to their battles in France the Kings of France and England were trying to install their respective allies at the head of the Holy Roman Empire. If Philip II Augustus supported Philip of Swabia, member of the House of Hohenstaufen, Richard Lionheart supported Otto IV, member of the House of Welf. Otto IV had the upper hand and became the Holy Roman Emperor at the expense of Philip of Swabia. The crown of France was saved by Richard's demise after a wound he received fighting his own vassals in Limousin. John Lackland , Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against the Lusignans and like Louis VI often did to his rebellous vassals Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the Battle of Bouvines showed being a complete failure. His allies, most notably Emperor Otto IV, were all defeated or captured and even as King of England he had no mean to reconquer Normandy and Anjou. Not only Philip II annexed Normandy and Anjou but he had captured the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders. Otto IV was overthrown by Frederick II , allied of Philip II of France and member of the House of Hohenstaufen. The King of France however stopped before conquering Aquitaine and Gascony who remained loyal to the Plantagenet King. In addition to defeating John of England , Philip Augustus founded the Sorbonne and made Paris a city for scholars. Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII) was involved in the subsequent English civil war as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for the Albigensian Crusade . Southern France was then largely absorbed in the royal domains.
Saint Louis
Saint Louis. He saw France's cultural expansion in the Western Christian world.
It can be said that France became a truly centralised kingdom under Louis IX, who initiated several administrative reforms. Saint Louis has often been portrayed as a one dimensional character, a flawless representant of the faith and an administrator caring for the governed ones. However his reign was far from perfect for everyone, he made unsuccessful crusades and his expanding administrations raised oppositions. His jugdements were not often practical, although they seemed fair by the standards of the time. It appears Louis had a strong sense of justice and always wanted to judge people himself before applying any sentence. This was said about Louis and French clergy asking for excommunications of Louis' vassals:
“
For it would be against god and contrary to right and justice if he compelled any man to seek absolution when the clergy were doing him wrong.
”
Louis IX was only twelve years old when he became King of France, his mother — Blanche of Castile— was the effective power although the King was indeed Louis IX. Blanche's authority was strongly opposed by the French barons yet she could maintain her position as regent (although she did not formally use the title) until Louis was old enough to rule by himself. In 1229 the King had to struggle with a long lasting strike at the University of Paris, the Quartier Latin was strongly hit by these strikes. War was still going on in the County of Toulouse, the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc and the kingdom was therefore vulnerable. Count Raymond VII of Toulouse finally signed the Treaty of Paris in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands to life, but his daughter, married to Count Alfonso of Poitou, produced him no heir and so the County of Toulouse went to the King of France. King Henry III of England had not yet recognised the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1232 at Saint-Malo with a massive force. Henry III's allies in Brittany and Normandy fell down because they did not dare fight their king who led the counterstrike himself. This evolved into the Saintonge War, Henry III was defeated and had to recognise Louis IX's overlordship although the King of France did not seize Aquitaine from Henry III. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France, adding to his royal title. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which had been brutally conquered. The Conseil du Roi, which would evolve into the Parlement, was founded in these times.
Saint Louis also supported new forms of art such as Gothic architecture; his Sainte-Chapelle became a very famous gothic building, and he is also credited for the Morgan Bible. After his conflict with King Henry III of England Louis established a cordial relation with the Plantagenet King. An amusing anecdote is about Henry III's attending the French Parlement, as Duke of Aquitaine, the King of England was always late because he liked to stop each time he met a priest to hear the mass, so Louis made sure no priest was on the way of Henry III. Henry III and Louis IX then started a long contest in who was the most faithful up to the point none ever arrived anymore on time to the Parlement which was then allowed to debate in their absence.
The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Saint Louis: the Seventh Crusade and the Eighth Crusade. Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. He died in the Eighth Crusade and Philip III became king. Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the Aragonese Crusade, which cost him his life.
More administrative reforms were made by Philip the Fair. This king was responsible for the end of the Templars, signed the Auld Alliance, and established the Parlement of Paris. Philip IV was so powerful that he could name popes and emperors, unlike the early Capetians. The papacy was moved to Avignon and all the contemporary popes were French such as Philip IV's puppet: Bertrand de Goth.
Capetian Dynasty
Charles IV the Fair
The early Valois Kings and the Hundred Years' War (1328 - 1453)
The tensions between the Houses of Anjou and Capet climaxed during the so-called Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars) when the English descendants of the former claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the Black Death , as well as several civil wars. The French population suffered much from these wars. It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc . Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and militarily. Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at Baugé, the humiliating defeats of Poitiers and Agincourt forced the French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. Charles VII established the first French standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance, and defeated the English once at Patay and again, using cannons, at Formigny. The Battle of Châtillon was regarded as the last engagement of this "war", yet Calais and the Channel Islands remained ruled by the English crown.
French Kings:
Gilles de Rais
Early Modern France (1453-1789)
Charles the Bold, the last Capetian Duke of Burgundy, died at the Battle of Nancy. His death marked the division of his lands between the Kings of France and Castile.
France evolved from a feudal country to an increasingly centralized state (albeit with many regional differences) organized around a powerful absolute monarchy that relied on the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit support of the established Church. The Duke of Burgundy had assembled a large territory including his native duchy and the Burgundian Netherlands. King Louis XII faced Charles the Bold during Burgundian Wars and the French King was allied with the Old Swiss Confederacy . The Duke of Burgundy was defeated at Morat, Battle of Grandson, Héricourt and ultimately defeated at Nancy in 1477. The Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France but the part of Burgundy that formed Franche-Comté was given to Philip I of Castile in 1493.
France engaged in the long Italian Wars (1494-1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. Francis I faced powerful foes, and he was captured at Pavia. The French monarchy then sought for allies and found one in the Ottoman Empire . The Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa captured Nice on 5 August 1543 and handed it down to Francis I. These times also gave birth to the Protestant Reformation, and John Calvin and his reformed doctrine challenged the power of the Catholic Church in France. During the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were the dominant power in Europe. In addition to Spain and Austria, they controlled a number of kingdoms and duchies across Europe. Charles Quint , as Count of Burgundy, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Aragon, Castile and Germany (among many other titles) encircled France. The Spanish Tercio was used with great success against French knights and remained undefeated for a long time. Finally on January 7, 1558 the Duke of Guise seized Calais from the English.
Despite the challenge to French power posed by the Habsburgs, French became the preferred language of Europe's aristocracy. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (born in 1500) said this about languages:
“
I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse.
”
Because of its international status, there was a desire to regulate the French language. Several reforms of the French language worked to uniformise it. The Renaissance writer François Rabelais (probably born in 1494) helped to shape the French language as a literary language, Rabelais' French is characterised by the re-introduction of Greek and Latin words. Jacques Peletier du Mans (born 1517) was one of the scholars that reformed the French language. He improved Nicolas Chuquet's long scale system by adding names for intermediate numbers (milliards instead of thousand million, etc...). During the 16th century the French kingdom also established colonies began to claim North American territories. Jacques Cartier was one of the great explorers who ventured deep into American territories during the 16th century. The largest group of French colonies became known as New France, and several cities such as Quebec City, Montreal , Detroit and New Orleans were founded by the French. The Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano worked for the French crown and discovered New Angoulême which would later come to be known as New York City .
Religious conflicts
Henry IV of France, King of France and Navarre, was the first French Bourbon king.
Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful duke of Guise, led to a massacre of Huguenots at Vassy in 1562, starting the first of the French Wars of Religion, during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic forces. In the most notorious incident, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572. The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys in which Henry III assassinated Henry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league, and the king was murdered in return. Following this war Henry III of Navarre became king of France as Henry IV and enforced the Edict of Nantes (1598). Religious conflicts resumed under Louis XIII when Cardinal de Richelieu forced Protestants to disarm their army and fortresses. This conflict ended in the Siege of La Rochelle (1627-1628), in which Protestants and their English supporters were defeated. The following Peace of Alais confirmed religious freedom yet dismantled the Protestant defences. This was also a time of philosophy. René Descartes sought answers to philosophical questions through the use of logic and reason and formulated what would be called Cartesian Dualism in 1641.
The religious conflicts that plagued France also ravaged the Habsburg-led Holy Roman Empire. The Thirty Years War eroded the power of the Catholic Habsburgs. Although Cardinal Richelieu , the powerful chief minister of France, had previously mauled the Protestants, he joined this war on their side in 1636 because it was the raison d'état. Imperial Habsburg forces invaded France, ravaged Champagne, and nearly threatened Paris . Richelieu died in 1642 and was replaced by Mazarin, while Louis XIII died one year later and was succeeded by Louis XIV . France was served by some very efficient commanders such as Louis II de Bourbon (Condé) and Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne (Turenne). The French forces won a decisive victory at Rocroi (1643), and the Spanish army was decimated; the Tercio was broken. The Truce of Ulm (1647) and the Peace of Westphalia (1648) brought an end to the war. But some challenges remained. France was hit by civil unrest known as the Fronde which in turn evolved into the Franco-Spanish War in 1653. Louis II de Bourbon joined the Spanish army this time, but suffered a severe defeat at Dunkirk (1658) by Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne. The terms for the peace inflicted upon the Spanish kingdoms in the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) were harsh, as France annexed Northern Catalonia.
Louis XIV
Louis XIV , the "Sun King"
The Sun King wanted to be remembered as a patron of the arts, like his ancestor Louis IX. He invited Jean-Baptiste Lully to establish the French opera. A tumultuous friendship was established between Lully and Molière. Jules Hardouin Mansart became France's most important architect of the period. Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many wars that drained its treasury. His reign began during the Thirty Years' War and during the Franco-Spanish war. His military architect, Vauban, became famous for his pentagonal fortresses, and Jean-Baptiste Colbert supported the royal spending as much as possible. France fought the War of Devolution against Spain in 1667. France's defeat of Spain and invasion of the Spanish Netherlands alarmed England and Sweden. With the Dutch Republic they formed the Triple Alliance to check Louis XIV's expansion. Louis II de Bourbon had captured Franche-Comté, but in face of an indefensible position, Louis XIV agreed to a peace at Aachen. Under its terms, Louis XIV did not annex Franche-Comté but did gain Lille .
Peace was fragile, and war broke out again between France and the Dutch Republic in the Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678). Louis XIV asked for the Dutch Republic to resume war against the Spanish Netherlands, but the republic refused. France attacked the Dutch Republic and was joined by England in this conflict. Through targeted inundations of polders by breaking dykes, the French invasion of the Dutch Republic was brought to a halt. The Dutch Admiral Michiel de Ruyter inflicted a few strategic defeats on the Anglo-French naval alliance and forced England to retire from the war in 1674. Because the Netherlands could not resist eternally, it agreed to peace in the Treaties of Nijmegen, according to which France would annex France-Comté and acquire further concessions in the Spanish Netherlands. On 6 May 1682, the royal court moved to the Palace of Versailles, which Louis XIV had greatly expanded. Peace did not last, and war between France and Spain again resumed. The War of the Reunions broke out (1683-1684), and again Spain, with its ally the Holy Roman Empire, was easily defeated. Meanwhile, in October 1685 Louis signed the Edict of Fontainebleau ordering the destruction of all Protestant churches and schools in France. Its immediate consequence was a large Protestant exodus from France.
France would soon be involved in another war, the War of the Grand Alliance. This time the theatre was not only in Europe but also in North America. Although the war was long and difficult (it was also called the Nine Years War), its results were inconclusive. The Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 confirmed French sovereignty over Alsace, yet rejected its claims to Luxembourg . Louis also had to evacuate Catalonia and the Palatinate. This peace was considered a truce by all sides, thus war was to start again. In 1701 the War of the Spanish Succession began. The Bourbon Philip of Anjou was designated heir to the throne of Spain. The Habsburg Emperor Leopold opposed a Bourbon succession, because of the power that such a succession would bring to the Bourbon rulers of France, and claimed the Spanish thrones for himself. England and the Dutch Republic joined Leopold against Louis XIV and Philip of Anjou. The allied forces were led by John Churchill and by Prince Eugene of Savoy. They inflicted a few resounding defeats to the French army; the Battle of Blenheim in 1704 was the first major land battle lost by France since its victory at Rocroi in 1643. Yet, after the extremely bloody battles of Ramillies and Malplaquet, Pyrrhic victories for the allies, they had lost too many men to continue the war. Led by Villars, the French forces recovered much of the lost ground in battles such as Denain. Finally, a compromise was achieved with the Ultrecht in 1713. Philip of Anjou was confirmed as Philip V, king of Spain, and Emperor Leopold did not get the throne, but Philip V was barred from inheriting France.
Colonial struggles and the dawn of the revolution
Louis XIV died in 1715 of gangrene. In 1718 France was, once again, at war as Philip II of Orleans's regency joined the War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain. King Philip V of Spain had to withdraw from the conflict confronted with the reality that Spain was no longer a great power of Europe. Under Fleury's administration, peace was maintained as much as possible. However, in 1733 another war broke in central Europe, this time about the Polish succession, and France joined the war against the Austrian Empire. This time there was no invasion of the Netherlands, and Britain remained neutral. As a consequence, Austria was left alone against a Franco-Spanish alliance and faced a military disaster. Peace was setted in the Treaty of Vienna (1738), according to which France would annex, through inheritance, the Duchy of Lorraine. Two years later war broke out over the Austrian succession, and France seized the opportunity to join the conflict. The war played out in North America and India as well as Europe, and inconclusive terms were agreed to in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Once again, no one regarded this as a peace but rather as a mere truce. Prussia was then becoming a new threat as it had gained substantial territory from Austria. This led to the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, in which the alliances seen during the previous war were mostly inverted. France was now allied to Austria and Russia while Britain was now allied to Prussia. In the North American theatre, France was allied with various Native American peoples during the Seven Years' War and, despite a temporary success at the battles of the Great Meadows and Monongahela, French forces were defeated at the disastrous Battle of the Plains of Abraham in Quebec. In Europe, Russia was on the verge of crushing Prussia, and the Anglo-Prussian alliance was saved by The miracle of the House of Brandenburg, while the French suffered naval defeats against British fleets at Lagos and Quiberon Bay. Finally peace was concluded in the Treaty of Paris (1763), and France lost most of its North American empire. In 1768 the French Kingdom bought Corsica from Genoa .
Lord Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown to American and French allies.
Having lost its colonial empire, France saw a good opportunity for revenge against Britain in assisting insurgeant troops in the American Revolutionary War . Spain, allied to France by the Family Compact, and the Netherlands also joined the war on the American side. Admiral de Grasse defeated a British fleet at Chesapeake Bay while Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau and Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette joined American forces in defeating the British at Yorktown. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Paris (1783), under which Britain lost its former American colonies.
While the state expanded, new ideas broke on the role of the king and the powers of the state. Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu described the separation of powers. Many French other philosophers and intellectuals gained influence, such as: Voltaire , Denis Diderot and, most importantly, Jean-Jacques Rousseau with his The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right. Science, mathematics and technology also flourished. French scientists such as Antoine Lavoisier worked to replace the archaic units of weights and measures by a coherent scientific system, commissioned by king Louis XVI. Lavoisier also formulated the law of Conservation of mass and discovered Oxygen and Hydrogen .
The Early Modern period in French history spans the following reigns:
House of Valois
France in modern times I (1789–1914)
From the Revolution to World War I.
The Revolution
Storming of the Bastille, July 14, 1789
The immediate trigger for the Revolution was Louis XVI’s attempts to solve the government’s worsening financial situation. In February 1787 his finance minister, Loménie de Brienne, convened an Assembly of Notables, a group of nobles, clergy, bourgeoisie, and bureaucrats selected in order to bypass the parlements. This group was asked to approve a new land tax that would, for the first time, include a tax on the property of nobles and clergy. The assembly did not approve the tax, instead demanding that Louis XVI call the Estates-General. In August 1788 the King agreed to convene the Estates-General in May of 1789. During their first meetings, however, there was little representation from the other two Estates (clergy and nobles). On June 10, 1789 , the Abbot Sieyès moved that the Third Estate proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, and then voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People." In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met. After finding the door to their chamber locked and guarded, they met nearby on a tennis court and pledged the Tennis Court Oath on June 20, 1789 , binding them "never to separate, and to meet wherever circumstances demand, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and affirmed on solid foundations". They were joined by some members of the second and first estates.
After the king fired his finance minister, Jacques Necker, for giving his support and guidance to the Third Estate, worries surfaced that the legitimacy of the newly-formed National Assembly might be threatened by royalists. Paris was soon consumed with riots, anarchy, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of the French Guard, including arms and trained soldiers, because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city. On July 14, 1789 the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which also served as a symbol of royal tyranny. Insurgents seized the Bastille prison, killing the governor and several of his guards. The French now celebrate July 14th each year as a symbol of the shift away from the Ancien Regime to a more modern democratic state. Gilbert du Motier, hero of American independence, took command of the National Guard, and the king was forced to recognize the Tricolour Cockade. Although peace was found, several nobles did not regard the new order as acceptable and migrated to push neighbouring kingdoms to war against the new rule. Because of this new period of instability, the state was struck for several weeks in July and August of 1789 by the Great Fear, a period of violent class conflict.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted by the National Assembly in August 1789 as a first step in their effort to write a constitution. Considered to be a precursor to modern international rights instruments and using the U.S. Declaration of Independence as a model, it defined a set of individual rights and collective rights of all of the estates as one. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights were deemed universal and valid in all times and places, pertaining to human nature itself. The Assembly also replaced France's historic provinces with eighty-three départements, uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population. On 4 August 1789 the Assembly abolished feudalism, in what is known as the August Decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the Ancien Régime, armorial bearings, liveries, etc., which alienated the more conservative nobles. Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organization made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The King would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organizations: any individual gained the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal.
The Revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the Roman Catholic Church to the state. Under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops, cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property. The Assembly essentially addressed the financial crisis in part by having the nation take over the property of the Church.
The republican government also enforced the Système International d'Unités, commissioned by Louis XVI, which became known as the Metric System. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb and André-Marie Ampère's works on electricity and electromagnetism were also recognised, and their units are integrated into the Metric System.
When a mob from Paris attacked the royal palace at Versailles in October 1789 seeking address of severe poverty conditions, the royal family was forced to move to the Tuileries Palace in Paris. Later in June 1791 the royal family secretly fled Paris in disguise for Varennes near France's northeastern border to seek royalist support the king sensed he could trust, but they were soon discovered en route. They were brought back to Paris, after which they were essentially kept under house-arrest at the Tuileries.
Factions within the Assembly began to clarify. The opposition to revolution sat on the right-hand side of the Assembly. The "Royalist democrats" or monarchiens inclined toward organizing France along lines similar to the British constitutional model. The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly represented somewhat more extreme views. The increasingly middle-class National Guard under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right. With most of the Assembly still favoring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise that left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead. He had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The King had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers.
The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791, and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 Feuillants (constitutional monarchists) on the right, about 330 Girondists (liberal republicans) and Jacobins (radical revolutionaries) on the left, and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction. Early on, the King vetoed legislation that threatened the émigrés with death and that decreed that every non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a constitutional crisis, leading the Revolution to higher levels.
On the foreign affairs front, in the Declaration of Pillnitz of August 1791 Emperor Leopold II, Count Charles of Artois and King William II of Prussia made Louis XVI's cause theirs. These noblemen also required the Assembly to be dissolved through threats of war, but, instead of cowing the French, it infuriated them. The borderlines were militarised as a consequence. Under the Constitution of 1791 the solution of a constitutional monarchy was adopted, and the king supported a war against Austria to increase his popularity, starting the long French Revolutionary Wars. On the night of the 10th of August the Jacobins, who had mainly opposed the war, suspended the monarchy. With the Prussian army entering France, more doubts were raised against the aristocracy, and these tensions climaxed during the September Massacres. After the first great victory of the French revolutionary troops at the Battle of Valmy on 1792 September 20, the French First Republic was proclaimed the day after on 1792 September 21. The French Republican Calendar was enforced.
When the Brunswick Manifesto of July 1792 threatened once more the French population from Austrian (Imperial) and Prussian attacks, Louis XVI was suspected of treason and taken along with his family from the Tuileries Palace in August 1792 by insurgents supported by a new revolutionary Paris Commune. The King and Queen ended up prisoners, and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy. Little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. The King was later tried and convicted and on 21 January 1793 was guillotined. Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 October.
What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. When the Commune sent gangs into prisons to try arbitrarily and butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example, the Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until a National Convention, charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20 September 1792 and became the new de facto government of France. The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic.
When war went badly, prices rose and the sans-culottes (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans-culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical. In September of 1793 a period known as the Reign of Terror ensued for approximately 12 months. The Committee of Public Safety, set up by the National Convention on April 6, 1793, formed the de facto executive government of France. Under war conditions and with national survival seemingly at stake, the Jacobins under Robespierre centralized denunciations, trials, and executions under the supervision of this committee of twelve members. At least 18,000 people met their deaths under the guillotine or otherwise, after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. In 1794 Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. On 27 July 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction led to the arrest and execution of Robespierre. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by banning the Jacobin Club and executing many of its former members in what was known as the White Terror.
After the stated aim of the National Convention to export revolution, the guillotining of Louis XVI of France, and the French opening of the Scheldt, a military coalition was formed and set up against France. Spain, Naples, Great Britain and the Netherlands joined Austria and Prussia in the The First Coalition (1792–1797), the first major concerted effort of multiple European powers to contain Revolutionary France. It took shape after the wars had already begun. The Republican government in Paris was radicalised after a diplomatic coup from the Jacobins and said it would be the Guerre Totale and called for a Levée en masse. Royalist invading forces were defeated at Toulon in 1793, leaving the French republican forces in an offensive position and granting a young officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, a certain fame. Following their victory at Fleurus, the Republicans occupied Belgium and the Rhineland. An invasion of the Netherlands established the puppet Batavian Republic. Finally a peace agreement was found between France, Spain and Prussia in 1795 at Basel.
The Convention approved a new "Constitution of the Year III" on 17 August 1795; a plebiscite ratified it in September; and it took effect on 26 September 1795. The new constitution created the Directory and created the first bicameral legislature in French history. The parliament consisted of 500 representatives — le Conseil des Cinq-Cents (the Council of the Five Hundred) — and 250 senators — le Conseil des Anciens (the Council of Elders). Executive power went to five "directors," named annually by the Conseil des Anciens from a list submitted by the le Conseil des Cinq-Cents. The nation desired rest and the healing of its many wounds. Those who wished to restore Louis XVIII and the Ancien Régime and those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant in number. The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the failure of the First Coalition. Nevertheless, the four years of the Directory were a time of arbitrary government and chronic disquiet. The late atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between parties impossible. As the majority of French people wanted to be rid of them, they could achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. The Convention habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when the elections went against them, appealed to the sword. They resolved to prolong the war as the best expedient for prolonging their power. They were thus driven to rely upon the armies, which also desired war and were becoming less and less civic in temper. The Directory lasted until 1799 when Napoleon staged a coup and installed the Consulate.
The Napoleonic Era
Napoleon on his Imperial throne, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
During the War of the First Coalition the Directoire had replaced the National Convention. Five directors then ruled France. As Great Britain was still at war with France, a plan was made to take Egypt from the Ottoman Empire, a British ally. This was Napoleon's idea and the Directoire agreed to the plan in order to send the popular general away from the mainland. Napoleon captured Malta from the Knights of Saint John on the way to Egypt . The French army met Ottoman forces during the Battle of the Pyramids and defeated them. While the land campaign was so far a success, the British fleet, led by Admiral Nelson , destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile. Hearing of the French defeat, the Ottoman Empire gathered armies to attack Napoleon in Egypt, and Napoleon again adopted a policy of attack. An invasion of Syria was planned but failed during the Siege of Acre, and Napoleon had to return to Europe, leaving a significant part of his army behind. These men were supposed to be given honourable terms by the British forces, yet Admiral Keith decided to attack them anyway with a Mameluk force, although this force was defeated at Heliopolis in March 1800. Disease had hit the French troops to such a point they were forced to surrender. The Rosetta Stone was discovered during this campaign and Champollion translated it.
When Napoleon came back to France, the Directoire was threatened by the Second Coalition. Royalists and their allies still dreamed of restoring the monarchy to power, while the Prussian and Austrian crowns did not accept their territorial losses during the previous war. The Russian army expelled the French from Italy in battles such as Cassano while the Austrian army defeated the French in Switzerland at Stockach and Zurich. Napoleon then seized power through a coup and established the Consulate in 1799. The Austrian army was defeated at Marengo in 1800 and again at Hohenlinden. While at sea Admiral Louis-René Levassor de Latouche Tréville had some success at Boulogne against a British fleet. The British Admiral Nelson would destroy an anchored Danish and Norwegian fleet at Copenhagen because the Scandinanian kingdoms were against the British blockade on France. The Second Coalition was beaten and peace was settled in two distinct treaties: The Treaty of Lunéville and the Treaty of Amiens. In 1803 Napoleon sold French Louisiana to the American government, a territory he considered indefensible.
On 21 March 1804 the Napoleonic Code was applied over all the territory under French control, and on May 18 Napoleon was titled Emperor by the senate, thus founding the French Empire. Technically Napoleon's rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it was much more advanced than other European monarchies of the time. The proclamation of the French Empire was met by the Third Coalition. The French army was renamed the Grande Armée in 1805 and Napoleon used propaganda and nationalism to control the French population. The French army achieved a resounding victory at Ulm, where an entire Austrian army was captured. A Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar and all plans to invade Britain were then made impossible. Despite this naval defeat, it was on the ground that this war would be won, Napoleon inflicted the Austrian and Russian Empires one of their greatest defeats at Austerlitz , destroying the third coalition. The peace was settled in the Treaty of Pressburg, the Austrian Empire lost the title of Holy Roman Emperor and the Confederation of the Rhine was created by Napoleon over former Austrian territories.
The destruction of the Holy Roman Empire and the dramatic Austrian defeat caused Prussia to join Britain and Russia, thus forming the Fourth Coalition. Although the Coalition was joined by other allies, the French Empire was also not alone since it now had a complex network of allies and submitted states. Largely outnumbered, the Prussian army was crushed at Jena-Auerstedt in 1806 , Napoleon captured Berlin and went as far as Eastern Prussia. There the Russian Empire was defeated at the Battle of Friedland. Peace was dictated in the Treaties of Tilsit, in which Russia had to join the Continental System and Prussia handed down half of its territories to France. The Duchy of Warsaw was formed over these territorial losses, and the Polish troops entered the Grande Armée in significant numbers.
The height of the First Empire, 1811. Darker blue indicates the French Empire, lighter blue shows areas under French control.
Freed from his obligation in the east, Napoleon then went back to the west, as the French Empire was still at war with Britain. Only two countries remained neutral in the war: Sweden and Portugal, and Napoleon then looked toward the latter. In the Treaty of Fontainebleau, a Franco-Spanish alliance against Portugal was sealed as Spain eyed Portuguese territories. French armies entered Spain in order to attack Portugal, but then seized Spanish fortresses and took over the kingdom by surprise. Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was made King of Spain after Charles IV's abdication. This occupation of the Iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism, and soon the Spanish and Portuguese would fight the French using guerilla tactics, defeating the French forces at the Battle of Bailén. Britain sent a short-lived ground support force to Portugal, and French forces evacuated Portugal as defined in the Convention of Sintra following the Allied victory at Vimeiro. France was only controlling Catalonia and Navarre and could have been definitely expelled from the Iberian peninsula had the Spanish armies attacked again, but the Spanish did not. Another French attack was launched on Spain, led by Napoleon himself, and was described as "an avalanche of fire and steel." However, the French Empire was no longer regarded as invincible by European powers. In 1808 Austria formed the War of the Fifth Coalition in order to break down the French Empire. The Austrian Empire defeated the French at Aspern-Essling, yet was beaten at Wagram while the Polish allies defeated the Austrian Empire at Raszyn. Although not as decisive as the previous Austrian defeats, the peace treaty caused Austria to lose a large amount of territories, reducing it even more.
Napoleon Bonaparte leaving Russia after a disastrous campaign.
In 1812 it was with Russia that war broke, engaging Napoleon in the disastrous Patriotic War. Napoleon assembled the largest army Europe had ever seen, including troops from all submitted states, to invade Russia, which had just left the continental system and was gathering an army on the Polish frontier. Following an exhausting march and the bloody but inconclusive Battle of Borodino, near Moscow , the Grande Armée entered and captured Moscow, just to find it burning, as part of the Russian scorched earth tactics. Although there still were battles such as Maloyaroslavets the Napoleonic army left Russia decimated most of all by the Russian winter, exhaustion and scorched earth warfare. On the Spanish front the French troops were defeated at Vitoria and then at the Battle of the Pyrenees. Since the Spanish guerrillas seemed to be uncontrollable, the French troops eventually evacuated Spain. France having been defeated on these two fronts, the states controlled and previously conquered by Napoleon saw a good opportunity to strike back. The Sixth Coalition was formed and the German states of the Confederation of the Rhine switched sides, finally opposing Napoleon. Napoleon was largely defeated in the Battle of the Nations and was overwhelmed by much larger armies during the Six Days Campaign, although, because of the much larger amount of casualties suffered by the allies, the Six Days Campaign is often considered a tactical masterpiece.
Napoleon abdicated on April 6, 1814 , and was exiled to Elba. The conservative Congress of Vienna reversed the political changes that had occurred during the wars. Napoleon's attempted restoration, a period known as the Hundred Days, ended with his final defeat at Waterloo in 1815. The monarchy was subsequently restored and Louis XVIII became king.
The Restored Monarchy and the Second Empire
Napoleon III, Emperor of the French
This period of time is called the Bourbon Restoration and was marked by conflicts between reactionary Ultra-royalists and more liberal movements. On 12 June 1830 Polignac, King Charles X's minister, exploited the weakness of the Algerian Dey by invading Algeria and establishing French rule in Algeria. The news of the fall of Algiers had barely reached Paris when Charles X was deposed and replaced by King Louis-Philippe during the July Revolution. Louis-Philippe's "July Monarchy" (1830–1848) is generally seen as a period during which the haute bourgeoisie was dominant. Anarchism , as formulated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, began to take root in France. To honour the victims of the July Revolution, Hector Berlioz composed a Requiem; he also worked on what would become the French national anthem, La Marseillaise.
In 1838 the French government declared war on Mexico after a French pastry cook in Mexico accused Mexican officers of looting his shop. The Mexican government was defeated in the short Pastry War. Finally, the last King of France abdicated, and the French Second Republic was proclaimed. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president and proclaimed himself President for Life following a coup that was confirmed and accepted in a dubious referendum. Napoleon III of France took the imperial title in 1852 and held it until his downfall in 1870.
The era saw great industrialization, urbanization (including the massive rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann) and economic growth, but Napoleon III's foreign policies were not so successful. In 1854, The Second Empire joined the Crimean War , which saw France and Britain opposed to the Russian Empire, who were decisively defeated at Sevastopol in 1855 and at Inkerman. In 1856 France joined the Second Opium War on the British side against China; a missionary's murder was used as a pretext to take interests in southwest Asia in the Treaty of Tientsin.
In 1859 the Second Italian War of Independence broke out between Italian states and Austria. The Second French Empire joined the war on the Italian side, which was concluded by an Austrian defeat at Solferino. In return for this intervention, the French government acquired the city of Nice, while in March 1860 Savoy was annexed by similar means. In 1861 Napoleon III largely supported Maximilian in his claim to Mexico, a move that was also supported by Britain and Spain but condemned by the U.S. This led to the French intervention in Mexico, which turned out to be a failure.
When France was negotiating with The Netherlands about purchasing Luxembourg, the Prussian Kingdom threatened the French government with war. This came as a shock to French diplomats as there previously was an agreement between the Prussian and French governments about Luxembourg. Napoleon III suffered stronger and stronger criticism from Republicans like Jules Favre, and his position seemed more fragile with the passage of time. France was looking for more interests in Asia and interfered in Korea in 1866 taking, once again, missionaries' murders as a pretext. The French finally withdrew from the war with little gain but war's booty. The next year a French expedition to Japan was formed to help the Tokugawa shogunate to modernise its army. However, Tokugawa was defeated during the Boshin War at the Battle of Toba-Fushimi by large Imperial armies.
Rising tensions about a possible Prussian succession in Spain raised the scale of animosity between the two states, and finally the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) broke out. German nationalism united the German states, with the exception of Austria, against Napoleon III. The French Empire was defeated decisively at Metz and Sedan. The last straw was the Siege of Paris. The newly-formed German Empire subsequently annexed Alsace-Lorraine in the Treaty of Frankfurt.
The Third Republic and the Belle Epoque
The French legislature established the Third Republic, which was to last until the military defeat of 1940 (longer than any government in France since the Revolution). The birth of the republic saw France occupied by foreign troops, the capital in a popular socialist insurrection — the Paris Commune (which was violently repressed by Adolphe Thiers) — and two provinces ( Alsace-Lorraine) annexed to Germany. Feelings of national guilt and a desire for vengeance (" revanchism") would be major preoccupations of the French throughout the next half century. The repression of the Commune was bloody. Hundreds were executed in front of the Communards' Wall in the Père Lachaise cemetery, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles for trials. The number killed during La Semaine Sanglante (The Bloody Week) can never be established for certain, but the best estimates are 30,000 dead, many more wounded, and perhaps as many as 50,000 later executed or imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia . Thousands of them fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States.
Besides this defeat, the Republican movement also had to confront counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution. Both the Legitimist and the Orleanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism , breaking with France's traditions. This lasted until at least the 16 May 1877 crisis, which finally led to the resignation of royalist Marshal MacMahon in January 1879. The death of Henri, comte de Chambord in 1883, who, as the grandson of Charles X, had refused to abandon the fleur-de-lys and the white flag, thus jeopardizing the alliance between Legitimists and Orleanists, convinced many of the remaining Orleanists to rally themselves to the Republic, as Adolphe Thiers had already done. The vast majority of the Legitimists abandoned the political arena or became marginalised. Some of them founded Action Française in 1898 , during the Dreyfus Affair, which became an influent movement through-out the 1930s, in particular among the intellectuals of Paris' Quartier Latin. In 1891 , Pope Leo XIII's encyclic Rerum Novarum brought legitimacy to the Social Catholic movement, which in France could be traced back to Hughes Felicité Robert de Lamennais' efforts under the July Monarchy.
The initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the " Radicals") and bonapartists scrambled for power. The period from 1879–1899 saw power come into the hands of moderate republicans and former "radicals" (around Léon Gambetta); these were called the "Opportunists". The newly found Republican control of the Republic allowed the vote of the 1881 and 1882 Jules Ferry laws on a free, mandatory and laic public education.
The moderates however became deeply divided over the Dreyfus Affair, and this allowed the Radicals eventually to gain power from 1899 until World War I. During this period, crises like the potential "Boulangist" coup d'état (see Georges Boulanger) in 1889, showed the fragility of the republic. The Radicals' policies on education (suppression of local languages, compulsory education), mandatory military service, and control of the working classes eliminated internal dissent and regionalisms. Their participation in the Scramble for Africa and in the acquiring of overseas possessions (such as French Indochina) created myths of French greatness. Both of these processes transformed a country of regionalisms into a modern nation state. Conflicts between the Chinese Emperor and the French Republic over Indochina climaxed during the Sino-French War, Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Foochow. French sovereignty over Tonkin and Annam was confirmed.
In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and the United Kingdom to its side, first by means of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, the 1904 Entente Cordiale with the U.K, and finally, with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907 which became the Triple Entente and eventually led Russia and the U.K. to enter World War I as Allies. France still had interests in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. During his visit to France, Iwakura Tomomi asked for French assistance in reforming Japan. French military missions were sent to Japan in 1872-1880, in 1884-1889 and the last one much later in 1918-1919 to help modernize the Japanese army.
Distrust of Germany, faith in the army and native French anti-semitism combined to make the Dreyfus Affair (the unjust trial and condemnation of a Jewish military officer for treason) a political scandal of the utmost gravity. The nation was divided between "dreyfusards" and "anti-dreyfusards," and far-right Catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus' innocence came to light. The writer Emile Zola published an impassioned editorial on the injustice, and was himself condemned by the government for libel. Once Dreyfus was finally pardoned, the progressive legislature enacted the 1905 laws on laïcité, which created a complete separation of church and state and stripped churches of most of their property rights.
Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888.
The period at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is often termed the belle époque. Although associated with cultural innovations and popular amusements (cabaret, can-can, the cinema, new art forms such as Impressionism and Art Nouveau ), France was nevertheless a nation divided internally on notions of religion, class, regionalisms and money, and on the international front France came repeatedly to the brink of war with the other imperial powers, including Great Britain (the Fashoda Incident). World War I was inevitable, but its human and financial costs would be catastrophic for the French.
In 1889 the Exposition Universelle took place in Paris, and the Eiffel Tower was built as a temporary gate to the fair. Meant to last only a few decades, the tower was never removed and became France's most iconic landmark.
See also:
Causes of the French Revolution
Estates-General of 1789
French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly)
Legislative Assembly
The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy
National Convention
France in modern times II (1914-today)
World War I
On June 28, 1914 a Bosnian member of the Black Hand assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the Austria-Hungary throne, in Sarajevo , the capital of the Austrian province of Bosnia in Serbia. This event ultimately triggered a complex set of formal and secret military alliances between European states, causing most of the continent, including France, to be drawn into war within a few short weeks. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in late July, triggering Russian mobilization. On August 1st both Germany and France ordered mobilization. Germany was much better prepared militarily than any of the other countries involved, including France. Later on that day the German Empire, as an ally of Austria, declared war on Russia, when it heard no response to its request for Russia's demobilization. France was allied with Russia and Serbia and so was ready to commit to war against the German Empire. Germany occupied Luxembourg on August 2nd and gave neutral Belgium an ultimatum: let German armies pass through on their way to invade France or face invasion itself. The Belgians refused, so Germany invaded and declared war on France. Britain entered the war on August 4th, although was relatively unprepared militarily and thus couldn't assist France much until August 7th. (See main entry for World War I for more detailed background about events leading up to France's entry into the war.)
| Mexico |
What is the national flower of South Africa? | foreign relations of mexico : definition of foreign relations of mexico and synonyms of foreign relations of mexico (English)
The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of the United Mexican States [1] and managed through the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs . [2] The principles of the foreign policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for international law and legal equality of states , their sovereignty and independence , non-intervention in the domestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of conflicts , and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations . [1] Since the 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these principles. [3]
After the War of Independence , the relations of Mexico were focused primarily on the United States, its northern neighbor, largest trading partner , [4] and the most powerful actor in hemispheric and world affairs . [5] Once the order was reestablished, its foreign policy was built under hemispheric prestige in subsequent decades. Demonstrating independence from the U.S., Mexico supported the Cuban government since its establishment in the early 1960s, [6] the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s, [7] and leftist revolutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s. [8] In the 2000s, former President Vicente Fox adopted a new foreign policy that calls for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs , as well as a further integration towards its northern neighbors. [9] A greater priority to Latin America and the Caribbean has been given in the administration of President Felipe Calderón . [10]
Mexico is one of the founding members of several international organizations , most notably the United Nations, [11] the Organization of American States , [12] the Organization of Ibero-American States , [13] the OPANAL [14] and the Rio Group . [15] For a long time, Mexico has been one of the largest contributors to the United Nations regular budget, in 2008 over 40 million dollars were given to the organization. [16] In addition, it was the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development since it joined in 1994 until the accession of Chile in 2010. Mexico is considered as a newly industrialized country , [17] [18] a regional power [19] [20] and an emerging market , [21] hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20 . In addition, since the 1990s Mexico has sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods [22] with the support of Argentina , Italy, Pakistan and nine other countries, which form a group informally called the Coffee Club . [23]
Contents
Current headquarters of the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs .
The Article 89, Section 10 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States states the principles of the Mexican foreign policy, [1] which were officially incorporated in 1988. [24] The direction that the foreign policy will take lies on the President , as the head of state , [1] and it is executed through the Secretary of Foreign Affairs . [2] Textually, the article establishes that:
The powers and duties of the President are the following:
X. To direct the foreign policy and conclude international treaties , as well as end, denounce, suspend, modify, emend, retire reserves and formulate interpretative declarations about the formers, submitting them to the ratification of the Senate . In the conducting of this policy, the Head of the Executive Power will observe the following standard principles: the self-determination of peoples , the non-intervention , the peaceful resolution of disputes , the proscription of threat or the use of force in the international relations , the legal equality of states , the international cooperation for development, and the struggle for international peace and security .
Main article: Estrada Doctrine
Aside from these principles constitutionally recognized, the foreign policy has been based on some doctrines . The Estrada Doctrine as the most influential and representative instrument in this field, proclaimed in the early 1930s and strictly applied until 2000, [3] claimed that foreign governments should not judge, positively or negatively, the governments or changes in government of other nations, in that such action would imply a breach to their sovereignty . [25] This policy was said to be based on the principles of non-intervention , peaceful resolution of disputes and self-determination of all nations . [3]
Main article: Castañeda Doctrine
During the first presidency of the National Action Party , Vicente Fox appointed Jorge Castañeda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs . Castañeda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the " Castañeda Doctrine ". [26] The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community , and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs . [27]
On November 28, 2006, President-elect Felipe Calderón announced that Patricia Espinosa would serve as his Secretary of Foreign Affairs starting on December 1, 2006. Her declared priorities include the diversification of the United States-Mexico agenda , heavily concentrated on immigration and security issues , and the rebuilding of diplomatic relations with Cuba and Venezuela , which were heavily strained during the Fox administration . [28] As well as giving greater priority to Latin America and the Caribbean states. [10]
Diplomatic relations
Representative Office in the Palestinian Authority and Mexican Trade Office in Republic of China .
The Mexican foreign service officially started in 1822, [29] the year after the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba , which marked the beginning of the country's independence . [30] In 1831, legislation was passed that underpinned the establishment of diplomatic representations with other states in Europe and the Americas. [29]
As a regional power [19] [20] and emerging market , [21] Mexico holds a significant global presence. As of 2009, the Secretary of Foreign Affairs has over 150 representations at its disposal overseas, which include: [31]
7 permanent missions.
75 embassies.
67 consulates.
In the early 1970s, Mexico recognized the People's Republic of China as the sole and legitimate government of China, [32] therefore issues related to the Republic of China (Taiwan) are managed through the Office of Consular Liaison under the circumscription of the Consulate General of Mexico in the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau . [33] In addition, Mexico does not recognize Kosovo as an independent country. [34]
Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts . [35] However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican army , air force or navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions , or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it. [36]
Bilateral relations
Latin America
Mexico is an observer of several regional organizations such as the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) and the Andean Community of Nations (CAN). Former President of Argentina Néstor Kirchner expressed, during a state visit in Mexico City, that Mexico should become a full member of Mercosur, [37] other Latin American leaders such as Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva [38] and Tabaré Vázquez share this vision and have extended the invitation, the latter emphasized Mexico's key role in integration of Latin America and the Caribbean and stated that: [39]
That is why, we want to have Mexico in Mercosur and UNASUR, because we need it, because Mercosur needs it and because UNASUR without Mexico is simply an incomplete, insufficient unit.
Argentina
Felipe Calderón with current president of Argentina Cristina Fernández de Kirchner
First contacts started in 1818 with the United Provinces of South America . [40] Due to internal conflicts in each nation, relations between Mexico and Argentina were established de jure until the 1880s when both countries officially accredited their respective representations, upgraded to embassies in 1927. [40] On May 20, 1914, accredited diplomats from Argentina, Brazil and Chile , known as the ABC countries , met in Niagara Falls , Canada, to prevent a war between Mexico and the United States, potentially possible due to measures taken by then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson concerning the Tampico Affair . [41]
Relations reached their lowest point during the rule of the military government in Argentina , because of the asylum provided by Mexico to Héctor Cámpora and Abal Medina. [40] Nearly at the end of the López Portillo administration in April 1982, Argentina challenged the British government when they invaded the Falkland Islands . Mexico acknowledged the Argentine rights over the islands but condemned the use of force to solve the conflict and supported a resolution of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) that called for an end of hostilities. [42]
In 2005, during the Fourth Summit of the Americas in Mar de Plata , Argentina, tensions between the two countries started when former President Vicente Fox canceled the anticipatively programed bilateral reunion with then- President Néstor Kirchner . [43] At the Summit, Fox actively promoted the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and suggested the exclusion of those who did not agree; Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela argued that the Summit was not meant to discuss the FTAA and rejected the proposition. [43] At the end of the ceremony, Fox expressed that "the most important countries of the Americas (Canada, Mexico and the U.S.) supported the FTAA, and the secondary ones ( Cuba , Venezuela and the members of Mercosur ) were against it". [43] Later, he criticized Kirchner's interest of "pleasing the Argentine public opinion ", [44] who responded that "Fox should only care for the affairs that involve Mexico [...] and good diplomacy was not about bowing down to powerful countries". [44] The respective Ministries of Foreign Affairs redacted a joint communiqué apologizing for the incident and reminded the "importance of the good relations for both countries". [44] In 2007, when Kirchner paid a state visit , he and President Felipe Calderón signed a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" to strengthen bilateral ties. [45]
In recent years, both partners, along with Colombia , Italy, Pakistan , South Korea, Turkey and six other countries, developed a movement called Uniting for Consensus , nicknamed the "Coffee Club", in opposition to the possible expansion of the United Nations Security Council . [22] Argentina and Mexico, specifically, do not support the integration of Brazil as a permanent member of the UNSC. [23]
Bolivia
Further information: Foreign relations of Bolivia
Diplomatic relations between Bolivia and Mexico are good. A free trade agreement has been in effect between the two Latin American nations since 1994, one of the first agreements of that sort for either country.[5] The agreement was modified in 2010 into an Economic Complementation Agreement as part of the process for a Strategic Economic Integration Agreement, for which many Latin American countries currently strive to achieve.
Mexico has an embassy in La Paz , and Bolivia has an embassy in Mexico City. Bolivia, along with Mexico, is a full member of the Rio Group , of the Association of Spanish Language Academies , of the Organization of American States and of the Organization of Ibero-American States .
Brazil
President Felipe Calderón and Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva during an official ceremony in Mexico City on August 6, 2007.
Mexico and Brazil represent more than half of population, territory and economic development in Latin America, and have the major prestige in the region. [46] Considered as regional powers by analysts, [19] [20] relations between the two countries remain good. In the economic area, both are members of the ALADI , the G8+5 and the G-20 . [46]
Diplomatic relations between Mexico and Brazil were formally established in the 1820s. [47] During the French Intervention in Mexico , and subsequent Second Mexican Empire , every Latin American country, except Guatemala and the Brazilian Empire , refused to recognize the government of Maximilian I of Mexico . [48] In 1914, an incident occurred in the Port of Tampico [49] was enough to lead the U.S. to send troops to occupy the Port of Veracruz , event that coincided with the military aid provided by Germany to General Victoriano Huerta . [41] The governments of Argentina, Brazil and Chile, that were given the term ABC countries , supported by then- U.S. President Woodrow Wilson , offered their mediation to solve the dispute peacefully . The ABC countries met in Niagara Falls, Canada to prevent a war between Mexico and the U.S. [41] Legit President Venustiano Carranza refused to participate because of discussions regarding the ideal form of government that should be established in Mexico took place at the Niagara Falls conferences, thus the Carranza followers condemned these actions and refused to accept any foreign aid. [41] Nonetheless, the ABC Pact of 1915 was successfully implemented during the following years. Since the 1970s, relations between Mexico and Brazil have been substantially strengthened. [50]
In October 2006, President-elect Felipe Calderón visited Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , to deepen the dialogue and cooperation between the two countries. [46] The governments of Brazil and Mexico look for maintaining an opened dialogue with several visits to strengthen the bilateral relations and allow a major exchange in areas such as non-proliferation of nuclear weapons , human rights, environment and energy. [46] Thus the Brazil-Mexico Bilateral Commission was released in March 2007 to strengthen their relations. [51] In August 2007, when President "Lula" da Silva paid a state visit , both leaders agreed to coordinate their foreign policies towards Latin America in order to further integrate the region. [52]
In the multilateral scene, Brazil and Mexico's actions are guided by solid principles such as respect for international law , defense of multilateralism, social justice and democratization of international relations . As noted, both countries share views internationally. [46] However, some differences remain, being the most significant the Reform of the United Nations Security Council . [23] Brazil and Mexico, along with India, the People's Republic of China and South Africa, often represent the interests of the developing countries through economic forums such as the G8+5 and the G-20 . [53]
Chile
President Sebastián Piñera and Felipe Calderón during Piñera's visit to Mexico, 2011.
In the early 1820s, Chile and Mexico established diplomatic relations , both countries had interest of integrating the region, however, due to Mexico's economic and political instability the project did not go further. [54] In 1914, due to the Tampico Affair , then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the occupation of the Port of Veracruz . Once Wilson realized that his objectives had failed, he appealed to the accredited diplomats of Argentina , Brazil and Chile, known as the ABC countries , to mediate and find a peaceful solution to the international conflict preventing a war between Mexico and the U.S. [41]
Based on the principle of ideological plurality, the Mexican government actively supported the regimes of Fidel Castro in Cuba and Salvador Allende in Chile. After the coup d'état of September 11, 1973 , Mexico condemned the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet , but did not break off diplomatic relations immediately due to the amount of Chileans seeking for asylum refuged in the Mexican embassy. [55] Months later, then-President Luis Echeverría formally broke off diplomatic ties with Chile. [55]
Relations were reestablished in 1990 after the Chilean transition to democracy with the election of Patricio Aylwin . [56] A Free Trade Agreement with Chile was signed in April 1998 and went into force on August 1, 1999. [57] Since then, bilateral trade has significantly increased and exceeded the US$3,3 billion mark as of 2006. In addition, Mexico has become Chile's main Latin American investor, accumulating nearly US$870 million. [56] Under the Fox administration , the candidacy of then- Minister of Foreign Affairs Luis Ernesto Derbez for the Secretary General of the Organization of American States was highly promoted. It eventually failed but brought a diplomatic crisis with Chile when Derbez had announced that he would no longer compete against José Miguel Insulza , however, the Mexican delegation abstained despite being previously agreed that it would vote for the Chilean candidate. [58] Bilateral relations were raised to a new level during the state visit of President Michelle Bachelet to Mexico in March 2007, both countries put into effect a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" aimed at bolstering trade, political, diplomatic and cultural relations, as well as ties with civil society . It also creates a fund that will provide US$2 million a year for development projects in Chile, Mexico and third countries. [59]
Colombia
• Colombia has an embassy in Mexico City.
• Mexico has an embassy in Bogotá.
• Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States and of the G3 Free Trade Agreement.
Cuba
In 1902, Mexico became the first country to ever recognize and establish relations with the Republic of Cuba once it gained full sovereignty . [60] The cultural ties between the two nations became stronger during the following decades. In the mid-20th century, the Cuban Revolution took place, culminating with the triumph of the July 26 Movement on January 1, 1959. In 1964, when Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained. [61] Mexico thereafter maintained diplomatic relations with Cuba, which effectively established it as the sole link between Fidel Castro and the rest of the hemisphere because none of the other Latin American governments recognized Cuba's revolutionary regime until after 1970. [61] Since then, Mexico constantly supported Cuba in international organizations and multilateral forums, and strongly opposed to the economic embargo imposed to the Caribbean island in the early 1960s. [62]
Relations remained strong and stable until 1998 when Fidel Castro , declared that Mexican children were more knowledgeable on Disney characters than on key figures in Mexican history , such declarations led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana . He later apologized and said that his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the U.S. [63] On November 16, 1999, former Mexican president Ernesto Zedillo highly criticized the lack of democracy and political freedom in Cuba during his official visit to the Caribbean island. [64] Relations worsened when then-president Vicente Fox , from the National Action Party , redirected the country's Castañeda Doctrine on foreign policy. In April 2002, the UN Human Rights Commission again criticized Cuba's rights record , the resolution was sponsored by Uruguay and supported by many of Cuba's traditional allies such as Mexico, that historically had abstained. [65] The same month, Fox apologized to Fidel Castro over allegations by Castro that Fox forced him at the last minute to leave the United Nations International Conference on Financing for Development in Monterrey , Mexico, in order to favor the presence of former U.S. President George W. Bush , who also attended and likely requested Castro's removal. Castro, Cuba, and even many Mexicans saw this as an insult, and relations between the two countries reached their lowest point. [66]
Under the Calderón administration , Mexico has concentrated on rebuilding diplomatic relations with Havana. [28] On December 15–17, 2008, in the framework of the "First Latin American and Caribbean Summit for Integration and Development", President Calderón introduced Cuba to the regional organization Rio Group and held talks with President Raúl Castro about topics of interests for both countries. They both agreed to schedule mutual visits for 2009, [67] and put emphasis on strengthening the friendship, cooperation, integration, trade and support. Both countries share the vision of a permanent fight against poverty and organized crime.
With seven months before the six-year term of Felipe Calderón came to an end, he made plans to visit Cuba to "patch up the bruise" relationships and discuss possible business relations, which included oil deals. [68] On April 2012, President Felipe Calderón traveled to Cuba and met with Raúl Castro to fix the broken relationship between the two countries. During his time in Cuba, Calderón condemned the 50-year-old U.S. trade embargo against Cuba . [69]
Dominican Republic
Both countries established diplomatic relations on April 18, 1881. Mexico has an embassy in Asunción . [70] Paraguay has an embassy in Mexico City and an honorary consulate in Guadalajara . [71] Both countries are full members of the Rio Group , of the Latin Union , of the Association of Spanish Language Academies , of the Organization of American States and of the Organization of Ibero-American States .
Peru
Further information: Foreign relations of Peru
Peru and Mexico have historically had a unique relationship solidly based on that they share two of the most significant ancient cultures in the Americas. Both countries have expressed solidarity over the need to defend the recovery of cultural and archeological heritage in the form of artifacts that have been illegally stolen from Peru and Mexico and which are to this date, illegally or legitimately kept in foreign locations. Peru's President Alan García and Mexico's Felipe Calderón signed a joint declaration in April 2011 aimed at deepening the two countries' friendship, cooperation, integration, trade, investments and the permanent fight against poverty and organized crime. The two countries aim to achieve a new model of integration within Latin America, and to represent a positive, realistic, and active example of integration amongst two "brotherly" nations. Peru is represented through its embassy in Mexico City, and Mexico has an embassy in Lima .
Trinidad and Tobago
Both countries established diplomatic relations on February 22, 1831. Mexico has an embassy in Montevideo . [72] Uruguay has an embassy in Mexico City and 2 honorary consulates in Guadalajara and Monterrey . Both countries are full members of the Rio Group , of the Latin Union , of the Association of Spanish Language Academies , of the Organization of American States and of the Organization of Ibero-American States .
Venezuela
Further information: Foreign relations of Venezuela
Historically the two countries have had good diplomatic relations. Ever since both countries became important players in the oil industry, some competitive tensions arose, eventually leading to disputes after Mexico signed an agreement to join NAFTA. During President Vicente Fox 's term, relations between the two countries became critically strained to the point of recalling one-another's ambassadors. It has been clear that diplomatic ties between both countries are not indefinitely severed, in recent years numerous groups, both in Mexico and Venezuela are working to restore the diplomatic relationship between the two countries, as they are of strategic economic and cultural importance. In August 2007, after two years of diplomatic absence in either country, normal relations were re-established with the appointment of former foreign minister Roy Chaderton as Venezuela's envoy in Mexico City and the transfer of Jesús Mario Chacón Carrillo, formerly Mexican ambassador to Colombia, to Caracas. [73] Both countries are founding members of the Latin American Integration Association .
North America
NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992. From left to right (standing) President Carlos Salinas de Gortari , President George H. W. Bush , Prime Minister Brian Mulroney . (Seated) Jaime Serra Puche , Carla Hills , Michael Wilson .
Since the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect on January 1, 1994, relations between Canada, Mexico and the United States have significantly strengthened politically, economically, socially and culturally. [74] During the Fox administration , a further integration towards Mexico's northern neighbors was a top priority. [9] The September 11 attacks changed the priorities of U.S. foreign policy toward the strengthening of regional security. [75] As a result, several trilateral summit meetings regarding this issue have occurred within the framework of the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America (SPP), a region-level dialogue with the stated purpose of providing greater cooperation on security and economic issues, [76] founded in Waco, Texas on March 23, 2005 by Paul Martin , former Prime Minister of Canada , Vicente Fox , then- President of Mexico , and George W. Bush , former President of the United States. [76]
Other issues of concern are the ones related to conservation and protection of the environment, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) consists of a declaration of principles and objectives concerning this issues as well as concrete measures to further cooperation on these matters tripartitely. [77] In addition, the Independent Task Force on North America advocates a greater economic and social integration between Canada, Mexico and the U.S. as a region . [78] It is a group of prominent business, political and academic leaders from the three countries organized and sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations (U.S.), the Canadian Council of Chief Executives , and the Mexican Council on Foreign Relations . [79]
Canada
Main article: Canada–Mexico relations
Formal relations did not begin until 1944, [80] at the height of the Second World War, which both countries participated in on the Allied side . [81] Prior to the negotiations around the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), economic and political ties between Mexico and Canada were relatively weak. Since NAFTA has come into force, the two countries have become much more important to each other, and often collaborate when dealing with the United States, for example with issues related to the economic embargo imposed to Cuba . [82]
Currently, Mexico and Canada are close friends and strategic partners and benefit from a very active bilateral relationship which includes ever increasing commercial ties , high-level political exchanges and an expanding collaborative network between Mexicans and Canadians in areas such as climate change , culture, energy, education, good governance , human rights and public service modernization. And more recently, both countries have been building a closer security and defense relationship. [80]
In recent years, both partners along with Italy, Argentina, Pakistan and other eight countries have sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods [22] Which form a group informally called the Coffee Club , that opposes to the proposition of the G4 . [23]
United States
President Felipe Calderón and U.S. President-elect Barack Obama days before officially assuming the presidency .
When Mexico finally gained its independence from Spain in 1821, the United States was the first country to recognize it. [83] On December 12, 1822 the then- United States Secretary of State John Quincy Adams introduced José Manuel Zozoya, the first Mexican representative, to the then-U.S. president James Monroe in the White House . Through this event, the U.S. recognized de facto the independence of Mexico and the recently-born Mexican Empire led by Agustín de Iturbide . However, Washington did not establish diplomatic relations formally with Mexico until 1825, naming Joel Poinsett as its representative, who had the mission of buying territory and getting trading facilities. [84]
The Mexican Cession , shown in white, and the later Gadsden Purchase , shown in brown.
The Mexican-American war was a conflict that sparked when the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845 and the Mexican government refused to recognize the secession of Texas which was the precursor to the annexation. [85] The war, which began in 1846 and lasted for two years, was settled via the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo which led to Mexico giving up even more of its land to the U.S., including California. [86] Mexico further transferred some of its territories (southern Arizona and New Mexico ) to the U.S. via the Gadsden Purchase in 1854. [87]
In the Reform War , that lasted from 1858 to 1861, the liberals led by Benito Juárez , were given the U.S. recognition as the legitimate government in Mexico. [88] Meanwhile, the conservatives, headed by Comonfort , Zuloaga and Miramón , brought a European Emperor to govern the country, Maximilian I , which led to the French Intervention in 1862, [89] violating the Monroe Doctrine , there was nothing the U.S. could do, as it was involved in its own civil war . [90] Affecting Mexico's foreign policy, both sides, the Union and the Confederacy , were looking for international recognition as well. The Juárez administration was ideologically closer to the Union, but geographically Mexico shared a large border with the Confederacy. [90] In 1861, the then-U.S. President Abraham Lincoln named Thomas Corwin as his minister for Mexico and instructed him to neutralize the Mexican aid given to the Confederates; he successfully achieved this mission. [90] Once the civil war ended, then-Secretary of State William Seward declared that the French invasion in Mexico was harmful to the friendship between France and the U.S., and Washington provided financial aid to Benito Juárez , who successfully expelled the French in 1867. [90]
Lasting for seven years, the 1910 Mexican Revolution ended the rule of the dictator-president Porfirio Díaz . The war was sparked when the U.S.-supported Díaz was proclaimed the winner of the 1910 elections despite mass popular support for his rival in the election Francisco I. Madero . [91] After the war, the various groups that made up the revolutionary forces splintered as they lost the unifying goal of unseating Díaz —leading to a civil war. [92] The U.S. intervened in the conflict, including the involvement of the U.S. ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson , in the plotting of the 1913 coup d'état which overthrew Madero. [93]
The 1917 Constitution of Mexico caused several problems with the British and American transnational oil companies mainly derived from the article 27, which declares that "the wealth contained in the soil, the subsoil , the waters and seas of Mexico belongs to the Nation; the right to land ownership and to exploit the subsoil may therefore only be granted by the Nation." [94] Due to foreign pressure, the implementation of the article was continuously ignored by the government until March 18, 1938 when then-President Lázaro Cárdenas nationalized the oil industry. [95] PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, as well as an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later. [96]
During the Cold War , demonstrating independence from the United States, Mexico supported the Cuban government during the 1960s, [6] the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s, [7] and leftist revolutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s. [8]
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect on January 1, 1994, which led to the elimination of tariffs and other trade barriers between Mexico and the U.S. and serves as a multilateral platform for cooperation between both countries. [97] The agreement increased trade volume and cooperation in both countries. [98] The free trade agreement has been increasingly opposed by Mexican and U.S. farmers , with many groups and the political left presenting that it hurts the interest of traditional, small and local farmers in both countries. [99] Allegations of violations of labor and environmental laws have been considered by the trilateral institutions. [100] The Bush Administration argued that NAFTA had had modest positive impacts on all three member countries, but Mexican farmers have strongly criticized the effects of the agreement as they have become overshadowed by the large corporations benefiting from NAFTA. [101] Notable bilateral trade disputes relate to trucking, tuna, sweeteners and anti-dumping measures . [102]
Migration , [100] border security [103] and trade issues [102] have dominated the bilateral relationship in recent years. In September 2006, Congress approved the Secure Fence Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-367) to authorize the construction of a border fence and other barriers along 700 miles of the U.S.-Mexico border . [104] In March 2009, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton officially visited Mexico to discuss issues of concern for both countries, specifically the ones related to drug trafficking and the U.S. financial support in the Mexican drug war . [105] Another persistent and growing problem [106] is the international parental kidnapping of children to Mexico by non-custodial parents and family members. Mexico is the most common destination for parents that have abducted their children across international borders with the vast majority of those children coming from the United States. [107]
Europe
Main article: Mexico–Russia relations
Diplomatic relations between both countries were established in 1890, in 2010 the 120th anniversary of the ties of friendship between the peoples of Russia and Mexico was grandly celebrated. Mexico has an embassy in Moscow. [108] and Russia has an embassy in Mexico City . [109] Both countries are members of APEC .
Mexico was the first country in the Americas to establish relations with the then Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Soviet politician and leader Leon Trotsky moved to Mexico from Norway during his exile. Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas welcomed him warmly, arranging a special train to bring him to Mexico City from the port of Tampico . In Mexico, Trotsky at one point lived at the home of the painter Diego Rivera , and at another at that of Rivera's wife & fellow painter, Frida Kahlo with whom he had an affair. [110]
Due to its good relations with Russia, Mexico has often purchased military equipment from Russia. The Mexican Navy has received BTR-60 's Ural-4320 , Mi-17/8's , and anti-aircraft missiles SA-18 Grouse . Much of this equipment remains in service.
European Union
Mexico was the first Latin American country to sign a partnership agreement with the European Union (EU), in 1997, composed by 15 members at the time . [57] The agreement entered into force in July 2000 and has considerably strengthened bilateral relations between the two partners. It governs all relations between them, including a regular high-level political dialogue, and shared values such as democracy and human rights.
Austria
During the French intervention in Mexico , and subsequently the Second Mexican Empire between 1864 and 1867, with French backing Maximilian I of Mexico , member of Austria's Imperial Habsburg-Lorraine family was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico .
As of 2005, Mexico was Austria 's second most important trade partner in Latin America. [111] The same year, the President of Austria Heinz Fischer visited Mexico and Brazil, the first ever state visit of an Austrian President to countries in Latin America. [111] [112] [113]
Belgium
Main article: Belgium–Mexico relations
Belgium has an embassy in Mexico City and six honorary consulates throughout Mexico in Cancún , Guadalajara , Monterrey , Puebla , Chihuahua and Veracruz ). Mexico has an embassy in Brussels . In 1836, Belgium—itself newly independent—recognized the independence of Mexico. In 1919, the Belgian chamber of commerce of Mexico was established. Belgium opened its embassy in Mexico on June 5, 1954. [114]
Denmark
Main article: Denmark–Mexico relations
Denmark is Mexico's largest investor and trade partner among the Nordic countries . Diplomatic relations were started in 1827 with a Treaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation [115] and a commercial treaty based on the treaty Porfirio Díaz had signed with England. [116] Mexico has an embassy in Copenhagen and Denmark has an embassy in Mexico City .
France
The independence of Mexico was recognized de jure by France until 1830. [117] The first official contacts concerned trading, in 1827 an agreement signed in Paris established that both countries and its citizens would enjoy a privileged position reciprocally, which included complaints and demands related to the damages suffered during the war from French citizens living in Mexico, the Mexican Congress refused to ratify it. [117] then- French Foreign Minister Louis-Mathieu Molé sent an ultimatum urging the Mexican government to pay off its debts, due to economic instability , refused to do so. [118] In 1838, a French pastry cook, Monsieur Remontel, claimed his shop in the Tacubaya district of Mexico City had been ruined by looting Mexican officers in 1828, he appealed to French King Louis-Philippe . Coming to its citizen's aid, France demanded MXN $600,000 in damages. [119] When the payment was not forthcoming from then-President Anastasio Bustamante , Louis-Philippe sent a fleet to declare a blockade of all Mexican ports from Yucatán to the Rio Grande , and to seize the Port of Veracruz , which led to an armed conflict known as the Pastry War . [119] British diplomat Richard Pakenham offered his mediation, after several negotiations, Mexico was eventually forced to pay the initially demanded MXN$600,000 and burdensome compensations. [85]
In 1861, the liberals won the War of Reform , however, it left the treasury depleted. Trade was stagnant , and foreign creditors were demanding full repayment of Mexican debts, Juárez proceeded to declare a moratorium on all foreign debt repayments. [89] France , Great Britain and Spain decided to launch a joint occupation of the Mexican Gulf coast to force repayment. [89] The Spanish and British quickly figured out that Juárez fully intended to pay the debts when he could, so they withdrew. They also realized that the French had other intentions, indicated by the arrival of reinforcements, and had no desire to help France achieve its ambitions, which led to a military intervention , encouraged by the defeated conservatives. [89] When the French entered Mexico City in mid-1863, the conservatives quickly invited Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria to accept the Mexican crown, who agreed believing that this act responded to the desire of a majority of Mexicans. [120] However, once the conservatives understood Maximilian's democratic sentiments and anticlerical attitudes, began withdrawing their support. [121] When the American Civil War ended, the U.S. made its Monroe Doctrine valid and intervened by providing military and financial aid to Juárez. [122] Meanwhile, in Europe, France was increasingly threatened by a belligerent Prussia and, by 1866, Napoleon III began recalling his troops stationed in Mexico. [90] Conservative forces switched sides and began supporting the Mexican liberals. United resumed their campaign on February 19, 1867, and on May 15, Maximilian surrendered. He was tried and, on Juárez's orders, was executed on June 19. [90] After an exhaustive process, diplomatic relations were reestablished in 1880, leaving behind claims related to the war. [123]
Both nations had an international dispute over the island of Clipperton , which had been under Mexican occupation, but claimed by the Foreign Ministry of France. [124] In 1931 both nations agreed to abide to the arbitration of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy , who declared it a French territory.
When the Fourth Republic collapsed in 1958, Mexico was the first country that recognized the Fifth Republic founded by General Charles de Gaulle . [125] In subsequent years, both countries coordinated actions and released a communiqué that supported the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) during the Salvadoran Civil War . [126] Recently, President Nicolas Sarkozy paid a state visit in March 2009, however, controversy over the Florence Cassez case, a Frenchwoman convicted of kidnapping in Mexico sentenced to 60 years in jail, overshadowed the bilateral agenda. [127] Backed by the "Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons", Sarkozy persuaded the Mexican government to allow Cassez to serve out her sentence in France, however, public opinion in Mexico strongly opposes under the suspicion that once home, she would quickly be released from jail. [128] A bilateral commission was established to handle the case. [128] Meanwhile, speaking at the National Palace in Mexico City, Sarkozy praised Calderón for Mexico's "courageous and determined" battle against drug cartels [127] and urged the Congress to reform the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican military to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions . [129] Supported by British Prime Minister Gordon Brown , Sarkozy has previously expressed that the G8 would benefit from a permanent enlargement that includes the +5 countries . [130]
Germany
Alexander von Humboldt 's reports on his trip to then- New Spain back in the early 19th century heralded the start of Germany's interest in Mexico. [131] Commercial links were quickly established through the signing of the "Treaty of Commerce and Navigation" between Mexico and Hamburg in 1823. Due to increasing investment, six years later, Prussia sent Carl Koppe as its first General Consul and first representative in the newly-born nation. During the administration of dictator Porfirio Díaz , commercial ties significantly strengthened. [131]
In January 1917, Britain's secret Royal Navy cryptanalytic group, Room 40 , intercepted a proposal from Berlin, the Zimmermann Telegram , to Mexico to join the Great War as Germany's ally against the United States, should the U.S. join. The proposal suggested, if the U.S. were to enter the war, Mexico should declare war against the U.S. and enlist Japan as an ally. This would prevent the U.S. from joining the Allies and deploying troops to Europe, and would give Germany more time for their unrestricted submarine warfare program to strangle Britain's vital war supplies. In return, the Germans would promise Mexico support in reclaiming Texas, New Mexico and Arizona . [132] When the U.S. entered the war on April 2, 1917, eleven days later then-President Venustiano Carranza not only turned down the proposition but also declared neutrality. [133]
Nearly 25,000 Mennonites of German ancestry immigrated from Canada to Mexico and settled in the states of Chihuahua and Durango in 1922, their agricultural centers still contribute to the economy of the region. [134] During the Third Reich , Mexico received hundreds of asylum seekers , standing out important figures such as Egon Erwin Kisch , Anna Seghers and Paul Westheim. [134] During the Second World War, the Axis Powers sank two Mexican oil tankers such as Faja de Oro and Potrero de Llano, despite Mexico's neutrality. This attacks were enough to make Mexico enter the world conflict. [135] In 1952, diplomatic relations between the two countries were officially reestablished. [134]
In 1964, the foundation of Volkswagen in Puebla , Mexico, best represents the foreign investment from Germany; specifically, the Volkswagen Beetle , informally called "vocho", is commonly seen as a symbol of Germany in the country. [134] In contemporary times, Germany is viewed as a privileged partner in Europe, from whom economic, political and cultural engagement in Mexico is expected. Bilateral relations are being intensified in all areas based on a "Joint Declaration" between the two countries' Foreign Ministries signed in April 2007. [136] Economic ties have been strengthened since the European Union -Mexico Free Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Germany has become Mexico's fourth-largest trading partner. [137]
Hungary
Main article: Hungary–Mexico relations
Diplomatic relations between Hungary and Mexico were suspended between 1941 and 1974 and re-established on May 14, 1974. The Mexican embassy in Budapest was opened on September 30, 1976. [138] Hungary has an embassy in Mexico City and 3 honorary consulates in Guadalupe , Guadalajara and Cancún ). [139]
Netherlands
On September 27, 1993 the Netherlands Ministry of Finance announced The Netherlands – Mexico Tax Treaty and Protocol. The regulations detail the formalities residents of the Netherlands must observe "in order to be exempt from, or obtain a refund of, the Mexican withholding taxes on dividends, interest and royalties." [140] In 2008 Mexico and the Netherlands modified their existing tax treaty, initially signed in 1993 to strength cooperation to curb tax evasion. [141] [142]
Serbia
Main article: Mexico–Serbia relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1946. Mexico has an embassy in Belgrade [143] and Serbia has an embassy in Mexico City . [144] Relations between the two countries are solid. [145] As socialist countries during the cold war , both with powerful neighbors, Mexico and Yugoslavia were natural allies. [146] Treaties between Mexico and Yugoslavia are now being carried forward to treaties between Mexico and Serbia [145]
Slovenia
Main article: Slovenia-Mexico relations
Mexico was the first Latin American country to recognise independent and sovereign Slovenia on May 22, 1992. Mexican parliament members have praised Slovenia's participation in the eight-country initiative (which includes Mexico) for a world without nuclear weapons and its achievements in the human rights area. Since 1999 both countries have abolished visas as an example of strengthening relations.
Mexico recognised Slovenia on May 22, 1992. Diplomatic relations were established on the same day when Slovenian President Milan Kučan and former Mexican President Carlos Salinas exchanged letters. [147]
Spain
Main article: Mexico–Spain relations
After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was successfully archived in 1521, Mexico became part of the Spanish Empire as the Viceroyalty of New Spain , which lasted until 1821 when the Kingdom of Spain officially recognized the independence of Mexico by signing the Treaty of Córdoba . [148] Ferdinand VII never gave his approval to the treaty signed by Juan O'Donojú , until he died in 1833, serious negotiations started to formalize the independence, the "Treaty of Peace and Friendship" was signed on December 28, 1836. [149]
The first decades of Mexico's post-independence period were characterized by economic instability . On July 17, 1861, then-President Benito Juárez 's suspension of interest payments to foreign countries angered Mexico's major creditors: Spain, France and Great Britain . [89] Napoleon III was the leader of this operation, and the three powers signed the Treaty of London on October 31 to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico. On December 8 the Spanish fleet and troops from Spanish-controlled Cuba arrived at Mexico's main Gulf port, Veracruz . Spain along Great Britain soon withdrew after the signing of the "Treaty of La Soledad", France did not agree with the terms and immediately invaded Mexico . [89]
During the Spanish–American War , Mexico remained neutral to avoid conflicts with the United States and Spain, despite previously having negotiated the eventual annexation of Cuba with Washington. [150] In 1936, the Cárdenas administration declared, in the League of Nations , that "Spain was a victim of foreign aggression and had the right of moral and diplomatic support from the international community ". [151] The government decided to openly support the republican forces during the Spanish Civil War . [151] Once the war finished in 1939, Mexico received nearly 30,000 asylum seekers and immediately broke off diplomatic relations with the " Spanish State " under the rule of dictator Francisco Franco . [151]
Diplomatic relations , since their reestablishment on March 28, 1977, have been strengthened within a modern, legal and institutional framework to promote politic dialogue and cooperation . In January 1990, the "General Treaty of Cooperation and Friendship" was signed to establish a Bilateral Commission. [152] In 2007, President Calderón and Spanish President José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero paid state visits reciprocally [152] and signed a declaration to deepen the strategic association between the two countries. [153] After the European Union -Mexico Free Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Spain became Mexico's seventh trading partner and second amongst the European Union members . [154]
United Kingdom
Main article: Mexico – United Kingdom relations
Due to rivalry with France and Spain , then-Prime Minister George Canning was interested in recognizing the independence of the newly-born nations in the Americas. On June 27, 1824, Canning received Mexican plenipotentiary minister José Mariano Michelena and recognized Mexico as an independent country de facto, and formally on December 30, despite opposition from the British cabinet. [155] United Kingdom was the first country to officially recognize the independence of Mexico. [156]
In subsequent decades, the United Kingdom would persuade other European countries to recognize Mexico, especially Spain, and offer mediation in different international conflicts that involved Mexico in the 19th century such as the Pastry War [85] and the Texas War of Independence . [157] By 1861, Mexico was a country deeply in debt and torn by divisions of the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Mexico's creditors demanded repayment, forcing then-President Benito Juárez to declare a two-year moratorium on foreign debt , which in turn led to a punitive expedition sent by Britain, France and Spain. Juarez successfully negotiated the "Treaty of La Soledad" with the British and Spanish, who soon withdrew. [89] After the Mexican Congress ratified a commercial agreement with the U.S. in 1883, Great Britain showed more interest in reestablish diplomatic relations with Mexico, and quickly did so a couple of years later. [158] Sovereignty over the territory of Belize was historically claimed by Mexico, but the British crown refused to discuss this issue for a long time; however, in 1897, the signing of the "Mariscal-Spencer Treaty" resolved the territorial disputes with the British crown colony . [159]
In 1917, Mexico's newly promulgated Constitution provided, among other things, restrictions on foreign ownership of land and subsoil resources, notably oil. [160] This last provision, included in Article 27, was ominous for American and British investors who had obtained oil-mining concessions. [161] Due to heavy foreign pressure, subsequent governments did not strictly applicate the article, until Lázaro Cárdenas , who on March 18, 1938, fully nationalized the oil-industry. This measure led to protests by the British government questioning the nationalization and Mexico's solvency to execute it. In response, a check, in an amount worth of the demands for nationalization, was sent and diplomatic ties were broken off. [162] PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, and an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later. [161]
Decades later, several state visits would be reciprocally paid, notably Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom in 1975. [163] On March 31 – April 1, 2009, President Felipe Calderón officially visited the UK to discuss issues related to modernization of the national oil industry, climate change and strategic cooperation with Prime Minister Gordon Brown , as well as coordinating actions for the G-20 London Summit . [164]
Other EU nations
Mexican Secretary of Exterior about relations with Romania (in Spanish)
European Free Trade Association
In 2000, Mexico was the first Latin American country to sign a partnership agreement with the European Free Trade Area (EFTA) integrated by Iceland , Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland . [57] The agreement entered into force in July 2000 and has considerably strengthened bilateral relations between the two partners. It governs all relations between them, including a regular high-level political dialogue, and shared values such as democracy and human rights.
Iceland
Main article: Iceland–Mexico relations
Iceland and Mexico established diplomatic relations in 1960. Since then the Icelandic Embassy in Washington, D.C. has also served as the Icelandic Embassy for Mexico. The Mexican Embassy in Copenhagen serves as the Mexican Embassy to Iceland. [172] Within Mexico, there are Icelandic consulates in Campeche , Guaymas and Mexico City .
Norway
Main article: Norway-Mexico relations
Norway has an embassy in Mexico City. The Mexican Embassy in Copenhagen serves as the Mexican Embassy to Norway.
EU Candidate Countries
Turkey has an embassy in Mexico City . [174]
Both countries are full members of the OECD .
Asia-Pacific
First contacts with Asia started in 1565, when Governor General Miguel Lopez de Legazpi claimed the Philippines as a Spanish Colony and designated Manila as the capital in 1571. [175] Due to its distance from Spain, the Spanish Government assigned Manila's administration and government to Viceroyalty of New Spain for two and a half centuries. Evangelization and commercialization constituted the core of intercontinental ties between Asia and America that materialized with the Manila-Acapulco galleons . [176]
In 1993, Mexico joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, within this framework Mexico has sought to strengthen its relations with the region, especially with Australia, [177] India, [178] Japan, [179] the People's Republic of China [180] and South Korea . [181]
Australia
Main article: Mexico–People's Republic of China relations
Mexico and the People's Republic of China established relations amidst tensions in 1972, and in recent years have seen an intense export rivalry over the United States market, with the Mexican government having accused the Chinese of impinging on its export territory by flooding the US with cheap goods manufactured in low-wage factories.
In 2005, Chinese President Hu Jintao came to Mexico promising increased investment in industries like automobile-parts manufacture and mineral exportation. In July 2008, Mexican President Felipe Calderón reciprocated with a visit to Beijing in a bid to improve bilateral trade. Nevertheless, China has focussed more on South American commodity producers such as Brazil and Chile to meet this end and fuel its chiefly-export economy. In 2008 Mexico exported just $2 billion worth of goods to China while importing some $34 billion from her, including clothing, electronics and "tourist trinkets".
India
President Felipe Calderón (center) with Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh (left) and Chinese President Hu Jintao , (second from right) among the G-5 leaders during an official meeting in Germany, 2007.
As one of the fastest-growing economies [182] and potential superpower , [183] India and Mexico are reciprocally considered as strategic partners. [178] [184]
Under the Fox administration , several visits and bilateral meetings occurred concerning diverse areas such as economy, technology and culture. In April 2004, the "Group of Friendship Mexico-India" was established at the LIX Legislature. [178] To promote a major rapprochement with India, then- Secretary of Foreign Affairs Luis Ernesto Derbez met with his Indian counterpart in mid-2004 in Washington, D.C., and officially visited New Delhi in August, where both ministers agreed to celebrate the IV Binational Commission, formerly suspended in 1996, with the aim of strengthening the bilateral agenda. [178] In May 2007, India and Mexico signed the "Bilateral Investment Protection Agreement" (BIPA) to strengthen their trading relations, with proximity to the U.S., the joint ventures would enable Indian companies to increase their presence in the world's biggest market , taking advantage of Mexico's membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). [184]
Japan
The Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation concluded in 1888 between the two countries was Japan's first "equal" treaty with a foreign country. [185] In 1897, the 35 members of the so-called Enomoto Colonization Party settle in the Mexican state of Chiapas to grow coffee, this was the first organized emigration from Japan to Latin America. [185]
Former Mexican President Álvaro Obregón was awarded Japan's Order of the Chrysanthemum at a special ceremony in Mexico City . On November 27, 1924, Baron Shigetsuma Furuya, Special Ambassador from Japan to Mexico, conferred the honor on Obregón. It was reported that this had been the first time that the Order had been conferred outside the Imperial family . [186] In 1952, Mexico becomes the second country to ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty , preceded only by the United Kingdom. [185]
On September 17, 2004, Mexico and Japan signed a free trade agreement , formally known as the "Agreement Between Japan and the United Mexican States for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership", which went into effect in April 2005. [187] This was the among many historic steps led by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to strengthen global economic stability. As a result, in 2007 Mexico became Japan's largest trading partner in Latin America. [187] Over sixty treaties and agreements have been signed between the two countries, standing out the ones related to technological and scientific cooperation, several academic and cultural exchanges, as well as an increasing inter-parliamentary dialogue. [185] [188]
Philippines
Main article: Mexico–Philippines relations
Mexico and the Philippines share a myriad of traditions and customs derived from historical ties established nearly 450 years ago. Their common history dates back to the time when both countries were part of New Spain . Mexican money financed the expedition known as Legazpi exploration , under the command of King Philip II of Spain . During the Mexican administration of the Philippines, other than General Legazpi , all of the governor-generals were born in Mexico. Due to the grand exchange with the Philippines in those days, many cultural traits were adopted by one another, with Mexicans remaining in the Philippines, and Filipinos establishing in Mexico, particularly the central west coast, near the port town of Acapulco . Many Nahuatl words were adopted and popularized in the Philippines, such as Tianggui (market fair) and Zapote (a fruit). [189]
After the colonial period, the first official contacts of Mexico with the Philippines were established in 1842, when a Mexican Representation was opened in Manila. With the assignment of Mexican Diplomat Evaristo Butler Hernandez in the Philippines in 1878.
The Independence of the Philippines brought forth a new era of relations between these countries. Mexico dispatched an envoy to participate in the festivities to celebrate the birth of the Southeast Asian nation. Diplomatic ties between both countries were formalized on April 14 of 1953. The year of 1964 was decreed the "Year of Philippine-Mexican Friendship" to celebrate the Fourth Centennial of the Expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi. In modern day, the conquest of the Philippines is seen as a Spanish initiative, while Mexico is viewed as a country of historical link and friendship, and several groups intend on strengthening the bond between the two countries. [190]
Mexico has an embassy in Manila , and the Philippines has an embassy in Mexico City. Both countries share a multitude of bilateral agreements including cooperation in Science, Technology, Culture, Tourism, Education, and the fight against illegal drug trafficking and abuse.
South Korea
Mexico has an embassy in Seoul , while South Korea has an embassy in Mexico City. See also Korean Mexican .
Africa and Middle East
Further information: Foreign relations of Angola
With Angola 's fast growing economy, relations between the West-African nation and several Latin American countries have become of increasing priority due to the geographical proximity and cultural similarities. Mexico's embassy in Pretoria, South Africa is accredited to Angola . Angola has an embassy in Mexico City.
Ethiopia
Main article: Ethiopia–Mexico relations
During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia , Mexico was the only country to condemn the Italian occupation of the country in the League of Nations .[ citation needed ] Since then, relations between the two nations have strengthened. In Addis Ababa , Ethiopia thanked Mexico by naming a square in the city called "Plaza Mexico." Mexico then named a metro station in Mexico City called Metro Etiopía . Mexico re-opened its embassy in Addis Ababa in 2007. [191] [192] Ethiopia is represented in Mexico through its embassy in Washington, D.C.. It also has an honorary consulate in Mexico City.
Further information: Foreign relations of Iran
The first diplomatic relations between Mexico and Iran date back to 1889, although cooperation and trade between the two friend nations was not formally established until 1937. [193] Mexico and Iran have enjoyed increasingly close political and economic relations over the years, growing with the volume of bilateral trade and economic cooperation. The two countries aim to expand cooperation in several sectors, sharing science and technology, particularly in the oil industry. Both countries have also shared successful experiences in cultural cooperation and exchange. In 2008, an agreement to form a Mexico-Iran parliamentary friendship group was made at the Mexican parliament. Iran has an embassy in Mexico City , and Mexico has an embassy in Tehran.
Israel
Main article: Israel–Mexico relations
Mexico recognized the State of Israel in January 1950. Diplomatic relations were soon established with the opening of the Embassy of Mexico in Tel-Aviv with an honorary consulate in Haifa . [194] Israel also opened an embassy in Mexico City with three honorary consulates in the country; Guadalajara , Monterrey and Tijuana . [195] In 2000, a free trade agreement was signed between the two nations.
Lebanon
Main article: Foreign relations of Lebanon
Mexico was among the first nations to recognize Lebanon 's independence in 1943. Mexico has an embassy in Beirut , and Lebanon has an embassy in Mexico City. Mexico was a popular destination during the Lebanese diaspora . There is a significant population of Lebanese descent in Mexico, nearing half a million people, many of which travel to and support business with Lebanon. The Centro Libanés and "Club Deportivo Libanés" in Mexico City are important symbols representing the historically cultural and social ties between both countries.
Palestinian Authority
Main article: Mexico–Palestine relations
The Palestinian National Authority has a Special Delegation in Mexico City, and Mexico has a limited diplomatic relations office in Ramallah . Many groups in Mexico strive to create a permanent official relation with the Palestinian Authority , this includes Sub-Comandante Marcos of the EZLN , who has condemned the Israeli invasion of Palestine. [196]
South Africa
There were no official relations between Mexico and South Africa before 1994. After the birth of democracy in South Africa, the countries established relations. Mexico has an embassy in Pretoria , South Africa has an embassy in Mexico City .
Syria
Main article: Syria-Mexico relations
Mexico and Syria have increasingly strengthened their relations, particularly in the interest of expanding educational and cultural cooperation between the two countries. In 2008, Syria was Mexico’s eighth-largest trading partner in the Middle East. [197]
South Sudan
Mexico recognized the independence and sovereignty of South Sudan on July 14, 2011 and established full diplomatic relations on September 26 of the same year. [198] [199]
Multilateral relations
United Nations
Mexico is the tenth largest contributor to the United Nations (UN) regular budgets. [16] Currently, it is a member of eighteen organizations arisen from the General Assembly , Economic and Social Council and other specialized organizations of the UN. [200]
The United Nations Security Council .
Mexico has served as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) three times (1946, 1982–83, 2002–03). On October 17, 2008, picking up 185 votes, it was elected to serve as a non-permanent member for the fourth time, from January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2010. [201] Since April 1, Mexico holds the rotative presidency of the UNSC. [202]
In recent years, the need of reforming the UNSC and its working methods has been widely impulsed by Mexico, [22] with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries. [23] And have formed a movement informally called the Coffee Club , created in the 1990s, which highly opposes to the reform that the Group of Four (G4) suggests. [203]
In line with the Castañeda Doctrine of new openness in Mexico's foreign policy, established in the early first decade of the 21st century, [9] some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican army , air force or navy to collaborate with the UN in peacekeeping missions . [36]
Organization of American States
Mexican Permanent Mission to the Organization of American States (OAS) in Washington, D.C..
As a founding member of the Organization of American States (OAS), [12] Mexico has actively participated in the intergovernmental organization . Since the creation of the OAS, Mexico always promoted to include more principals related to international cooperation and less military aspects, [204] its position was based on the principles of non-intervention and the pacific resolution of disputes . [205] In addition, Mexico favored the membership of Canada in 1989 and Belize and Guatemala in 1991. [205]
In 1964, under U.S. pressure, the OAS required all member countries to break off diplomatic ties with Cuba . Mexico refused, condemned the Bay of Pigs invasion , and did not support the expulsion of Cuba from the OAS. [206] Years later, Mexico strongly opposed to the creation of a military alliance within the OAS framework, and condemned the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989. [207]
Main article: Organization of American States Secretary General election, 2005
Under the Fox administration , the candidacy of then- Secretary of Foreign Affairs Luis Ernesto Derbez for the Secretary General of the OAS was highly promoted. It eventually failed but brought a diplomatic crisis with Chile and harsh critics from the Mexican public opinion when Derbez had announced that he would no longer compete against José Miguel Insulza but the Mexican delegation abstained despite being previously agreed that it would vote for the Chilean candidate. [58]
Mega-Diverse Countries
The 17 countries identified as Megadiverse by CI .
The megadiverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the Earth's species and are therefore considered extremely biodiverse and therefore are of utmost priority on the global environmental agenda. Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries [208] in 1998, [209] [210] most are located in or have territories in the tropics.
In 2002, Mexico formed a separate organization named Like-Minded Megadiverse Countries, consisting of countries rich in biological diversity and associated traditional knowledge. [211] This organization includes a different set of involved megadiverse countries than those identified by Conservation International.
Participation in international organizations
Hot spots where police corruption and extreme drug cartel violence prompted an increased use of the military in law enforcement roles .
Mexico remains a transit and not a cocaine production country . [213] Methamphetamine and cannabis production do take place in Mexico and are responsible for an estimated 80% of the methamphetamine on the streets in the United States, [214] while 1,100 metric tons of marijuana are smuggled each year from Mexico. [215]
In 1990 just over half the cocaine imported into the U.S. came through Mexico, by 2007 that had risen to more than 90 percent, according to U.S. State Department estimates. [216] Although violence between drug cartels has been occurring long before the war began, the government used its police forces in the 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century with little effect. That changed on December 11, 2006, when newly elected President Felipe Calderón sent 6,500 federal troops to the state of Michoacán to put an end to drug violence there. This action is regarded as the first major retaliation made against cartel operations, and is generally viewed as the starting point of the war between the government and the drug cartels . [217] As time progressed, Calderón continued to escalate his anti-drug campaign, in which there are now well over 25,000 troops involved. [218] During the Calderón administration , the Mexican government has spent approximately US$7 billion in an 18-month-old campaign against drug cartels. [219] It is estimated that during 2006, there were about 2,000 drug-related violent deaths, [220] about 2,300 deaths during 2007, [221] and more than 6,200 people by the end of 2008. [222] Many of the dead were gang members killed by rivals or by the government, some have been bystanders. [223] [224]
Drug trafficking is acknowledged as an issue with shared responsibilities that requires coordinated measures by the U.S. and Mexico. In March 2009, United States Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton , when officially visited Mexico City , stated that: [225]
Our insatiable demand for illegal drugs fuels the drug trade. Our inability to prevent weapons from being illegally smuggled across the border to arm these criminals causes the deaths of police officers, soldiers and civilians.
Illegal migration
Main article: Illegal immigration to the United States
Almost a third of all immigrants in the U.S. were born in Mexico, being the source of the greatest number of both authorized (20%) and unauthorized (56%) migrants who come to the U.S. every year. [226] Since the early 1990s, Mexican immigrants are no longer concentrated in California, the Southwest, and Illinois , but have been coming to new gateway states, including New York, North Carolina , Georgia , Nevada , and Washington, D.C., in increasing numbers. [226] This phenomenon can be mainly attributed to poverty in Mexico, the growing demand for unskilled labor in the U.S., the existence of established family and community networks that allow migrants to arrive in the U.S. with people known to them. [226]
The framework of U.S. immigration law has largely remained the same since 1965. The U.S. economy needs both high-skilled and low-skilled immigrant workers to remain competitive and to have enough workers who continue to pay into Social Security and Medicare as the U.S. population grows older. Nonetheless, there are currently very few channels for immigration to the U.S. for work-related reasons under current law. [227] Furthermore, Amnesty International has taken concern regarding the excessive brutality inflicted upon illegal immigrants, which includes beatings, sexual assault, denial of medical attention, and denial of food, water and warmth for long periods. [228]
For many years, the Mexican government showed limited interest in the issues. However, former President Vicente Fox actively sought to recognize the contribution of migrants to the U.S. and Mexico and to pursue a bilateral migration agreement with the U.S. government , which eventually failed. [229] The current administration has placed an emphasis on how to create jobs in Mexico, enhance border security , and protect Mexican citizens living abroad. [230]
Traditionally, Mexico built a reputation as one of the classic asylum countries , with a varying attitude toward refugees from Spain and other European countries before and during World War II, from Latin America's Southern Cone in the 1970s, and from Central America since the beginning of the 1980s. [231] However, in recent years refugees who solicit asylum are usually treated as if they were just immigrants, with exhaustive administrative processes. [231] The southern border of Mexico has experienced a significant increase in legal and illegal flows over the past decade, in particular for migrants seeking to transit Mexico to reach the U.S. [232] José Luis Soberanes , president of the National Human Rights Commission , condemned the repressing policy implemented by the Mexican government against illegal immigrants who cross the country's southern border. [233] President Calderón modified the "General Law on Population" to derogate some penalties against immigrants such as jail, instead undocumented immigrants have to pay fines as high as US$500. [234]
See also
^ (Spanish) BBC Editors (July 22, 2008). "México no encarcelará a ilegales" . BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_7519000/7519251.stm . Retrieved April 12, 2009.
References
Pereña-García, Mercedes (2001). Las Relaciones Diplomáticas de México. Plaza y Valdés, p. 94. ISBN 968-856-917-8 .
Velázquez Flores, Rafael (2007). Factores, Bases y Fundamentos de la Política Exterior de México. Plaza y Valdés, p. 331. ISBN 970-722-473-8 .
Alponte, Juan María (1993). La Política Exterior de México en el Nuevo Orden Mundial : Antología de Principios y Tesis. FCE, p. 428. ISBN 968-16-4167-1 .
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005) La Política Exterior Mexicana en la Transición. FCE, SRE, p. 281. ISBN 968-16-7745-5 .
Lajous Vargas, Roberta (2000) Los Retos de la Política Exterior de México en el Siglo XXI. SRE, p. 560. ISBN 968-810-621-6 .
El Colegio de México (2007). Historia General de México: Versión 2000. El Colegio de México, Centro de Estudios Históricos, p. 1103. ISBN 968-12-0969-9 .
Selee, Andrew D. (2007). More Than Neighbors: An Overview of Mexico and U.S.-Mexican Relations. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, p. 43. ISBN 1-933549-26-2 .
External links
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Meles Zenawi became Prime Minister of which country in 1995? | Ethiopia in 1995 | Britannica.com
Ethiopia in 1995
Originally published in the Britannica Book of the Year. Presented as archival content.
Britannica Stories
Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent
The landlocked republic of Ethiopia is in the Horn of northeastern Africa. Area: 1,133,882 sq km (437,794 sq mi). Pop. (1995 est.): 55,053,000. Cap.: Addis Ababa. Monetary unit: birr, with (Oct. 6, 1995) a free rate of 5.80 birr to U.S. $1 (9.17 birr = £ 1 sterling). Presidents in 1995, Meles Zenawi (interim) and, from August 22, Negasso Gidada; prime ministers, Tamirat Layne (acting) and, from August 22, Meles Zenawi.
The new constitution approved in December 1994 retained the key features of the draft presented earlier in 1994 to the Constituent Assembly, including the right of all peoples within Ethiopia to self-determination, including secession from the country. Uniquely among African constitutions, it instituted a largely ceremonial presidency, vesting executive power in the prime minister elected by the National Assembly. Assembly elections were held in May in most of the country but were postponed to June in the east. They were, however, boycotted by the four major opposition groupings and contested by only three small opposition parties. The conduct of the elections was reported by foreign observers to have been fair, but there was little challenge to the ruling Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), a multiethnic grouping whose constituent parties won 493 of the 548 seats. Only in Addis Ababa, where 10 of the 23 seats were won by independents, was government control seriously contested.
The new Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was formally established on August 22. The new president, Negasso Gidada, was a Christian Oromo from the Welega region of western Ethiopia who had served as minister of information in the outgoing transitional government. The outgoing president, Meles Zenawi, became prime minister and head of government. The 17-member Council of Ministers was carefully selected to reflect the ethnic balance of the country, with four each for Oromo and Amhara, two each for Tigray (including the prime minister) and Gurage, and one each for five smaller groups.
New regional assemblies were also elected in May and June and were likewise controlled by the EPRDF. The transfer of powers from the central government to the regions increasingly became a reality. For example, in the large Oromo region surrounding Addis Ababa, Oromifa increasingly replaced Amharic as the language of administration. A number of leading members of Meles Zenawi’s Tigray People’s Liberation Front were posted back to Tigray.
The trials of members of the former regime charged with serious human rights abuses, which had been adjourned until May 1995 to allow both sides to prepare their cases, were further postponed until later in the year. Attempts to secure the extradition of the ousted dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam from his refuge in Zimbabwe were unsuccessful. At the same time, alleged human rights abuses by the new regime, though not remotely approaching those committed by the old one, continued to attract international attention. There was some harassment of journalists, though the press continued to be more independent than under previous governments, and Amnesty International condemned the arrest in June of five opposition politicians on what it described as "slender and dubious evidence of conspiracy."
The government’s standing in Africa was reflected in the election of Meles Zenawi as chairman of the Organization of African Unity in June. Relations with Eritrea, which had separated from Ethiopia in 1993, continued to be close, but those with the Islamist military regime in The Sudan deteriorated rapidly. Ethiopia accused The Sudan of complicity in the attempted assassination of Pres. Hosni Mubarak of Egypt in Addis Ababa in June; it subsequently ordered the reduction of the Sudanese diplomatic staff from 15 to 4, denied Sudan Airways landing rights in Addis Ababa, and closed the Sudanese consulate at Gambela in southwestern Ethiopia.
Team Handball
The economy grew by about 5.4% in 1994, supported by continuing aid inflows and a boom in world coffee prices. Progress was made on privatizing 144 state-owned businesses, half of those being transferred to their employees. Following the 1994 harvest, an overall food deficit of one million tons of grain was estimated for 1995, 85% of this being met from food aid and the remainder from commercial purchases. Christopher S. Clapham
| Ethiopia |
The Burgos Cathedral is in which European country? | Ethiopia's Meles Zenawi dies of undisclosed illness | World news | The Guardian
Ethiopia
Ethiopia's Meles Zenawi dies of undisclosed illness
Fears for stability after PM's 21-year rule characterised by economic growth and human rights protests from international community
Tuesday 21 August 2012 05.32 EDT
First published on Tuesday 21 August 2012 05.32 EDT
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This article is 4 years old
One of Africa's most powerful and divisive leaders, Meles Zenawi of Ethiopia, has died of an undisclosed illness, it has been announced. He was 57.
During his 21-year rule, Meles turned Ethiopia into one of Africa's fastest-growing economies and proved to be a key US ally in the war on terror. But he was also regarded as an authoritarian strongman whose critics suffered persecution, imprisonment and torture.
Meles had not been seen in public for about two months. He failed to attend a meeting of African Union heads of state in the capital, Addis Ababa, last month, raising speculation about his health .He died "abroad" at around 11.40pm on Monday after contracting an infection, state television said on Tuesday.
His demise creates a potential power vacuum in Addis Ababa. Expressing concern, Kenya's prime minister, Raila Odinga, told the BBC World Service: "We need a seamless, peaceful, transition of power. The region, the horn of Africa , needs stability."
Hailemariam Desalegn, appointed deputy prime minister and foreign affairs minister in 2010, will be sworn in as prime minister after an emergency meeting of parliament, said Bereket Simon, the communications minister.
"To be sick is human and he has been struggling to be healthy in the last year," Simon told reporters in Addis Ababa. Meles's family were by his side when he died, he said. "He has been diligently delivering on his promises; illness has never been a hindrance."
Simon added: "I assure you everything is stable and everything will continue as charted by the prime minister."
On Tuesday, state TV showed pictures of Meles against a soundtrack of classical music. Simon called the death shocking and devastating.
Born on 8 May 1955, Meles grew up in the northern town of Adwa, where his father had 13 siblings from various women. He moved to the capital on a scholarship after completing an eight-year elementary education in just five years.
A hardline Marxist-Leninist and a towering intellect, Meles became president in 1991 after helping to oust Mengistu Haile Mariam's Communist military junta, which was responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths. He became prime minister in 1995, head of the federal government and armed forces.
Meles introduced a controversial form of ethnic nationalism and, from 1998-2000, went to war with neighbouring Eritrea, a conflict that resulted in tens of thousands of deaths. The countries remain sworn enemies. Eritrea will be watching developments closely.
The US has long viewed Meles as a strong security partner and has given hundreds of millions of dollars in aid over the years. US military drones that patrol east Africa, especially over Somalia, are stationed in Ethiopia.
Ethiopia has long been criticised by human rights groups for the government's hardline crackdowns on dissent. During the G8 summit in Chicago last May, Meles was interrupted soon after he started to speak: "You are a dictator! You have committed crimes against humanity!" a member of the audience shouted.
The bald, bespectacled politician, visibly shocked at first, tried to continue talking before staring down, stony-faced.
Leslie Lefkow, deputy director of Human Rights Watch in Africa, said Meles brought Ethiopia out of a hugely difficult period following Mengistu's rule and made important economic progress, but the ruling party has been too focused on building its own authority in recent years instead of building government institutions.
"On the human rights side his legacy will be much more questionable," Lefkow told the Associated Press. "The country remains under a very tightly controlled one-party rule and this will be the challenge for the new leadership, to take advantage of the opportunity that his death presents in terms of bringing Ethiopia into a more human rights-friendly, reform-minded style of leadership."
Meles's government has been criticised for its use of arbitrary detention, torture and surveillance of opposition members inside Ethiopia. The ONLF, an opposition group that consists mostly of ethnic Somalis, has openly clashed with the government, including in 2007 when Ethiopia sent troops to Somalia to fight al-Shabaab militants.
During Meles's election win in 2005, when it appeared the opposition was likely to make gains, Meles tightened security across the country, and on the night of the election he declared a state of emergency, outlawing any public gathering as his ruling party claimed a majority win. Opposition members accused Meles of rigging the election, and demonstrations broke out. Security forces moved in, killing hundreds of people and jailing thousands. Almost the entire leadership of an opposition group that won an unprecedented number of seats in parliament was jailed for life for treason.
In 2009, an anti-terror law was enacted, under which more than 100 opposition figures have since been arrested. The government insists it is tackling rebel groups that have links with al-Qaida and Eritrea.
More than 10 journalists have also been charged under the law, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists . The group says Ethiopia is close to replacing Eritrea as the African country with the highest number of journalists behind bars. Two Swedish journalists were jailed for 11 years on charges of entering the country illegally and aiding a rebel group.
Navi Pillay, the UN high commissioner of human rights, has criticised the verdicts, saying journalists, human rights defenders and critics were facing a "climate of intimidation".
Meles responded with trademark defiance, labelling the duo as "messenger boys of terror groups".
In 2010, Meles won a further five years in office while receiving a reported 99% of the vote in an election that the US and other international observers said did not meet international standards.
Meles was the leader of a political coalition known as the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front. He was also the longtime chairman of the Tigray People's Liberation Front and has always identified strongly with his party.
When asked what he thought would be his legacy, Meles once said: "I cannot separate my achievements from what can be considered as the achievements of the ruling party. Whatever achievement there might have been, it does not exist independent of that party."
Under Meles, Ethiopia recorded improvements in education with the construction of new schools and universities. Women gained more rights. And in the mid-2000s Ethiopia experienced strong economic growth, tripling in size in 15 years, which won Meles plaudits. The International Monetary Fund in 2008 said Ethiopia's economy had grown faster than any non-oil exporting country in sub-Saharan Africa.
The prime minister forged close business ties with India and Turkey as well as China, which footed the $200m bill for the sprawling, new headquarters of the African Union in Addis Ababa.
Despite those gains, Ethiopia remains heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for 85% of employment. Per capita income is only about $1,000 – about $3 a day.
Meles is survived by his wife, Azeb Mesfin, an MP, with whom he had three children. State TV said funeral arrangements would be announced soon.
Mourners throng outside airport and world leaders pay tribute, but human rights groups condemn 21-year authoritarian reign
Published: 21 Aug 2012
Ethnic rivalries could resurface domestically, and loss of strong leader could affect security across region, observers say
Published: 21 Aug 2012
Ethiopian politician rose to become one of Africa's most visible statesman but criticism and controversy were never far behind
Published: 21 Aug 2012
Ethiopian government spokesman Bereket Simon announces the death of prime minister Meles Zenawi in Addis Ababa
Published: 21 Aug 2012
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Which champion racehorse, who died in 1932, was sometimes referred to as ‘Australia’s Wonder Horse’? | Famous Horses
First Posted: June 7, 2008
Apr 4, 2015
Famous Horses
Affirmed Bamboo Harvester aka Mr. Ed Bucephalus Burmese Buttermilk Comanche Dan Patch Haleb Hanover Kidron Lexington Little Sorrel Man O' War Old Henry Clay PharLap Reckless Ruffian Scout Seabiscuit Seattle Slew Secretariat Silver Snowman Sysonby Traveller Trigger Winchester
Some of the following information was taken from the Smithsonian website and is being done so according to their copyright agreement (fair use). Pictures are not on their site. Some further information has been researched and added, but nothing from The Smithsonian site has been changed in any way.
I will be continuing to add famous horses to this list. Please, if you have any specific horse that you want researched and added to this list, contact me using the e-mail on the my home page.
The National Museum of Natural History often receives requests for information on famous horses which are believed to be part of the Smithsonian's research collection or on display in the exhibit areas. Several of the horses listed are part of the Museum's collection; The rest are displayed or stored at other institutions. The following facts have been compiled from the files of the Division of Mammals of the Museum's Department of Systematic Biology, Vertebrate Zoology Section, personal correspondence, and accession and catalogue records.
Bucephalus
Alexander the Great riding Bucephalus
Alexander and Bucephalus in combat at the battle of Issus portrayed in the Alexander Mosaic.
Bucephalus coin
Bucephalus
Bucephalus or Buchephalas...(c. 355 BC - June, 326 BC) was Alexander the Great's horse and one of the most famous actual horses of antiquity. Ancient accounts state that Bucephalus died after the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC, in what is now modern Pakistan, and is buried in Jalalpur Sharif outside of Jhelum, Pakistan.
The Taming of Bucephalus
A massive creature with a massive head, Bucephalus is described as having a black coat with a large white star on his brow. He is also supposed to have had a "wall," or blue eye, and his breeding was that of the "best Thessalian strain." Plutarch tells the story of how, in 344 BC, a thirteen-year-old Alexander won the horse. Philonicus the Thessalian, a horse dealer, offered the horse to King Philip II for the sum of thirteen talents, but, since no one could tame the animal, Philip was not interested. His son Alexander, however, was, and promised to pay for the horse himself should he fail to tame it. He was given a chance and surprised all by subduing it. He spoke soothingly to the horse and turned it towards the sun so that it could no longer see its own shadow, which had been the cause of its distress. Dropping his fluttering cloak as well, Alexander successfully tamed the horse. Plutarch says that the incident so impressed Philip that he told the boy, "O my son, look thee out a kingdom equal to and worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee." Philip's speech strikes the only false note in the anecdote, according to AR Anderson, who noted his words as the embryo of the legend fully developed in the History of Alexander the Great I.15, 17.
The Alexander Romance presents a mythic variant of Bucephalus's origin. In this tale, the colt, whose heroic attributes surpassed even those of Pegasus, is bred and presented to Philip on his own estates. The mythic attributes of the animal are further reinforced in the romance by the Delphic Oracle, who tells Philip that the destined king of the world will be the one who rides Bucephalus, a horse with the mark of the ox's head on his haunch.
Alexander and Bucephalus
Alexander and Bucephalus in combat at the battle of Issus portrayed in the Alexander Mosaic.As one of his chargers, Bucephalus served Alexander in numerous battles. His legend fired the imagination of many an artist from the ancient to the modern world. Paintings of Labrum's Alexandrine subjects, including Bucephalus, survive today in the Louvre. One in particular, The Passage of the Granicus, depicts the warhorse battling the difficulties of the steep muddy river banks, biting and kicking his foes.
Like his hero and supposed ancestor Achilles, Alexander felt that his horses were known to excel all others - for they are immortal. Poseidon gave them to my father Peleus, who in his turn gave them to myself.
Arrian states, with Onesicritus as his source, that Bucephalus died at the age of thirty, a good age for a horse even today. Other sources, however, give as the cause of death not old age or weariness, but fatal injuries at the Battle of the Hydaspes (June 326 BC), in which Alexander's army defeated King Porus. Alexander promptly founded a city, Bucephala, in honour of his horse. It lay on the west bank of the Hydaspes river (modern-day Jhelum in Pakistan). The modern-day town of Jalalpur Sharif, outside Jhelum, is said to be where Bucephalus is buried.
The legend of Bucephalus grew in association with that of Alexander, beginning with the fiction that they were born simultaneously: some of the later versions of the Alexander Romance also synchronized the hour of their death. The pair forged a sort of cult in that, after them, it was all but expected of a conqueror that he have a favourite horse. Julius Caesar had one; so too did the eccentric Roman Emperor Caligula, who made a great fuss of his horse Incitatus, holding inane birthday parties for him, riding him while adorned with Alexander's breastplate and planning to make him a consul.
More information on Bucephalus and Alexander the Great can be easily accessed
Accession No. 164991
Catalogue No. 270900
Kidron became famous as General of the Armies John J. ("Black Jack") Pershing's horse. Historic photographs show Pershing riding Kidron triumphantly through the Victory Arch in New York City at the end of World War I.
The horse died October 10, 1942, in Front Royal, Virginia. Hoping to have the horse mounted, the War Department, Front Royal Quartermaster Depot, Remount of Front Royal, Virginia, turned over the remains to the U.S. National Museum. However, because of Kidron's age at the time of his death and because the body had decomposed rapidly due to hot weather, taxidermists were unable to mount the skin.
On March 31, 1943, the Office of the Registrar at the Smithsonian accepted as a transfer from the War Department, the skin and skull of Kidron. These remains are now part of the research collection of the Division of Mammals in the National Museum of Natural History.
Blackjack, the last of the United States Army Quartermaster issued horses, was born on 19 January 1947. He entered the Third United States Infantry Stables at Fort Myer on 22 November 1953. During his service as a caparisoned (riderless horse), Blackjack took part in the funerals of Presidents Herbert Hoover, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson and that of the General of the Army Douglas MacArthur. Of course, his service also included literally hundreds of other funeral processions in Arlington National Cemetery. Blackjack was retired to the Third United States Infantry Stables on 1 June 1973. When he died on 6 February 1976, Blackjack was laid to rest on the parade ground at Fort Myer, Virginia.
Accession No. 52188
Catalogue No. 172454
Also known as the"Pride of the Desert", this Arabian horse beat 19 Morgan horses winning the Justin Morgan Cup in Vermont on June 1907.
He was brown, without white markings, stood 14.2 hands high and weighed 960 pounds. According to his owner, Homer Davenport, the horse was acquired on August 8, 1900, from Nazim Pasha, the governor of Syria and Aleppo, who had received it from the supreme sheik of the Anezeh. The origin of the stallion was cited as Mesopotamia (Anezeh Arabians). He was supposedly bred by the Gomussa tribe of the Sebba Anezeh. His mother was the last of the distinguished Maneghi Sbeyel mares, tracing back more than 500 years, and his sire was a stallion of the family of Sueyman Sebba of the southern desert.
After Haleb's death on November 10, 1909, at the age of 8, his skull and partial skeleton, prepared by Ward's Natural Science Establishment in Rochester, New York, were donated to the Smithsonian by Davenport. The Division of Mammals assigned a catalogue number to the specimen on December 9, 1910, and placed it in the research collection.
Accession No. 10191
Catalogue No. 21876
Old Henry Clay, often called "America's National Thoroughbred Trotting Horse" or "Father of American Trotting Horses," was foaled on Long Island in 1837 and purchased by Colonel William W. Wadsworth of Seneso, Livingston County, New York. When his days as a famous trotting horse were over, he was used for breeding and finally died at Lodi, New York in the spring of 1867. In life the horse stood 15 1/4 hands high. (61 inches)
Some 14 years after his burial, Old Henry Clay's bones were dug up and his skeleton mounted by Ward's Natural Science Establishment in Rochester, New York. The skeleton was donated to the United States National Museum on April 22, 1881, by the Honorable Erastus Corning and Henry C. Jewett through the auspices of Randolph Huntington.
Only the mandible, a part of the skull, remains as a remnant of Old Henry Clay. It is kept in the research collection at the Smithsonian's Museum Support Center in Suitland, Maryland.
AMNH No. 204061
Chubb No. 61
The American Museum of Natural History in New York City (which is not part of the Smithsonian Institution) is home for the skeleton of famous racehorse Sysonby. From 1904, as a two-year old, to 1906, his series of victories assured him a place in racehorse history. The horse died June 1906 at the age of 4 years and 4 months, and his remains were donated to the Museum in July of that year by James R. Keene. Funds for the skeletal preparation were also provided. In 1908, S. Harmsted Chubb, anatomist and research associate at the Museum, mounted the skeleton to demonstrate a phase in the stride of a running horse. The Chubb series of skeletons are famous as studies in anatomy and locomotion. Currently, Sysonby is in the storage area of the Museum with other horses of the Chubb Collection.
Groom Ernest Shackleford described Sysonby as "a common, cheap-looking, lop-eared colt that stood only 15.1 hands as a three-year-old." Yet his legendary name, derived from that of a hunting lodge, dominates early twentieth century racing history. Horsemen who witnessed his career spoke of Sysonby in tones of awe. Some named the champion as the best they ever saw, ranking him above even Man o' War.
Information on Sysonby, courtesy of the Department of Mammalogy, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N.Y.
#22 - Top 100 U.S. Racehorses of the 20th Century
1983 Motion Picture - Phar Lap: Heart of a Nation
Australian Racing Hall of Fame
New Zealand Racing Hall of Fame
Phar Lap (1926-1932) was a champion Thoroughbred racehorse whose achievements captured the public's imagination during the early years of the Great Depression. Foaled in New Zealand, he was trained and raced in Australia. Phar Lap dominated Australian racing during a distinguished career, winning a Melbourne Cup, two Cox Plates and 19 other weight for age races. He then won the Agua Caliente Handicap in Tijuana, Mexico in track-record time in his final race. After a sudden and mysterious illness, Phar Lap died in 1932. At the time, he was the third highest stakes-winner in the world. His mounted hide is displayed at the Melbourne Museum, his skeleton at Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa and his heart at the National Museum of Australia in Canberra.
Name
The name Phar Lap derives from the shared Zhuang language and Thai word for lightning: ...'sky flash.'
Phar Lap was called the "Wonder Horse," "Red Terror," "Bobby" and "Big Red" (the latter nickname was also given to two of the greatest US racehorses, Man o' War and Secretariat). He was sometimes referred as "Australia's wonder horse."
According to the Museum Victoria, Aubrey Ping, a student at the University of Sydney, suggested "farlap" as the horse's name. Telford liked the name, but changed the F to PH to create a seven letter word, which was split in two in keeping with the dominant naming pattern of Melbourne Cup winners.
Early Life
A chestnut gelding, Phar Lap was foaled on 4 October 1926 in Seadown near Timaru in the South Island of New Zealand. He was sired by Night Raid from Entreaty by Winkie. He was by the same sire as the Melbourne Cup winner Nightmarch.
Sydney trainer Harry Telford persuaded American businessman David J. Davis to buy the colt at auction, based on his pedigree. Telford's brother Hugh, who lived in New Zealand, was asked to bid up to 190 guineas at the 1928 Trentham Yearling Sales. When the horse was obtained for a mere 160 guineas, he thought it was a great bargain until the colt arrived in Australia. The horse was gangly, his face was covered with warts, and he had an awkward gait. Davis was furious when he saw the colt as well, and refused to pay to train the horse. Telford had not been particularly successful as a trainer, and Davis was one of his few remaining owners. To placate Davis, he agreed to train the horse for nothing, in exchange for a two-thirds share of any winnings. Telford leased the horse for three years and was eventually sold joint ownership by Davis.
Although standing a winning racehorse at stud could be quite lucrative, Telford gelded Phar Lap anyway, hoping the colt would concentrate on racing.
Phar Lap finished last in the first race and did not place in his next three races. He won his first race on 27 April 1929, the Maiden Juvenile Handicap (maiden = a race for horses that had previously not won a race) at Rosehill, ridden by Jack Baker of Armidale, a 17-year-old apprentice. He didn't race for several months but was then entered in a series of races, in which he moved up in class. Phar Lap took second in the Chelmsford Stakes at Randwick on 14 September 1929 and the racing community started treating him with respect.
As his achievements grew, there were some who tried to halt his progress. Criminals tried to shoot Phar Lap on the morning of Saturday 1 November 1930 after he had finished track work. They missed, and later that day he won the Melbourne Stakes, and three days later the Melbourne Cup as odds-on favourite at 8 to 11.
Racing Life
In the four years of his racing career, Phar Lap won 37 of 51 races he entered, including the Melbourne Cup in 1930 with 9st 12 lb (61.5 kg, or 138 lbs). In that year and 1931, he won 14 races in a row. From his win as a three-year-old in the VRC St. Leger Stakes until his final race in Mexico, Phar Lap won 32 of 35 races. In the three races that he did not win, he ran second on two occasions, beaten by a short head and a neck, and in the 1931 Melbourne Cup he finished eighth when carrying 10 st 10 lb (68 kg).
Phar Lap at the time was owned by American businessman David J. Davis and leased to Telford. After their three year lease agreement ended, Telford had enough money to become joint owner of the horse. Davis then had Phar Lap shipped to America in order to race. Telford did not agree with this decision and refused to go, so Davis sent Tom Woodcock. Phar Lap was shipped by boat to Agua Caliente Racetrack near Tijuana, Mexico, to compete in the Agua Caliente Handicap, which was offering the largest purse ever raced for in North America. Phar Lap won in track-record time while carrying 129 pounds (58.5 kg) and was ridden by Billy Elliot for his seventh win from seven rides. From there, the horse was sent to a private ranch near Menlo Park, California, while his owner negotiated with racetrack officials for special race appearances.
Death
Early on 5 April 1932, the horse's strapper for the North American visit, Tommy Woodcock, found him in severe pain and having a high temperature. Within a few hours, Phar Lap hemorrhaged to death. Much speculation ensued, and when a necropsy revealed that the horse's stomach and intestines were inflamed, many believed the horse had been deliberately poisoned. There have been alternative theories, including accidental poisoning from lead insecticide and a stomach condition. It was not until the 1980s that the infection could be formally identified. In 2000, equine specialists studying the two necropsies concluded that Phar Lap probably died of duodenitis-proximal jejunitis, an acute bacterial gastroenteritis. However, in 2006 Australian Synchrotron Research scientists said it was almost certain Phar Lap was poisoned with a large single dose of arsenic in the hours before he died, perhaps supporting the theory that Phar Lap was killed on the orders of U.S. gangsters, who feared the Melbourne-Cup-winning champion would inflict big losses on their illegal bookmakers. No real evidence of involvement by a criminal element exists, however.
Sydney veterinarian, Dr Percy Sykes, believes poisoning did not cause the death. He said "In those days, arsenic was quite a common tonic, usually given in the form of a solution (Fowler's Solution)," and suggests this was the cause of the high levels. "It was so common that I'd reckon 90 per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system." In December 2007 Phar Lap's mane was tested to find if he was given repeated doses of arsenic which, if found, would point to accidental poisoning.
On 19 June 2008, the Melbourne Museum released the findings of the forensic investigation conducted by Dr. Ivan Kempson, University of South Australia, and Dermot Henry, Natural Science Collections at Museum Victoria. Dr. Kempson took six hairs from Phar Lap's mane and analyzed them at the Advanced Photon Source in Chicago. These high resolution x-rays detect arsenic in hair samples, showing the specific difference "between arsenic, which had entered the hair cells via the blood and arsenic, which had infused the hair cells by the taxidermy process when he was stuffed and mounted at the museum."
Kempson and Henry discovered that in the 30 to 40 hours before Phar Lap's death, the horse ingested a massive dose of arsenic. "We can't speculate where the arsenic came from, but it was easily accessible at the time," Henry said.
Following his death, Phar Lap's heart was donated to the Institute of Anatomy in Canberra and his skeleton to the New Zealand's National Museum in Wellington. After preparations of the hide by a New York City taxidermist, his stuffed body was placed in the Australia Gallery at Melbourne Museum.
Phar Lap's heart was remarkable for its size, weighing 6.2 kg, compared with a normal horse's heart at 3.2 kg. Now held at the National Museum of Australia in Canberra, it is the object visitors most often request to see.
Cultural Impact
Several books and films have been written about the horse, including the 1983 movie Phar Lap or Phar Lap: Heart of a Nation. A song, "Phar Lap-Farewell To You," was also written.
Lap was one of five inaugural inductees into the both the Australian Racing Hall of Fame and New Zealand Racing Hall of Fame. In the Blood-Horse magazine ranking of the Top 100 U.S. Thoroughbred champions of the 20th century, Phar Lap was ranked No. 22.
The horse is considered to be a national icon in both Australia and New Zealand. In 1978 he was honored on a postage stamp issued by Australia Post. Phar Lap Software, Inc. was named after the horse. A $500,000 life-sized bronze memorial to Phar Lap is being created at Timaru and will be unveiled on 25 November 2009 near Phar Lap's birthplace. The horse features in the Australian citizenship test.
Race time resolved: Secretariat Awarded Fastest Time in Preakness Following Review
Secretariat Awarded Fastest Time in Preakness Following Review
"...The Preakness was the only race in which Secretariat didn't set a record. The Maryland Racing Commission yesterday said it voted unanimously to change Secretaria's official winning time in the Preakness to 1 minute, 53 seconds, two seconds faster than the original recorded clocking at Baltimore's Pimlico Race Course 39 years ago.
'Justice was served,' Maryland Jockey Club President Thomas Chuckas said. 'The Secretariat team made a compelling case that he ran the race in 1:53 flat and added the Preakness record to his resume.'
The Maryland Racing Commission said last week it would investigate the official timing of the race at the request of Secretariat's owner, Penny Chenery, and Chuckas.
'I didn't know if it was appropriate to cheer, but I couldn't help myself,' Chenery said. 'This is a big day.'
The seven-member review panel used technology including 'layered-on timing devices' and digital replays of the race, Michael Hopkins, the racing commission's executive director, said in a telephone interview.
Questionable Time
The previous Preakness record had been 1:53 2/5, set by Tank's Prospect in 1985 and matched by Louis Quatorze in 1997 and Curlin in 2007. ..."
Secretariat (March 30, 1970 - October 4, 1989) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse considered by many to be one of the greatest racehorses of all time: Secretariat not only won the 1973 Triple Crown but set still standing track records in two of the three races in the Series, the Kentucky Derby and the Belmont Stakes. Secretariat was affectionately nicknamed "Big Red" by his owner because of his size and brilliant chestnut color, or, perhaps, in an attempt to draw comparisons to the great Man o' War.
Sired by Bold Ruler out of the dam Somethingroyal, Secretariat was born at Meadow Farm in Caroline County, Virginia. Owned by Penny Chenery, he was trained by Canadian Lucien Laurin and ridden by fellow Canadian jockey Ron Turcotte. Secretariat won the 1973 Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes, and Belmont Stakes, making him the first Triple Crown winner in a quarter of a century.
Background
The story of Secretariat began with the toss of a coin in 1968 between Christopher Chenery of Meadow Stables and Ogden Phipps of Wheatley Stable. The idea of a coin toss came from Phipps, the owner of Bold Ruler, and Bull Hancock of Claiborne Farms as a way to get the very best mares for Bold Ruler, and when the toss went their way, to add well-bred fillies to their own broodmare band. Bold Ruler was considered one of the important stallions of his time. He had a fine balance between speed and stamina. After his racing career, Bold Ruler was retired to Claiborne Farms but still was controlled by the Phipps family. This meant he would be bred to mainly Phipps' mares and not many of his offspring would find their way to the auction ring. Phipps and Hancock agreed to forgo a stud fee for Bold Ruler in exchange for getting to keep one of two foals produced by the mare he bred in successive seasons or two mares he bred in the same season. Who obtained which foal or even received first pick would be decided by a flip of a coin.
In 1968, Chenery sent two mares named Hasty Matelda and Somethingroyal to Bold Ruler, and in 1969, a colt and filly were the result. In 1969, Hasty Matelda was replaced by Cicada, but she did not conceive. Only one foal resulted between Bold Ruler and Somethingroyal. As stated in the original agreement, the winner of the coin toss could pick the foal he wanted but could only take one, while the loser would get the other two. Both parties assumed Somethingroyal would deliver a healthy foal in the spring of 1970. The coin toss between Penny Chenery and Ogden Phipps was set for the fall of 1969 in the office of New York Racing Association Chairman Alfred Vanderbilt II, with Hancock as witness. As Vanderbilt flipped the coin, Phipps called "Tails!" The coin landed tails up. Phipps decided to take the weanling filly out of Somethingroyal, leaving Chenery with the colt out of Hasty Matelda and the unborn foal of Somethingroyal.
On March 30, just ten minutes past midnight, Somethingroyal foaled a bright red chestnut colt with three white socks and a star with a narrow blaze. Almost immediately, the colt was thought to be too pretty, a title that would haunt him early in his racing career and then earn him fame for his beauty as a Triple Crown winner. By the time the colt was a yearling, he still was without a name. Meadow's secretary, Elizabeth Ham, had submitted ten names to the Jockey Club, and all ten were denied for one reason or another. Approval finally came with the eleventh submission, a name Ham herself picked from a previous career association, Secretariat.
The Triple Crown
The Kentucky Derby
Nicknamed Big Red (as he was a large chestnut horse like Man o' War), he won the Kentucky Derby by gradually moving up on the field in the backstretch, then overtaking rival Sham in the middle of the dash for home. Making Secretariat's Derby win more impressive is that Sham's time of 1:59 4/5 equals Monarchos' 2001 Derby time, the second fastest in history.
A lesser-known but perhaps more amazing accomplishment of his, took place in that year's Derby. On his way to a still-standing record time in that race (1:59 2/5), he achieved the unheard-of feat of "negative splitting," running each quarter-mile (402 m) segment faster than the one before it. The successive quarter-mile times were: 25 1/5, 24, 23 4/5, 23 2/5 and 23.
The Preakness Stakes
Secretariat did not wait long to make his presence known in the Preakness. In last place as the horses moved past the stands, Big Red made a big leap forward on the first turn. CBS Television sportscaster Chic Anderson:
But HERE comes Secretariat, he's moving fast, and he's going to the outside - he's going for the lead and it's right NOW he's looking for it! Despite constant left-handed whipping by jockey Laffit Pincay, Jr., Sham could not overtake Secretariat, who won by two and a half lengths. The main controversy of the race was its time. The infield totalisator board flashed a time of 1:55. The track's electronic timer malfunctioned because of damage from the huge crowd crossing the track to reach the infield. The Pimlico clocker, E.T. McLean Jr., who sheepishly admitted years later that he had in fact delayed clicking his stopwatch accurately as he too was transfixed on Secretariat's amazing performance (Source: Secretariat - Raymond G. Woolfe), had informed them that he had clocked a time of 1:54 2/5, while at the same time two Daily Racing Form clockers claimed the time was 1:53 2/5 which would have been faster than the track record (1:54 by Cañonero II). Two tapes of the horses were played side by side and were reclocked and slowly examined and Secretariat got to the finish line first on tape, though this is not a reliable method of timing a horse race. The Maryland Jockey Club, which managed the Pimlico racetrack and is responsible for maintaining Preakness records, discarded both electronic and The DRF time and recognized 1:54 2/5 as the official time. In some programs, both DRF and official time are printed. The official Preakness record book maintains that the time was 1:54 2/5, and Pimlico officials have chosen not to revisit this issue. In the interim, Tank's Prospect (1985), Louis Quatorze (1996), and Curlin (2007) have all run 1:53 2/5, equalling the time attributed to Secretariat by the Racing Form. Farma Way won the 1991 Pimlico Special in 1:52 2/5, setting the current track record. Oddly enough, Secretariat's stablemate Riva Ridge also ran the same distance in 1:52 2/5 in the 1973 Brooklyn Handicap at Aqueduct, sharing the current American dirt record at that distance with Farma Way. The issue of Secretariat's time in the Preakness may never be finally resolved.
The Belmont Stakes
Secretariat's statue at Belmont Park. Only four horses joined Secretariat for the June 9, 1973, running of the Belmont Stakes, including Sham, who had finished second in both the Derby and Preakness. With so few horses in the race, and with Secretariat expected to win, no "show" bets were taken. Before a crowd of 67,605, Secretariat and Sham set a blistering early pace, opening a 10-length cushion on the others. But while Sham faded after the halfway mark (ultimately finishing last), Secretariat astonished spectators by picking up the killing pace - eventually straining the television cameras' wide-angle capability as they struggled to keep the distant challengers in the same frame. Turcotte has said in documentaries that he could sense the horse wanted to be let loose, and he did so, letting the horse shift into "high gear" and run his own race.
In one of the best-known of American sports calls, Anderson - later Belmont Park's track announcer - punctuated Secretariat's powerful move on the final turn of the Belmont this way:
"...Secretariat is blazing along! The first three-quarters of a mile in 1:09 and four fifths. Secretariat is widening now! He is moving like a TREMENDOUS machine! Secretariat by 12, Secretariat by 14 lengths on the turn! Sham is dropping back. It looks like they'll catch him today, as My Gallant and Twice a Prince are both coming up to him now. But Secretariat is all alone! He's out there almost a 16th of a mile away from the rest of the horses! Secretariat is in a position that seems impossible to catch. He's into the stretch. Secretariat leads this field by 18 lengths, and now Twice a Prince has taken second and My Gallant has moved back to third. They're in the stretch. Secretariat has opened a 22-length lead! He is going to be the Triple Crown winner! Here comes Secretariat to the wire. An unbelievable, an amazing performance! He hits the finish 25 lengths in front!"
In fact, the champion's winning margin was 31 lengths - a distance it took careful examination of videotape and trackside photographs to measure, although veteran Daily Racing Form trackman Jack Wilson accurately recorded it as Secretariat hit the wire. Secretariat's time of 2 minutes and 24 seconds flat has remained the world record on dirt at that distance; no horse has come within 1 2/5 seconds of the time. During Anderson's call of the stretch run, the CBS camera had to pull back to keep both Big Red and his opponents in the frame, and as a result caught a poignant image in TV sports history - the backs of tens of thousands of cheering Belmont Park spectators cheering and applauding as Secretariat neared the wire. Almost as iconic as the still and video images of Secretariat blowing away the competition was the scene of owner Penny Chenery Tweedy waving her arms in exultation (and relief) in the Belmont owners' boxes. Anderson:
An amazing, unbelievable performance by this miracle horse - and look at Mrs. Tweedy! (laughing) She's having the time of her life! Secretariat's stride at the finish was so powerful that it took jockey Ron Turcotte nearly two furlongs to pull him up. In fact, after Secretariat galloped out for 1/8 mile after the race his time for 1 and 5/8 miles including the cool down is alleged to be 2 minutes 37.6 seconds, which would have broken a world record set by the great Swaps in 1956 by three lengths. At the mile and 3/8 point, Secretariat had run faster than Man o' War's record from when the Belmont was run at that length. Secretariat's winning margin of 31 lengths in the long and grueling Belmont Stakes is remembered as one of the most dramatic events in thoroughbred racing history. Time Magazine, Newsweek, and Sports Illustrated featured Secretariat on their covers on June 11, 1973, the first to be featured on all three magazines' covers in the same week, though no journalists or racing experts had expected the pure and absolute domination that Secretariat exhibited. If the Beyer Speed Figure calculation had been developed during that time, Andrew Beyer calculated that Secretariat would have earned a figure of 139, one of the highest figures he has ever assigned. Bettors holding 5,617 winning on-course Tote tickets never redeemed them.
Interesting Notes
In contrast to most other great racehorses, with the notable exception of Man o' War, Secretariat never raced past age 3. His owner had promised breeding syndicators that he would retire after his 3 year old season. Unfortunately, this decision denied racing fans the opportunity to see him compete through a full season against open competition in handicap races under heavier weights and take on challengers on the harder tracks in the western United States. This comparatively early retirement is often cited by those who advocate other racehorses for the mythical "greatest ever" label.
In the fall of 1989, Secretariat was afflicted with laminitis, a painful and often incurable hoof condition. His condition failed to improve, and he was euthanized on October 4. He is buried at Claiborne Farm in Paris, Kentucky. In death, he received the ultimate honor for a horse - he was buried whole. By tradition, the only parts of a Thoroughbred buried at a gravesite are their head (to symbolize intelligence), heart (to symbolize strength), and legs (to symbolize power). Other parts are disposed of by other means.
Before his burial, he was necropsied at the University of Kentucky; Dr. Thomas Swerczek, the veterinarian who performed the necropsy, claims that he found that Secretariat's heart was the largest he had ever seen in a horse - approximately twice the size of a normal horse's heart. Dr. Swerczek states in correspondence:
"Certainly, after performing autopsies on several thousand thoroughbred horses, including mares and stallions, no other horse came close to Secretariat's heart size. The second largest heart I found was the heart of Sham, who actually broke the Kentucky derby record, but still lost to Secretariat. Sham's heart weighed 19 pounds. The third largest heart I found was stallion Key to the Mint, which was 16 pounds. The majority of all others were smaller, in the range of 10 to 12 pounds. Bold Ruler, the sire of Secretariat had an average size heart. The heart size seemingly is inherited from the female side of the pedigree. When I performed the autopsy on Secretariat, which was necessary because of insurance and we needed to determine the cause of the laminitis, the cause of destruction, I did a cosmetic autopsy. The reason being I did not want to dismantle such a remarkable specimen and the farm personnel and handlers were present to immediately collect all organs in large plastic bags which were immediately returned to the farm to be buried with the body. Normally, with other horses we can keep all organs and the body for further study, or to preserve large specimens, like the heart, but I was not allowed to do this with Secretariat. For this reason, all specimens were immediately collected and returned to the farm, and I did not get a chance to weigh the heart. However, by comparing it to numerous other hearts I got actual weights on, I am certain the weight was between 21 to 22 pounds. So I considered the heart weight officially as 21 pounds. The heart was in perfect shape, not diseased in any way, but just considerably larger than any other horses I autopsied."
A normal heart size for a thoroughbred is 8 1/2 pounds.
| Phar Lap |
Mountjoy Prison is in which European city? | Breeding at Haras de Meautry
The Rothschilds: Haras de Meautry
By Patricia Erigero ©2007
Haras de Meautry in the late 1880s
"One would be wrong to suppose that the administration of the stable is left to anyone else; they [Barons Alphonse and Gustave] are the Masters who direct and order in an absolute way."
Haras de Meautry, located in the ancient horse-breeding area of Calvados in lower Normandy, is the oldest thoroughbred nursery continuously owned by a single family in France. Situated near Deauville, at the edge of the village Touques, it encompasses level fields and rolling meadows that have nourished generations of winners.
The extended Rothschild family -- including those based in England -- raced horses in France beginning in the 1830s. But the French Rothschild family first came to prominence when Baron James de Rothschild purchased a number of horses at the 1842 dispersal sale of Lord Henry Seymour's racing stable and stud, and secured the services of the grand patriarch of English-born French trainers, Thomas Carter , who had trained for Seymour. In succeeding decades James' sons, Alphonse and Gustave continued racing both homebreds and horses bought from various sources, including Carter's Haras de la Morlaye and from Great Britain.
Meautry's Norman Revival cottage In 1873 they purchased about 20 acres at Meautry, which included a 16th century manor house that had supplanted a castle, then in ruins, dating to the era of William the Conqueror.
The French architect. M. de Jouy was hired to design stables and attendant structures that were based on English trainer Joe Dawson's Bedford House stables at Newmarket; Bedford House had been built a decade earlier and was, for its time, considered the model of a modern establishment. The huge Meautry stable was clad in red brick with stone quoining and door trim, and roofed with red tile. At the end of each block were dwellings for grooms and stable hands. Contemporary writers referred to the stables as "almost too Princely" for the horses. The Norman Revival "cottage" was used as a pied-â-terre by the Rothschilds and their managers when visiting Meautry.
In the over 130 years of its existence, Meautry, like long-lasting bloodstock farms world-wide, has cycled through both highs and lows, but was dealt what seemed to be a death-blow in 1940, after the German army marched through France to occupy Paris in June. By the end of the year Meautry's pride and joy, Brantôme , the promising young stallion Bubbles and his son, the 1938 Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe winner Eclair au Chocolat, had been seized by the Nazis and taken to Germany; Brantôme and Bubbles apparently went to Heresgestut, the German army stud at Altefeld (previously the German National Stud) in Hesse, and Eclair au Chocolat to the state stud at Graditz. Worse, virtually all of Meautry's remaining bloodstock was seized and shipped to Germany or sold in France. Also, Rothschild horses of racing age were confiscated; in 1941 one sale of 28 of Edouard de Rothschild's (former) horses in France realized seven million francs at auction, but not for the Rothschilds. The promising Cranach (1938) was hustled off to Germany as well, winning eleven races there for his kidnappers, and Brantôme 's confiscated youngsters were winners there in 1942, '43, and '44. For over 4-1/2 years Rothschild breeding at Meautry ended.
In 1946 Baron Edouard and his son Guy were able to recover most of their pillaged bloodstock and successfully rebuilt Meautry. In 1949, the year Edouard died, Guy's colt Ciel Etoilé (Cranach-Voûte Céleste), who had been bred in Germany from pure Meautry stock, and born in France when his dam was restored to Meautry in 1946, won the Prix Royal-Oak (French St. Leger), just three years after the Rothschilds began to reassemble their missing animals. The next year Vieux Manoir (Brantôme-Vieille Maison) won the Grand Prix de Paris for Guy. After the war, Rothschilds headed the leading owners list in 1951, 1965 and 1966, and Meautry was at the top of the leading breeders list seven times.
All of the masters of Meautry were hands-on breeders. Both Gustave and Alphonse were, according to contemporary accounts, heavily involved in the administration of the stud and breeding decisions. They were both well-known figures at Deauville, Longchamp and Chantilly, as were their wives. Alphonse's son, Edouard, and his son, Guy, were also intimately involved in all aspects of the operation at Meautry.
The fortunes of breeding at Haras de Meautry can be roughly assessed by looking at the chart of Rothschild winners of the principal classic races over the years since its founding. There was a spurt of success following the purchase of Henry Seymour's bloodstock in 1842, which provided the Rothschilds with many winners in the 1840s. After Alphonse and Gustave teamed up to establish Meautry in the ealry 1870s, they began to add to the homebred mares by Boïard , Stracchino, and Enchanteur by purchasing many English mares by stallions such as Blair Athol and his brother Breadalbane (both by Stockwell and out of Queen Mary ), Newminster , Hermit , Beadsman , Parmesan and his son Cremorne , and Gladiateur (at stud in England), and French mares by Monarque and Vermout , establishing the first of the long-lived Meautry families and leading to many triumphs in the 1880s and '90s, but big success generally eluded the farm in the first decade and a half of the twentieth century. When Edouard assumed active management of the stud in 1905, another round of English-bred mares were brought to Meautry during the following fifteen years, and he regularized a system of sending mares across the channel to England to breed to the top English stallions; this began to pay off after the first World War, in the 1920s and '30s. While there were many high class homebred stallions over the decades, the regular use of outside stallions -- English and French -- constantly refreshed the old Meautry lines.
When Guy assumed management of Meautry in 1949, the stud had recently experienced something no world-class bloodstock establishment had ever suffered, the complete forced dispersal of its mares. Guy and his ailing father tracked down and retrieved almost every mare, and most of the progeny that had been produced by them in Germany. Meautry rose from the metaphoric ashes to triumph within a few years. Under Guy's aegis, and utlizing the same strategy of combining old Meautry families with outside stallions, and Meautry-bred stallions with newly purchased mares, the stud rose to the top of French breeding many times over.
In a stud farm so long-established, one would expect to see a great deal of in-breeding. However, at Meautry this was seldom the case, certainly very infrequently within three, and even four generations. There were in-bred winners (and losers) issuing from Meautry, such as the 1938 Grand Prix de Paris winning filly Crudité, the 1938 champion three-year-old colt Eclair au Chocolate, and the unbeaten Ocarina (1947), all in-bred to Sans Souci , but given the size and duration of the stud and its long-lasting female families, nothing like what might have been expected.
Rothschild Winners of Important Races
Italic= non-Meautry horses owned by Baron Maurice de Rothschild and the later James Rothschild, who was based in England
Date
Le Nain Jaune (Pharly-Lady Berry)
Guy
The Stallions
Many of France's most influential stallions were bred at Meautry and later stood at stud there. These included Prix du Jockey Club winner Heaume (1887, by Hermit ), from the British-bred mare Bella, who was one of Meautry's foundation broodmares with descendants bred there through the twentieth century. Other stallions bred at Meautry, raced by the Rothschilds and serving as stallions at the farm were Grand Prix de Paris winner Le Roi Soleil (1895), leading sire Sans Souci (1904), La Farina (1911) and La Farina's staying son and leading sire Bubbles (1925), all direct sire-line descendants of Heaume and all out of Meautry matrons that either had deep roots in the stud, or established long-lived female lines there. The great racehorse Brantôme (1931), Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe winner Exbury (1959), Brantôme's Grand Prix de Paris winning son, Vieux Manoir (1947), Prix du Jockey Club winner Crystal Palace (1974), the multiple leading sire Luthier (1965), and sprinter and multiple leading sire Kenmare (1975), and a number of other good colts that became successful stallions were also Meautry products.
Another line of stallions from Meautry included the unraced Bacteriophage (1929, by Tetratema ) that at Meautry got the short-lived mare Biologie, dam of Prince Bio, and Téléférique (out of a mare from the Meautry Bella family), a good juvenile and fairly successful stallion whose son, Alizier (1947, from a family tracing back five generations at Meautry) was a very good runner and sire at Meautry, particularly of broodmares. Le Haar (1954), a son of Vieux Manoir from the same female family as Alizier, bred at Meautry, won the Prix Jean Prat and some other races and was later a leading sire in France.
The great multiple classic winning crack Boïard (1870, Vermout -La Bossue), bred and raced by Henry Delamarre, was purchased at age five for the incredible sum of 150,000 francs by Baron Alphonse and installed at Meautry as a stallion, where he got some good runners and broodmares, but he didn't quite reach expectations and was sold to Russia. Practically his only legacy -- and it was a good one -- was getting Mlle. de la Valliere, that became the dam of Le Roi Soleil , who was a good sire at Meautry. Another comparative failure at stud at Meautry was Baron Alphonse's Stracchino (1874, Parmesan -Old Maid) that won the Coupe and some other races.
Although the masters of Meautry bred, raced, and then stood at stud successive generations of stallions in sire-line descent, they frequently bred mares to outside stallions to replenish their bloodstock. Baron Alphonse's grand classic winning filly Brie (1875, a half-sister to the baron's Prix du Jockey-Club winner Kilt from the imported mare Highland Sister, by Stockwell ), for example, was bred to the English stallion Galopin , producing Prix de Diane winner Brisk (1872), and to the cover of the great English horse Hermit , favored by the Rothschilds, she bred the Poule de Essai des Poulains winner Brio (1884).
Another outside stallion used to good effect by Baron Edouard decades later was the enormously successful leading English sire Blandford : his wonderful son Brantôme , from the Meautry mare Vitamine (later annexed by the Germans) was one such product. Edouard also used Blandford with success by crossing him on Sans Souci daughters. Reine Isaure (1931, Oriane by Sans Souci ), a winner of Longchamp's Prix Vanteaux and runner-up in the Prix Vermeille produced the stayer and later successful sire Cranach and three other winners. Prix Royal Oak winner Bokbul (1932, Buanderie by Sans Souci) and Blue Skies (1927, Blue Pill by Sans Souci), a more than useful stallion, were other products of the Blandford - Sans Souci cross.
Meautry Mares
The size of the broodmare band at Meatury, with the exception of the World War II years, appears to have ranged around four dozen plus mares. The Rothschilds were remarkably persistent with their old female lines, many of which lasted more than seven generations before petering out. But the Meautry band was never a closed herd, and there were frequent purchases of outside mares, almost always from England, to replenish and supplement long-standing lines, and to cross with Meautry-bred stallions. Many of these purchased mares themselves became foundation mares at the stud. It isn't possible to review all of these long-lasting lines in this essay, but a few will be covered to illustrate how faith in a particular female line paid off over the generations.
Family Descending from Bella
Bella (1873), from the Buccaneer daughter Armada, and by Breadalbane, was a Cobham Stud product, and bred an 1879 Adventurer foal there before being purchased by the Pound Stud, where she produced four youngsters. After two barren years she was covered by Peter, and in 1886, age thirteen, was purchased by Alphonse de Rothschild, who bred her to the great English stallion Hermit . Heaume was the result of that breeding, and he did not disappoint, winning four races in England as a juvenile, including the Hastings Plate, and in France at age three winning the Poule d'Essai des Poulains and the Prix du Jockey Club.
A Meautry Family: 7 generations (Family #20-a)
| | | Tantième (1947, Deux pour Cent) Arc (twice), etc.
| | Chesterfield (1944, Admiral Drake) Pr. Greffulhe, etc.
| Taxodium (1928, Bay Cherry) G.H.I.d'Ostende, etc.
Mont Bernina (1923, La Farina) Jockey Club Cup, etc.
Téléférique (1934, Bacteriophage) Grand Critérium, etc.
Red=Not bred by Rothschilds. Edited chart only includes significant winners.
Italic=Filly/Mare.
Mont Bernina won the Jockey Club Cup in England and six races in France, including the Prix Edgard Gillois, the Prix Roi Herode, and the Prix d l'Elevage at Saint Cloud. Tantième, probably the best horse in the world in 1951, was a member of Bella's family At stud at Meautry Heaume established a strong branch of the Hermit sire line that lasted over five generations, all the sons bred at Meautry and raced by Rothschilds. They included Heaume's son, the Grand Prix de Paris winner and grand stayer Le Roi Soleil (1895); his son Sans Souci (1904), also a winner of the Grand Prix de Paris and a leading sire in France; his grandson, the elegant and fast La Farina (1911), and La Farina's son Bubbles (1925), also a champion stallion in France.
Bella's filly Sardoine (1894), by Le Sancy , established one branch of this foundation Meautry family that led to Stearine (by the Meautry stallion St. Just), a winner of the Prix Vermeille and the Prix Royal-Oak, that, as a broodmare at Meautry, produced seven winners, including Stratosphere (1932), winner of the Prix Robert Papin (1200 meters). There were still tail-female descendants of this branch at Meautry in the mid-1950s.
Belladonna (1896), born when Bella was 23 years old, established another long-lived branch at Meautry. Her grandaughter, Beaute de Neige (1912, by Meautry-bred stallion St. Just), bred thirteen winners, including Mont Blanc (1919), winner of the Poule d'Essai des Poulains, and Mont Bernina (1923, by La Farina ), who was his best as an older horse, when he won the Prix Edgard Gillois and, in England, the Jockey Club Cup.
Beaute de Neige's daughter, Brenta (1920, by Sans Souci ), was third dam of the great runner Tantième (1947, bred and raced by Francois Dupre), two-time winner of the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe , the Coronation Cup, the Poule d'Essai des Poulains, the Prix Lupin, and many other races. Téléférique (1934, by Meautry stallion Bacteriophage) was another son of Beaute de Neige; he won the Grand Critérium, the Prix Eugène Adam, and other good races and was later a fairly successful stallion at Meautry.
A branch of Bella's family went to Argentina in the teens with Sardonix (1900, by Galeazzo ), with classic winning descendants in Argentina and Uruguay.
Family Descending from Quenouille
Quenouille (1916, by Prestige ) was bred by Maurice Ephrussi from his mare Queenie, by War Dance. War Dance had been purchased by Ephrussi as a yearling and won eighteen good races for him, mostly at classic distances and beyond, and then stood at Ephrussi's Haras du Gazon in Normandy, where he got the champion runner Perth , Prix du Jockey Club winner Mordant, Roxelane (the dam of Roi Herode ), and a number of other winners.
A Meautry Family: 7 generations (Family #10-e)
Quenouille (1916, Prestige) Prix de Diane
Ficelle (1923, La Farina)
| Coquelin (1950, Brantome) P. Maurice de Nieuil
Vieux Manoir (1947, Brantome) Grand Prix de Paris
Vieille Pierre (1951, Blue Peter)
Hermières (1958, Sicambre) Prix de Diane
Crystal Palace (1974, Caro) Prix du Jockey Club
Red=Not bred by Rothschilds. Edited chart only includes significant winners.
Italic=Filly/Mare.
Classic winner Hermières, later dam of Crystal Palace Grand Prix de Paris winner Vieux Manoir , later a stallion and great favorite of Baron Guy de Rothschild Edouard de Rothschild purchased Quenouille as a yearling, and she won the Prix de Diane for him in 1919, and later she became a significant foundation broodmare at Meautry, with more than seven generations of winners, many of the highest class, bred at the stud farm. Grand Prix de Paris winner Vieux Manoir (1947, by the Meautry-bred champion Brantôme , after his recovery from Germany), from this family, was bred by Edouard and raced by Edouard's son, Guy; he was later syndicated, with Guy a principal member.
Quenouille's grandaughter, Ligne de Fond (1929, by the Prix du Jockey Club winner Belfonds (by Edouard de Rothschild's good grey colt Isard II) was a good filly for Edouard, winning three races in a row, including the Poule d'Essai des Pouliches, and was second by a short head to her stablemate, Perruche Bleue (1932) in the Prix de Diane. Belfonds, raced and owned by Argentinian Edouard Martinez de Hoz, was also the sire of two other Meautry-bred and Rothschild-owned Prix de Diane winners, Vendange (1933) and Péniche (1935). Hermières was Baron Guy's second Prix de Diane winner; her dam, Vieille Pierre won the Prix Yacowlef at age two and the Prix de Courteilles and Prix Ridgway at age three.
Also in Quenouille's family bred at Meautry was Coquelin (1950, by Brantôme ), a good stayer that won the Prix Maurice de Nieuil, and was second in the Grand Prix du Printemps and the Prix Royal Oak, and in England, third in the Jockey Club Stakes.
Quenouille's family persisted through the 20th century at Meautry with Tryptophane, the dam of Pharisien (1987), who ended up as a stallion in California. Marly River (1983), a good steeplechaser whose victories included the Grand Steeple-Chase de Haies and Baby Turk (1982), winner of the Grand Prix de Deauville and Prix d'Hédouville, were descendants of this family, although not bred at Meautry.
Family Descending from Justicia
This famous and long-lasting family is sometimes referred to as the "Queen Mab" family, since the principal winners all descend from Justicia's daughter Queen Mab. Justicia, a bay mare born in 1896, was by the outstanding stallion Le Sancy and out of The Frisky Matron, by Cremorne . She was bred by the Comte La Marois and purchased as a yearling by Edouard de Rothschild. Running between the ages of two and four, she proved a very good race filly. As a juvenile she easily won the Prix des Deux Ans (later Prix Morny), and was second in the Deuxième Critérium at Longchamp. At age three she won two races at 1,000 and 1200 meters at Maisons-Laffitte and was third in the Prix de la Forêt. At age four she won two races at Maisons-Laffitte over 1200 and 2000 meters, out of six starts. At Meautry she bred three good offspring.
A Meautry Family: 9 generations (Family #12-e)
Justicia (1896, Le Sancy) Prix des Deux Ans (Prix Morny)
Sly Fox (1903, Flying Fox) Prix la Rochette
St. Just (1907, St. Frusquin) Prix de Conde
Reine Mab (1912, Rabelais)
| Romney (c. 1948, Blue Peter) Pr. Bois Roussel etc.
Ashleen (1956, Alizier) Prix de Villiers etc.
Princeline (1966, Princely Gift) Prix Morny etc.
Red=Not bred by Rothschilds. Edited chart only includes significant winners.
Italic=Filly/Mare.
Reine Isaure and her son Cranach (right) were stolen and then repatriated from Germany Cranach, later a successful sire at Meautry
Stakes winner Alba Nox was later dam of Grand Prix de Paris winner White Label for the Rothschilds Coronation Cup winner Dicta Drake, later a stallion for an English syndicate at Aston Park Stud
Classic winner Dictaway was later dam of Diatome Excellent racehorse Diatome was later a stallion at Meautry Justicia's son Sly Fox (1903) won three races as a juvenile, including the Prix la Rochette. He was a modest stallion at Meautry, but got some good winners. Her next son, Saint Just (1907, by St. Frusquin ) won the Prix de Condé as a juvenile and the Prix St. Cloud at Deauville at age three, but wasn't a really successful racehorse. He was, however, a good stallion at Meautry, and got a number of winners, including Prix Royal-Oak winner Stearine, Prix de la Forêt winner Jus de Raisin, but more importantly, his daughters were excellent matrons. Saint Just was dam's sire of the Meautry-bred classic winner Mont Blanc, of the Grand Critérium winners Téléférique and Godiche, of the grand stayer Foxlight (Prix du Cadran), and of Jonicole, dam of Jocrisse and l'Olivete.
Reine Mab (by leading sire Rabelais ), born in 1912, ran smack into the wartime restrictions on racing. At age two she ran second by a length to Gioconda in the Prix la Camargo (for juvenile fillies over 1000 meters); in Belgium she was unplaced in the Grand Critérium International d'Ostende. Due to wartime restrictions she did not run at age three; at age four she ran twice, placing fourth in the Critérium d'Essai at Caen and also in the Prix de Nonancourt (out of five runners). Despite this rather dismal record, she went back to Meautry as a broodmare, and proceeded to produce winner after winner, eleven in all, for Edouard de Rothschild, all by Sans Souci or one of his sons.
Oriane
Four of Reine Mab's daughters established successful sub-branches of her family at Meautry. Oriane (1920-1931) won a couple of small races at Tremblay and Saint-Cloud, and was second in the Prix Fille de l'Air and two other races. At Meautry she bred Elgire, a winner for Pierre Berrier, and in 1931 Reine Isaure, her last foal, by the English stallion Blandford . Good at both ages two and three, Reine Isuare won the Prix Vanteaux at Longchamp and was second to Mary Tudor in the Prix Vermeille. She and her 1938 son by the Epsom Derby winner Coronach, Cranach, were both seized by the Nazis and taken to Germany, where she produced some foals and where Cranach ran forty times between the ages of 3 and 5, winning 11 races and placing 22 times. Both Reine Isaure and Cranach were restored to Meautry.
Cranach served as a Meautry stallion and a source of stamina, getting Flûte Enchantée (Grand Prix de Deauville and second in Grand Prix de Paris, later dam of Luthier), Ambiax (Prix Daru), Pont Levis (Prix Kergorlay), and Ombrette (Grand Prix de Vichy), among others. Three of his youngsters, bred in Germany, were born in 1946 at Meautry when their dams were recovered after the war: they were Violoncelle (Grand Prix de Saint Cloud), Ciel Etoilé (Prix Royal-Oak and Prix du Cadran), and Pas de Calais (Grand Prix de Marseille).
Reine Isaure had several foals in Germany, including La Table Ronde (1943, by the stolen Rothschild stallion Bubbles), that did not run but later had some foals in Germany and later at Meautry: Foxlove (1954, 14 wins), Gueridon (1950, 2 wins) and The Rack (1952, 11 wins on the flat and over jumps) were some of her descendants. Another Reine Isaure foal born in Germany, Reine des Fées (1944, by Marcel Boussac's confiscated stallion Pharis ) was brought back to Meautry. After the Rothschild's struggle to get her (and other foals by Pharis bred in Germany out of Rothschild mares) accepted into the stud book (finally listed as by "X" in the French Stud Book), because Boussac refused to sign registration certificates for Pharis foals born in Germany, Reine des Fées had several daughters that produced winners and bred on.
Lanette
Reine Mab had two sons, Ariel (1921, 6 wins, including Prix de Lutèce, later sold to Hungary where he was a winner), and Calagrenant (1922, 4 wins, including Prix Vermout), and then produced Lanette (1923). Lanette did not run, but bred two successful broodmare daughters: Britomartis and Lanette. Britomartis ran unsuccessfully and was bought by Hervé Céran-Maillard, so her descendants, which included the wonder horse -- stayer and then steeplechaser -- Romantisme (1950, by Caldarium (a Meautry stallion that won over fences, including the prix du Président de la République and second in the Grand Steeple-Chase de Paris, and a descendant of Justicia), were not bred at Meautry.
Lanette established the most successful branch of the Justicia family through her daughter Nanaia, by Irish St. Leger winner Kircubbin. Nanaia was a high class runner, but she only won one good race, the Prix de Lutèce at Longchamp, and three small races, but she was second in the Prix de Fontainebleau, in the Prix de Pomone, and in the Prix Vermeille (by a neck). Nanaia also spent four years in exile in Germany, producing a winning colt named Napoleon (by Brantôme ) there. Back in France she bred Nessir (1937, winner of 3 races on the flat and seven over fences, and also second in the Prix Murat and the Prix Président de la République).
Nanaia's two good daughters born at Meautry were Nymphe Dicté (1935, by Two Thousand Guineas winner Diolite) and Reine Shub Ad (1939, by Brantôme ). The latter, in Germany, won three races and had a foal that could not be traced when the Rothschilds recovered her. Back in France, she bred four winners, one of them, Reinarch, bred by Louis Champion after she was sold at auction in 1955. Of Rein Shub Ad's foals born at Meautry, Reine Martiale (1953, by Court Martial) won the Prix du Bois and had some good placings, and later produced Prix Robert Papin winner Reine du Chant (1970). Reine Shub Ad's other daughter born and bred at Meautry was Lucky Shoe (1954, by U.S. Jockey Club Gold Cup winner Pot O'Luck). Lucky Shoe was sold as a juvenile to Guy de Mola, and her best race was a second in the 3,000 meter handicap Prix de la Goutte d'Or at Longchamp. She later produced A Tempo (1963), a good winner of the Prix de Code and Prix Edmond Blanc, and placed in some high class races.
Nymphe Dicté was a flyer, with speed inherited from her sire Diolite. She won her debut, the Prix du Trocadéro, won over 1,000 meters at Deauville, and was second in the Prix d'Ermenonville and in the Grand Critérium behind Canot. At age three she won the Prix des Etangs (1800 meters), and was second several times, including in the Prix de Malleret. Like the rest of the Meautry mares, she was taken to Germany, as was her first foal, Nimrod (1940). She, and her daughters, bred in Gernmany and at Meautry, were responsible for many good Rothschild-bred winners.
In Germany Nymphe Dicté produced Nimburger (1941, by Téléférique, bred at Meautry but born in Germany), that won four races in Germany and after he was brought to France was a good winner over jumps. Her daughter born in Germany, La Dame Blanche (1943, by Biribi , a French-bred son of Rabelais , also taken by the Nazis), did not run; recovered for Meautry, La Dame Blanche bred six foals, the first, appropriately named L'Exile, was bred in Germany, but born at Meautry in 1947. He won the Prix du Prince de Galles and the Pont de Flandre at Longchamp, and was later sold to Chile, where he was a useful sire. La Dame Blanche's son Dragon Blanc (1950, by the recovered Brantôme ), was the champion juvenile of his year, winning the Grand Critérium by a decisive six lengths. Injured before he could run at age three, he was sold to Brazil, where he was successful as a stallion.
La Dame Blanche's 1951 filly, Alba Nox, by Coaraze, won two races as a juvenile, including the Prix des Chênes at Longchamp, but could not place at age three. At Meautry she produced six foals, the best of which was White Label (1961, by Tanerko), winner of the Grand Prix de Paris, and at age four the Prix de Barbeville and the Prix Jean Prat, running second in the Prix du Cadran; he was sold to Haras de la Tuilerie as a stallion. Alba Nox had four daughters that were broodmares at Meautry: one, White Paper (1966, by Honeyway), a winner, later produced the stayer Carwhite (1974, by Caro), winner of the Prix d'Ispahan, Prix Daru, and the Prix du Prince d'Orange.
In France, Nymphe Dicté produced three more good daughters that stayed at Meautry, and one, Nymphe Ménalippe, that was sold to England and then to the U.S., where she got some winners. The Meautry daughters were Omphale (1948, by Brantôme ), Dictature (1950, by Trastevere), and Dictaway (1952, by Honeyway). Omphale won over 2800 meters at Tremblay; she was a prolific broodmare, two of her best were Marella (1957 by Meautry-bred Alizier), winner of the Critérium de Saint-Cloud, the Prix Cléopatre,, and the Prix de Pomone, and Celadon (1959 by Krakatao), a grand stayer that won the Prix Kergorlay twice, the Prix Jean Prat, and the Prix Berteux. Celadon was sold to Germany as a stallion.
Dictature (1950, by Trastevere) ran at ages two and three, winning a minor race at Longchamp, and was purchased by the widow of Léon Volterra. She produced some nice horses for Mme Volterra, including Dicta Drake, who won the Grand Prix de Saint-Cloud, and in England the Coronation Cup, running second in the Epsom Derby and third in the St. Leger. Dictature's daughter Dictaville won the Prix de la Porte de Passy, and in the stud got the good three-year-old filly Cassette, that won the Prix Penélope and Prix Royallieu for Mme. Volterra.
The third good Meautry-bred daughter of Nymphe Dicté was Dictaway (1952), winner of the Poule d'Essai des Pouliches for Guy de Rothschild, who, upon assuming management of the stud after his father's death in 1949, sent some of the Meautry mares to England in an attempt to infuse speed into the old staying lines. Dictaway's sire was Honeyway, basically a sprinter, who won the Champion Stakes, the Victoria Cup and the King George Stakes, among other races. Dictaway later produced Diatome (1962, by Sicambre) at Meautry; he won six races, including the Washington D.C. International, and was second to Reliance in both the Prix du Jockey Club and Grand Prix de Paris; he later stood as a stallion at Meautry.
Broceliande
Reine Mab's daughter Broceliande (1925, by La Farina ) was sold to the Comte de la Rochefoucauld and the duc d'Estissac, and so passed from Rothschild ownership. She bred Foulabin (1931), winner of the Grand Prix de Bruxelles and second behind Admiral Drake in the Grand Prix de Paris. Her second foal, Housière was taken by the Germans and disappeared, but left Chrustal (1944, by Ladro), that was later a successful stallion in the Soviet Union. Her best was the great racehorse Maurépas (1937, by Aethelstan ), purchased as a yearling by Jean Prat for 180,000 francs. He won the Prix La Flèche as a juvenile, but then Prat died, and he did not run again until age three, running for the Vicomtesse Vigier, when he won the Prix Pourtalès, the Prix d'Essai, and the Prix des Trois Ans (substitute Grand Prix de Paris), among other races, and at age four the Prix des Sablons (Prix Ganay), Prix Jean Prat, Prix du Cadran, the Grand Prix de Saint-Cloud and the Prix de Chantilly. In the stud Maurépas was almost completely sterile, but he did get Camarée, winner of the One Thousand Guineas, Verdi, a 'chaser that won the Course de Haies d'Auteuil, and Marmelade, the grand-dam of Sea Bird.
Ygerne
Reine Mab's daughter Ygerne (1926, by La Farina ) was the second-best filly of her generation (behind Mistress Ford), winning three of her six races at age two, including the Prix de Condé (beating Mieuxcé), the Prix de la Salamandre, and the Prix Morny. At age three she lost her form, and at Meautry bred just three foals before dying at age seven. Her filly Anath (1932) won once as a juvenile in six starts, and at age three won the Prix des Cars and the Prix de la Faisanderie. Anath was another Nazi victim, and bred some foals in Germany, including Lady MacBeth (1944, by Téléférique), who was caled "Annerl" in Germany; both returned to Meautry in 1946, and in 1947 Lady MacBeth dead-heated in a 1600 meter race at Deauville. Anath was sold in 1948 to Pierre Wertheimer, and she bred some good non-Meautry foals after that, including Djanet (by Djébé, Prix Maurice de Gheest and other races), that later also produced some winners.
At Meautry Lady MacBeth bred a number of foals, the best of which was Yorick (1951), a consistently good stayer that won the Prix Thebais (1-1/4 miles) as a juvenile. At age three he won a race at St. Cloud, the Prix de l'Esperance (1 mile-7 furlongs), and was second by 3/4 of a length to Popof in the Grand Prix de Paris. For some reason Guy de Rothschild shipped him off to Brazil to run in the Grand Premio de Brasil, where he finished fifth, and then he came back to France to run second to Sica Boy in the Prix Royal-Oak. After running out of the money in the Arc, he was shipped over to England, and won the Jockey Club Cup (2-1/4 miles). Although great things were expected of him the following year, his only win was the Prix Edgard Gillois. He became a useful sire of some good runners, including Esso (Prix d'Ispahan) and Aernen (in Italy winner of the Premio Parioli).
Lady MacBeth's 1950 filly Brief Candle won the Prix Hallebardier and the Prix de Reux (2800 and 2600 meters) in six starts at age three. Her best foal was the big-striding filly Timandra (1957, by the fast, handsome English stallion Court Martial), the champion three-year-old filly in France for Guy, winning four races -- the Prix Penelope, the Poule d'Essai des Pouliches, the Prix de Diane, and the Prix de Chaville; her only loss was in the Arc de Triomphe, where she ran unplaced. She bred two winners, but the quality of her line did not persist.
Fée Esterel
Reine Mab's Meautry-bred daughter Fée Esterel (1929, by Cadum ). She won three small races and bred five live foals, some of her time, like the other Rothschild mares of the period, lost in Germany. Her daughter, Ahseratt (1935, by Sunny Trace) was an excellent race mare that won the Poule de Deux Ans and the Prix de la Salamandre at age two, and was second in the Prix de la Forêt. At age three she won the Prix Lagrange, the Prix Vanteaux (beating Prix de Diane winner Féerie), and the Prix La Rochette, and was second in the Grand Prix du Printemps, placing in several other good races. She had been shipped to the court of Chumleigh in England for breeding, and so escaped Nazi confiscation, and remained in England throughout the war, returning to Meautry in 1946. She bred ten foals altogether, seven of which were winners, and several daughters that bred on, including Aganippe, the dam of Prix de Bois Roussel and Prix Ridgeway winner Romney. Another Asheratt daughter, Ashleen, won her only two races at 2, the Prix d'Avilly and the Prix de Villiers, and after an unsuccessful following season, was sold to Pierre Ribes, for whom she bred some good winners, including Princeline (1966), a good juvenile filly that won the Prix Morny.
Other Female Lines
There were, and are, a number other families at Meautry. Some of the older ones just died out after many generations. These included the family descending from Yagha (1902, by Dolma Baghtche), that included Meautry-bred winners Nectarine, Nephthys, Vendange and Bacchus. Another old Meautry family descended from the excellent matron Spring Night (1907, by Chesterfield), whose daughter, Spring Cleaning, produced the best older horse in France in 1928, Cadum (by Sans Souci ), the stayer and leading stallion Bubbles (1925, by La Farina ) and Buanderie (1924, by Sans Souci ), winner of the Prix Royal-Oak and later dam of Bokbul.
Another old Meautry family descended from Ambrizette (1897, by Bona Vista ), purchased by Edouard in England. Her descendants included Jus de Raison (Coupe d'Or at Maisons-Laffitte and Prix de la Forêt), Miel Rosa (La Coupe, Prix Reiset, Prix de la Tour Eiffel), and the Arc winner Eclair au Chocolat. The old Floretta (1902, by Florizel ) family, part of the same turn-of-the-century infusion of new blood from England instigated by Edouard, was responsible for Prix Lupin and Prix Daru winner Floraison (1909, by Sans Souci ), and Grand Critérium winner Godiche, Prix de Diane winner Flowershop, and Serre Chaude (born in Germany in 1944, by Pharis ), whose dam, Vanda Teres (by Blandford ) had been confiscated by the Nazis; Serre Chaude was later dam of Verrieres, the champion juvenile colt in France in 1955.
Another old family sprang from Edouard's purchase of Ormonde Stakes winner Casetta (1910, by Marco ). Casetta bred Cottage , a stayer that ran in England for Edouard and was then sold to Ireland, where he became a leading sire of steeplechasers (three Grand National winners and of Cottage Rake , the three-time winner of the Cheltenham Gold Cup), and through his grandson Cottage Son , a major influence in sporthorse breeding, particularly Holsteiners. Casetta's family continues to the present at Meautry, and included the stallion Alizier (1947), the stallion Le Haar (1954), and numerous other winners.
Another English mare purchased by Edouard was Captivating Stella (1917, by Captivation), who came to Meautry in 1921. She bred six winners, and a grandaughter, Voutre Celeste (1931, winner of the Prix Rieussec), bred the good stayer Ciel Etoilé (1946, by Cranach) and his half-sister Aurore Boreale (1941, by Brantôme ). Aurore Boreale, an excellent matron, produced Le Geographe (1951, winner of the Grand Critérium), Tropique (1952, by Fountenay, winner of the Prix d'Harcourt and in England of the Coronation Cup and Eclipse Stakes), and L'Astrologue (1954, Prix Robert Papin). More recent winners in the family include Soleil (1969, winner of the Grand Critérium, the Prix Morny, the Poule d'Essai des Poulains and the Prix de la Porte Maillot), the top runner Lightning (1974, Prix d'Ispahan, Prix Jean Prat, Prix de la Jonchère), and Grand Prix de Paris winner Soleil Noir (1976).
A more "recent" Meautry family descends from Damasi (1953, by Djebel ), bred by Marcel Boussac. Her daughter Moss Rose bred Lady Berry (1970), a winner of the Prix de Pomone and the Prix Royal-Oak, and in turn at Meautry bred four good winners for the Rothschilds, including Grand Prix de Paris winner Le Nain Jaune and Indian Rose, winner of the Prix Vermeille and Prix Cléopâtre. Groom Dancer (1978) who won the Prix Lupin, Prix de Condé, and other good races, was a grandson of Lady Berry's.
--Patricia Erigero
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Postal Service and Mail Delivery
Home Spain Postal Service and Mail Delivery
Home > Country Guides > Spain
In Spain the post codes have a total of 5 digits and there is an online search facility on the website of Correos, the national postal service in Spain. Addresses in Spain should feature the name of the recipient on the first line, the street and building number on the second line, the post code followed by the town name on the third line and the name of the province on the final line. Apartment numbers should also feature on the second line, after the building number and street name.
Most mail sent within Spain will take around 3 days to arrive and post within Europe takes around 4 days. Stamps are sold at a number of outlets other than post offices, such as tobacconists and stationers. It is also possible to order stamps online. Post boxes are yellow although private companies use boxes of other colours. It is also possible to purchase pre-paid envelopes and boxes. Registered post (carta certificada) is also possible if the sender requires proof of delivery. These items can be tracked online with the identifying code for the package.
If you wish to send a parcel there are two ways of doing so – an urgent delivery (paqueteria urgente) and a national delivery (paqueteria nacional). The urgent delivery is for items of up to 20 kg and is for items which are being sent within Spain or to one of the Spanish islands. National delivery is also for domestic deliveries of up to 20 kg and items can be insured.
International deliveries need to be marked with ‘prioritario’ to indicate international delivery. There are three delivery services for international mail. These are the EMS Postal Expres, Priority International Delivery and an economy delivery option. For some destinations it may be necessary to complete a customs declaration to affix to the outside of the parcel.
Correos has a telegram services which offers same day delivery of messages both within Spain and other countries if the service is available there. Telegrams can be ordered by phone and payment is usually based on the number of words as well as a basic charge for the service. There is a mail forwarding service for those who are moving house, for which there is a small fee charged. Many post offices are also able to offer a range of banking services such as basic savings and cash withdrawals.
There are more than 6000 post offices across Spain and these can also be found in railway stations and airports. Some of the post offices in the larger cities are open around the clock although there may be limited opening hours in rural areas. Most small villages have a post office, although larger towns will have several as well as private services.
Correos is not the only postal service in the country. Offex Courier Services is another major provider of postal services and has been in operation for more than 10 years. These services are available to individuals as well as businesses and can deliver all over the world. This service is also aimed at expats, giving them access to other postal services in Europe such as the UK’s Royal Mail and Swiss Post. British shops in some areas of Spain are also offering a service where mail can be left with them and taken directly to the UK where it is posted on using the UK mail service.
The postal service is considered to be quite efficient. It is frequently the case that mail is not delivered directly to the home of the recipient but there are usually communal boxes, particularly in apartment complexes. Renting a post office box is considered to be the best way to receive your mail. These cost from €40 a year if using the Correos post offices but there are private post offices which charge up to €100. Post office boxes are known as ‘apdos’ and customers are able to access their box only while the post office is open. In order to get the box a contract must be signed and if there is registered mail or a parcel the staff leaves a note in the box for you.
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Postal Service and Mail Delivery
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In Spain the post codes have a total of 5 digits and there is an online search facility on the website of Correos, the national postal service in Spain. Addresses in Spain should feature the name of the recipient on the first line, the street and building number on the second line, the post code followed by the town name on the third line and the name of the province on the final line. Apartment numbers should also feature on the second line, after the building number and street name.
Most mail sent within Spain will take around 3 days to arrive and post within Europe takes around 4 days. Stamps are sold at a number of outlets other than post offices, such as tobacconists and stationers. It is also possible to order stamps online. Post boxes are yellow although private companies use boxes of other colours. It is also possible to purchase pre-paid envelopes and boxes. Registered post (carta certificada) is also possible if the sender requires proof of delivery. These items can be tracked online with the identifying code for the package.
If you wish to send a parcel there are two ways of doing so – an urgent delivery (paqueteria urgente) and a national delivery (paqueteria nacional). The urgent delivery is for items of up to 20 kg and is for items which are being sent within Spain or to one of the Spanish islands. National delivery is also for domestic deliveries of up to 20 kg and items can be insured.
International deliveries need to be marked with ‘prioritario’ to indicate international delivery. There are three delivery services for international mail. These are the EMS Postal Expres, Priority International Delivery and an economy delivery option. For some destinations it may be necessary to complete a customs declaration to affix to the outside of the parcel.
Correos has a telegram services which offers same day delivery of messages both within Spain and other countries if the service is available there. Telegrams can be ordered by phone and payment is usually based on the number of words as well as a basic charge for the service. There is a mail forwarding service for those who are moving house, for which there is a small fee charged. Many post offices are also able to offer a range of banking services such as basic savings and cash withdrawals.
There are more than 6000 post offices across Spain and these can also be found in railway stations and airports. Some of the post offices in the larger cities are open around the clock although there may be limited opening hours in rural areas. Most small villages have a post office, although larger towns will have several as well as private services.
Correos is not the only postal service in the country. Offex Courier Services is another major provider of postal services and has been in operation for more than 10 years. These services are available to individuals as well as businesses and can deliver all over the world. This service is also aimed at expats, giving them access to other postal services in Europe such as the UK’s Royal Mail and Swiss Post. British shops in some areas of Spain are also offering a service where mail can be left with them and taken directly to the UK where it is posted on using the UK mail service.
The postal service is considered to be quite efficient. It is frequently the case that mail is not delivered directly to the home of the recipient but there are usually communal boxes, particularly in apartment complexes. Renting a post office box is considered to be the best way to receive your mail. These cost from €40 a year if using the Correos post offices but there are private post offices which charge up to €100. Post office boxes are known as ‘apdos’ and customers are able to access their box only while the post office is open. In order to get the box a contract must be signed and if there is registered mail or a parcel the staff leaves a note in the box for you.
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What is the US state capital of Illinois? | Illinois.gov
Illinois.gov
Check Your List Twice: Drive Sober and Buckle Up
CHICAGO – The Illinois Department of Transportation, Illinois State Police and local police throughout the state are teaming up to make sure driving sober and buckling up are a holiday tradition. As part of the national Drive Sober or Get Pulled Over campaign, nearly 200 law enforcement agencies will be out in force across Illinois in an end-of-year push to drive down fatalities.
Governor Discusses Department of Corrections Transformation and Criminal Justice Reforms
SPRINGFIELD, IL - Governor Rauner joined Illinois Department of Corrections Director John Baldwin to highlight efforts the administration has made to transform the Department of Corrections (DOC) along with other criminal justice reforms. Nearly 13,000 security, non-security and contract DOC staff have participated in a two-day Mental Illness 101 – See the Person not the Illness training session in 2016 with almost 100 percent compliance.
| Springfield |
Renaissance astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was born in which modern-day European country? | ILLINOIS' OLD STATE CAPITAL
THE OLD STATE CAPITOL BUILDING IN VANDALIA
IS ALLEGEDLY HAUNTED BY THE GHOST OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN, WHO SERVED THERE AS A YOUNG LEGISLATOR MANY YEARS AGO.
The first capital of Illinois was in the village of KASKASKIA , a settlement located along the Mississippi River that was one of the first permanent towns in the state. It was not realized in the early 1800's that the settlement was doomed by being located between two high points along the river... and also (some say) by a terrible curse! It would be wiped out be a flood a few years later.
After much debate about moving the capital, the legislature finally decided on a beautiful spot in the uncharted woods of Illinois and called it Vandalia. It was located north on the Kaskaskia River and surveyors plotted out a large town by standards of those days. A two-story state house was constructed for less than $5000 and in 1820 the Second General Assembly first convened. Almost three years later, the original building burned down and a new structure was erected in it's place. This building still stands today, although the capital of the state was moved to a more centrally located Springfield in 1837.
One of the early legislators who worked in the cramped state house and crowded into the local boarding house was a young man named Abraham Lincoln. It was in this building that he made one of his first speeches against slavery and many have said that his spirit still visits here to walk the wooden floors of the upper level of the building. Some claim that his ghost has been seen standing on the upstairs balcony, looking out of the windows and contemplating the issues that must have perplexed him in those early days.
While this site has been mentioned because of it's ghostly connections to the past, I would urge you to take this Lincoln sighting with the proverbial grain of salt....how many places can "Honest Abe" still haunt today? With the White House, his former home in Springfield, the Lincoln Monument, and now the Vandalia State House....he must be the most well-traveled ghost in history!
The Vandalia State House is located at the intersection of Route 51 and Route 40 in south Central Illinois. It is also located along Interstate 70. The building is open daily for tours.
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Actor Sid James played the character Sid Boggle in which ‘Carry On’ film? | BBC - Films -article article - The Sid Theory
The Sid Theory
Written by James King
Sid James on screen had three recognisable traits. He drank, he gambled, and he chased Babs Windsor.
According to biographies, his private life was kept similarly busy with such diverse pastimes as, er, drinking, gambling, and chasing Babs Windsor.
In other words, part of Sid's success was the feeling that he was an actor who wasn't really acting - he was just being himself.
So convincing were his frequent cinematic marriages to Hattie Jacques that the public often believed that they were a bona fide couple.
And if you think his "Carry On" film feuds with co-star Kenneth Williams looked good on celluloid, it's no surprise - just read Kenny's diaries for info on the real life tension.
Sid's movie character names are probably the most fun evidence of this fine line between fact and fiction. Let's be honest, one look at that walnut face and only one name springs to mind. He is 100% pure Sid.
So here's some Sid James character names. Spot the running theme:
Sid Fiddler ("Carry On Girls")
Sid Abbott (Bless This House)
Sid Plummer ("Carry On at Your Convenience")
Sid Bliss ("Carry On Loving")
Sid Boggle ("Carry On Camping")
Sir Sidney Ruff-Diamond ("Carry On up the Khyber")
Sid Marks ("Three Hats for Lisa")
Sid Gibson ("Make Mine a Million")
Sid ("What a Carve Up!")
Sid ("Double Bunk")
Sid ("Too Many Crooks")
Sidney Balmoral James (Hancock's Half Hour)
Having said all that, his Sid-less name in "Carry On Again Doctor" still sums him perfectly - Gladstone Screwer. But I bet he was called Sid for short.
Web Links
| Carry On Camping |
Nefertiti was the wife of which Egyptian Pharaoh? | Carry On (series) (Film) - TV Tropes
Bernard Bresslaw. All 6'7½" of him.
In some cases, the 6'4" Jack Douglas.
Big Lipped Alligator Moment : invoked A Rule of Funny with the series, there were often scenes or moments that are never referred to in the rest of the movie.
Bitch in Sheep's Clothing : At least one or two of these appear in the movies. The most common ones are Sid James, Hattie Jacques, Kenneth Williams and Patsy Rowland.
Blood Knight : The important authority figure in many of the movies that severed under a blundering idiot as a leader. A brilliant example is Lieutenant Howett from Carry On Jack, who organises a fake mutiny in order to scare the timid Captain Fearless away from his ship, and begins his first day in power sailing to Spain to threaten the government into surrendering at gunpoint.
Carry On Cowboy had the Showdown at High Noon where many were shot dead with no blood stains.
Carry On Up The Khyber had a war at the Khyber Pass and outside Sir Sidney's house.
Don't Lose Your Head had the fight in a mansion that was like this.
Blowing a Raspberry : Often came from Sid, which was probably a substitution for a curse word.
The Cameo : Peter Butterworth, Jim Dale, Bernard Bresslaw, Hattie Jacques and Terry Scott were more likely to appear in uncredited roles than any other recurring regulars.
Camp Straight :
Any character played by Kenneth Williams or Charles Hawtrey. The latter was actually gay, while Kenneth Williams is a matter of debate to this day. (It's generally thought that Williams was the friend to whom playwright Joe Orton addressed his famous speech about screwing whatever moves you without worrying about the values of society , but nobody knows whether Williams followed the advice or not.)
Frankie Howerd , also known note ( rumoured first , revealed posthumously) to have been gay, embodied this trope in his two Carry On appearances (Carry On Doctor and Carry On Up the Jungle).
Recurring actor Julian Orchard (who appeared in about four movies in bit parts — most memorably as the Duke de Ponsy in Carry On Henry) also played this role. Whether he was actually gay in real life is unknown.
Catch Phrase : Although they were playing different characters in each film, some of the actors had a few catchphrases which showed up with considerable regularity.
Charles Hawtrey's first line in each film was nearly always a very camp "Oh, hel-lo!"
Kenneth Williams would often deliver at least a few lines in his "Snide" voice from Hancock's Half Hour (in a few films, such as Carry On Spying, he would do the entire role in "snide" mode), including the character's catchphrases of "No, don't be like that!" and "Stop messin' about!"
Catfight : Barbara Windsor has one in Carry On Camping, and then with Margaret Nolan in Carry On Girls. The latter film was over a stolen bikini.
The Chessmaster : Many of Sid James' characters, if they didn't get their own way. His character in Carry On Loving was so quick to make his girlfriend (who he frequently cheats on) come back to him, he invoked a Third-Act Misunderstanding on the date she had hours after she dumped him.
Christmas Cake : Most of the actresses, sparing Margaret Nolan, Valerie Leon and Barbara Windsor. Characters that were this trope were often lampshaded. Take this scene from Carry On Dick:
Lady Daley: [Dick Turpin] took my most treasured possession!
Captain Fancey: Come now, milady — surely that went long ago .
Christmas Episode : Carry On Christmas, the collective name for four one-off Christmas television specials starring many of the Carry On regulars (notably excluding Kenneth Williams, who refused to take part) produced in 1969, 1970, 1972, and 1973.
Clip Show : That's Carry On! was conceived by Peter Rogers as a Carry On version of the successful That's Entertainment! compilations, with clips presented by Kenneth Williams and Barbara Windsor. The second Carry On Laughing series which ran from 1981 to 1983 transferred the idea to television, minus Ken and Babs (except for the 1983 Christmas special).
Cloudcuckoolander : Many of Charles Hawtrey and Bernard Bresslaw's characters.
Comedic Underwear Exposure : Kenneth Williams and Kenneth Connor suffered from this a couple of times.
Cover Drop : Many of the movie posters after Carry On Teacher were this. The poster artist(s) would mostly cut and paste frames from the film or just draw scenes dotted around the page. For example:
Carry On Camping featured a tiny Barbara Windsor-like girl with her bikini top flying off her body.
Carry On Jack had a sailor getting whipped against a wall.
Don't Lose Your Head had Jim Dale swinging from a chandelier as Sid James is crawling out of Joan Sims' dress while Charles Hawtrey and Peter Butterworth are trying to hold up a pillar.
Crouching Moron, Hidden Badass : A couple of Charles Hawtrey characters.
The Danza : invoked Common with characters outside of the period dramas. As mentioned before, Sid James commonly had characters that were named Sid.
Dead Artists Are Better : Arguably, the Carry On series is much more appreciated and well-received now that the majority of the cast are dead.
Particularly Sid James, whose characters were sleazy wisecracking old men who lusted over young vulnerable Jail Bait women. When he was alive, some saw him as a bad example to men. After he died, he was constantly praised for being one of the funniest members of the recurring cast.
Although, this was probably because the last few films that were made after his death didn't do as well at the box office and were accused of being "repetitive".
In many cases, the Carry On series is being called the best of British comedy, even by the haters that believed the series was raunchy and crude, and a bad influence on younger viewers.
Disguised in Drag : Often involving the aforementioned Bernard Bresslaw. Peter Butterworth, Charles Hawtrey, and Kenneth Williams also frequently dressed in drag to go undercover, almost invariably without bothering to disguise their voices.
Drill Sergeant Nasty : There were several of these in the Armed Farces movies, mostly ruling under a General Failure that they despised. The original one was Eric Barker's captain in Carry On Sergeant, along with his sidekick Bill Owen's corporal, who was just as bad as him. You could say that they were the Ur-Example of this trope for the entire film series.
Dogged Nice Guy : There were a couple of these from both genders throughout the series, but it was commonly male characters. The female version was often Hattie Jacques, who would try and sabotage the plans of a rival suitor to make her look trustworthy.
Early Installment Weirdness :
The films made prior to Talbot Rothwell's arrival (up to and including Carry On Cruising) generally tended to have more situational-based humour rather than the puns and sexual innuendo the later films relied on.
Kenneth Williams' characters in the first two films were played straight and were more deadpan snarkers than his other characters (in fact, his character in Carry On Nurse had a sort-of romance going on with a girl who occasionally visits him — not that he notices her affections though... ).
Sid James began as an authority figure who was strict with the dim-witted workers he had to deal with, and even cowered in fear when horny women willingly threw themselves at him.
Joan Sims wasn't a nagging prude in the early films and was often the attractive female lead — a role that was later given to Barbara Windsor.
Ephebophile : Some of the married male characters, towards teenage girls.
Europeans Are Kinky : European characters in the series that were outside the British Isles were often portrayed as this. In Carry On Henry, Henry VIII marries a French woman after his fourth "prudish" wife is executed, but then becomes horny and frustrated when he finds out that his new Queen eats garlic. Meanwhile, Carry On Emmannuelle stars a French woman that cheats on her prudish husband with several men, and is even a member of the Mile High club.
Fanservice : "In Carry On, [insert 90% of the list of fanservice tropes here]".
Let's just say Barbara Windsor and have done with it.
The series began to rely on this a lot in the mid-sixties onwards by hiring younger and attractive actors (Jim Dale, Richard O'Callaghan, Jacki Piper, Angela Douglas, etc.) to have a Love Interest subplot in some of the films. Even though they suffered from many fanservice tropes, don't expect many of them to be showing much skin.
Carry On Cabby presents the argument that in a free market, no amount of quality can compete with blatant fanservice, as a rival cab company arrives out of nowhere providing only drivers with low-cut tops, large breasts and long legs. One sequence features a succession of customers happily fixing their own cabs as the drivers lean against them idly.
Carry On Emmannuelle was an attempt at building an entire film around the concept of fanservice. It failed dismally, demonstrating a profound truth about how fanservice works. Or possibly not.
Getting Crap Past the Radar : Oh, where to start?
How about Carry On Up the Khyber's title. It's Cockney rhyming slang: Khyber → Khyber Pass → Arse (Anus).
And "FAKIR! OFF!" from the same film.
"One moment they want peace on, then the next — peace off," from Carry On Cowboy.
In Carry On Henry, after Guynote presumably; his first name is never mentioned Fawkes' plan to blow up Henry VIII with gunpowder has fizzled out (literally), Lord Hampton of Wick (whose name is another example, "Hampton Wick" being Cockney rhyming slang for... well, just guess) mutters, "Oh, Fawkes!"
Related to Lord Hampton of Wick, there are plenty of names across the series derived in some way from "Hampton"; for example, the hospital in Carry On Again Doctor is called Longhampton Hospital.
In Carry On England, when S.MJR. Bloomer derides SGT. Able's ability to recognize different aircraft, Able retorts, "I know a Fokker when I see one..."note This was notably deleted upon first release by the censors in exchange for the movie's rating to not go further than a 15+.
The oh-so-carefully-pronounced "Count" in Carry On Screaming!
Fircombe, the fictional seaside town in Carry On Girls. On the signs shown in the opening shots, it even does look like a generic English place name, until it's actually said out loud...
Grey and Grey Morality : Although there is often a clear narrative that shows who is the hero and who is the villain of the story, most of the characters in the movies could make the audience lean towards the Designated Hero or Designated Villain YMMVs. This is very common with Sid James characters, who are often the heroes, but are prone to do things that can make anyone against him look innocent, and then vice versa.
Hand or Object Underwear : Many examples; see the page illustration if you're confused.
Henpecked Husband : Many of Sid James' characters, with the nagging wife generally played by Hattie Jacques or Joan Sims, which was mostly the reason why he preyed on other women. Also sometimes played by Kenneth Connor (Carry On Cleo and Carry On Abroad) or Terry Scott (Carry On Camping).
Hero Antagonist : Many of Kenneth Williams' characters.
Hospital Hottie : Jim Dale and Barbara Windsor, when they were doctor and nurse in the medical films.
I Am Not Leonard Nimoy : Face it, if you watch a film, you'll refer to the people on screen by the name of their actor. Even this page has only referred to the characters by their actors.
Incredibly Conspicuous Drag : Several of the films involve Sid James or Bernard Bresslaw (or someone similarly unmistakably masculine) wearing a dress, and the authority figure they're trying to evade falling instantly for him, despite the fact that he's clearly Sid James or Bernard Bresslaw wearing a dress. (The fact that the authority figure was frequently Kenneth Williams may add a bit of subtext to this .)
Informed Attractiveness :
Barbara Windsor was not exactly a Hollywood beauty, though she did have a couple of things in her favour.note Although Windsor herself has noted that they looked bigger than they were due to her small waist and the fact that her small feet meant that she walked in a way that emphasised her bust. The Buxom Is Better trope actually applied at a smaller cup size at the time anyway — breasts were smaller on average and implants were almost unknown.
Sid James, mostly when he played charming Gentleman Thief womanisers , managed to get so many women falling for him. The possible fact that many of his admirers were sexually-frustrated at the time could've played in his favour as well.
Kenneth Williams, who mostly got at least two women fighting over him every so often. You could say that it was because of Power Is Sexy .
invoked Charles Hawtrey sometimes, who managed to chase terrified women around the room until they gave in to have sex with him. Some even come back for some more.
Invisible Holes : Occurs in Follow That Camel (Kenneth Williams shot by Arabs), Carry On Up the Khyber (the almost dead Peter Gilmore), Carry On Henry (Charles Hawtrey after being tortured in an iron maiden).
Jerkass : Commonly a Kenneth Williams character that was of high authority. One of the exceptions was his character in Carry On at Your Convenience.
Kitchen Sink Drama : Many of the films that were outside movie parodies.
The Klutz : Plenty of Jim Dale characters. One managed to trip over a trolley and pull out an entire fuse box.
Leitmotif : The Matron character had a distinct tune that played throughout the films whenever she showed up. It made her sound haughty and gave out a battleaxe feeling.
Lie Back and Think of England : Some of Sid's wives (and the man himself) often suffer from this, which is why they both pine for other people.
Loveable Rogue : Many of Sid James' characters, when he wasn't playing henpecked husbands .
Love Triangle : Some films had this as a subplot, usually featuring Jim Dale, Sid James, Hattie Jacques, Barbara Windsor, Richard O'Callaghan, Kenneth Williams and/or Joan Sims. Many of them slipped into Imaginary Love Triangle .
Massive Numbered Siblings : The movies often used this trope to imply how much sex that a couple was usually having. The more children, the better. So it was often that Sid James' married characters had no children or a fully-grown adult child.
Meaningful Name : If a cheap joke could be got out of a person's name, it was.
Mistaken for Badass : Major plot points in a few films, especially Carry On Cowboy (Marshal is his name) and Carry On Cleo.
Naked People Are Funny : Most commonly Barbara Windsor, alternatively Charles Hawtrey.
Names to Run Away from Really Fast : A common theme with the punny names in the series. For example, a surgeon named Bernard Cutting from Carry On Matron and Dr Kilmore from Carry On Doctor.
Never My Fault : A Kenneth Williams character who was trying to suck up to a higher authority figure would commonly blame anyone around them if his plans to catch the villains failed.
Of Corsets Funny : In many of the films, particularly the period pieces.
Operation: Jealousy : When Sid never showed interest, his wife would flirt with another man in order to get this reaction.
Parenthetical Swearing : An inversion, usually when it comes to place names. Many place names in the movies are named after mild curse words (such as "The Blasted Oak"from Dick.)
Period Piece : Much of the movie parodies.
Perma-Shave : In some movies in which the characters are stranded in a place with no food and civilization to find, the male characters mostly stay clean-shaven throughout.
Follow That Camel featured an aimless trek around the desert for at least a week but the Legion soldiers don't grow stubble or beards when it's highly unlikely that they took their razors with them.
Carry On Jack subverts this when the male cast have week-long stubble when they are stranded in a boat in the middle of the ocean. The Disguised in Drag Sally does not, which would've given the men a big hint that she is not a man, but they don't notice.
Carry On Again, Doctor appears to double subvert this. Jim Dale and Kenneth Williams are sent to a far-off island to be doctors for the villagers; both men grow a noticeable amount of stubble, however, they both spend at least a couple of weeks (in Williams' case, three months) on the island, yet they have stubble that you'd expect on men that haven't shaved in two or three days.
invoked It's also jarring to see this Special Effects Failure on Jim Dale — especially if you immediately see this movie after his cameo in Carry On Jack, in which his one-scene character had a face full of thick stubble (which was probably what he'd grown himself for the role).
Pint-Sized Powerhouse : The 5'2 Kenneth Connor would be prone to this trope if his character called for it. It was invoked in Carry On Cleo, and played straight in Carry On Nurse.
Pretty Boy : Richard O'Callaghan and Jim Dale.
Punny Name : A staple of the series once Talbot Rothwell took over as the series' screenwriter.
Shamelessly indulged in for Carry On at Your Convenience. The toilet factory is run by W.C. Boggs and his son Lew (Lewis), with factory foreman Sid Plummer.
Other punny names were more suggestive, such as the slimming clinic in Carry On Again Doctor founded by Dr. Nookey with capital from Ellen Moore: the Moore-Nookey clinic.
Putting the "Medic" in Comedic : Carry On Nurse, Carry On Doctor, Carry On Again, Doctor and Carry On Matron.
Ragtag Bunch of Misfits : Some of Sid's characters usually had this that were usually put against Kenneth Williams' version.
Recurring Riff : A jazzier version of the military march played to open and close Carry On Sergeant was used for the opening and closing credits for the following five films (beginning with Carry On Cabby, each film had a unique score composed by Eric Rogers).
Rich Suitor, Poor Suitor : This was also a common trope at times whenever there was a Love Triangle . The most glaring one was Carry On at Your Convenience when the pretty Myrtle Plummer had to choose between the soft-spoken boss' son Lewis Boggs and the lazy scheming Basement-Dweller Vic Spanner.
Royals Who Actually Do Something : In movies that feature a royal family, the monarchs would mostly get involved with the storylines and often controlled the army.
Carry On Up the Khyber had the Khasi leader of Khalabar organising his army (with the help of his warrior leader), and his daughter, the princess, helping the enemy when her father's back was turned.
Don't Lose Your Head had a British knight and a Lord saving rich French aristocrats.
Follow That Camel has the Arabian sheikh at war with the French Foreign Legion.
Sex Comedy : the premise of the series in the mid-'70s.
Sex Tourism : All of the vacation movies contained at least one or two characters who were only on holiday in the hopes of getting lucky with either their reluctant spouses or any attractive person that they meet up with along the way.
Shorter Means Smarter : Kenneth Connor and Kenneth Cope were often one of/the smartest of a group.
"Shut Up" Kiss : These were common in the movies, mostly between either two young love interests or a married couple. The latter type was always from the husband, who usually "forgot" the kissing and went straight into the sex, which successfully shut their wives up . In many cases, it made the wives less frigid and much more open .
Smug Snake : Many of Kenneth Williams' characters.
Snobs Vs Slobs : A common theme in many of the films, which mostly linked with the growing issues of social class in Britain at the time, and was seen as the most relate-able humour that was around.
However, this caused a few problems when it came to releases. Due to the production team being right-wing, many of the working-class and "pauper" characters were often heavily implied to be the butt of the jokes, which didn't help when most of the audience of the series were in fact working-class as well. When Carry On at Your Convenience was released, many fans boycotted the series after seeing the negative portrayal of some of the characters that were meant to represent them.
Special Guest : There were several over the course of the series, leading to lots of tension over the guest's salary with the regular actors in series. note The regular cast were paid low salaries for each movie they did (Kenneth Williams' was known for being vocal about this in his published diaries; his highest salary he received was £6000, which wasn't really high for a movie star back then), but Pinewood Studios shelled out up to £30,000 for a guest star that only had a couple of lines.
Phil Silvers as a very Sgt. Bilko-esque Foreign Legion sergeant in Follow That Camel (a role originally intended for Sid James; writer Talbot Rothwell felt that Silvers would be ideal for the role when James proved unavailable).
Cecil Parker, who appeared in many blockbuster movies at the time, was promoted to And Starring credits — above Kenneth Williams and Charles Hawtrey — when he appeared in Carry On Jack, and was paid over £20,000 when all he did was appear in two scenes that book end the film and had less than ten lines.
Stiff Upper Lip : Usually common in the period drama movies among British characters, but mostly made fun of.
Suspiciously Similar Substitute : A lot of the movies could've had this and was especially played straight whenever a special guest was brought in to play a Dirty Old Man Sid James-esque character.
Coincidence that the Camp Straight Kenneth Williams, who couldn't make Carry On Up the Jungle, was replaced by the openly gay Frankie Howerd for that film?
The original Ms. Fanservice female lead could definitely be seen as this. Look at it like: Shirley Eaton → Liz Fraser → Barbara Windsor → Amanda Barrie → Anita Harris → Barbara Windsor, until the end of the series.
There were always two army officers in the Armed Farces sketches who were either Red Oni, Blue Oni or both Officer Jerkass (see Drill Sergeant Nasty ): Captain Potts & Corporal Copping (Sergeant) → Lieutenant Howett & Mr Angel (Jack) → Captain le Pice & Commandant Burger (Follow That Camel) → Sergeant-Major MacNutt & Captain Keene (Up the Khyber) → Captain S. Melly & Sergeant-Major Bloomer/Brigadier & Major Carstairs (England).
The 6'7 Bernard Bresslaw was in the series for ten years. When the 6'4 Jack Douglas appeared, he would start to get bigger roles, whereas Bresslaw seemed to be getting demoted into background characters, eventually leaving the series for good in 1975.
The Pretty Boy had this as well. Leslie Phillips → Jim Dale → Richard O'Callaghan. Sometimes when Jim Dale wasn't available, Julian Holloway would fill a similar role.
The Nice Girl Angela Douglas left after Carry On Up the Khyber, and in walked nice girl Jacki Piper at the beginning of the seventies.
Sympathetic Inspector Antagonist : Kenneth Williams in Don't Lose Your Head and Carry On Dick.
Tall, Dark and Handsome : Jim Dale, Richard O'Callaghan and Jullian Holloway. Bernard Cribbins, to some extent.
In-universe, Sid James, Kenneth Williams and Charles Hawtrey.
Kenneth Connor and Kenneth Cope were shorter versions that portrayed this role.
Those Two Guys : Often had a duo in the movie. Variations include a married couple , two soldiers , two friends that will probably end up hating each other at the end , two friends that work together, and a person of higher authority and their underclass leader.
Title Drop : Often occurs near the end of the films. Carry On Cruising has one right at the end that is notable for how completely it fails to arise naturally out of the dialogue.
Unfortunate Names : Many examples throughout the series, though the most glaring example (and acknowledged as such in-universe) is CPT S. Melly from Carry On England.
Universal-Adaptor Cast : The cast did the same character type, more or less, regardless of setting. In fact, if one of the regulars is absent from a film, it's invariably easy to guess which role was written with him or her in mind (just to name two examples, SGT. Sidney Bung in Carry On Screaming! was written for Sid James but played by Harry H. Corbett , while the foppish Professor Inigo Tinkle in Carry On Up the Jungle was written for Kenneth Williams but played by Frankie Howerd ).
Villain Protagonist : Sid James' common character forte.
Wardrobe Malfunction :
Nearly every film featured at least one scene where a male character either lost or split his trousers or a female character lost her skirt or top.
The page image is from Carry On Camping, and it provided the most famous example in the series — sometimes referred to as the most famous scene in British cinema history. Barbara Windsor is doing aerobics with her classmates and flings her arms a bit too wide, making her bikini top pop off and fly into the face of her school principal. Watch it on YouTube.
Whatever Happened to the Mouse? : A common theme with Charles Hawtrey's characters were that they would disappear out of the story when the climax reared its ugly head. It didn't help that his storyline wasn't far from being completed.
World of Pun : Actually quite restrained in its use of puns . For instance, Kenneth Williams in Carry On Cleo: "Infamy, infamy, they've all got it in fer me!" note This gag was originally written for the radio series Take It From Here by Frank Muir and Denis Norden.
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Which country has the internet domain .fi? | Country Suffix List for Domains on the Internet
Country Suffix List for Domains on the Internet
This listing
may not be complete, as new suffixes may be generated to fulfill needs, if you have details of any extra ones that can be included, please
and I will add them.
A
.ac Ascension Island .adAndorra .aeUnited Arab Emirates .afAfghanistan .agAntigua and Barbuda .aiAnguilla .alAlbania .amArmenia .anNetherlands Antilles .aoAngola .aqAntarctica .arArgentina .asAmerican Samoa .atAustria .auAustralia .awAruba .axAland Islands .azAzerbaijan
B
.ba Bosnia-Herzegovina .bbBarbados .bdBangladesh .beBelgium .bfBurkina Faso .bgBulgaria .bhBahrain .biBurundi .bjBenin .blSaint Barthelemy .bmBermuda .bnBrunei Darussalam .boBolivia .brBrazil .bsBahamas .btBhutan .bvBouvet Island (delegated to Norway, but unused) .bwBotswana .byBelarus .bzBelize
C
.ca Canada .ccCocos (Keeling) Islands .cdCongo, Democratic republic of (formerly Zaire) .cfCentral African Republic .cgCongo, Republic of .chSwitzerland .ciCôte D'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) .ckCook Islands .clChile .cmCameroon .cnChina .coColombia .crCosta Rica .csCzechoslovakia (former, no longer exists) .cuCuba .cvCape Verde .cxChristmas Island .cyCyprus .czCzech Republic
D
.de Germany .djDjibouti .dkDenmark .dmDominica .doDominican Republic .dzAlgeria
E
.ec Ecuador .eeEstonia .egEgypt .ehWestern Sahara .erEritrea .esSpain .etEthiopia .euEuropean Union
F
.fi Finland .fjFiji .fkFalkland Islands .fmMicronesia .foFaroe Islands .frFrance
G
.ga Gabon .gbGreat Britain .gdGrenada .geGeorgia .gfFrench Guiana .ggGuernsey .ghGhana .giGibraltar .glGreenland .gmGambia .gnGuinea .gpGuadalupe (guadeloupe) (French) .gqEquatorial Guinea .grGreece .gsSouth Georgia & South Sandwich Islands .gtGuatemala .guGuam .gwGuinea-Bissau .gyGuyana
H
.hk Hong Kong .hmHeard and McDonald Islands .hnHonduras .hrCroatia (Hravtska) .htHaiti .huHungary
I
.id Indonesia .ieIreland .ilIsrael .imIsle of Man .inIndia .ioBritish Indian Ocean Territory .iqIraq .irIran .isIceland .itItaly
J
.je Jersey .jmJamaica .joJordan .jpJapan
K
.ke Kenya .kgKyrgyzstan .khCambodia .kiKiribati .kmComoros .knSaint Kitts and Nevis .kpKorea, Democratic People's Republic of .krKorea, Republic of .kwKuwait .kyCayman Islands .kzKazakhstan
L
.la Lao People's Democratic Republic .lbLebanon .lcSaint Lucia .liLiechtenstein .lkSri Lanka .lrLiberia .lsLesotho .ltLithuania .luLuxembourg .lvLatvia .lyLibyan Arab Jamahiriya
M
.ma Morocco .mcMonaco .mdMoldavia .meMontenegro .mfSaint Martin (French Zone) .mgMadagascar .mhMarshall Islands .mkMacedonia .mlMali .mmMyanmar .mnMongolia .moMacau .mpNorthern Mariana Islands .mqMartinique .mrMauritania .msMontserrat .mtMalta .muMauritius .mvMaldives .mwMalawi .mxMexico .myMalaysia .mzMozambique
n
.na Namibia .ncNew Caledonia (French) .neNiger .nfNorfolk Island .ngNigeria .niNicaragua .nlThe Netherlands .noNorway .npNepal .nrNauru .nuNiue .nzNew Zealand
O
.om Oman
P
.pa Panama .pePeru .pfFrench Polynesia .pgPapua New Guinea .phPhilippines .pkPakistan .plPoland .pmSt. Pierre and Miquelon .pnPitcairn .prPuerto Rico .psPalestine (occupied) .ptPortugal .pwPalau .pyParaguay
Q
.re Reunion Island .roRomania .rsSerbia .ruRussia .rwRwanda
S
.sa Saudi Arabia .sbSolomon Islands .scSeychelles .sdSudan .seSweden .sgSingapore .shSt. Helena .siSlovenia .sjSvalbard & Jan Mayen Islands (Norway) .skSlovakia .slSierra Leone .smSan Marino .snSenegal .soSomalia .srSurinam .stSao Tome and Principe .suUSSR (former) .svEl Salvador .sySyrian Arab Republic .szSwaziland
T
.tc The Turks & Caicos Islands .tdChad .tfFrench Southern Territories .tgTogo .thThailand .tjTajikistan .tkTokelau .tlTimor-Leste .tmTurkmenistan .tnTunisia .toTonga .tpEast Timor .trTurkey .ttTrinidad and Tobago .tvTuvalu .twTaiwan .tzTanzania
U
.ua Ukraine .ugUganda .ukUnited Kingdom .umUnited States Minor Outlying Islands .usUnited States .uyUruguay .uzUzbekistan
V
.va Holy See (Vatican City State) .vcSaint Vincent & Grenadines .veVenezuela .vgVirgin Islands British .viVirgin Islands U.S .vnVietnam .vuVanuatu
W
| Finland |
What was the first name of Roget, the compiler of the first ‘Roget’s Thesaurus’? | Country Suffix List for Domains on the Internet
Country Suffix List for Domains on the Internet
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may not be complete, as new suffixes may be generated to fulfill needs, if you have details of any extra ones that can be included, please
and I will add them.
A
.ac Ascension Island .adAndorra .aeUnited Arab Emirates .afAfghanistan .agAntigua and Barbuda .aiAnguilla .alAlbania .amArmenia .anNetherlands Antilles .aoAngola .aqAntarctica .arArgentina .asAmerican Samoa .atAustria .auAustralia .awAruba .axAland Islands .azAzerbaijan
B
.ba Bosnia-Herzegovina .bbBarbados .bdBangladesh .beBelgium .bfBurkina Faso .bgBulgaria .bhBahrain .biBurundi .bjBenin .blSaint Barthelemy .bmBermuda .bnBrunei Darussalam .boBolivia .brBrazil .bsBahamas .btBhutan .bvBouvet Island (delegated to Norway, but unused) .bwBotswana .byBelarus .bzBelize
C
.ca Canada .ccCocos (Keeling) Islands .cdCongo, Democratic republic of (formerly Zaire) .cfCentral African Republic .cgCongo, Republic of .chSwitzerland .ciCôte D'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) .ckCook Islands .clChile .cmCameroon .cnChina .coColombia .crCosta Rica .csCzechoslovakia (former, no longer exists) .cuCuba .cvCape Verde .cxChristmas Island .cyCyprus .czCzech Republic
D
.de Germany .djDjibouti .dkDenmark .dmDominica .doDominican Republic .dzAlgeria
E
.ec Ecuador .eeEstonia .egEgypt .ehWestern Sahara .erEritrea .esSpain .etEthiopia .euEuropean Union
F
.fi Finland .fjFiji .fkFalkland Islands .fmMicronesia .foFaroe Islands .frFrance
G
.ga Gabon .gbGreat Britain .gdGrenada .geGeorgia .gfFrench Guiana .ggGuernsey .ghGhana .giGibraltar .glGreenland .gmGambia .gnGuinea .gpGuadalupe (guadeloupe) (French) .gqEquatorial Guinea .grGreece .gsSouth Georgia & South Sandwich Islands .gtGuatemala .guGuam .gwGuinea-Bissau .gyGuyana
H
.hk Hong Kong .hmHeard and McDonald Islands .hnHonduras .hrCroatia (Hravtska) .htHaiti .huHungary
I
.id Indonesia .ieIreland .ilIsrael .imIsle of Man .inIndia .ioBritish Indian Ocean Territory .iqIraq .irIran .isIceland .itItaly
J
.je Jersey .jmJamaica .joJordan .jpJapan
K
.ke Kenya .kgKyrgyzstan .khCambodia .kiKiribati .kmComoros .knSaint Kitts and Nevis .kpKorea, Democratic People's Republic of .krKorea, Republic of .kwKuwait .kyCayman Islands .kzKazakhstan
L
.la Lao People's Democratic Republic .lbLebanon .lcSaint Lucia .liLiechtenstein .lkSri Lanka .lrLiberia .lsLesotho .ltLithuania .luLuxembourg .lvLatvia .lyLibyan Arab Jamahiriya
M
.ma Morocco .mcMonaco .mdMoldavia .meMontenegro .mfSaint Martin (French Zone) .mgMadagascar .mhMarshall Islands .mkMacedonia .mlMali .mmMyanmar .mnMongolia .moMacau .mpNorthern Mariana Islands .mqMartinique .mrMauritania .msMontserrat .mtMalta .muMauritius .mvMaldives .mwMalawi .mxMexico .myMalaysia .mzMozambique
n
.na Namibia .ncNew Caledonia (French) .neNiger .nfNorfolk Island .ngNigeria .niNicaragua .nlThe Netherlands .noNorway .npNepal .nrNauru .nuNiue .nzNew Zealand
O
.om Oman
P
.pa Panama .pePeru .pfFrench Polynesia .pgPapua New Guinea .phPhilippines .pkPakistan .plPoland .pmSt. Pierre and Miquelon .pnPitcairn .prPuerto Rico .psPalestine (occupied) .ptPortugal .pwPalau .pyParaguay
Q
.re Reunion Island .roRomania .rsSerbia .ruRussia .rwRwanda
S
.sa Saudi Arabia .sbSolomon Islands .scSeychelles .sdSudan .seSweden .sgSingapore .shSt. Helena .siSlovenia .sjSvalbard & Jan Mayen Islands (Norway) .skSlovakia .slSierra Leone .smSan Marino .snSenegal .soSomalia .srSurinam .stSao Tome and Principe .suUSSR (former) .svEl Salvador .sySyrian Arab Republic .szSwaziland
T
.tc The Turks & Caicos Islands .tdChad .tfFrench Southern Territories .tgTogo .thThailand .tjTajikistan .tkTokelau .tlTimor-Leste .tmTurkmenistan .tnTunisia .toTonga .tpEast Timor .trTurkey .ttTrinidad and Tobago .tvTuvalu .twTaiwan .tzTanzania
U
.ua Ukraine .ugUganda .ukUnited Kingdom .umUnited States Minor Outlying Islands .usUnited States .uyUruguay .uzUzbekistan
V
.va Holy See (Vatican City State) .vcSaint Vincent & Grenadines .veVenezuela .vgVirgin Islands British .viVirgin Islands U.S .vnVietnam .vuVanuatu
W
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In which 1974 and 2003 films does the character ‘Leatherface’ appear? | Leatherface (Character)
Leatherface (Character)
There may be more photos available for this character. To select more photos to be displayed in this character's gallery, click the Edit Photos link.
Overview
Not much is known about the monster known as Leatherface... See more »
Alternate Names:
Bubba 'Leatherface' Sawyer / Bubba Sawyer / Chainsaw Killer / Leatherface #1 / Leatherface 'Bubba' Sawyer / Leatherface 'Junior' Sawyer / Leatherface Slaughter / Thomas Hewitt / Young Leatherface
Filmography
... aka "Texas Chainsaw" - UK (TV title), USA (DVD title)
... aka "Texas Chainsaw 5" - USA (informal alternative title)
... aka "ScrewAttack.com's Angry Video Game Nerd" - USA (DVD box title)
... aka "The Angry Nintendo Nerd" - International (English title) (first season title)
... aka "Leatherface" - USA (short title)
... aka "TCM 3" - USA (short title)
... aka "Texas Chainsaw Massacre 3" - USA (alternative title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness 3" - USA (third season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness 8" - USA (eighth season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness 9" - USA (ninth season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness X" - USA (tenth season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness: '80s-A-Thon" - USA (sixth season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness: Camp Cult" - USA (fourth season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness: Godzilla-Thon" - USA (second season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness: History of Horror" - USA (first season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness: Sequel-A-Thon" - USA (fifth season title)
... aka "Cinemassacre's Monster Madness: Sequel-A-Thon 2" - USA (seventh season title)
From "Married with Children: Buck Can Do It (#2.4)" (1987)
Al Bundy : Oh, Buck. I didn't want this to happen.
Buck : I know you didn't, Bundy. And that what makes it even harder to swallow. Ah, what's the difference? I'm sick of the sight of you! I wish you were dead!
Al Bundy : Where are you going?
Buck : Oh, I guess I'll go out and sniff a few butts for old times' sake.
[Buck opens the front door and a blood-splattered, leather-masked chainsaw-wielding figure, Leatherface, and a hockey-masked, machete-wielding figure, Jason Voorhees, enter]
Chainsaw : Hi. We're insane killers!
[Buck beckons them to come on in]
Buck : Heh, heh!
[Buck exits out the front door where he closes and locks it behind him with Al inside with the two killers who advance towards him]
[...]
| The Texas Chain Saw Massacre |
Campanology is the study and art of what? | The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) - IMDb
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The Texas Chain Saw Massacre ( 1974 )
R |
Two siblings visit their grandfather's grave in Texas along with three of their friends and are attacked by a family of cannibalistic psychopaths.
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Title: The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974)
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1 win & 1 nomination. See more awards »
Videos
Fifteen years after murdering his sister on Halloween night 1963, Michael Myers escapes from a mental hospital and returns to the small town of Haddonfield to kill again.
Director: John Carpenter
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 7.5/10 X
Several people are hunted by a cruel serial killer who kills his victims in their dreams. While the survivors are trying to find the reason for being chosen, the murderer won't lose any chance to kill them as soon as they fall asleep.
Director: Wes Craven
After picking up a traumatized young hitchhiker, five friends find themselves stalked and hunted by a deformed chainsaw-wielding killer and his family of equally psychopathic killers.
Director: Marcus Nispel
A group of camp counselors is stalked and murdered by an unknown assailant while trying to reopen a summer camp which, years before, was the site of a child's drowning.
Director: Sean S. Cunningham
Five friends travel to a cabin in the woods, where they unknowingly release flesh-possessing demons.
Director: Sam Raimi
There is panic throughout the nation as the dead suddenly come back to life. The film follows a group of characters who barricade themselves in an old farmhouse in an attempt to remain safe from these flesh eating monsters.
Director: George A. Romero
When a teenage girl is possessed by a mysterious entity, her mother seeks the help of two priests to save her daughter.
Director: William Friedkin
A radio host is victimized by the cannibal family as a former Texas Marshall hunts them.
Director: Tobe Hooper
A family's home is haunted by a host of ghosts.
Director: Tobe Hooper
The lone survivor of an onslaught of flesh-possessing spirits holes up in a cabin with a group of strangers while the demons continue their attack.
Director: Sam Raimi
Following an ever-growing epidemic of zombies that have risen from the dead, two Philadelphia S.W.A.T. team members, a traffic reporter, and his television executive girlfriend seek refuge in a secluded shopping mall.
Director: George A. Romero
Carrie White, a shy, friendless teenage girl who is sheltered by her domineering, religious mother, unleashes her telekinetic powers after being humiliated by her classmates at her senior prom.
Director: Brian De Palma
Edit
Storyline
En route to visit their grandfather's grave (which has apparently been ritualistically desecrated), five teenagers drive past a slaughterhouse, pick up (and quickly drop) a sinister hitch-hiker, eat some delicious home-cured meat at a roadside gas station, before ending up at the old family home... where they're plunged into a never-ending nightmare as they meet a family of cannibals who more than make up in power tools what they lack in social skills... Written by Michael Brooke <[email protected]>
For them, an Idyllic summer afternoon became their worst nightmare! [Australian, Video] See more »
Genres:
4 October 1974 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Texas Chain Saw Massacre was originally banned in Finland, but after 25 years it was released uncut. See more »
Goofs
The position of the hitch-hiker, in relation to the lorry, as it hits him, changes between shots. Also, the hitch-hiker is an obvious dummy as he is hit; you can see the fake limb attachment on his arm. See more »
Quotes
[first lines]
Narrator : The film which you are about to see is an account of the tragedy which befell a group of five youths, in particular Sally Hardesty and her invalid brother, Franklin. It is all the more tragic in that they were young. But, had they lived very, very long lives, they could not have expected nor would they have wished to see as much of the mad and macabre as they were to see that day. For them an idyllic summer afternoon drive became a nightmare. The events of that day were to lead to ...
See more »
Crazy Credits
Opening credits prologue: The film which you are about to see is an account of the tragedy which befell a group of five youths, in particular Sally Hardesty and her invalid brother, Franklin. It is all the more tragic in that they were young. But, had they lived very, very long lives, they could not have expected nor would they have wished to see as much of the mad and macabre as they were to see that day. For them an idyllic summer afternoon drive became a nightmare.
The events of that day were to lead to the discovery of one of the most bizarre crimes in the annals of American history, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre.
AUGUST 18, 1973 See more »
Connections
Referenced in Summit (2015) See more »
Soundtracks
Pure, uncompromised horror! A modern classic which still confronts, disturbs and terrifies audiences worldwide.
21 April 2003 | by Infofreak
(Perth, Australia) – See all my reviews
Tobe Hopper's 'The Texas Chain Saw Massacre' is a landmark low budget horror movie which must be considered a modern classic. Hooper's subsequent career has ben extremely uneven, and frequently disappointing, but even if he never made another movie he would still be a legendary figure. As would Leatherface (Gunnar Hansen) and his twisted family played by Edwin Neal and Jim Siedow, and immortal scream queen Marilyn Burns. These actors never have to set in front of a camera again, they'll never be forgotten by horror buffs worldwide! In this day and age of cynically conceived and marketed MTV-friendly teen slashers it's a revelation to see old school horror classics like this, Romero's 'Night Of The Living Dead' and Craven's 'Last House On The Left'. Uncompromising movies, pure horror that makes no attempt to water themselves down and court a mainstream audience. This movie was one of the most controversial of the 1970s, censored or banned here in Australia, and in Britain, and despite the hundreds of horror movies released since, it is still powerful and fresh. There is an undercurrent of bizarre black humour underneath the film, a lot subtler than the sequel and other more obvious "horror comedies". The terror isn't compromised, the uneasy giggles make the extreme images even more difficult to dismiss. The cast, all unknowns at the time, and from what we know know paid diddley squat, are all pretty good, especially Marilyn Burns (who Hooper used in his underrated 'Eaten Alive' and who also appeared in the Charles Manson TV biopic 'Helter Skelter'), and whiny paraplegic Paul A. Partain (who went on to bit parts in 70s Drive-In faves 'Race With The Devil' and 'Rolling Thunder' and very little else). One would have thought both would have went on to bigger things watching their performances in this movie but sadly it wasn't meant to be. Gunnar Hansen is absolutely extraordinary as Leatherface. An amazing performance with his features obscured and no real dialogue to speak of. I don't think it's an exaggeration to compare it to Boris Karloff in the original 'Frankenstein'. Leatherface is a horror icon, and 'The Texas Chain Saw Massacre' is a landmark movie that remains essential viewing for every horror buff. It's a sensational movie that still has the power to confront, disturb and terrify audiences worldwide!
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Who was former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s Chief Press Secretary? | Margaret Thatcher, former British prime minister, dead at 87 - The Washington Post
Margaret Thatcher, former British prime minister, dead at 87
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Margaret Thatcher: 1925-2013
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Former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, the grocer’s daughter whose overpowering personality, bruising political style and free-market views transformed Britain and transfixed America through the 1980s, died Monday following a stroke, her spokesman said in a statement. She was 87.
Caption
Former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, the grocer’s daughter whose overpowering personality, bruising political style and free-market views transformed Britain and transfixed America through the 1980s, died April 8 after a stroke, her spokesman said in a statement. She was 87.
Thatcher was a research chemist in 1950 when she made her first run for Parliament. "My training in chemistry and law were all based on delving for facts and arriving at conclusions," she said, adding that such training proved helpful when she finally won a seat in 1959. AP
By Fred Barbash By Fred Barbash April 8, 2013 Follow @fbarbash
Former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher, the grocer’s daughter whose overpowering personality, bruising political style and free-market views transformed Britain and transfixed America through the 1980s, died Monday after a stroke, her spokesman said in a statement. She was 87.
The first woman to lead a major Western power, Mrs. Thatcher served 111 / 2 uninterrupted years in office before stepping down Nov. 28, 1990, making her the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century.
Infuriated by Britain’s image as the “sick old man of Europe,” she set out to dismantle Britain’s cradle-to-grave welfare state, selling off scores of massive state-owned industries, crushing the power of organized labor and cutting government spending with the purpose of liberating the nation from what she called a “culture of dependency.”
On the world stage, she collaborated closely with her friend Ronald Reagan to modernize Europe’s anti-Soviet nuclear shield by deploying cruise and Pershing II missiles in Britain, a costly and controversial enterprise that some analysts would later say contributed to the breakup of the Soviet Union. Mrs. Thatcher then joined Reagan’s successor, George H.W. Bush, in repelling Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait, counseling Bush not to go “wobbly” on her.
She fought her own war as well, dispatching an armada to retake by force a colonial outpost off South America — the Falkland Islands — after it was invaded by Argentina in 1982. At the same time, she negotiated the end of Britain’s lease over another colonial relic, Hong Kong.
During her career, Mrs. Thatcher was frequently at war with consensus, which she disdained as the abandonment of “all beliefs, principles, values and policies.” At a low point in her popularity ratings, facing a clamor for change from her own party members, she gave a defiant response: “You turn if you want to,” she declared. “This lady’s not for turning.”
While unapologetically advancing what she considered the Victorian values that made Britain great, Mrs. Thatcher thoroughly modernized British politics, deploying ad agencies and large sums of money to advance her party’s standing. “The Iron Lady,” as she was dubbed, was credited with converting a spent Conservative Party from an old boys club into an electoral powerhouse identified with middle-class strivers, investors and entrepreneurs. No one denied her political genius. Future prime minister Tony Blair eventually copied her methods to remake the rival Labor Party.
She was, wrote Conservative Party contemporary Chris Patten, “a political bruiser who understood the importance of an element of fear in political leadership. . . . While denouncing the notion that politics was the art of the possible, that is exactly what she practiced, albeit skillfully and bravely redefining the limits of political possibility.”
“Her huge political achievement was to snatch the Conservative Party from the privileged but often well meaning old upper-class gentlemen, and give it to the shopkeepers, the businessmen, the people in advertising and anyone she considered ‘one of us,’ ” writer John Mortimer, a staunch critic, wrote of Mrs. Thatcher. “She greatly improved her party’s electability but robbed it of compassion.”
Mrs. Thatcher, who in recent years struggled with a debilitating dementia, suffered her fatal stroke at London’s Ritz Hotel, the lavish landmark long beloved by the former prime minister and where she had recently been staying.
“It was with great sadness that I learned of Lady Thatcher’s death,’’ Prime Minister David Cameron said in a statement. “We’ve lost a great leader, a great prime minister and a great Briton.”
Groomed by her father
She was born Margaret Hilda Roberts on Oct. 13, 1925, above her father’s grocery shop in Grantham, England. It was an era when no woman held any position of significant national authority anywhere in the world and few Britons, male or female, could contemplate rising to the top politically if not born there in the first place.
But, in Alfred Roberts, she had a father who groomed her for leadership nevertheless. In addition to running grocery, he was a lay Methodist preacher and a politician committed to the Conservative Party, serving as alderman and mayor.
He began preparing his daughter for leadership before she was 10. Lacking formal education himself, he enrolled the future prime minister at an elite local girls school. He filled the household with politically oriented newspapers and books. He brought her to lectures and prompted her to stand up and ask questions.
She attended Oxford’s Somerville College, a women’s school, majored in chemistry and became president of the Oxford University Conservative Association, where she made useful party contacts.
At 23, she won the Tory candidacy for an unwinnable seat in Dartford. It was the first of several predictable defeats before she was selected, in 1958, to run from the solidly Conservative constituency of Finchley, north of London. Finchley sent her to the House of Commons.
By then, Margaret Roberts had married Denis Thatcher, a successful paint dealer and Conservative activist. Ten years her senior and previously married, he financed her training in law and her entry into practice with a specialty in tax law. The couple had twins, Mark and Carol, in 1953.
Denis Thatcher died in 2003. Survivors include the twins, Mark and Carol Thatcher, according to the statement by her spokesman, Lord Tim Bell.
Thatcher’s political rise
When Mrs. Thatcher arrived at the House of Commons, the Conservatives were in power but philosophically divided. The core conflict within the party, as Mrs. Thatcher saw it, was between people such as Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, who had come to terms with socialism as part of a “postwar settlement,” and those such as Mrs. Thatcher, who had not.
She relied on ferocious preparation, study and attention to detail to get noticed by party leaders. In October 1961, they plucked her from the backbenches of the House of Commons and made her parliamentary secretary in the Ministry of Pensions, the lowest rung on the ladder to leadership. In 1970, after a Conservative general election victory, she ascended to the Ministry of Education.
Here was born the image of “Thatcher the uncaring” that would follow her throughout her career. Amid cuts in public spending prompted by the economic downturn of the 1970s, Mrs. Thatcher was ordered by the Treasury to eliminate, among other things, free milk in schools. “Thatcher, Thatcher, Milk Snatcher,” cried the tabloids.
“It was the incident that made her a truly famous politician,” wrote biographer Hugo Young. “Somehow it struck a deeper chord. It was a piece of seemingly gratuitous deprivation that conformed with the image of severity and adamant righteousness which was beginning to become Mrs. Thatcher's stock-in-trade.”
Mrs. Thatcher developed a close intellectual relationship with Keith Joseph, a wealthy Conservative MP and intellectual who in 1974 challenged former Prime Minister Heath for party leadership. Mrs. Thatcher was Joseph’s campaign manager. He proved a clumsy campaigner and dropped out, leaving Mrs. Thatcher to carry on in his place. On a second ballot Mrs. Thatcher became Britain’s first female leader of the opposition. To many Tories, she was a placeholder, awaiting a suitable male insider as choice for party leader and possibly prime minister.
Leading the opposition
The Labor government that came to office after the 1974 election oversaw a long period of crippling inflation, strikes and disaffection that came to be called Britain’s “winter of discontent.” Mrs. Thatcher bided her time, then, on May 4, 1979, took advantage of public dissatisfaction to lead the Conservatives to a general election victory. She took up residence in No. 10 Downing Street.
The first years of her administration went badly. Her government’s attempt to tame inflation by boosting interest rates and sales taxes produced even higher inflation and unemployment. The Irish Republican Army staged dramatic acts of terrorism, killing, among others, the war hero Lord Mountbatten and dozens of British soldiers and engaging in fatal hunger strikes that served to highlight the government’s inability to end the sectarian troubles of Northern Ireland.
In 1984, Mrs. Thatcher was nearly a victim of the IRA herself — a bomb that the group planted devastated a Brighton hotel where she was staying during a party conference, killing five people and injuring 34. She emerged unhurt and went on to give a rousing speech of denunciation.
At other times, she quarreled with cabinet members, frustrated that she had not felt politically able to install true-blue Thatcherites in most jobs, politicians whom she would come to call “one of us.” In December 1981, satisfaction with her leadership reached a new low, 25 percent, in public opinion polls.
War in the Falkland Islands
Then, in the spring of 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands.
Mrs. Thatcher responded with fury, dispatching a large naval task force to South America and making statements that seemed designed to discourage compromise by effectively calling for Argentina’s unconditional surrender.
“No one would be more pleased than I should be if either President Leopoldo Galtieri or the commander of their local garrison should say, ‘This is absurd that we should sacrifice our young people in this way and we will not fight further,’ ” she said in an interview with The Washington Post.
She personally approved a British submarine’s sinking of the Argentine cruiser General Belgrano, in which more than 300 Argentine sailors died. The attack came as the vessel was sailing away from the British naval task force, and critics charged that it was done to block any compromise settlement.
After British ground forces landed on the islands, the Argentines surrendered in June 1982.
Mrs. Thatcher heralded a “new spirit” for her country. “Things cannot be the same again,” she declared. “For we have learned something about ourselves . . . a lesson which we desperately needed to learn. When we started out, there were the waverers and the fainthearts. The people who thought that Britain could no longer seize the initiative for herself.”
Some of her colleagues found her performance distasteful, “a little too triumphant,” her defense minister, John Nott, would say later. But the Falklands campaign revived Mrs. Thatcher’s popularity and sped her toward a second general election, in June 1983.
After that, Mrs. Thatcher repeatedly invoked “the spirit of the Falklands” as she waged war on “the enemy within,” the nation’s trade unions. Her target was the National Union of Mineworkers, led by a symbol of militant unionism, “King” Arthur Scargill.
In 1984, the Thatcher stared down striking coal miners as she closed government-owned coal mines across the country, deeply dividing and weakening the labor movement and undermining her political opposition.
Partnership with Reagan
When Mrs. Thatcher took office, Jimmy Carter was president of the United States. Although the two had a polite relationship, she gushed over Ronald Reagan, who defeated Carter in the 1980 election. “I knew that I was talking to someone who instinctively felt and thought as I did,” she wrote, “not just about policies but about a philosophy of government, a view of human nature.”
Mrs. Thatcher also held to the long-standing British view that a close relationship with the United States was crucial strategically in the Cold War with the Soviet Union.
Over considerable domestic opposition, she collaborated with Reagan in deploying U.S. cruise and Pershing II missiles. The Soviets could not counter that move, which, in the view of some analysts, advanced later negotiations for the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces treaty of 1987.
“All over Europe the peace marchers demonstrated to prevent Western missiles from being installed for their defense,” Reagan wrote in 1989 article in the National Review, “but they were silent about the Soviet missiles targeted against them! Again, in the face of these demonstrations, Margaret never wavered.”
She befriended Mikhail Gorbachev even before he became Soviet leader, believing she had found someone with whom she could “do business,” and later served as an intermediary between Reagan and Gorbachev.
Reagan and Mrs. Thatcher did not always agree, however. The Reagan administration was slow to support Britain in the Falklands. And Thatcher was furious and deeply embarrassed at home when the Reagan administration failed to warn her in advance of its 1983 invasion of Grenada, a British Commonwealth nation.
Embattled again at home
The Conservatives won a third general election in 1987, but with a narrower majority. Mrs. Thatcher’s relationships with senior ministers deteriorated dramatically, as arguments flared first over her resistance to further integration with Europe and then over a botched plan to restructure local taxes as part of her effort to disempower local governments.
As she and her cabinet squabbled over the “poll tax” and scattered rioting broke out across the country, the party’s popularity plummeted.
Mrs. Thatcher, isolated, badly underestimated the strength of an emerging challenge to her leadership and left London for a summit in Paris, where she remained even as a first ballot was taken among Conservative MPs in the battle for her job. She won, but not by the margin necessary to prevent the second ballot that could seal her fate.
When she returned to London, even her husband advised her that she could no longer prevail. Then, one by one, she spoke with members of her cabinet, who to a man told her that though they were loyal, others were not.
“Weasel words,” she would call them in her memoir.
On Nov. 22, 1990, she announced her withdrawal and informed Queen Elizabeth II.
Appointment to House of Lords
Mrs. Thatcher remained in the House of Commons for another two years before accepting an appointment, as Baroness Thatcher, to the House of Lords.
Her press secretary, Bernard Ingham, later wrote: “There was a void opening up. . . . She’d no interests outside politics. . . . When you’d spent all that time not just strategizing, but mastering detail in a way that was quite frightening . . . every waking moment was filled. Now, it was all pure pleasantry and commiseration.”
After leaving office, Mrs. Thatcher embarked on a series of speaking tours that garnered her $50,000 per speech in the United States. She controversially performed consulting duties for $250,000 per year with Philip Morris, the tobacco company.
She wrote memoirs that, along with her occasional comments in the British press, served to undermine her Conservative successor, John Major, who was already confronting a party deeply divided over Britain’s role in Europe. Tony Blair’s Labor Party defeated the Conservatives in 1997.
Mrs. Thatcher’s public appearances came to an end when she suffered a series of strokes in 2002. In recent years, she battled perhaps her greatest foe, the onset of a devastating dementia. Her daughter wrote in a 2008 memoir that the former world leader first showed signs of forgetfulness in 2000, at the age of 75. Later, in her early 80s, she would forget that her husband had died, and her daughter would gently remind her.
“I had to keep giving her the bad news over and over again,” Carol Thatcher wrote in the memoir. “Every time it finally sank in that she had lost her husband of more than 50 years, she’d look at me sadly and say ‘Oh’ as I struggled to compose myself. ‘Were we all there?’ she’d ask softly.”
Though largely shielded from the public eye by a protective inner circle of family, friends and supporters, Mrs. Thatcher’s plight was dramatized by Meryl Streep’s Oscar-winning portrayal of her in the 2011 biographical film “The Iron Lady.”
Streep’s performance drew scorn from Thatcher supporters for focusing on the frailty of a woman who, many felt, should instead be remembered for her might.
Mrs. Thatcher’s final moment in the global spotlight was in June, 2004 at Washington National Cathedral, at Reagan’s funeral. Draped in a black veil, Mrs. Thatcher sat two rows behind first lady Nancy Reagan and next to Gorbachev. Her touching eulogy to Reagan was delivered on a video screen, as she sat silently in her chair.
Anthony Faiola contributed to this report from London.
| Bernard Ingham |
Which South American country has borders with all other South American countries apart from Ecuador and Chile? | PM Margaret Thatcher's 2nd job as comedy sketch writer for Yes Prime Minister | Tellyspotting
PM Margaret Thatcher's 2nd job as comedy sketch writer for Yes Prime Minister
On: April 9, 2013, By: Bill Young , In: Uncategorized , No Comment
With yesterday’s passing of Margaret Thatcher, at the age of 87, I remembered reading a number of years ago that both Yes Minister and Yes Prime Minister were favorite programs of the former Prime Minister. On more than one occasion, she praised Yes, Minister for “…its clearly-observed portrayal of what goes on in the corridors of power has given me hours of pure joy“.
While the thought of Margaret Thatcher and comedy probably wasn’t widely used in the same sentence too often during her 11.5 years as Prime Minister, unless you remember her Spitting Image puppet, the ‘Iron Lady’ did once write a comedy sketch herself for her favorite series.
Thatcher wrote the sketch in honor of the show being presented with an award from Mary Whitehouse’s National Viewers’ And Listeners’ Association at an event commemorated on the cover of the satirical magazine Private Eye. Being the PM at the time and writing the sketch, of course she made sure that it co-starred herself…as herself.
Over the years, authorship of the sketch remains unclear. In Britain’s Best Sitcom, Bernard Ingham, Margaret Thatcher’s chief press secretary, said that he wrote it while other sources give Thatcher sole credit. British broadcaster and longtime political documentary producer, Michael Cockerell, says that he wrote it with Ingham’s help. Another source gives credit to Charles Powell, key foreign policy advisor to PM Thatcher.
Eddington and Hawthorne, who were both starring in separate West End plays at the time, were not overly enthusiastic at the idea and, according to reports, had asked series co-creator/writer Jonathan Lynn to “get them out” of it. Neither Lynn nor Antony Jay were consulted about both the sketch or the invite so, obviously, it was not up to him to take action.
Hawthorne said on more than one occasion that he and Eddington resented Thatcher’s attempts to ‘make capital’ from their popularity. Upon accepting the award, Lynn commented: “I’d like to thank Mrs. Mary Whitehouse for this award“. Lynn, being the quick-thinking brilliant writer he is, added: “I’d also like to thank Mrs. Thatcher for finally taking her rightful place in the field of situation comedy.” After a bit of an gasp from the press, the room erupted in laughter with the exception of one person in attendance…guess which one.
Whatever the case and no matter who wrote it, here is Paul Eddington, Sir Nigel Hawthorne and PM Margaret Thatcher in Yes Prime Minister from 20 January, 1984.
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Fanny Price is the main character in which Jane Austen novel? | Mansfield Park, By Jane Austen
Mansfield Park has the dubious distinction of being disliked by more of Jane Austen's fans than any of her other novels, even to the point of spawning "Fanny Wars" in internet discussion forums. Its themes are very different from those of her other books, which can generally be simplified into one sentence, or even one phrase: Sense and Sensibility is about balancing emotions and thought, Pride and Prejudice is about judging others too quickly, Emma is about growing into adulthood, and Persuasion is about second chances. The theme of Mansfield Park, on the other hand, can not be so easily described. Is it about ordination? Is it an allegory on Regency England? Is it about slavery? Is it about the education of children? Is it about the difference between appearances and reality? Is it about the results of breaking with society's mor�s? Any, or all of those themes can, and have been applied to Mansfield Park.
The major problem for most of the novel's detractors is the lead character, Fanny Price. She is shy, timid, lacking in self-confidence, physically weak, and seemingly—to some, annoyingly—always right. Austen's own mother called her "insipid", and many have used the word "priggish". She is certainly not like the lively and witty Elizabeth Bennet of Pride and Prejudice. But Mansfield Park also has many supporters, whose admiration and loyalty can be attributed to the depth and complexity of the themes in the book and to the main character—a young woman who is unlike most heroines found in literature.
One thing is certain, this novel is not like Jane Austen's others. The girl-gets-boy plot of her other work is mostly absent here, and the heroine's success in finding love is treated briefly, quickly, and for many readers—especially those who expected something like the romantic Pride and Prejudice—unsatisfactorily. Only in the final chapter—essentially the epilogue—does Fanny get the love she deserves. The story and themes of Mansfield Park are, therefore, not as closely tied with the heroine's road to marital bliss as in Austen's other novels.
Jane Austen began planning Mansfield Park in February of 1811 and finished it in the summer of 1813. It was published on May 4, 1814 and was Austen's third published novel; though, as with all of her novels, her name was not attached to it until after her death.
This was also the first of her novels which was not a revision of an earlier work. Elinor and Marianne was probably written in 1795 and finally revised and published as Sense and Sensibility in late 1811. First Impressions was written between 1796-97, and was finally published in 1813 as Pride and Prejudice. Mansfield Park, therefore, was conceived from its very beginning by a more mature Jane Austen than the previous two novels—written, as they were, first by the young Austen (~ 20 years old) and then the older Austen (~ 36). By the time Jane Austen began planning and writing Mansfield Park she had passed through her eligible years and, at 36, into confirmed spinsterhood.
Chapter descriptions are designed to be very vague and cryptic. They are for people who are familiar with the book to help them find the chapter they want, and they are not designed for the student who might be looking for a quick way to get out of reading the novel.
Below, and on the individual pages, there are two sets of chapter numbers. One set reflects the fact that the novel was originally published in three volumes with each volume beginning with Chapter 1. The other set has the chapters numbered in order from beginning to end. Thus, "Volume III, Chapter 4" and "Chapter 35" are the same.
Chapter I — The Ward sisters marry. Mrs. Norris suggests an act of charity, Sir Thomas agrees.
Chapter II — The ten-year-old arrives in the big house and meets her cousins. Edmund is reassuring, and a letter to William will help put her at ease. The Bertram girls think their cousin is very stupid.
Chapter III — The Mansfield living passes to Dr. Grant. Will Mrs. Norris take Fanny with her? No, of course not. Sir Thomas and Tom leave for Antigua to take care of business.
Chapter IV — The Miss Bertrams go husband hunting, with Mrs. Norris acting as their scout. Edmund gets Fanny a horse. Tom returns, and Mr. Rushworth woos Tom's sister and wins her. Mr. and Miss Crawford join their sister at the parsonage.
Chapter V — The brother was not handsome; he was absolutely plain, black and plain. He was also a flirt and learned from a bad example, but he grows on the Miss Bertrams. Is Miss Price out?
Chapter VI — Mr. Rushworth discusses improving Sotherton, including changing the avenue. Miss Price would like to see it before the changes. Miss Crawford has difficulty finding a cart to carry her harp. To Sotherton they shall go.
Chapter VII — Edmund and Fanny discuss Miss Crawford, who they find charming, but there is something lacking. Edmund is enamored. Mary borrows Fanny's horse and is very late in returning it. Fanny gets a headache after cutting roses in the sun and walking twice to the parsonage, and because someone had been riding her horse.
Chapter VIII — How shall they get to Sotherton? Fanny gets to go too. Who will get to ride with Mr. Crawford? The scenery on the way there is very nice.
Chapter IX — Mrs. Rushworth shows off the house to her guests. They visit the chapel, and Edmund's future profession is discussed. They leave the house to view the grounds. Miss Crawford believes a clergyman is nothing.
Chapter X — Miss Price is left all alone. Two people come by; a locked gate bars the way, but they find their way around it and go off on their own, another follows, and the key arrives too late. Fanny was left a whole hour.
Chapter XI — Sir Thomas writes he is coming home. His eldest daughter is not joyful at the news. Miss Crawford again discusses Edmund's career with him. Such men do nothing but eat, drink, and grow fat; Fanny and Edmund say otherwise.
Chapter XII — Miss Crawford prefers the wrong Bertram brother. Hunting season, and Tom returns. Fanny is critical of Mr. Crawford and thinks he is flirting with the wrong Bertram sister, while others think he is courting the right one.
Chapter XIII — Mr. Yates is at Mansfield Park and brings with him theatrical ideas. A play's the thing! Edmund objects, but Tom outranks him.
Chapter XIV — What play should it be? It must have the right number of parts to suit everyone. Casting begins. The play has two female roles, but there are three ladies to fill them; one must be left out.
Chapter XV — Edmund thinks the choice of play is bad and argues against his sister's part in it. Fanny will not act.
Chapter XVI — Edmund is forced to take a part. Does Fanny agree with his decision?
Chapter XVII — Julia is not pleased with the arrangements or Mr. Crawford.
Chapter XVIII — Rehearsals and sets progress. Miss Crawford asks Fanny for help, Edmund joins them. Sir Thomas is home.
Chapter I (19) — Sir Thomas warmly greets his family and Fanny. They sit around the fire and listen to his tales. Sir Thomas sees what they have been doing and is not pleased.
Chapter II (20) — Sir Thomas lays much of the blame on the Aunt, and she is proud of Rushworth. Maria hopes to exchange one man for another, but nothing comes of it. Crawford leaves Mansfield for Bath.
Chapter III (21) — Fanny must learn to be looked at, and she asks Sir Thomas about a certain trade. Sir Thomas gets better acquainted with Mr. Rushworth and is not pleased. Maria tells her father she likes the man. It was a very proper wedding.
Chapter IV (22) — Fanny gets caught in the rain and goes into the parsonage. Miss Crawford plays the harp. I had not imagined a country parson ever aspired to a shrubbery. Mary is better reconciled to a country residence. There is nobleness in the name of Edmund. He wishes only not to be poor.
Chapter V (23) — But why should Mrs. Grant ask Fanny to dine? Mrs. Norris thinks it a great indulgence. Sir Thomas has the carriage brought round. Crawford has returned and looks back on the theatricals with pleasure; he also wishes to hear his friend's first sermon.
Chapter VI (24) — Crawford tells his sister he shall begin a new flirtation. William Price is in England again and comes to visit his sister. Henry extends his stay and his interest in a lady.
Chapter VII (25) — A game of Speculation. Edmund and Crawford discuss Thornton Lacey. Sir Thomas notices a gentleman's attentions. William would like to dance with his sister.
Chapter VIII (26) — Sir Thomas decides to have a ball. Fanny would like to wear her cross, but has no chain to put it on. Miss Crawford gives her a present.
Chapter IX (27) — Edmund gives his cousin a token of his friendship, and thinks she must keep Mary's gift. William gets an invitation to ride to town with Henry and meet the Admiral. Edmund gets a partner for the first two dances. Everyone is ready to dance.
Chapter X (28) — The ball begins, and Fanny is gratified to have a partner. She is to lead the way. The evening afforded Edmund little pleasure, as more was said disparaging the clergy.
Chapter XI (29) — Breakfast comes, and William goes. Edward is off to his ordination. With all the men gone, Mary is bored and Fanny relieved.
Chapter XII (30) — Crawford returns and tells his sister he has found the women he will marry. Mary is happy to hear it.
Chapter XIII (31) — Henry brings news of William's promotion, and his role in it. He states his feelings to his love. Fanny receives and sends a note to Mary.
Chapter I (32) — Sir Thomas visits the East Room to talk to Fanny.
Chapter II (33) — He will not take no for an answer, and Sir Thomas is encouraging. The aunts are told.
Chapter III (34) — Edmund returns. Henry reads Shakespeare after dinner. Public speaking, sermons and liturgy are discussed.
Chapter IV (35) — Edmund and Fanny talk things over. The ladies of the parsonage are not happy with Miss Price.
Chapter V (36) — Perhaps a little more time will change her mind. Fanny and Mary meet again in the East Room. Mary discusses the friends she is going to visit. The truth of Mary's necklace.
Chapter VI (37) — Fanny does not miss the Crawfords. Lieutenant Price comes to Mansfield Park, but is out of uniform. Fanny is happy to go to her parents'.
Chapter VII (38) — A happy trip to Portsmouth. Home at last. The Thrush has gone out of harbour. Betsey has a silver knife.
Chapter VIII (39) — You can't go home again. Noise and confusion. William and Sam go to sea.
Chapter IX (40) — A letter from Mary with no little offering of love at the end. Susan becomes a friend. Another silver knife. Fanny joins a library.
Chapter X (41) — Henry comes to visit the Prices. They all take a walk to the dock-yard.
Chapter XI (42) — Crawford joins them and goes to church. He offers to take Fanny to Mansfield in his carriage. Should he go home to take care of business? He knows what he ought to do.
Chapter XII (43) — Mary writes that Mrs. Rushworth's first party was a success, and to offer her brother's carriage again. A party will keep Henry from Everingham.
Chapter XIII (44) — Edmund finally writes. He tells of his dissatisfaction. She is the only woman in the world whom he could ever think of. Tom Bertram is ill.
Chapter XIV (45) — Tom is back at Mansfield, and his brother takes care of him. Fanny knows where her home is. Miss Crawford would like to hear of Tom's condition.
Chapter XV (46) — A most scandalous, ill-natured rumour has just reached Mary. Mr. Price reads the newspaper. Edmund writes with the particulars, and to say he is coming for the Price sisters. Fanny is happy to be busy and to be headed for Mansfield with her sister.
Chapter XVI (47) — The whole truth is known. Edmund describes his meeting with Miss Crawford; the charm is broken, his eyes are opened.
Chapter XVII (48) — Let other pens dwell on guilt and misery (but Sir Thomas was longest to suffer.) Everyone gets what they deserve.
Lovers Vows' : Read the play which is the focal point for much of the first volume of Mansfield Park. Includes a synopsis, an analysis with respect to Mansfield Park, and a cast list.
Fanny's Tears : Fanny has often been accused of always being in tears. Here is a list of the times she actually is.
Tirocinium : This is a poem by Cowper which is mentioned in Vol. III Ch. 14. The poem focuses on the way boys should be educated, and it is instructive to see how Jane Austen uses similar themes in Mansfield Park. An analysis of the poem with respect to Mansfield Park and the poem itself can be found here.
Mansfield Park : This is a website dedicated to Mansfield Park and includes a number of essays on the characters and the themes of the novel, as well as links to other Jane Austen and Mansfield Park resources.
Prepared by Ann Haker. © 2000 Copyright held by the author.
| Mansfield Park |
Which 1980 film, starring Kris Kristofferson, and generally considered the biggest flop in cinema history contributed to the bankruptcy of United Artists? | Fanny Price (Character)
Fanny Price (Character)
from Mansfield Park (1999)
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Fanny Price is the heroine in Jane Austen's 1814 novel Mansfield Park... See more »
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Edmund Bertram : Your entire person is entirely agreeable.
Fanny Price : Yes, well, tonight I agree with everyone.
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The Russian seaport Novorossiysk lies on which body of water? | Shipping with Russia
Shipping with Russia
Submitted by blogger on Mon, 2014/02/17 - 12:47pm
Russia is emerging as a growing nation involved in international trade. Those shippers involved in international freight shipping should take notice of Russia and their growing role in the global market. In 2012, Russia finally entered the World Trade Organization (WTO). Since then, Russia has become a top 10 trading nation with export shipping. In terms of ocean freight shipping , Novorossiysk Commercial Sea Port, located on the Black Sea, is Russia’s largest seaport. Spanning 11 different time zones, Russia’s largest ocean border is the Arctic Ocean. Very few ports are on the Arctic Ocean. The Northern Sea Route for shipping is through the Arctic Ocean, and the vessels there have to navigate through this cold and icy body of water.
The lead export market and import market for Russia is the European Union. In recent years, trade between the US and Russia has developed. Trade talks emerged after the end of the Cold War. In 2012, talks between US President Obama and Russian President Medvedev improved trade. Currently, the US imports more than we export from Russia. This used to be a trade imbalance of a 4-1 deficit, and now it is getting closer to 2-1. In 2013, the US import total from Russia was $26,961,500. The export total that year was $11,164,000, which is a new record. For businesses that are interested in shipping to the expanded market of Russia, speaking to a trusted freight forwarder can help. They can provide advice and rates to help improve your shipping plans with Russia.
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Jock, Trusty, Toughy and Pedro are all characters in which Disney film? | Putin, Peter the Great & the quest for a warm-water port
$TOP the NerObamanable FucKerry of this neo-Nazi Nuland quest for LEBEN$RAUM!
Duke Woolworth
He has short supply lines and cultural Russian allies in the area.
wearing out my F key
That is exactly right. We’re all for self determination, as long as the people determine to do exactly what we want them to do. Let freedom reign!
wearing out my F key
Are elections only legitimate once Victoria Nuland checks off on the candidates?
Charles Spencer King
Here’s my plan:
Throughout history where religion and or ethnicity clash with geographic borders and governments on a map there is bound to be conflict. Northern Ireland, Bosnia Herzegovina, India – Pakistan etc, My take is Russia can’t be stopped in Ukraine, and then what is next? I’d be awfully nervous if I lived in a former part of the USSR right now. How could Russia turn this from a negative into a positive? Quite easy actually in fact they could lead by example if they chose to. Lets look at a 2004 political map to illustrate my point.
Obviously there are several glaring problems in just drawing a line for a new border on a map. Therefore it is impossible to please both sides completely or the residents. The blue area on the map Russia wishes minimally to reclaim, yet that would make Ukraine landlocked and that is also unacceptable. Thus the first step is to draw the proposed line ( keeping in mind something is better than nothing as Russia is by far stronger and more capable than Ukraine). In other words you can kiss Crimea goodbye. Realistically you can also kiss the light blue area goodbye, and all of the land to the east of it. Finally we can also wave goodbye to the 67.13 zone. This leaves us with the 66.56 zone that borders the Black Sea. Odessa is a jewel and as it is 62% Ukrainian it should stay Ukrainian. Therefore the red line represents the new Ukrainian border. The twist here and what I am suggesting is for Ukraine to sell, trade or give Moldova the land on the far west of the map, The new Moldova is the pink border. The reason for this is mainly that Moldova is also landlocked and should not be, it is also part of the European Union and Ukraine is not. The European Union’s poorest member (Moldova) would have substantial economic benefits by this as would the EU, and therefore the EU should float the loans to make this happen. Thus the EU kills two birds with one stone, Moldova improves financially, and the Ukraine economy gets its boost from Moldova and needs less from the EU. Sure its a subtle difference, yet its a hedge. This also brings more global pressure on Russia to be content with what it just received with the shake of its iron hand.
Now that the line is drawn (without a war) there is to be a transition period of 18 months for residents wishing to leave and should do so unimpeded. Property and even businesses could be swapped or traded between the 51.32 zone and the western 66.56 zones. Both areas are similar. There would have to be a special commission on both the Russian side and Ukrainian sides and perhaps even a third party mediator for disputes and to insure price gauging is at a minimum. The same type of commissions could be used between Moldova and Ukraine. While this is not perfect, it would be a way Russia and Putin could be seen as builders ranter than simply conquistadors.
Religion and ethnicity are not going to change anytime soon. There needs to be more than fighting a war that is not winnable, or starting World War 3. Lines on a map are still lines on a map, yet someone needs to make these lines or redefine them with religion, culture and ethnicity in mind. Sure you can sing Kum Ba Yah and sing We Are The World, but that is just not reality, though it is a very noble goal.
Mark_in_MN
I suspect your right about Sochi, if docking a warship is even all that feasible. But Novorossiysk has a navel station that Russia was building or enhancing in anticipation of the end of the lease of the base at Sebastopol, which was to be up in 2017, but was apparently extended within the last few years. On maps, at least, there appears to be a good sized bay there, too.
Which is to say, I doubt this move in the the Crimea or the belligerence toward the Ukraine is really related to access to a good “warm water” port.
MyrddinWilt
The referendum will be stolen so it has no meaning. Putin’s ballot fraud in the Parliamentary election is well documented and the opposition was not permitted to challenge him properly in the Presidential.
They can hold all the fake ballots they like but they mean nothing and change nothing.
MyrddinWilt
Its a question of draft and how steeply the land falls into the sea and whether there is shelter for ships.
It might be possible to dock a warship at Sochi but being able to refit it is something else entirely. Sevastopol is one of the worlds best natural harbors, as good as Hong Kong. But the land it is on is next to useless for agriculture.
mackenzie wunderlich
a nearly new black Volkswagen Touareg SUV by working off of a pc… blog link
Big41.ℂom
2karmanot
The ghost of Prince Potemkin walks anew.
FLL
Glad to help.
perljammer
Thank you for that link! The article is fascinating, with a lot of quotes and attributions to the various players who were on the scene. This is really what I was looking for, and I genuinely appreciate your taking the trouble to draw it to my attention.
FLL
There is a claim made by the Soviet government of 1990 and Putin’s government later (which is repeated on this thread, of course—LOL), that during the negotiations for Soviet withdrawal from East Germany in 1990, the U.S. made some promise not to expand NATO eastward. There are various versions of the conversations between U.S. Secretary of State James Baker and his Soviet counterpart Eduard Shevardnadze, but please do not let anyone tell you that limits on NATO’s expansion was mentioned anywhere in written documentation or in any of the extensive treaties signed during 1990 regarding Soviet withdrawal from East Germany. Here is an excerpt from an article by the Centre for Research on Globalization, “NATOS’s Eastward Expansion: Did the West Break Its Promise to Moscow?” (link here) :
The year 1990 was one of major negotiations. Washington, Moscow, London, Bonn, Paris, Warsaw, East Berlin and many others were at odds over German unity, comprehensive European disarmament and a new charter of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The Soviets insisted that everything be documented in writing, even when all that was at issue was the fate of Soviet military cemeteries in East Germany. However, the numerous agreements and treaties of the day contained not a single word about NATO expansion in Eastern Europe.
For this reason, the West argues, Moscow has no cause for complaint today. After all, the West did not sign anything regarding NATO expansion to the east.
FLL
The reason you cannot find written documentation mentioning NATO limits is because it doesn’t exist. The piece Bill makes reference to is an opinion piece, and the author is referring to conversations (verbal only) between then U.S. Secretary of State James Baker and his Soviet counterpart Eduard Shevardnadze. There are different versions of those conversations, but one thing is certain: NATO limits were nowhere mentioned in the written documentation or any of the treaties that were signed. Here are two excerpts from an article by the Centre for Research on Globalization, “NATOS’s Eastward Expansion: Did the West Break Its Promise to Moscow?” (link here) :
The year 1990 was one of major negotiations. Washington, Moscow, London, Bonn, Paris, Warsaw, East Berlin and many others were at odds over German unity, comprehensive European disarmament and a new charter of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The Soviets insisted that everything be documented in writing, even when all that was at issue was the fate of Soviet military cemeteries in East Germany. However, the numerous agreements and treaties of the day contained not a single word about NATO expansion in Eastern Europe.
For this reason, the West argues, Moscow has no cause for complaint
today. After all, the West did not sign anything regarding NATO
expansion to the east.
I hope this article helps. Let me know if there are problems with the link. It works for me.
Mark_in_MN
Not to mention that Sebastopol isn’t the only port Russia has on the Black Sea. There is Novorossiysk, which is actually in Russian territory. There is also Sochi on the Black Sea, but it’s current harbor appears from Google Maps to be small and not particularly a shipping center, much less a military one.
Bill_Perdue
Why do your ask? According to the Counterpunch article no treaty was involved. If you want to question the author about whether or not there was a treaty track him down on the internet and do it. “Jeffrey Sommers is Associate Professor of Political Economy & Public Policy in, and Senior Fellow at the Institute of World Affairs at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. He is also Visiting Faculty at the Stockholm School of Economics in Riga. He is co-editor & contributing author to The Contradictions of Austerity: the Socio-Economic Costs of the Neoliberal Baltic Model.”
Bill_Perdue
The danger is that Obama, Kerry and Merkel et al won’t be able to control the fascists they promoted just as Von Papen and Hindenburg, who thought Hitler was a pushover, were unable to control him.
Fascists are everywhere and always provocateurs. It’s how they grow,
Ford Prefect
What, are you 14 or something? Who says anyone deserves a pass? Enough with this childish pissing contest of yours.
Tom in Lazybrook
With Putin its always intentional and malevolent. Putin is acting like an 8th grader. Can you name one treaty obligation that Putin has honored?
We don’t owe Putin any passes.
Putin will misbehave in increasing measure until people stand him down. We will have to go strong against him to force him down.
perljammer
Bill, can you cite the name of the treaty or other agreement signed by Bush and Gorbachev, that enumerated the NATO limits you and the Counterpunch article describe? Even a rough date would be helpful. I have searched and cannot find anything, and I’d really like to read up on this.
NMRon
Anyone who thinks Russia won’t fight to keep their warm water ports secure is insane.
FLL
Who can blame him? Shooting 80 protesters dead? And now this violence in Kharkiv (see below) with pro-Putin mobs dragging government bureaucrats out into the streets and beating them bloody? Who can blame him? I think maybe most of the world can blame him, and I don’t think most of the world is a bunch of “administration toadies.” Are you amused by all of this violence and death? Will you be further amused by ethnic cleansing in eastern Ukraine? Your rhetoric is sounding creepier by the day. No one admires people who are as amused by such things as you apparently are.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdEhWgqTCYU
FLL
These are now extreme circumstances. Please, please watch this video of pro-Kremlin mobs storming the government buildings in the eastern city of Kharkiv, dragging the government workers out and beating them bloody. What crime have these government workers committed for which they are being beaten by the mob? Simply working for the new government in Kiev. I’m begging you. Please, please watch the video below, filmed yesterday in Kharkiv. The world needs to prevent the possibility of the mass murder of Ukrainians and stop this madness now. We have Bosnia in the 1990s as a precedent. No excuses this time around.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hdEhWgqTCYU
Bill_Perdue
It’s amazing how many characters from Dr Srangelove have popped up in this discussion. And how many of them are in DC.
You only have to listen to thier voices to detect the Doublethink: “To know and not to know, to be conscious of complete truthfulness while telling carefully constructed lies, to hold simultaneously two opinions which cancelled out, knowing them to be contradictory and believing in both of them, to use logic against logic, to repudiate morality while laying claim to it, to believe that democracy was impossible and that the Party was the guardian of democracy, to forget, whatever it was necessary to forget, then to draw it back into memory again at the moment when it was needed, and then promptly to forget it again, and above all, to apply the same process to the process…”
The break up of the USSR was based on assurances the NATO would not be introduced into Russian or CIS regions. ( http://www.counterpunch.org/2014/02/28/dr-strangelove-over-ukraine/ ) Those promises have been broken several times, in the Baltic States, with US and NATO aid to Georgians expansionists and now in the Crimea. Putin can appeal to the nationalism of Russians who feel backed up against a wall. And ion DC and Democrat/Republican circles the right is salivating at the thought of doing just that.
Neither off a perspective for change what would help workers in the Ukraine, Russia or in the NATO countries. The only real solution to the current crisis can only be found in the Ukraine and it centers around the formation of a workers party to protect Ukrainians from the depredations of Russian gangster capitalists and US/EU vampire banksters.
Bill_Perdue
Exactly.
The role of the right – Democrats, especially Dixiecrats and Republicans- in this discussion is to foment war hysteria. They’re salivating at the prospect of reliving their glory days during the cold war. Fortunately few are paying attention to the Dr. Strangeloves in DC and elsewhere. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzddAYYDZkk
The Obama regime is making a big mistake sending Kerry to Kiev to meddle.
Still there remains a real possibility of regional war because the Ukrainian government was toppled in an Obama /Merkel inspired fascist putsch. And such a war could easily spread if anyone does something stupid or makes a mistake. Fortunately all the nukes were taken from the Ukraine and sent back to Russia years ago.
Still these are dangerous times. When I made my first attempt to go college I was in a University of Colorado class on Greek history in the early winter of 1962 when a jet flew over fairly low over the campus, thundering and making the windows rattle. There was only one smallish AFB in Denver and no airfield in Boulder. We all looked up, there were several gasps and other signs of alarm and one poor woman wet herself.
This is beginning to feel like that.
wearing out my F key
Ya know, Gaius did a post about this last week which I thought was pretty good. The three points he made were :
1. The E.U. (Western) offer of alliance is a deeply neoliberal one.
2. The West is one of the progenitors of the crisis.
3. If Ukraine splits, Russia will be aligned with the more viable half.
That explains everything pretty well. Much better than a lot of reporting which has made it sound like this is world war III. If crimea goes to Russia, that makes sense. If Ukraine goes to the EU, that … Well, that doesn’t make as much sense, but that’s their prerogative. Whatever. Don’t we have any of our own problems to deal with?
wearing out my F key
Why would I mind? What is our interest there anyhow? We spend 5 billon dollars on this ‘revolution’, so there must be some reason, but I don’t know what it would be.
wearing out my F key
Well, the Crimean parliament is writing the secession referendum right now. The people can vote on it by maybe as early as the end of the month. So they can decide what they want for themselves… But it looks like they want to be part of russia to me.
Ford Prefect
Your logic is fine between a group of 8th graders, but among nation-states? Hostilities aren’t always intentional. Besides that, there are some in positions of power that share your view that they can go around creating overt acts of war without facing any reaction (see: Victoria “pottymouth” Nuland). That’s a very dangerous mentality and one that frequently has led to conflict.
You say international law no longer exists because Russia abrogated a treaty somewhere. Okay then. So it’s all just chaos from here on out. And you think war can be avoided because the Rooskies will surrender in the face of a naval blockade and everyone will maintain perfect fire discipline? Just because numbnuts like John McNasty say so? LOL.
Cue Gen. Buck Turgidson….
Tom in Lazybrook
Russia isn’t going to attack Turkey. Russia has abrogated its treaty obligations, so there’s no need for Turkey to abide by its obligations.
Ford Prefect
I’m not familiar with the law of the sea regarding transiting the Bospourus, but as a naval blockade, that would be an overt act of war. Still, as far as starting hostilities are concerned, that’s probably a favorite idea on the planners’ tables. Any shooting, however it starts, would invoke Article 5 and thusly involve all of NATO in the conflict. I can’t imagine Turkey engaging in hostilities without invoking Art 5. An accidental exchange of fire might give NATO the plausible deniability they would wish to have.
Still, it’s a great way to start a war. The problem of course, is to keep it from escalating into something far larger.
4th Turning
The first Crimean War-very far-reaching consequences…
Russia lost the war and with it the myth of Russian might, the legacy of 1812, was shattered.
The shock of defeat forced Russia to adopt a programme of sweeping internal reforms and industrialisation under Tsar Alexander II, who came to throne in early 1855.
Elsewhere, Russia’s defeat facilitated the unification of Germany under Prussian control
The human cost was immense, 25,000 British, 100,000 French and up to a million Russians died, almost all of disease and neglect.
(Bloodied linen shirts from the dead were shipped by the 5-600 lb. bale to New England to be
processed into paper. It is said rivers ran red where this “cloth” was washed.)
American disinterest in History, current events, etc.is unfortunate in crisis situations like this.
.
Cervantes
Err, Russia already has the Crimean warm water port. They have a naval base in Sebastopol. They didn’t have to invade, they were already there. They’re just keeping it.The issue isn’t the port, it’s the whole relationship among Russia, Ukraine (and other borderlands), and the West.
cole3244
if we try to see things from the russian point of view and its security you can see why they would want access to the black sea and the crimea. the germans weren’t the only ones that have tried to invade russia from the west we sent a small force of marines in by way of siberia in the early 1900’s so russia’s paranoia is justified imo.
there certainly must be a political solution to this problem without pushing russia into a corner so that putin has to react irrationally to defend his position.
he is assuming the worst case scenario and there by trying to plug all the holes he sees in case that actually happens.
most nations are not in a land locked situation like russia and we must see it from their perspective and not assume putin is automatically being unreasonable, he may just be reacting to a possible worst case scenario with the upheaval in the ukraine. he would not be doing his job as president if he left russia vulnerable if russia had to fight its way into a warm weather port.
i don’t trust putin but i don’t trust most leaders of powerful nations ours included, we have a global interest in solving this problem rationally and not let it get out of control where military action could destabilize the region if not the world, that is not an option for anyone on either side of this dispute.
there are hero’s and villains on both sides and we must be pragmatic enough to see this and react accordingly without animus towards one another.
Dave of the Jungle
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VEB-OoUrNuk
FLL
Putin has given the entire world the middle finger. Everyone. The U.S., Britain, France, the U.N.… absolutely everyone… with one exception. This excerpt is from a CNN report today (link here) :
German Chancellor Angela Merkel’s office said Putin had accepted a proposal to establish a “fact-finding mission” to Ukraine, possibly under the leadership of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and to start a political dialogue.
If the German government can do some good in Ukraine, kudos to them. No reasonable observer need be offended that the German government can help solve a nasty problem that Putin created with his unilateral invasion of Crimea.
FLL
4 million Ukrainians murdered by Stalin in the Holomodor during the early 1930s. (That is a conservative estimate accepted by all reputable historians as the minimum number. Many sources accept a higher number.)
80 protestors shot dead on the orders of Yanukovych in 2014.
Never Forget.
“People who have been on Maidan and died here are heroes. Heroes will never die. They will always be with us. They will be our inspiration.”
FLL
“Obama & Co. started this war…”
That’s just a delusional statement. You may be making yourself feel better for whatever odd reasons, but you are not increasing your credibility.
FLL
The Russian ethnic majority in Crimea (just over 50%) certainly wants to be part of Russian, and Russia certainly wants Crimea to be part of Russia for both ethnic and strategic reasons, and you have concluded that this is a “problem solved.” Your tone is smug regarding the 24% and 12% of the population that is Ukrainian and Tatar, respectively, because conditions may become so hostile that they are forced to relocate. However, I agree with you that the international community has accepted the fact that Crimea (“given” to Ukraine by Nikita Khrushchev in 1954 in a dubious move) will be part of Russia again.
Now that you and I agree on the end result for Crimea, I would like to recycle your phrase, “problem solved,” because Putin has unilaterally sent troops in to invade Ukrainian territory, given Ukraine an irrefutable argument for seeking military cooperation. Your phrase, recycled:
Ukraine wants to be part of NATO. NATO wants Ukraine to be part of NATO. Problem solved.
Don’t like it, “wearing out my F key”? Then take your F key and shove it somewhere discreet.
caphillprof
It’s also suggested that the Crimea is the San Diego of Russia, that it is where many retired Russion military live.
bicyclemark
Just add Crimea to the list; Abkhasia, South Ossetia, Nogorno-Karabak, Transinistra, why not one more sort of Russian frozen conflict-unrecognized territory in the world.
perljammer
You say “Crimea wants to be part of Russia” as if the people who live there are of one mind. I’ll wager that the 24% of the population who are Ukranian and the 12% who are Muslim Tatars would probably disagree.
A poll conducted in 2011 found that 73% of the people in Crimea consider Ukraine as their “motherland”. I think there is a big difference between wanting closer ties with Russia than with Europe, and wanting to be “part of Russia”.
nicho
The US has already picked a side. Obama & Co. started this war and sided with the anti-Semitic, anti-Russian, neo-Nazis. As far as I can see, Putin is protecting his interests. Who can blame him — except international lawbreaker Obama. Only administration toadies claim otherwise.
Tom in Lazybrook
All the more reason to see if the Turks will come to the aid of the Turkish Tatar minority in Crimea by shutting off the Bosporus to Russian military traffic until the leave the Crimea. That would remove any strategic importance of the Crimea to Russia. Obviously, there would be heavy costs to Turkey for doing so, but it would end it very quickly.
SL Abrin
The Ukrainians fought with the Nazis by day and against them by night. It is important to remember that over 8 million Ukrainians were killed by Stalin. Russia ethnically cleansed Ukraine.
Indigo
I don’t see a reason for the US to pick a side in this quarrel. Crimea? Ukraine? Russia? It’s starting to look more and more like one of those endless Black Sea squabbles that destabilize the entire region. We have no direct interest in the matter and we are not the Global Police. If the German EU wants the western Ukraine, let them use their own military to hold it.
wearing out my F key
Crimea wants to be part of Russia, Russia wants Crimea to be part of Russia. Problem solved.
| i don't know |
Who led the 1381 Peasants Revolt in the UK, with Jack Straw, John Ball and others, and was stabbed to death by the Lord Mayor of London? | Peasants Revolt - History Learning Site
History Learning Site
historylearningsite.co.uk . The History Learning Site , 5 Mar 2015. 20 Oct 2016.
Medieval England experienced few revolts but the most serious was the Peasants’ Revolt which took place in June 1381. A violent system of punishments for offenders was usually enough to put off peasants from causing trouble. Most areas in England also had castles in which soldiers were garrisoned, and these were usually enough to guarantee reasonable behaviour among medieval peasants.
An army of peasants from Kent and Essex marched on London. They did something no-one had done before or since – they captured the Tower of London. The Archbishop of Canterbury and the King’s Treasurer were killed. The king, Richard II, was only 14 at the time but despite his youth, he agreed to meet the peasants at a place called Mile End.
What were the peasants angry about and why had they come to London ?
1. After the Black Death , many manors were left short of workers. To encourage those who had survived to stay on their manor, many lords had given the peasants on their estates their freedom and paid them to work on their land. Now, nearly 35 years after the Black Death, many peasants feared that the lords would take back these privileges and they were prepared to fight for them.
2. Many peasants had to work for free on church land, sometimes up to two days in the week. This meant that they could not work on their own land which made it difficult to grow enough food for their families. Peasants wanted to be free of this burden that made the church rich but them poor. They were supported in what they wanted by a priest called John Ball from Kent.
3. There had been a long war with France. Wars cost money and that money usually came from the peasants through the taxes that they paid. In 1380, Richard II introduced a new tax called the Poll Tax. This made everyone who was on the tax register pay 5p. It was the third time in four years that such a tax had been used. By 1381, the peasants had had enough. 5p to them was a great deal of money. If they could not pay in cash, they could pay in kind, such as seeds, tools etc., anything that could be vital to survival in the coming year.
In May 1381, a tax collector arrived at the Essex village of Fobbing to find out why the people there had not paid their poll tax. He was thrown out by the villagers. In June, soldiers arrived to establish law and order. They too were thrown out as the villagers of Fobbing had now organised themselves and many other local villages in Essex had joined them. After doing this, the villagers marched on London to plead with the young king to hear their complaints.
One man had emerged as the leader of the peasants – Wat Tyler from Kent. As the peasants from Kent had marched to London, they had destroyed tax records and tax registers. The buildings which housed government records were burned down. They got into the city of London because the people there had opened the gates to them.
By mid-June the discipline of the peasants was starting to go. Many got drunk in London and looting took place. It is known that foreigners were murdered by the peasants. Wat Tyler had asked for discipline amongst those who looked up to him as their leader. He did not get it.
On June 14th, the king met the rebels at Mile End. At this meeting, Richard II gave the peasants all that they asked for and asked that they go home in peace. Some did. Others returned to the city and murdered the archbishop and Treasurer – their heads were cut off on Tower Hill by the Tower of London. Richard II spent the night in hiding in fear of his life.
On June 15th, he met the rebels again at Smithfield outside of the city’s walls. It is said that this was the idea of the Lord Mayor (Sir William Walworthe) who wanted to get the rebels out of the city. Medieval London was wooden and the streets were cramped. Any attempt to put down the rebels in the city could have ended in a fire or the rebels would have found it easy to vanish into the city once they knew that soldiers were after them.
At this meeting, the Lord Mayor killed Wat Tyler. We are not sure what happened at this meeting as the only people who could write about it were on the side of the king and their evidence might not be accurate. The death of Tyler and another promise by Richard to give the peasants what they asked for, was enough to send them home.
Walworth, bottom left hand corner, killing Tyler. Richard II is just behind Tyler and also addressing the peasants after Tyler’s death
By the summer of 1381, the revolt was over. John Ball was hanged. Richard did not keep any of his promises claiming that they were made under threat and were therefore not valid in law. Other leaders from both Kent and Essex were hanged. The poll tax was withdrawn but the peasants were forced back into their old way of life – under the control of the lord of the manor.
However, the lords did not have it their own way. The Black Death had caused a shortage of labour and over the next 100 years many peasants found that they could earn more (by their standards) as the lords needed a harvest in and the only people who could do it were the peasants. They asked for more money and the lords had to give it.
| Wat Tyler |
A hangover cure, made traditionally with raw, egg, Worcestershire Sauce and seasoning, is known as a ‘Prairie….what’? | London Riots 1381: Blood-soaked Peasants' Revolt that changed England forever | Daily Mail Online
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They make for a rag-tag army. One of them is an elderly shepherd armed with nothing more deadly than his crook, another is a young boy who clings for protection to the drum with which he has bravely set the pace of their advance.
Nearby, a fierce-looking youth is spattered with blood from the severed head he carries on top of a long pole.
Others brandish the flaming torches with which they have set London ablaze, and in front of them stands a thick-set brute, his face glistening with sweat from the battles recently won and his sword drawn ready for those that lie ahead.
Rag-tag army: The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 was the uprising that saw tens of thousands of England's poorest countrymen come close to overthrowing the establishment
It is this man, Wat Tyler, whose name will go down in history. As leader of the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, he will be remembered for the uprising that saw tens of thousands of his poorest countrymen come close to overthrowing the establishment.
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Until now, we have had only the illustrations in history books to help us picture their struggle. But thanks to the work of British photographer Red Saunders, we can come closer than ever to appreciating their deadly determination.
Thick-set brute: Wat Tyler stands in front of the mob, his face glistening with sweat from the battles recently won and his sword drawn ready for those that lie ahead
Saunders specialises in photographing huge tableaux vivants, living pictures in which dozens of actors recreate key moments in British history.
His latest creations, showcased in a new exhibition in Bradford, include this depiction of the Peasants’ Revolt, and it offers many fascinating insights into why the uprising happened — and why it took the bloody course that it did.
The first lies in the extraordinary array of weapons featured in the photograph. Alongside the swords and pikes, whose steel glints in the fiery glow over London, we see pick-axes, pitchforks and scythes more usually wielded on farms, but put to lethal new use as implements of death.
This reminds us that the insurgents were not political saboteurs, but ordinary men and women, usually content to fight only the elements as they struggled to make a living from the land, but driven to mutiny and murder by the actions of their over-bearing and greedy rulers.
Just 30 years previously, the Black Death had killed a third of the population — which then numbered between two and three million.
Many of those depicted in the photograph will have lost family or friends to a catastrophe unimaginable by modern standards.
Though it would not have helped these peasants in their grief, there was one ‘benefit’ of this sudden cull of much of the nation’s workforce. With fewer labourers to work the land, demand for their services was all the higher.
Their wages should have risen accordingly, but in the years leading up to the Peasants’ Revolt a series of statutes were introduced imposing an ungenerous limit on the wages farm labourers could be paid.
On top of this were the frustrations of serfdom, the centuries-old practice by which some peasants were still forced to work part of the time free of charge for their rich and powerful landlords.
And then there was the introduction of a series of poll taxes to help fund the latest wars with France.
Everyone had to pay a shilling — a pittance for the ruling classes, but a significant amount for those bound to them in serfdom.
As if this was not provocative enough, the commissioners sent out to enforce these payments often abused their power, particularly when it came to investigating whether young girls in a household were over 15, the age at which the poll tax became payable.
Frightened girls were forced to lift their skirts while these officials examined them for signs of maturity and sexual experience. If a girl was no longer a virgin, she was deemed old enough to pay the poll tax, whether she had reached 15 or not.
Such outrages fomented public opinion, and matters appear to have reached a tipping point in May 1381, following the visit of a tax collector to the Essex village of Fobbing.
Fascinating insight: Just 30 years previously, the Black Death killed a third of the population. Many of those in the image will have lost family or friends to the catastrophe
The residents took great umbrage at his presence and threw him out, later giving the same treatment to soldiers sent to re-establish law and order by the 14-year-old Richard II.
Unrest spread quickly throughout the South-East. The following month, a group of men marched on Rochester Castle in Kent and freed a man imprisoned for refusing to work as a serf.
They were led by Wat Tyler, a man we know little about except that, as his name suggests, he may have been a roofer by trade.
The efficiency with which he led his forces suggests he had experience as a soldier, perhaps as part of a militia raised by the local lord to join in the war against France.
Deadly: As the drunken in this part of the image suggests, some of the rebels liked a drink. A few were burnt to death when they became too inebriated to escape fire
Soon there were two great peasant armies marching on London — one led by Tyler, the other a contingent from Essex under the command of a man called Jack Straw, most likely a thatcher.
Many thousands in number, their ranks included trained soldiers, as suggested by the photograph, but there were many civilians, too, including those like the blood-smeared blacksmith seen on Wat Tyler’s right, the understandably fearful-looking shepherd next to the drummer boy, and the young farmhand placing a protective arm around his pregnant wife, who is presumably a camp follower.
In the words of medieval poet John Gower: ‘Savage hordes approached the city like waves of the sea/At their head a peasant captain urged the madmen on/With cruel eagerness for slaughter, he shouted: “Burn and Kill.” ’
En route, they destroyed many tax records and registers, and beheaded several tax officials who tried to stop them.
Their march must have been a terrifying prospect for the nation’s rulers, but it’s important to understand these people were not rising up against the young King. They were patriots, as suggested by the flag of St George on the right of the photograph.
Indeed, the Kent contingent gave instructions that no one living within ten miles of the South Coast was allowed to join them because these men were needed to repel any French invaders who might take advantage of their absence.
Their argument was with the King’s advisers and, with the help of Londoners who opened the gates of the city for them, they began their attacks on those they believed responsible for their oppression.
Along the way, their targets included many lawyers, as representatives of the judicial system that had kept peasants in serfdom and wages low — it is perhaps one of these unfortunates whose head is being paraded so proudly by the rebels in the photograph.
Soon they reached their ultimate prize, the Palace of Savoy, the official residence of John of Gaunt, the King’s uncle and the real power behind the throne.
It is this great fortress — where the Savoy hotel stands today — that can be seen burning in the picture.
Luckily for John of Gaunt, he was away at the time, dealing with border disputes in Scotland, for he would almost certainly have been executed, too.
As it was, his palace was virtually destroyed though not, it’s interesting to note, looted.
As the drunken man to the right of the photograph suggests, some of the rebels liked a drink. A few of them were burnt to death when they invaded the palace’s wine cellar and became too inebriated to escape the flames from a fire started by their fellow peasants.
But when another raider stole a piece of silver from the treasury and tried to hide it, his companions threw both it and him into the fire, saying they were lovers of truth and justice, not thieves.
The sack of the Savoy Palace must have been an electrifying moment for the rebels. Soon they went on to storm the Tower of London, seizing and beheading the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Prior of St John’s, Clerkenwell.
This was not because these two unfortunates were churchmen, but because they held high political office, being the equivalent of the prime minister and Chancellor of the Exchequer today.
Historical 'evidence': Leveller Women in the English Revolution, 1647 is another of Red Saunders' 'tableaux vivants' which recreates famous - and not so famous - scenes from the past
To avoid further trouble, the King agreed to meet Tyler in Smithfield, just outside the eastern city walls.
Whether or not this was a deliberate trap has been debated ever since, but during the meeting the Mayor of London, outraged by Tyler’s demands and his arrogant manner when talking to the King, drew his dagger and stabbed him in the neck.
The rebel leader was taken to St Barts hospital but, on the Mayor’s orders, he was dragged from his bed and beheaded.
Suddenly, the revolt was over, just a few days after it began, and 150 of the protesters were later hanged for treason.
Race relations: William Cuffay and the London Chartists, 1842, shows the Chartist leader organising the rally promoting workers' rights
New paintings: These pictures of Hilda of Whitby, a 7th century abbess and pioneer of women's education (left) and the agricultural Swing Riots of 1830 are two of Red Saunders' most recent photographs
The King reneged on virtually all the promises he had made during his brief negotiations with Tyler, including an agreement to put an end to serfdom.
Yet the revolt had not been entirely in vain. The poll tax was abolished soon afterwards and it would be another 300 years before the ministers of Charles I would attempt to reintroduce it.
Successive governments, it seemed, were haunted by the ‘people power’ demonstrated during the Peasants’ Revolt. Looking at the rather fearsome bunch of characters assembled in this photograph, it’s easy to understand why.
Behind the scenes: Red Saunders, left, at the Levellers photo shoot
Attention to detail: Saunders needs all his subjects to hold the correct pose at the right time
Red Saunders’ exhibition, Hidden, is at the Impressions Gallery, Bradford, from today until December 10. www.impressions-gallery.com
| i don't know |
To win a gold disc, how many copies of an album needs to sell in Britain? | The 101 Strings Orchestra - Pieces Of Dreams - YouTube
The 101 Strings Orchestra - Pieces Of Dreams
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Published on Apr 17, 2014
Music Fast Facts : To win a gold disc, an album needs to sell 100,000 copies in Britain, and 500,000 in the United States. ▼▼▼
THE 101 STRINGS
101 Strings Orchestra was a brand for a highly successful easy listening symphonic music organization, with a discography exceeding a hundred albums and a creative lifetime of roughly thirty years. Their LPs were individualized by the slogan "The Sound of Magnificence", a cloud logo and sepia-toned photo of the orchestra. The 101 Strings orchestra was composed of 124 string instruments (all male except for the harpist) and was conducted by Wilhelm Stephan.
Core staff arrangers were Monty Kelly, Joseph Francis Kuhn and Robert Lowden. All three proved adept at penning original compositions that were stylistically consistent both with contemporary hit songs and each other Kelly's earliest successes were Latin and Spanish travelogues (such as the Soul of Spain series) although, following the British Invasion, he became 101 Strings' 'Now Sound' specialist. Kuhn concentrated on radio-friendly numbers in the 'Pops' orchestral manner ("Blues Pizzicato," etc.) which provided Somerset its initial catalog of originals. Lowden penned lounge ballads (such as "Blue Twilight"). Their body of early 1960s work would be recycled via rerelease throughout the next twenty years.
Although many 101 Strings albums are simply orchestrated versions of pop hits and show tunes, the early material contains many examples of the exotica and lounge genres. Songs of the Seasons in Japan, Hawaiian Paradise and East of Suez are three such albums. 101 Strings Play the Blues and Back Beat Symphony comprise early experiments in symphonic-pop hybridization, while Fly Me To The Moon contains five noir-ish originals.
In the 30 years of their existence, 101 Strings sold over 50,000,000 records worldwide.
DID YOU KNOW ?
Pieces of Dreams was written by famous French composer and orchestrator Michel Legrand for the film with the same name.
The film was directed by Dan Haller and was released in 1970.
Legrand received two Academy Award Nominations: one for the soundtrack in general, the other for "Pieces of dreams" specifically (Best Original song).
MHO
The 101 Strings at their best with a beautiful rendition of Michel Legrand's outstanding composition "Pieces of Dreams".
Romantic, enchanting and a melody that will linger on in your mind, long after you stopped listening...... Enjoy.
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| 100 000 |
Who composed the opera ‘Madame Butterfly’? | my favorite music
my favorite music
the best music out there in my opinion, enjoy
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fun facts about music
The earliest known example of musical notation was found on a clay tablet in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), dated to around 1,800 B.C.
At only four lines long, the Japanese national anthem is the shortest national anthem. The longest is the Greek national anthem at 158 verses long.
Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, Jim Morrison, and Kurt Cobain all died at age 27.
While bagpipes are today identified with Scotland, they date from ancient times and may have been introduced into the British Isles by the Romans.
The largest drum ever made was 12 feet in diameter for the Boston World Peace Jubilee of 1872. It weighed 600 pounds.
To win a gold disc, an album needs to sell 100,000 copies in Britain, and 500,000 in the United States.
40 billion songs are downloaded illegally every year, that’s some 90% of all music downloads.
The music industry generates about $4 billion in online music but loose about $40 billion to illegal downloads.
Elvis was an avid gun collector. His collection of 40 weapons included M-16s and a Thompson submachine gun.
Duran Duran took their name from a mad scientists in the movie Barbarella.
The Beatles holds the top spot of album sales in the US (106 million), followed by Garth Brooks second (92 million), Led Zeppelin (83 million), Elvis Presley (77 million), and the Eagles (65 million). Worldwide The Beatles sold more than 1 billion records.
The first pop video was Bohemian Rhapsody by Queen, released in 1975.
The only guy without a beard in ZZTOP surname (last name) is Beard.
Posted by incredible music at
step 1: go onto youtube.com and go to a music video you very much enjoy
step 2: on a seperate tab open up the website http://www.video2mp3.net/
step 3: copy and paste the URL of the music very that you very much enjoyed and put it into the empty bar on the converter page and click convert
step 4: once it is done converting just click download mp3 to desktop and listen
P.S. this method might not be appreciated by the musical artists that make the music and also by everyone else that has anything to do with the music industry but who cares you have your music so screw it
Posted by incredible music at
| i don't know |
What is the title of the United States of America National Anthem? | National Anthem - The Star-Spangled Banner (USA Anthem) Lyrics | MetroLyrics
On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
In fully glory reflected now shines in the stream:
'Tis the star-spangled banner! Oh, long may it wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
And where is that band who so vuntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion
A home and a country should leave us no more?
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution!
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave:
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.
Oh, thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved home and the war's desolation!
Bless with victory and peace, may the heav'rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation!
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: "In God is our trust":
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.
Song Discussions is protected by U.S. Patent 9401941. Other patents pending.
| The Star-Spangled Banner |
What is the last note on a standard keyboard? | National Anthem USA (ALL VERSES) - YouTube
National Anthem USA (ALL VERSES)
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Uploaded on Jan 21, 2008
USA national anthem, the Star spangled banner...with lyrics.
Two verse version of the US anthem.
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| i don't know |
Who wrote ‘Doe Eyes’, the theme to the 1995 film ‘The Bridges of Madison County’? | Bridges Of Madison County, The- Soundtrack details - SoundtrackCollector.com
Bridges Of Madison County, The
Bridges Of Madison County, The (1995)
Composer(s):
Total number of members who have this title in their:
Collection: 131
There is 1 compilation album for this title.
Things you can do:
Members who have this label in their:
Collection: 11
Members who have this label in their:
Collection: 72
Doe Eyes (Love Theme From THE BRIDGES OF MADISON COUNTY) (01:05)
Composed by Clint Eastwood/Conducted by Lennie Niehaus
2.
I'll Close My Eyes (02:50)
Dinah Washington
I See Your Face Before Me (05:03)
Johnny Hartman
Dinah Washington, With Hal Mooney and His Orchestra
7.
It's a Wonderful World (02:32)
Irene Kral, With the Junior Mance Trio
9.
It Was Almost Like a Song (02:49)
Johnny Hartman
Irene Kral, With the Junior Mance Trio
11.
For All We Know (05:30)
Johnny Hartman
Doe Eyes (Love Theme From THE BRIDGES OF MADISON COUNTY) [Reprise] (05:00)
Composed by Clint Eastwood/Conducted by Lennie Niehaus
Total Duration: 00:45:27
Track listing contributed by Travis Brashear
Malpaso/Warner Bros. PRO-CD-8032
Members who have this label in their:
Collection: 1
Members who have this label in their:
Collection: 46
THE GOOD, THE BAD & THE UGLY (02:40)
3.
THE OUTLAW JOSEY WALES (03:35)
4.
PLAY MISTY FOR ME (02:47)
"Misty"
"Why should I care" (inst.)
12.
THE BRIDGES OF MADISON COUNTY (03:58)
"Doe eyes" (love theme)
CLINT EASTWOOD, AN AMERICAN FILMMAKER SUITE (45:14)
Total Duration: 01:19:02
Track listing contributed by William Wass
If you know of another release, why don't you tell us about it , so we can add it to our database.
| Clint Eastwood |
What does Franz Schubert’s ‘Die Forelle’ translate to in English? | Original Soundtrack: The Bridges of Madison County [Original Soundtrack] - Warner - HBDirect Genres
Original Soundtrack: The Bridges of Madison County [Original Soundtrack]
Release Date: 1995-05-30 (Original ~ 1995)
Number of Discs: 1
Running time: 43 min. 53 sec.
Studio/Live: Studio
List Price: $16.99 Your Price: $14.24
In Stock, usually ships in 3 - 4 days
*
I See Your Face Before Me
Soft Winds
It Was Almost Like a Song
This Is Always
Doe Eyes (Reprise)
Album Reviews:
Entertainment Weekly (7/14/95, pp.52-54) - "...a coherent whole, matching the uniformly sad, wistful tone of the book and film. It's a real drag--but a beautiful one." - Rating: A
Album Notes
Additional soundtrack music from the movie "The Bridges Of Madison County" can be found on REMEMBERING MADISON COUNTY (Malpaso 46259).
"Doe Eyes (Love Theme From The Bridges Of Madison County)" was written by Clint Eastwood.
Romance in 1995? In this age of the ubiquitous shallow action flick, cynical slacker movie and ready-made hit soundtrack, it is refreshing to hear a tasteful collection of mood music accompanying a film. Compiled for Clint Eastwood's screen version of Robert James Waller's mega-selling novel, and reflecting Eastwood's impeccable taste, the soundtrack to THE BRIDGES OF MADISON COUNTY is one timeless, soothing, romantic jazz classic after another.
One need not have seen the film or read the novel to appreciate the beauty of this collection. The sublime vocals of Dinah Washington and Johnny Hartman can create their own contexts as easily as they can evoke an image of Kincaid and Francesca sharing an intimate dance. Hartman's voice instantly melts all that it touches, particularly on "Easy Living"; and to hear Washington's interpretation of "Blue Gardenia" is to experience the bittersweet enchantment of love itself. In fact, as popular as the book and film are, this collection may just outlive them both, inducing untold somber romances and warming the loneliest of hearts.
Personnel: Junior Mance (piano); Bob Cranshaw (drums).
Credit the film and album The Bridges of Madison County with causing a great deal of excitement about crooner Johnny Hartman, a vocalist with a silky voice that almost defies description. Hartman has seen many of his albums reissued, with rapidly rising sales, since the release of the film. This collection marks the debut of Clint Eastwood's Malpaso Records label, which Eastwood intends to focus on jazz, and it's certainly a good start, featuring songs from Hartman, Dinah Washington, Irene Kral, and Barbara Lewis, as well as two versions of "Doe Eyes," an instrumental piece composed by Eastwood and arranged/conducted by longtime Eastwood collaborator Lennie Niehaus. Overall, the album is charming, low-key, and smooth, very much a record worth getting. ~ Steven McDonald
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Who was the last member of The Beatles to marry? | The Beatles - Biography - IMDb
The Beatles
Jump to: Overview (1) | Mini Bio (1) | Trivia (40)
Overview (1)
The Fab Four
Mini Bio (1)
The Beatles were an English rock band that became arguably the most successful act of the 20th century. They contributed to music, film, literature, art, and fashion, made a continuous impact on popular culture and the lifestyle of several generations. Their songs and images carrying powerful ideas of love, peace, help, and imagination evoked creativity and liberation that outperformed the rusty Soviet propaganda and contributed to breaking walls in the minds of millions, thus making impact on human history.
In July of 1957, in Liverpool, 'Paul McCartney (I)' met John Lennon . Both were teenagers. Paul impressed John with his mastery of acoustic guitar, and was invited to join Lennon's group, The Quarrymen. George Harrison joined them in February of 1958. In 1959 they played regular gigs at a club called The Casbah. They were joined by vocalist Stuart Sutcliffe, and by drummer Peter Best, whose mother owned The Casbah club. Early incarnations of the band included The Quarrymen, Johnny & the Moon Dogs, and The Silver Beetles. John Lennon dreamed up the band's final name, The Beatles, a mix of beat with beetle. In 1960 The Beatles toured in Hamburg, Germany. There they were joined by Ringo Starr , who previously played with Rory Storm and the Hurricanes. In Hamburg, The Beatles made their first studio work as a backing band for singer Tony Sheridan's recordings for the German Polydor label, however, in the credits the band's name was changed to The Beat Brothers. From February 1961 to August 1963, The Beatles played a regular gig at the Cavern. They were paid five pounds for their first show, rising to three hundred pounds per show in 1963. In two and a half years The Beatles gave 262 shows at the Cavern in Liverpool.
Brian Epstein was invited to be the manager of the Beatles in November 1961. His diplomatic way of dealing with the Beatles and with their previous manager resulted in a December 10, 1961, meeting, where it was decided that Epstein would manage the band. A 5-year management contract was signed by four members at then-drummer Pete Best's home on January 24, 1962. Epstein did not put his signature on it, giving the musicians the freedom of choice. At that time McCartney and Harrison were under 21, so the paper wasn't technically legal. None of them realized this and it did not matter to them. What mattered was their genuine trust in Epstein. He changed their early image for the good. Brian Epstein made them wear suits and ties, classic shoes, and newer haircuts. They were advised to update their manners on stage and quit eating and drinking in public. Brian Epstein worked hard on both the Beatles' image and public relations. He improved their image enough to make them accepted by the conservative media. Most if not all of their communication off-stage was managed by Brian Epstein.
On January 1, 1962, The Beatles came to London and recorded fifteen songs at the Decca Records. They were not hired, but the material helped them later. During the year 1962, they made several trips to London and auditioned for various labels. In May of 1962 Epstein canceled the group's contract with Tony Sheridan and the German label. Brian Epstein was persistent in trying to sign a record deal for the Beatles, even after being rejected by every major record label in UK, like Columbia, Philips, Oriole, Decca, and Pye. Epstein transferred a demo tape to disc with HMV technician Jim Foy, who liked their song and referred it to Parlophone's George Martin. On June 6, 1962, at the Abbey Road studios, they passed Martin's audition with the exception of Pete Best. George Martin liked them, but recommended the change of a drummer. Being asked by John Lennon, Paul McCartney, and George Harrison; Epstein fired Pete Best. After a mutual decision the band was completed with Ringo Starr , who duly became the fourth Beatle. In September of 1962 The Beatles recorded their first hit Love Me Do, which charted in UK, and reached the top of the US singles chart.
London became their new home since 1963. On February 11, 1963, The Beatles recorded the entire album 'Please, Please me' in one day, working non-stop during ten-hour studio session. In May and June, 1963, the band made a tour with Roy Orbison. In August of 1963, their single She Loves You became a super hit. Their October 1963 performance at the London Palladium made them famous in Great Britain and initiated the Beatlemania in the UK. The show at the London Palladium was broadcast live and seen by twelve million viewers. Then, in November 1962, The Beatles gave a charity concert at the Prince of Wales Theatre in London. There, performing for the rich and famous, John Lennon made his famous announcement: Would the people in the cheaper seats clap your hands? And the rest of you, if you'll just rattle your jewelry.
In early performances the Beatles included popular songs from the 40s and 50s. They played rock-n-roll and R&B-based pop songs while they gradually worked on developing a style of their own. Their mixture of rock-n-roll, skiffle, blues, country, soul, and a simplified version of 1930s jazz resulted in several multi-genre and cross-style sounding songs. They admitted their interest in the music of Buddy Holly, Elvis Presley, Little Richard and other entertainers of the 40s, 50s and early 60s. Beatles' distinctive vocals were sometimes reminiscent of the Everly Brothers' tight harmonies. By 1965 their style absorbed ethnic music influences from India and other Oriental cultures, and later expanded into psychedelic experiments and classical-sounding compositions. Their creative search covered a range of styles from jazz and rock to a cosmopolitan cross-cultural and cross-genre compositions.
Initially the Beatles were a guitars and drums band. In the course of their career every member became a multi-instrumentalist. George Harrison played the lead guitar and also introduced such exotic instruments as ukulele, Indian sitars, flutes, tabla, darbouka, and tampur drums. John Lennon played a variety of guitars, keyboards, harmonicas and horns. Paul McCartney played bass guitar, acoustic and electric guitars, piano and keyboards, as well as over 40 other musical instruments. The Beatles were the first popular band that used a classical touch of strings and keyboard instruments; their producer George Martin scored Baroque orchestrations in several songs, such as Yesterday, Eleanor Rigby, In My Life, and a full orchestra in Sgt. Pepper. John Lennon and Paul McCartney played piano in many of their songs. Their jamming on a piano together led to creation of their best-selling hit I Want to Hold Your Hand in 1963.
At first the Beatles were rejected by Dick Clark after testing a recording of their song on his show. Then Brian Epstein approached Ed Sullivan, who discussed them with Walter Cronkite after seeing them on his CBS Evening News in 1963. Brian Epstein also managed to get their music played by influential radio stations in Washington and New York. The US consumer reaction was peaking, a single 'I Want to Hold Your Hand' was released in December 1963 by the Capitol Records. Their sensational tour in the USA began with three TV shows at the Ed Sullivan Theater in New York, in February of 1964. After that The Beatles endured several years of extremely intensive recording, filming, and touring. They stopped public performances after 1966, but continued their recording contracts. By 1985 The Beatles had sold over one billion records. Music became their ticket to ride around the world. Beatlemania never really ended since its initiation. It still lives as a movable feast in many hearts and minds, as a sweet memory of youth, when all you need is love and a little help from a friend to be happy.
The Beatles' first two feature films, A Hard Day's Night (1964) and Help (1965), were made in collaboration with an American director, Richard Lester . Their humorous, ironic, and farcical film performances are reminiscent of the Marx Brothers' comedies. Later The Beatles moved into the area of psychedelic innovations with the animated film Yellow Submarine (1966). Their surrealistic TV movie The Magical Mystery Tour (1967) became the cause for the first major criticism of their work in the British press. Their film music was also released as studio albums. Original music by The Beatles as well as re-makes of their songs has been also used, often uncredited, in music scores of feature films and documentaries. Some of The Beatles concert and studio performances were filmed on several occasions and were later edited and released after the band's dissolution. In 1999 the remastered and remixed film The Beatles Yellow Submarine Adventure (2000) delighted a younger audience with incredible animation and songs.
All four members were charismatic and individually talented artists, they sparked each other from the beginning. Eventually they made a much better group effort under the thorough management by Brian Epstein . His coaching helped consolidate their talents and mutual stimulation into beautiful teamwork. Paul McCartney had the privilege of a better musical education, having studied classical piano and guitar in his childhood. He progressed as a lead vocalist and multi-instrumentalist, as well as a singer-songwriter. McCartney wrote more songs for the Beatles than other members of the band. His songs Yesterday, Eleanor Rigby, Blackbird, When I'm 64, Let It Be are among the Beatles' best hits. Yesterday is considered the most-covered song in history with over three thousand versions of it recorded by various artists. McCartney accepted the agreement that was offered by John Lennon in 1957, about the 50/50 authorship of every song written by either one of them. Most of The Beatles' songs are formally credited to both names, regardless of the fact that many of the songs were written individually.
On June 25, 1967, The Beatles made history becoming the first band globally transmitted on TV to an estimated 400 million people worldwide. The Beatles were a segment in the first-ever worldwide satellite hook-up and their new song "All You Need Is Love" was broadcast live during the show. Two months later The Beatles lost their creative manager Brian Epstein , whose talent for problem-solving was unmatched. "That was it, the beginning of the end", said Lennon. Evolution of each member's creativity and musicianship also led to individual career ambitions.
John Lennon was experimenting with psychedelic poetry and art. His creativity was very unique and innovative. Lennon wrote Come Together, Girl, Revolution, Strawberry Fields and many other Beatles' hits. An out-of-context reprinting of Lennon's remarks on the Beatlemania phenomenon caused problems in the media. His comparison of Beatles' popularity to that of Jesus Christ was used to attack them publicly, causing cancellations of their performances and even burning of their records. Lennon had to apologize several times in press and on TV, including at a Chicago press conference. In 1967 John Lennon met Japanese artist Yoko Ono , whom he later married. George Harrison was the lead guitar player and also took sitar lessons from Ravi Shankar . Harrison had his own inner light of creativity and spirituality, he wrote Something, Taxman, I me mine, and other hits. Ringo Starr sang 'Yellow Submarine' and a few other songs. He has made a film career and also toured with his All Stars Band and released several solo albums. His 1973 release "Ringo" was the last album to feature all four living Beatles, although not on the same song.
The Beatles created over 240 songs, they recorded many singles and albums, made films and TV shows. Thousands of memorable pictures popularized their image. In their evolution from beginners to the leaders of entertainment, they learned from many world cultures, absorbed from various styles, and created their own. Their cross-style compositions covered a range of influences from English folk ballads to Indian raga; absorbing from Johann Sebastian Bach , Ludwig van Beethoven , Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , Karlheinz Stockhausen , Elvis Presley, Everly Brothers, Little Richard, and others. The songwriting and performing talents of Paul McCartney, John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, fused in the Beatles' music. Lennon and McCartney initiated changes in music publishing industry by breaking the Tin Pan Alley monopoly of songwriting. Their legacy became possible due to highly professional work by Brian Epstein and George Martin. In 1994 three surviving members reunited and produced Lennon's previously unknown song 'Free as a Bird'. It was preserved by Yoko Ono on a tape recording made by Lennon in 1977. The song was re-arranged and re-mixed with the voices of three surviving members. The Beatles Anthology TV documentary was watched by 420 million people in 1995.
The Beatles represent the collective consciousness of several generations. Millions of viewers and listeners across the universe became conditioned to the sounds and images of The Beatles. Their influence on the modern world never stopped. Numbers may only show the tip of the iceberg (record sales, shows admissions, top hits, etc.). As image-makers and role models they pushed boundaries in lifestyle and business, affecting customers behavior and consumption beyond the entertainment industry by turning all life into entertainment. A brilliant blend of music and lyrics in their songs made influence on many minds by carrying messages like: give peace a chance and people working it out. A message more powerful than political control, it broke through second and third world censorship and regulations and set many millions free.
Steve Jobs , being a big fan of Paul McCartney and The Beatles, referred to them on many occasions and also was interviewed on a showing of a Paul McCartney concert. When asked about his business model, Steve Jobs replied: My model for business is The Beatles: They were four guys that kept each other's negative tendencies in check; they balanced each other. And the total was greater than the sum of the parts. Great things in business are never done by one person, they are done by a team of people.
The Beatles made impact on human history, because their influence has been liberating for generations of nowhere men living in misery beyond the Iron Curtain. Something in their songs and images appealed to everybody who wanted to become free as a bird. Their songs carrying powerful ideas of real love, peace, help, and imagination evoked creativity that outperformed the rusty Soviet propaganda and contributed to breaking chains and walls in the minds of millions. The Beatles expressed themselves in beautiful and liberating words of love, happiness, freedom, and revolution, and carried those messages to people across the universe. Their songs and images helped many freedom-loving people to come together for revolutions in Prague and Warsaw, Beijing and Bucharest, Berlin and Moscow. The Beatles has been an inspiration for those who take the long and winding road to freedom.
Even after The Beatles had gone, the individual members continued to spread their message; from the concert for Bangladesh by George Harrison and Ringo Starr in 1971, to 2003 "Back in USSR" concert by Paul McCartney on the Red Square in Moscow, and his 2004 show near the Tsar's Winter Palace in St. Petersburg where the Communist Revolution took place, just imagine.
In 2005 the Entertainment magazine poll named The Beatles the most iconic entertainers of the 20th Century. In July of 2006, the guitar on which Paul McCartney played his first chords and impressed John Lennon, was sold at an auction for over $600,000.
In July 2012, Paul McCartney rocked the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. He delivered a live performance of The Beatles 's timeless hit "Hey Jude" and engaged the crowd of people from all over the world to join his band in a sing along finale. The show was seen by a live audience of 80000 people at the Olympic Park Stadium in addition to an estimated TV audience of two billion people worldwide.
| Paul McCartney |
What is the lowest female singing voice? | Yesterday | The Beatles
Yesterday, all my troubles seemed so far away,
Now it looks as though they're here to stay,
Oh, I believe in yesterday
Suddenly, I'm not half the man I used to be
There's a shadow hanging over me
Oh, yesterday came suddenly
Why she had to go I don't know, she wouldn't say
I said something wrong, now I long for yesterday
Yesterday, love was such an easy game to play
Now I need a place to hide away
Oh, I believe in yesterday
Why she had to go I don't know, she wouldn't say
I said something wrong, now I long for yesterday
Yesterday, love was such an easy game to play
Now I need a place to hide away
Oh, I believe in yesterday,
Mm mm mm mm mm.
"Yesterday"
"Back in the U.S.S.R."
(UK-1976)
"Yesterday" is a song originally recorded by the Beatles for their 1965 album Help!. Although credited to "Lennon–McCartney", the song was written solely by Paul McCartney. It remains popular today with more than 2,200 cover versions, and is one of the most covered songs in the history of recorded music. At the time of its first appearance the song was released by the Beatles' record company as a single in the United States but not in the United Kingdom (for further details see below). Consequently, whilst it topped the American chart in 1965 the song first hit the British top 10 three months after the release of Help! in a cover version by Matt Monro. "Yesterday" was voted the best song of the 20th century in a 1999 BBC Radio 2 poll of music experts and listeners and was also voted the No. 1 Pop song of all time by MTV and Rolling Stone magazine the following year. In 1997, the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI) asserts that it was performed over seven million times in the 20th century alone.
"Yesterday" is a melancholy acoustic guitar ballad about the break-up of a relationship. McCartney is the only Beatle to appear on the recording, and it was the first official recording by the Beatles that relied upon a performance by a single member of the band. He was accompanied by a string quartet. The final recording was so different from other works by the Beatles that the band members vetoed the release of the song as a single in the United Kingdom. (However, it was issued as a single there in 1976.) In 2000 McCartney asked Yoko Ono if she would agree to change the credit on the song to read "McCartney–Lennon" in the The Beatles Anthology, but she refused.
Please note the text from Wikipedia is imported without editing or authentication.
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Who played Lorry Jones/Laura Lorraine in the 1944 musical film ‘Pin Up Girl’? | 'This Is It' with Betty Grable (1944) - YouTube
'This Is It' with Betty Grable (1944)
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Published on Apr 13, 2014
From the 1944 20th Century Fox film 'Pin Up Girl'
Pin Up Girl is a 1944 20th Century Fox Technicolor musical romantic comedy motion picture starring Betty Grable, John Harvey, Martha Raye, and Joe E. Brown.
Directed by H. Bruce Humberstone and produced by William LeBaron, the screenplay was adapted by Robert Ellis, Helen Logan and Earl Baldwin based on a short story titled Imagine Us! (1942) by Libbie Block.
Pin Up Girl capitalized on Grable's iconic pin-up status during World War II, even using her famous swimsuit photo in portions of the movie.
Cast:
Betty Grable as Lorry Jones/Laura Lorraine
John Harvey as Tommy Dooley
Martha Raye as Molly McKay
Joe E. Brown as Eddie Hall
Eugene Pallette as Barney Briggs
Dorothea Kent as Kay Pritchett
Dave Willock as Dud Miller
Charlie Spivak as Himself (bandleader)
Roger Clark as Marine Sgt. George Davis (uncredited)
Nat 'King' Cole as Canteen Pianist
Hermes Pan as Apache Dancer
Adele Jergens as Canteen Worker
Bess Flowers as Arriving Club Diplomacy Patron
June Hutton as June Hutton - Singer with Spivak Band
Reed Hadley as Radio Announcer (voice)
Lillian Porter as Cigarette Girl
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Intro & Outro Song: "I'll Be Seeing You" by Billie Holiday circa 1944
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---
Clip from 'Pin Up Girl' is ©20th Century Fox
Original Artwork & Designs ©MMDP
THIS VIDEO IS STRICTLY FOR ENTERTAINMENT PURPOSES ONLY. NO COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT IS INTENDED. I DO NOT OWN THE RIGHTS TO THE CLIP USED.
Category
| Betty Grable |
The 2006 film ‘Once’, starring Glen Hansard as a busker, is set in which European city? | 23 | February | 2015 | The Lone Girl in a Crowd
The Lone Girl in a Crowd
February 23, 2015
If you had a guy like Inspector Clouseau working under you, you’d probably want to take him out with a bazooka, too. Seriously, I know Chief Inspector Dreyfus isn’t the best boss, but could we really blame him for going crazy like that? Seriously, Clouseau is a complete hell to work with.
During the Golden Age of Hollywood, actors were managed by what was called, “The Studio System” in which the moguls sought to develop a star’s talent as well as supervise aspects of their lives. Sure the resident studio mogul may make you a star, yet there was a cache with a new image like a possible name change or possible plastic surgery. I mean most of the moguls were Jews who changed their names to fit in so why shouldn’t Jewish, Hispanic, or real joke name sounding actors do the same? Oh, and as for projects, well, the studio chooses what you work in and what characters you play. So if you’re black or Asian, you can hope for a stereotyped supporting role at best. Sometimes they’d try to arrange dates and romances, especially if there’s suspicion if some male heartthrob is secretly gay. But if you get into some sort of trouble like divorce, alcoholism, drugs, adultery, or legal troubles, then the studio will pitch in with hush money. In this selection here are 10 more actors and actresses who never got to beat the Meryl Streep of their day. First, you have Pete Postlethwaite who did a lot of notable films during the last few decades before he croaked a few years ago. Second, you have notable old school British actresses Dame Edith Evans, Dame Gladys Cooper, and Susannah York. Third, there’s ZaSu Pitts whose funny voice was the inspiration for Popeye’s girlfriend Olive Oyl as well as notable 1930s actress Constance Bennett. After them, comes Oliver Reed best known for his drinking and dying during Gladiator. Then you have Herbert Lom most famous for playing Peter Sellers’ crazy boss from The Pink Panther series followed by General Jack D. Ripper portrayer Sterling Hayden. Finally, there’s Betty Grable, best known for her $1 million legs and being a WWII sex symbol. So for your reading pleasure, here are 10 more actors and actresses who never received the gold statuette.
151. Pete Postlethwaite
Pete Postlethwaite might’ve been confined to supporting roles, but he was in a lot of classic movies from the 1990s. This is him as the Magic Man from James and the Giant Peach, a film from my childhood I had on video in grade school. Seriously, I highly recommend it.
Personal Life: (1946-2011) Born in Warrington, Cheshire in England. Trained as a teacher at Saint Mary’s College and taught drama at Loreto College before training as an actor at The Old Vic Theater School. Was a smoker from the age of 10. Made his first film in 1975. Married to Jacqueline Morrish for 24 years and had 2 children. Was diagnosed with testicular cancer in 1990 and had one testicle removed. Died of pancreatic cancer at 64.
Famous for: British actor known for his character performances in various films. Notable roles are Captain Beams from The Last of the Mohicans, Giuseppe Conlon from In the Name of the Father, Mr. Kobayashi from The Usual Suspects, Magic Man from James and the Giant Peach, Brother Gilbert of Glockenspur from Dragonheart, William S. Holabird from Amistad, John from Between Strangers, Dr. Lorbeer/ Dr. Brandt from The Constant Gardener, Spyros from Clash of the Titans, Maurice Fischer from Inception, and Fergus “Fergie” Colm from The Town.
Nominated for: Postlethwaite was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1993 for In the Name of the Father.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1995 for The Usual Suspects.
Reasons: Postlethwaite was basically burned by the competition the year he was nominated and it was for a film that would be seen as obscure to most Americans.
Trivia: Was advised to adopt a stage name “would never be put up in lights outside theaters because they couldn’t afford the electricity” but decided against it. Told the British Secretary of Energy that he’d return his OBE if a new coal power plant was built, which led to the proposal being shelved.
152. Dame Gladys Cooper
From Edwardian pantomime and musical comedy to Hollywood, Dame Gladys Cooper had a career that spanned 7 decades on stage and screen. Here is her as Sir Laurence Olivier’s sister from Rebecca, not Broomhilda.
Personal Life: (1888-1971) Born in London. Made her stage debut in 1905 and performed in Edwardian musicals and pantomime as a teenager. Made her first film in 1913. Moved to Hollywood in 1940. Married 3 times and had 3 children. After her third husband died, she returned to Great Britain. Died of pneumonia at Henley-on-Thames at 82.
Famous for: British actress whose career spanned 7 decades on stage, film, and television. Notable roles are Flora MacDonald from Bonnie Prince Charlie, Beatrice Lacy from Rebecca, Mrs. Strafford from Kitty Foyle, Lady Frances Nelson from That Hamilton Woman, Myrna Hartley from The Black Cat, Mrs. Vale from Now, Voyager, Sister Marie Therese Vauzous from The Song of Bernadette, Alice – Dutchess de Brancourt from Mrs. Parkington,
Clarissa Scott from The Valley of Decision, Beatrice Remington from Love Letters, Mrs. Hamilton from The Bishop’s Wife, Mrs. Medlock from The Secret Garden, Mme. Dupuis from Madame Bovary, Mrs. Railton-Bell from Separate Tables, Mrs. Karoudjian from The List of Adrian Messenger, Mrs. Higgins from My Fair Lady, and Aunt Mary from The Happiest Millionaire.
Nominated for: Cooper was nominated 3 times for Best Supporting Actress consisting of: in 1942 for Now, Voyager, 1944 for The Song of Bernadette, and 1965 for My Fair Lady.
Most Crushing Loss: Losing to Theresa Wright in 1942. Seriously, Mrs. Vale is one of the most selfish and least affectionate mothers in movie history.
Reasons: Well, in 1942, there was a war on, which was very good for Mrs. Miniver not much for other nominated movies. Also, Cooper was nominated in very bad years and got burned by the competition.
Trivia: Manager of the Playhouse Theatre from 1917 to 1933. Was in 2 Best Picture winners.
153. Dame Edith Evans
Despite not being conventionally attractive, Dame Edith Evans is said to play more than 100 roles on stage ranging from classics to modern voices. In movies, she was known for playing highly aristocratic woman like Miss Western shown here from Tom Jones.
Personal Life: (1888-1976) Born in London. Father was a junior civil servant at the General Post Office. Was apprenticed at 15 to a milliner and soon began attending drama classes which developed into an amateur performing group. Made her first stage appearance in 1910 and her West End debut in 1913. Made her first film in 1915. Married to George Booth for 10 years. Died in Kilndown, Kent at 88.
Famous for: British actress whose career spanned 60 years and played more than 100 roles on stage. Was widely known to portray haughty aristocratic women. Notable roles are Augusta Lady Bracknell from The Importance of Being Earnest, Mrs. Tanner from Look Back in Anger, Rev Mother Emmanuel from The Nun’s Story, Miss Western from Tom Jones, Mrs. St Maugham from The Chalk Garden, Lady Gregory from Young Cassidy, Mrs. Maggie Ross from The Whisperers, Miss Victoria Woodworth from Ftizwilly, Ghost of Christmas Past from Scrooge, Josephine from The Madwoman of Chaillot, and Anne-Marie from A Doll’s House.
Nominated for: Evans was nominated 3 times twice for Best Supporting Actress and once for Best Actress consisting of: in 1963 for Tom Jones, 1964 for The Chalk Garden, and 1967 for The Whisperers.
Most Crushing Loss: Losing to Margaret Rutherford in 1963. I mean Evans was great as Squire Western’s sister. I’m not sure if people still remember The V. I. P.s.
Reasons: Evans was better known on the British stage than in Hollywood. She was also more of a comic actress than a dramatic one.
Trivia: Joined ENSA and entertained troops in Gibraltar during WWII as well as toured with them in Europe, Britain, and India. Received honorary degrees from the universities of London (1950), Cambridge (1951), Oxford (1954) and Hull (1968). Had as sculpted head on display at the Royal Court Theatre for many years and a portrait painted of her. Said to be the greatest stage actress of the 20th century.
154. Susannah York
Susannah York’s Telegraph obituary characterized her as “the blue-eyed English rose with the china-white skin and cupid lips who epitomised the sensuality of the swinging Sixties.” Yet, her roles as Sophie Western or Katherine More “swinging” in my definition.
Personal Life: (1939-2011) Born Susannah Yolande Fletcher in Chelsea, London in England. Father was a merchant banker and a steel magnate. Parents divorced in 1943 and both remarried. Moved with her mother to Scotland. At 13, she was expelled from school for swimming in the pool nude. Trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts. Made her first film in 1960. Married to Michael Wells for 16 years and had 2 children before their 1976 divorce. Diagnosed with multiple myeloma in 2010 and died the next year at 72.
Famous for: British actress whose appearances in films during the 1960s gave her an international reputation. Notable roles are Ellen from There Was a Crooked Man, Sophie Western from Tom Jones, Candace Trumpey from The 7th Dawn, Madeleine Usher from The Fall of the House of Usher, Margaret More from A Man for All Seasons, Eleanor from Oh! What a Lovely War, Section Officer Maggie Harvey from Battle of Britain, Alice from They Shoot Horses, Don’t They?, Cathryn from Images, Lara from Superman and other films, Jane Turner from The Awakening, Queenie from Alice, Lady Churchill from Yellowbeard, Mrs. Cratchit from A Christmas Carol, and Olivia from Loop.
Nominated for: York was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1969 for They Shoot Horses, Don’t They?.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1966 for A Man for All Seasons, in which she bests Henry VIII in recitation.
Reasons: When nominated for an Oscar, she snubbed the Academy, declaring it offended her without being asked. Of course, nobody asks to be nominated for an Oscar. Also, publicly supported Mordechai Vanunu, the Israeli dissident who revealed Israel’s nuclear weapons program, an incident which still generated a lot of controversy as recent as 2007.
Trivia: Appointed Officier de l’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 1991. Wrote 2 children’s fantasy novels. Patron of Children’s Film Unit.
155. Oliver Reed
Oliver Reed was one of the biggest box office stars in the UK as well as known for his legendary alcoholism and playing Billy Sikes on Oliver!. Yet, most people my age remember him dying during the filming of Gladiator.
Personal Life: (1938-1999) Born in London. Was drafted in the Royal Army Medical Corps. Started his acting career as an extra in the 1950s. Was scarred from a bar fight in 1963. Married twice and had a daughter to Jacquie Daryl. Also had a son to his first wife Kate Byrne. Was known for his alcoholism. Was a tax exile at Guernsey and Ireland from the 1970s. Died of a heart attack in Malta at 61.
Famous for: British actor who exemplified his macho image in “tough guy” roles. Notable roles are Le Bete from The Trap, Billy Sikes from Oliver!, Ivan Dragomiloff from The Assassination Bureau, Gerald Crich from Women in Love, Urban Grandier from The Devils, Hugh Lombard from Ten Little Indians, Frank Hobbs from Tommy, Tom from Blueblood, Ben Rolf from Burnt Offerings, Gen. Rodolfo Graziani from Lion of the Desert, Gerald Kingsland from Castaway, Athos from The Three Musketeers, Hannibal Brooks, Vulcan from The Adventures of Baron Muchausen, and Proximo from Gladiator.
Nominated for: Reed was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 2000 for Gladiator.
Reasons: Reed was notorious for his alcoholism and binge drinking that he was often irritated that his appearances on TV talk shows focused more on his drinking feats than his latest film. It didn’t help that there were numerous anecdotes about it. Also appeared in a series of exploitation films.
Trivia: Was filming Gladiator at the time of his death. Nephew of director Sir Carol Reed. Brother was a sports journalist. Recorded some music with limited success.
156. Betty Grable
Out of all the 1940s pin-ups, none is as prolific as Betty Grable’s iconic promotion photo for the movie Pin Up Girl. The film was critical flop and largely forgotten yet the picture is just pure American memorabilia.
Personal Life: (1916-1973) Born Elizabeth Ruth Grable in St. Louis, Missouri. Was propelled into show business by her mother and made her first movie in 1929 at 12. Mother then gave her a makeover by bleaching her hair blonde. Was fired for her mother trying to get her a contract using false identification. Married twice with her first husband being Jackie Coogan. Had 2 daughters with second husband Harry James whom she was married to for 22 years before divorcing him in 1965 on grounds of alcoholism and infidelity. Died of lung cancer at 56.
Famous for: American actress, dancer, and singer and popular contract star for 20th Century-Fox during the 1940s and 1950s. Celebrated for having the most beautiful legs in Hollywood. Highest paid US entertainer in 1947. Notable roles are Dance Specialty from The Gay Divorcee, Trio Singer from Follow the Fleet, Laura Watson from Pigskin Parade, Carol Parker from Million Dollar Legs, Lily Blane from Tin Pan Alley, Carol Brown from A Yank in the RAF, Kathryn ‘Kay’ Latimer from Moon Over Miami, Pat Lambert from Footlight Serenade, Vicky Lane from Springtime in the Rockies, Madeline Marlowe/Rosie O’Grady from Sweet Rosie O’Grady, Kate Farley from Coney Island, Lorry Jones/Laura Lorraine from Pin Up Girl, Bonnie Collins from Diamond Horseshoe, Yansci ‘Jenny’ Dolly from The Dolly Sisters, Cynthia Pilgrim from The Shocking Miss Pilgrim, Myrtle McKinley Burt from Mama Wore Tights, Francesca/Angelina from That Lady in Ermine, Winnifred Jones from The Beautiful Blonde from Bashful Bend, Kitty Moran from My Blue Heaven, Kay Hudson from Call Me Mister, Molly Larkins from The Farmer Takes a Wife, and Loco Dempsey from How to Marry a Millionaire.
Nominated for: Grable was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not receiving an honorary Oscar. Seriously, her legs are iconic.
Reasons: Well, her legs basically made her a sex symbol during the 1940s and 1950s. Also, specialized in musical and romantic comedy.
Trivia: 20th Century Fox took a $1 million insurance policy on her legs with Lloyd’s of London. Iconic bathing suit poster made her the number one pin-up girl of World War II, surpassing Rita Hayworth. Hugh Hefner said her legs inspired him to found Playboy (and you thought it was Marilyn Monroe).
157. Herbert Lom
While there can be nobody but Peter Sellers who could play Inspector Clouseau, you easily say the same thing when it comes to Herbert Lom playing Chief Inspector Dreyfus. I mean, his descent into madness through the Pink Panther series is hysterical and very understandable.
Personal Life: (1917-2012) Herbert Charles Angelo Kuchačevič ze Schluderpacheru in Prague during the Autro-Hungarian Empire which is now the Czech Republic. Made his film debut in 1938. Moved to the UK in 1939. Took Lom as a stage name because it was the shortest name he could find in a phone book. Was unable to obtain an American visa due to “political reasons” during WWII. Became a British citizen after the war. Married 3 times and had 3 children. Retired in 2004. Died in his sleep at 95.
Famous for: Czech-born British actor whose career lasted for more than 60 years appearing in character roles. Portrayed villains early in his career and played professional men in his later years. Notable roles are Napoleon from The Young Mr. Pitt and War and Peace, Kristo from Night and the City, Louis from The Ladykillers, Maj. DuPaty de Clam from I Accuse!, Tigranes Levantus from Spartacus, Charles Dreyfus from The Pink Panther series, Ben Yussuf from El Cid, Captain Nemo from Mysterious Island, Simon Legree from Uncle Tom’s Cabin,
Shahbandar from Gambit, and Dr. Edward Armstrong from Ten Little Indians.
Nominated for: Lom was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1955 for The Ladykillers. Also not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor for Dreyfus whose breakdown of violent insanity is hysterical.
Reasons: Lom is best known for his comedies and Hammer Horror films. Also he was often typecast as a villain, especially a foreign one. Also, he was from Czechoslovakia.
Trivia: Wrote 2 historical novels. Had a Jewish girlfriend who died in a Nazi concentration camp (and was deported from the UK for not having proper papers, which is even sadder. Not to mention, he didn’t know she was Jewish until then).
158. Sterling Hayden
General Jack D. Ripper: “I can no longer sit back and allow Communist infiltration, Communist indoctrination, Communist subversion, and the international Communist conspiracy to sap and impurify all of our precious bodily fluids.”
Yes, Sterling Hayden can act like a crazy guy. You should hear about his adventures during WWII in the O. S. S.
Personal Life: (1916-1986) Born Sterling Relyea Walter in Montclair, New Jersey. Adopted at 9 by James Hayden after his father died. Grew up on the East Coast. Dropped out of school at 16 and worked as a sailor, fisherman, and fireman. Got his first command at 22. Became a print model and made his first film in 1941. Enlisted in the US Marine Corps as John Hamilton, was commissioned lieutenant, and spent WWII as a US OSS agent sailing supplies from Italy to Yugoslav partisans in Croatia. Married 3 times with his first wife being Madeline Carroll. Had 6 children and married to third wife Catherine Devine McConnell for 26 years. Died of prostate cancer at 70.
Famous for: American actor and author who appeared as a leading man specializing in westerns and film noir. Later became a noted character actor. Notable roles are Norman Williams from Virginia, Bert Donner from El Paso, Dix Handley from The Asphalt Jungle, Pervis DeJong from So Big, Sir Gawain from Prince Valiant, Johnny “Guitar” Logan from Johnny Guitar, Sheriff Tod Shaw from Suddenly, Jim Bowie from The Last Command, Brigadier General Jack D. Ripper from Dr. Strangelove, Captain McCluskey from The Godfather, Russell Tinsworthy from 9 to 5, and his numerous roles in westerns.
Nominated for: Hayden was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1964 for Dr. Strangelove. I mean he’s the kind of guy you didn’t want to be in the same room with as General Ripper.
Reasons: Had a brief membership in the Communist Party after WWII but cooperated with the House Committee on Un-American Activities confessing his ties and naming names, which he thought the committee already knew about. Also during his second divorce, he defied a court order and went on a sailing trip with 4 of his kids from San Francisco Bay to Tahiti with a well-known photographer to document it (he also lied about making a film there and got in trouble with the studio).
Trivia: Received a Silver Star, a Bronze Arrowhead device, and a commendation from Marshal Tito for his services. Was a huge sailing enthusiast and earned his master’s license at 21.
159. Constance Bennett
With her delicate blonde features and glamorous fashion style, Constance Bennett quickly became a popular film star in the 1920s and 1930s. And though she was acting in movies less often in the 1940s, she was in demand in theater and radio. She also had her own cosmetic and clothing company.
Personal Life: (1904-1965) Born in New York City from a famous theatrical family. Father was an actor Richard Bennett while mother was an actress and literary agent. Made her first film in 1916 with her parents. Married 5 times and had 3 children. Collapsed and died from a cerebral hemorrhage at Fort Dix, New Jersey at 60.
Famous for: American actress who mostly appeared in movies from the 1920s and 1930s. First Bennett sister to make it into show business. Notable roles are Elise Bascom from What’s Wrong with the Women?, Sally from Sally, Irene, and Mary, Ann Marvin from This Thing Called Love, Sylvia Brenner from Sin Takes a Holiday, Venice Muir from Lady with a Past, Mary Evans from What Price, Hollywood?, Judy Carroll from Rockabye, Duchess of Florence from The Affairs of Cellini, Helen Hall / Raquel from Moulin Rouge, Lorry Evans from Bed of Roses, Marion Kerby from Topper and other films, Gerry Lester from Tail Spin, Joan Madison from Law of the Tropics, Christina Blaine from Escape to Glory, Griselda Vaughn from Two-Faced Woman, Joan Bannister from Madame Spy, Zenia Lascalles from Centennial Summer, and Estelle from Madame X.
Nominated for: Bennett wasn’t nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Actress in 1932 for What Price, Hollywood? which was a tragic behind the scenes look at the Hollywood studio system. Too bad they only had 3 nominee slots at the time.
Reasons: Most of Bennett’s movies were made before WWII and she didn’t make many movies after that. Was renowned as a drama queen who feuded with the press and enjoyed lawsuits. Also died before she could stage a comeback. Not to mention, she wasn’t as well-known as her sister Joan and was later remembered just as, “Joan Bennett’s sister.”
Trivia: Sister of Joan Bennett. Granddaughter of legendary Jamaican-born Shakespearean actor Lewis Morrison who was of English, Spanish, Jewish, and African ancestry. Founded a cosmetics and clothing company. Helped provide relief and entertainment to US troops stationed in Europe after WWII and won military honors for her services. Fifth husband would become a Brigadier General and be buried beside her at Arlington National Cemetery.
160. ZaSu Pitts
The “ZaSu” from ZaSu Pitts’ name was a childhood nickname her parents chose to settle competing interests of her paternal aunts Elizabeth and Susan. Also, it’s pronounced, “Say Zoo” not like the bird from The Lion King.
Personal Life: (1894-1963) Born Eliza Susan Pitts in Parsons, Kansas. Father lost a leg while 76th New York Infantry Regiment in the Civil War. “ZaSu” was a childhood nickname as a compromise for her father’s 2 sisters who wanted her to be named after them. Moved to Santa Cruz, California at 9 so her family can seek a warmer climate and job opportunities. Made her stage debut in 1914-1915 in school and community theater. Moved to Los Angeles in 1916. Married twice and adopted 2 children with first husband Thomas Sarsfield Gallery. Married to second husband John Edward “Eddie” Woodall for 30 years. Diagnosed with cancer during the 1950s but continued to work until the very end. Died at 69.
Famous for: American actress who starred in silent dramas and comedies before transitioning into comedy sound films. Often played worrisome spinsters and receptionists. Notable roles are Becky from The Little Princess, Trina from Greed, Polly Jordon from The Great Divide, Maggie Keenan from Pretty Ladies, Hope Durant from Monte Carlo, Camille from Casey at the Bat, Cecelia Schweisser from The Wedding March, Mother Spengler from Sins of the Fathers, Harriet from Paris, Pauline Hastings from No, No, Nanette, Minnie from The Bad Sister, Temperance Worker from Destry Rides Again, Mrs. Dole from Back Street, Matilda Ounce Hemingway from Dames, Cousin Cora Cartwright from Life with Father, Nurse Valerie Humpert from Francis, Olivia from The Thrill of It All, and Gertie from It’s a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World.
Nominated for: Pitts was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not receiving an honorary Oscar for her career which spanned from the silent era to the 1960s.
Reasons: Well, most of Pitts’ career took place during the silent and Pre-Code eras. After that, she just appeared in comedies. Also appeared in Eric Von Stroheim’s Greed which was a massive flop.
Trivia: First name pronounced, “Say Zoo” as she said it. Was the inspiration for Olive Oyl. Wrote a book of candy recipes.
February 23, 2015
I don’t know about you but does Barbara Bel Geddes seem jealous in Vertigo for some reason? Seriously, why would she want Scotty back? The guy’s a jerk.
Though my list of Oscar less actors and actresses mostly consist of the Hollywood variety, Americans usually don’t seem aware that Hollywood, California isn’t the only place where people are making movies and never was. In fact, as you may have read, some of these stars were from different countries and spent a certain amount of time working in their local film industry. Sometimes they got their start there. Yet, despite that other countries manage to produce great films throughout movie history, a lot of Americans don’t watch foreign films mostly because watching a film with subtitles commands one’s full attention. Not to mention, most foreign movies are played in select cities which put many out of reach unless they have money. Yet, Americans also fail to notice that the US isn’t the English speaking country making movies either, yet at least they don’t have subtitles to follow. However, even though Americans may not watch foreign movies, this doesn’t mean that they haven’t influenced culture or else Toshiro Mifune wouldn’t be on here since his movies have inspired many American films. Now in this selection, we have 10 more actors and actresses who have never won an Oscar in their careers. First, we have Robert Walker best known as Bruno Anthony from Strangers on a Train as well as John Cazale remembered as Fredo from The Godfather yet both these guys had short careers. Second, we have British actors like Richard Griffiths, Stanley Holloway, Lynn Redgrave, Celia Johnson, and Sir Anthony Quayle who were famous on both sides of the Atlantic doing films in the US and their home country. After that is Betsy Blair best known for being married to Gene Kelly, Marty, and being blacklisted. Then there’s Barbara Bel Geddes who most people remember playing Jimmy Stewart’s smart ass ex-girlfriend from Vertigo. Finally, comes Lee Remick who is best known for playing a deeply disturbed army wife, an alcoholic housewife, and an adoptive mother to the son of Satan. So sit back and relax as I give you 10 more actors who never gave their Oscar speech.
141. Robert Walker
Robert Walker is most famous for playing a charming psychopath named Bruno Anthony who offers to switch murders with a tennis pro. So remember, kiddos, even if you wish someone dead, trading murders is a really bad idea.
Personal Life: (1918-1951) Born in Salt Lake City, Utah. Parents divorced while he was still a child which emotionally scarred him. Attended American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York City. Married twice with his first marriage to Jennifer Jones to whom he had 2 sons. Was distraught over Jones’ affair with David O. Selznick and their eventual divorce that he was prone to drinking, emotional outbursts, and a nervous breakdown. Spent time in the Menninger Clinic in 1949 for a psychiatric disorder. Died from and adverse reaction to prescription drugs which followed an emotional outburst at 32.
Famous for: American actor best known for Strangers on a Train. Notable roles are Leonard Purckett from Bataan, David Le Gros from Madame Curie, Corporal William G. “Bill” Smollett II from Since You Went Away, David Thatcher from Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, Corporal Joe Allen from The Clock, Jimmy Dobson from Her Highness and the Bellboy, Eddie Hatch from One Touch of Venus, and Bruno Anthony from Strangers on a Train.
Nominated for: Walker was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Actor in 1951 for Strangers on a Train.
Reasons: Walker was twice divorced by 30 and suffered from alcoholism and mental illness, especially after his divorce from Jenifer Jones. Not to mention, he died at 32 and was in his twenties for most of his film career.
Trivia: Aunt was president of Botwin Teller.
142. Richard Griffiths
Though most people remember Richard Griffiths as Uncle Vernon, he’s also a rather accomplished actor on the British stage who really hated it when someone’s cell phone would ring during his performances.
Personal Life: (1947-2013) Born in Yorkshire, England. Father was a steelworker who fought in bars for money. Parents were both death and learned sign language at an early age to communicate with them. Attempted to run away many times and dropped out of school at 15 yet returned after working as a porter. Attended the Manchester Polytechnic School of Drama. Began his acting career in small theaters and radio. Married to Heather Gibson for 33 years. Died from complications from heart surgery at 65.
Famous for: British actor whose career spanned for nearly 40 years. Notable roles are Head Porter at Caius College from Chariots of Fire, Sir Tom from The French Lieutenant’s Woman, Collins from Gandhi, Uncle Monty from Withnail and I, Duncan Phipps from King Ralph, Magistrate Philipse from Sleepy Hollow, Vernon Dursley from the Harry Potter series, Donald from Venus, Hector from The History Boys, King George II from Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides, and Monsieur Frick from Hugo.
Nominated for: Griffiths was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Actor in 2006 for The History Boys.
Reasons: Other than appearing on Harry Potter, Griffiths was much more famous in Britain.
Trivia: Performed with Daniel Radcliffe in Equus. Ordered people out of a theater during a performance over their cell phones ringing. Appeared in 2 Best Picture winners for 2 consecutive years.
143. Lee Remick
At the start of her career, Lee Remick was said to be the American Brigitte Bardot who had a film career playing trainwrecks, temptresses, or both. She also did a lot of reality based TV movies from the 1970s and appeared in a few Stephen Sondheim musicals.
Personal Life: (1935-1991) Born in Quincy, Massachusetts. Mother was an actress while father owned a department store. Studied acting at Barnard College and the Actors Studio. Debuted on Broadway in 1953 and made her first film in 1957. Married twice and had 2 children to first husband Bill Colleran. Married to second husband William Rory “Kip” Gowans for 21 years. Died of kidney cancer at 55.
Famous for: American actress best known for Anatomy of a Murder (1959), Days of Wine and Roses (1962), and The Omen (1976). Notable roles are Betty Lou Fleckum from A Face in the Crowd, Eula Varner from The Long, Hot Summer, Laura Manion from Anatomy of a Murder, Kirsten Arnesen Clay from Days of Wine and Roses, Stella from The Running Man, Cora Templeton Massingale from The Hallelujah Trail, Karen from The Detective, Katherine Thorn from The Omen, and Eugenia Young from The Europeans.
Nominated for: Remick was nominated for Best Actress in 1962 for Days of Wine and Roses.
Most Crushing Loss: Losing to Anne Bancroft for Best Actress in 1962. Sure I do feel that Bancroft deserved her Oscar. However, Remick’s character is very realistic portrayal of an alcoholic that really had Bette Davis say, “Miss Remick’s performance astonished me, and I thought, if I lose the Oscar, it will be to her.” Turns out the both lost to Mel Brooks’ wife (or future wife at the time).
Reasons: The Miracle Worker was an inspirational film about Helen Keller and her teacher while Days of Wine and Roses was about the dangers and harms associated with alcoholism. Also, she was burned by the competition. Not to mention, she died young. Also was said to be “America’s Answer to Brigitte Bardot” so take that what you will.
Trivia: Great grandmother was an English born preacher. Was the queen of reality based TV movies from the 1970s. Played Eleanor Roosevelt and Lady Jennie Jerome Churchill.
144. John Cazale
Though he only appeared in 5 films before dying of cancer at 42, each one John Cazale was in would be nominated for Best Picture during the 1970s. Close friend Al Pacino said of him, “All I wanted to do was work with John for the rest of my life. He was my acting partner.”
Personal Life: (1935-1978) Born in Revere, Massachusetts. Studied drama at Oberlin College and Boston University. Moved to New York City, worked as a messenger for Standard Oil and met Al Pacino. Made his first film in 1972. Was romantically involved with Meryl Streep for 2 years. Died of lung cancer at 42.
Famous for: American actor who appeared in 5 films over his 6 year career which were all nominated for Best Picture. Normally played violent and desperate characters onscreen. Notable roles are Fredo Corleone from The Godfather Trilogy, Stan from The Conversation, Salvatore Naturale from Dog Day Afternoon, and Stanley from The Deer Hunter.
Nominated for: Cazale was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1972 for The Godfather or in 1974 for its sequel.
Reasons: Cazale was a rather promising actor whom the Academy thought would get his chance later. Yet, he died at 42.
Trivia: Was close friends with Al Pacino and live-in boyfriend to Meryl Streep. Has a theater named after him. Said to be a kind and gentle person who was a close friend to most of the actors he worked with.
145. Betsy Blair
Though Betsy Blair earned an Oscar nomination for playing a shy schoolteacher on Marty, she almost didn’t get the part because she was blacklisted years prior for not naming names. Luckily then husband Gene Kelly intervened.
Personal Life: (1923-2009) Born Elizabeth Winifred Boger in Cliffside Park, New Jersey. Began her career playing supporting roles. Worked as a child dancer from the age of 8 and was a model at 12. Won a scholarship Sarah Lawrence College but was told to wait one year before she could attend. Yet, she performed as a chorus girl at the International Casino in New York and Billy Rose’s Diamond Horseshoe where she met Gene Kelly. Made her first film in 1947. Married twice and had a daughter with first husband Gene Kelly. Married to Karl Reisz for 39 years. Moved to Europe and London after divorcing Kelly. Retired in 1994. Died of cancer in London at 85.
Famous for: American actress long based in London. Notable roles are Girl in Wig Shop from A Double Life, Birdie Bagtry from Another Part of the Forest, Hester from The Snake Pit, Clara from Marty, Elvia from Il Grido, Mother from Lies My Father Told Me, Emily from All Night Long, Amalia Brentani from Careless, Edna from A Delicate Balance, Helen from Flight of the Spruce Goose, and Gladys Simmons from Betrayed.
Nominated for: Blair was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1955 for Marty.
Most Crushing Loss: Losing to Jo Van Fleet in the Best Supporting Actress race in 1955. What’s even more crushing is that her loss might’ve had less to do with her performance in Marty, a role she’s best known for.
Reasons: For lack of a better word, politics for her interest in Marxism led to an investigation by the House Committee on Un-American Activities. She was blacklisted for some time because of this and almost didn’t get to play the school teacher on Marty. Yet, she had to seek work in Europe and Great Britain for her career in the US was damage. It’s also said to ruin her marriage to Gene Kelly.
Trivia: Married Gene Kelly at 17 years old. Performed before Eleanor Roosevelt at 8. Was juror at the 30th Berlin International Film Festival.
146. Barbara Bel Geddes
Before she played Miss Ellie Ewing from Dallas, Barbara Bel Geddes starred in a string of films during the 1940s and 1950s. Her best known roles are the daughter from I Remember Mama and the artist ex-girlfriend from Vertigo.
Personal Life: (1922-2005) Born in New York City. Daughter of stage and industrial designer Norman Bel Geddes. Came to prominence on Broadway in 1946. Made her first film in 1947. Married twice and had a daughter to each husband. Married to second husband Windsor Lewis for 21 years. Underwent a radical mastectomy in the early 1970s. Suffered a massive heart attack in 1983 and underwent triple bypass surgery. Retired in 1990 and settled in her Northeast Harbor home in Maine where she died at 82.
Famous for: American actress whose career spanned 6 decades. Notable roles are Jo Ann from The Long Night, Katrin from I Remember Mama, Leonora Eames from Caught, Nancy Reed from Panic in the Streets, Midge Wood from Vertigo, Marja from Five Branded Women, and Mrs. Todd from The Todd Killings.
Nominated for: Bel Geddes was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1948 for I Remember Mama.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1958 for Vertigo in which she’s the only character you’d want to have a beer with.
Reasons: Her career was stalled during the 1950s because she was on the Hollywood blacklist during an investigation on her by the House Committee on Un-American Activities. Nevertheless, Alfred Hitchcock basically saved her career by casting her in Vertigo and 4 episodes of his TV show Alfred Hitchcock Presents.
Trivia: Wrote 2 children’s books and created a popular line of greeting cards. Was Miss Ellie on Dallas and was the only cast member from the show to win an Emmy Award and a Golden Globe (sorry, Larry Hagman). Honored by Betty Ford for helping raise breast cancer awareness. Played Maggie the Cat in the original production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.
147. Celia Johnson
Celia Johnson wasn’t a Hollywood actress but her role as a lonely housewife from Brief Encounter earned her an Oscar nomination. She also appeared Maggie Smith’s nemesis in another Brit film called The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie.
Personal Life: (1908-1982) Born in Richmond, Surrey in England. Made her first public performance in 1916 in a charity performance to raise funds for returning WWI soldiers. Studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and the Comédie Française. Made her stage debut in 1928. Made her first film in 1941. Married to Peter Fleming for 35 years and had 3 children. Died of a stroke while playing bridge with her friends at 73 in Nettlebed Oxfordshire.
Famous for: British actress whose career spanned 43 years. Notable roles are Mrs. Kinross/Alix from In Which We Serve, Laura Jesson from Brief Encounter, Matty Matheson from I Believe in You, Maud St. James from The Captain’s Paradise, Miss Mackay from The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, and Mrs. Wheeler from The Hostage Tower.
Nominated for: Johnson was nominated for Best Actress in 1945 for Brief Encounter.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1969 for The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie.
Reasons: Well, Johnson was just burned by the competition during her nomination and wasn’t as well known to American audiences as her fellow Brit Olivia deHavilland. Also, To Each His Own is about a woman who gets knocked up after a fling and unwittingly gives up her child for adoption while Brief Encounter is about two married people engaging in sympathetic adultery. Not to mention, she was always torn between family and her career.
Trivia: Was James Bond author Ian Fleming’s sister-in-law and since the 1990s, her daughters co-owned his estate. Nicknamed, “Betty.” Nominated for 5 BAFTAs and won twice.
148. Lynn Redgrave
To this day, Lynn Redgrave is the only actress to be nominated for an Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony without winning any of them. Perhaps that’s because her career was mostly overshadowed by her better known sister Vanessa.
Personal Life: (1943-2010) Born in London to actors Sir Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson. Trained at London’s Central School of Speech and Drama. Made professional debut in 1962. Made her first film in 1963. Was a member of the National Theatre at the Old Vic. Debuted on Broadway in 1967. Married to John Clark for 33 years and had 3 children. Divorced him after she found out he fathered a child with her personal assistant who was said to marry and divorce their son Benjamin. The proceedings were acrimonious and made front page news. Became a US citizen. Had health problems associated with bulimia and breast cancer which she was diagnosed with in 2002 and underwent a mastectomy and chemotherapy. Yet, she died from the disease at her Kent, Connecticut home at 67.
Famous for: British American actress who appeared in several films during the 1960s. Notable roles are Susan from Tom Jones, Georgy from Georgy Girl, Virgin from The Deadly Affair, The Queen from Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex* (*But Were Afraid to Ask), Xaviera Hollander from The Happy Hooker, Gillian from Shine, Hanna from Gods and Monsters, Helen Whittaker from The Next Best Thing, Miss McVane from The Hairy Bird, Cordelia Thornberry from The Wild Thornberrys Movie, Aunt Millicent from Peter Pan, Final Interview Subject from Kinsey, Olga Belinskya from The White Countess, and Mama Sky from The Jane Austen Book Club.
Nominated for: Redgrave was nominated twice once for Best Actress and once for Best Supporting Actress in 1966 for Georgy Girl and 1998 for Gods and Monsters.
Most Crushing Loss: Losing to Dame Judy Dench in 1998. Sure Dench is a great actress but still, she shouldn’t have won for Shakespeare in Love. Seriously, Shakespeare in Love is just a totally historically inaccurate movie. Redgrave should’ve at least lost to Kathy Bates.
Reasons: No matter how talented she was, Redgrave was always best known as “Vanessa Redgrave’s sister.” Also burned out by the competition during both nominations.
Trivia: Sister of Vanessa Redgrave and aunt of Natasha Richardson (meaning she was related to Liam Neeson by marriage). Narrated 20 audiobooks. Only actress to be nominated for a Tony, Oscar, Grammy, and Emmy and not win any of them.
149. Stanley Holloway
British actor Stanley Holloway was famous for his comic and character roles on stage and screen during his 70 year career. He also recorded a series of monologues that have become part of Brit culture. Still, most of us remember him as Audrey Hepburn’s dead beat dad from My Fair Lady.
Personal Life: (1890-1982) Born in London. Father was a law clerk while mother was a dressmaker. Father deserted family in 1905 and was never seen or heard from again while his mother died the same year. Dropped out of school at 14 to work as a clerk at a boot polish factory and fish market before joining the military. Made his acting debut in 1910. Rejoined the military in 1915 and saw service during the Easter Rising and the French trenches. Married twice and had 5 children with 4 to his first wife of 24 years Alice “Queenie Foran and a son to second wife of over 40 years. Died at 91.
Famous for: British actor, comedian, singer, poet, and monologist. Famous for his comic and character roles on stage and screen. Had a career that spanned for 70 years. Made over 60 films. Notable roles are Policeman from Major Barbara, Alfred Godby from Brief Encounter, Belzanor from Caesar and Cleopatra, Vincent Crummles from Nicholas Nickelby, Gravedigger from Hamlet, Alfred Pendlebury from The Lavender Hill Mob, Mr. Lockit from The Beggar’s Opera, Alfred P. Doolittle from My Fair Lady, Detective William Henry Blore from Ten Little Indians, and Mr. Matthews from Journey Into Fear.
Nominated for: Holloway was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1965 for My Fair Lady.
Most Crushing Loss: Losing to Peter Ustinov in the Best Supporting Actor race of 1964. Sure Ustinov was a great actor but he already won an Oscar for Spartacus.
Reasons: Holloway was much better known in Britain than in the US and was more renowned for his comical and character performances mostly in British films.
Trivia: Named after explorer Henry Morton Stanley. Received the Victoria Cross for gallantry. Spent the later part of the war organizing shows to boost morale in France. Performed more than 20 monologues on stage as Sam Small, which he mostly wrote himself. Played Alfred P. Doolittle in the original cast of My Fair Lady and was the only cast member to do his own singing in the movie. Shares a granddaughter with Roald Dahl. Was friends with Maurice Chevalier and Sir Laurence Olivier as well as Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Burgess Meredith, and Groucho Marx.
150. Sir Anthony Quayle
Sir Anthony Quayle was known to play a lot of British officers during his career mostly because he drew a lot such performances from his own wartime experience. This brought an authenticity absent in performances by some non-combatant stars.
Personal Life: (1913-1989) Born in Southport, Lancashire in England. Trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and joined the Old Vic in 1932. Made his first film in 1938. Served as a British officer as a commander in area Auxiliary Units. Later joined the Special Operations Executive as a liaison to Albania. Was aide to the Governor of Gibraltar during General Władysław Sikorski’s plane crash in 1943. Married twice and had 3 children with second wife Dorothy Hyson to whom he was married to for 44 years. Died of liver failure at 76.
Famous for: British actor and director whose career spanned 54 years. Notable roles are Marcellus from Hamlet, Franklin from The Guns of Navarone, Colonel Brighton from Lawrence of Arabia, Verulus from The Fall of the Roman Empire, Sir John Edward Duncombe from Misunderstood, Older Englishman from MacKenna’s Gold, Cardinal Wolsey from Anne of the Thousand Days, Lord Minto from The Nelson Affair, Admiral Canaris from The Eagle Has Landed, Father Noessler from Magdalene, Frank O’Connor from The Wrong Man, and Lord Granville from King of the Wind.
Nominated for: Quayle was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1970 for Anne of the Thousand Days.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1962 for Lawrence of Arabia.
Reasons: Quayle was much better known in the British theater and movie world than among American audiences.
Trivia: Wrote fictionalized memoirs about his wartime experiences. Helped lay the foundation for the Royal Shakespeare Company. Founded his own theater company in 1984. Was knighted in 1985.
February 23, 2015
Though Linda Darnell played the Virgin Mary in The Song of Bernadette, she didn’t receive credit for her role for her off-screen persona was anything but, especially in later years. Of course, the reason here was that the studios wanted to see her as a sex symbol and that she ran off with a much older cameraman in 1943.
Of course, since my Oscar-less actors and actresses series deals mostly with the players from The Golden Age of Hollywood, it should be no surprise that most of the actors featured are white. Old Hollywood was not a great place for people of color during this period since such players would usually get consigned to play rather stereotypical roles, many of which presented who demographics in a negative light. African Americans usually played servants happy to work for their masters during segregation. Hispanics were portrayed as sensuous Latin lovers, banditos, or lazy workers who took after lunch siesta or else suffer from heat exhaustion. And if a main character had an Asian love interest, then he or she was played by a white person because the Hays Code basically banned interracial kissing onscreen. Of course, I featured quite a few movie stars of color from the era since they were basically robbed of any critical attention in their careers. In this selection, I bring you 10 more movie legends you may or may not have heard of. First, we have Dolores Del Rio who was called “The Female Rudolph Valentino” as well as the first Latin American actress to gain international recognition. Second, we have Glenda Farrell and Joan Blondell known funny ladies associated with the Pre-Code Era and the 1930s. Third, comes prolific character actor and Hollywood patriarch John Carradine better known as the father of David Carradine and Keith Carradine who played Frank Lundy from Dexter. After that is Frances Farmer who’s less remembered for her performances than for her time in a mental institution followed by Sylvia Sidney, an actress who played gangster molls and old ladies in Tim Burton movies like Beetlejuice and Mars Attacks!. Then there are Joan Bennett and Linda Darnell who were remembered as film noir dames yet with personal lives marred by scandals that nearly threatened their careers. Next there is Herbert Marshall who starred in many well-regarded films as a leading man despite being a WWI amputee. And last but not least, we have Van Johnson known for playing cheery roles despite his personal life being no bed of roses. So without further adieu, I bring you 10 more actors and actresses who never had a gold statuette on their mantlepieces.
131. Dolores Del Rio
Dolores Del Rio was the first Latin American actress to gain international attention and one of the most important female figures in Mexico’s Golden Age of Cinema during the 1940s and 1950s. Yet, even though Hispanics are the fastest growing demographic in the US, she never received an honorary Oscar in her lifetime.
Personal Life: (1905-1983) Born María de los Dolores Asúnsolo López-Negrete in Durango, Mexico. Father was director of the Bank of Durango and parents were members of the ruling class during the Porifirio Diaz regime. Family lost all assets during the Mexican Revolution and were forced to relocate to Mexico City, living under President Francisco I. Madero, who was her mother’s cousin. Attended the Liceo Franco Mexicano and was chosen to dance for a local hospital benefit and eventually marrying the benevolent group’s leader Jaime Martínez del Río y Viñent at 16 with a 2 year honeymoon in Europe. Yet, once they returned, Jaime lost his fortune and his country’s estate due to the bottom falling out in the cotton market and she miscarried (but instructed never to try for another child). Discovered by a First National director who convinced her and her first husband to go to Hollywood. Made her first film in 1925. Married 3 times. Married to third husband Lewis Riley for 24 years. Suffered a severe kidney infection in 1930. Though suffered a pain in her bones since the 1960s she was diagnosed with osteomyelitis in 1978. Diagnosed with Hepatitis B in 1981 caught through expired vitamin injections which developed into cirrhosis. Died of liver disease in Newport Beach, California at 77.
Famous for: Mexican actress who was considered one of the most beautiful women in Hollywood during the 1920s. One of the few silent superstars to make the transition to talkies and noted for her participation in Pre-Code musicals. When her Hollywood career began to decline, she returned to her native country and join the Mexican film industry, which was at its peak, becoming the most important star in the Golden Age of Mexican cinema. First Latin American female star to be recognized internationally. Notable roles are Carlotta Da Silva from Joanna, Charmaine de la Cognac from What Price Glory?, Katyusha Maslova from Resurrection, Carmen from The Loves of Carmen, Ramona, Evangeline, Luana from Bird of Paradise, Madame DuBarry, Belinnha de Rezende from Flying Down to Rio, Inez from Wonder Bar, Josette Martell from Journey into Fear, Maria Candelaria, Mrs. Erlynne from Story of a Bad Woman, María Dolores from The Fugitive, Spanish Woman from Cheyenne Autumn, Gilda “La Doña” from Casa de Mujeres, and Grandma from The Children of Sanchez.
Nominated for: Del Rio was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not receiving an honorary Oscar as a pioneer for her accomplishments in films in both the US and Mexico, especially since the American Hispanic population is on the rise and most Latinos have Mexican ancestry.
Reasons: For one, de Rio was Mexican. Second, she was a bigger star in Hollywood during the silent and Pre-Code eras and mainly spent the rest of her career in Mexico. Also was suspected of Communism since 1934 when she attended a special screening of a Sergei Eisenstein’s ¡Que viva México! with Ramon Novarro and Lupe Velez. Was also associated with people like Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, Charles Chaplin and Orson Welles who also had some (perceived) ties to communism. Not to mention, she befriended Eva Peron and the Duke of Windsor. She would later be denied to work in the US for 2 years during the 1950s.
Trivia: Romantically linked to Orson Welles. Was a juror at some international film festivals like Cannes Film Festival (1957), Berlin Film Festival (1962), and San Sebastián Film Festival (1976). Co-founder of the Sociedad Protectora del Tesoro Artistico de México (Society for the Protection of the artistic treasures of Mexico) with the philanthropist Felipe García Beraza that was responsible for protecting buildings, paintings, and other works of art and culture in Mexico. Helped found the Cultural Festival Cervantino in Guanajuato. Help found, lead, and support “Rosa Mexicano” that was meant to protect Mexican actresses and their children. Her Coyoacan “La Escondia” was a popular place for celebrities like Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, María Félix, Merle Oberon, David O’Selznick, Jennifer Jones, the Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor and Wallis Simpson, Princess Soraya of Iran and more. Upon her return to Hollywood, Elvis Presley presented her with a bouquet of flowers saying, “Lady, I know exactly who you are. It’s an honor to work with one of the largest and most respected legends of Classic Hollywood. As you will be my mother in the film, I want to ask permission for my ophthalmologist make contact lenses that mimic the color of your eyes.” She took to him and regard him with maternal affection.
132. Joan Blondell
Establishing herself as a brassy blonde during Hollywood’s Pre-Code Era, Joan Blondell enjoyed a long career of appearing in 80 films from Goldiggers of 1933 to Grease.
Personal Life: (1906-1979) Born Rose Joan Blondell in New York City to a vaudeville family. Father was one of the original Katzenjammer Kids. Slept in a property trunk as a baby and made her first stage appearance at 4 months being carried onstage in it. Grew up in Dallas, Texas. Attended what’s now the University of North Texas which was a teacher’s college in Denton, where her mother was an actress. Worked as a fashion model, stage hand, and clerk at a New York store before joining a stock company and performing on Broadway, including a play with James Cagney. Both were discovered by Al Jolson in 1930 and made their first film the same year. Married 3 times with second marriage being to Dick Powell and third to Mike Todd (who ran off with her savings) and had 3 children. Died of leukemia at 73.
Famous for: American actress whose career spanned 5 decades. Appeared in 100 movies and TV productions. Notable roles are Myrtle from Sinner’s Holiday, Mamie from The Public Enemy, Maloney from Night Nurse, Nurse Adams, aka Miss Pinkerton from Miss Pinkerton, Mary Keaton from Three on a Match, Carol from Gold Diggers of 1933, Nan from Footlight Parade, Peggy Revere from Stage Struck, Jenny Blake from Lady for a Night, Aunt Sissy from A Tree Grows in Brooklyn, Zeena Krumbein from Nightmare Alley, Annie Rawlins from The Blue Veil, Peg Costello from Desk Set, Edith from The Opposite Sex, Molly Hays from Angel Baby, Lady Fingers from The Cincinnati Kid, Vi from Grease, and Dolly Kenyon from The Champ.
Nominated for: Blondell was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1951 for The Blue Veil.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1945 for A Tree Grows in Brooklyn.
Reasons: Well, she was burned by the competition during her nomination. Also, she was known predominantly as a comic actress. Not to mention, she did a few risqué photos during the Pre-Code era when she established herself as a wisecracking blonde.
Trivia: Under the name Rosebud Blondell, she was 1926 Miss Dallas and placed 4th in the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Wrote a novel called Center Door Fancy.
133. Glenda Farrell
Glenda Farrell is best known as the resilient, fast-talking, crime solving reporter Torchy Blane from a series of 1930s films. Her most famous character would later be the inspiration for Nancy Drew and Lois Lane.
Personal Life: (1904-1971) Born in Enid, Oklahoma. Began her acting career with at theatrical company at 7. Made her first film in 1925. Married twice and had a son with first husband Thomas Richards. Married to second husband Dr. Henry Ross for 30 years (who was buried with her). Died of lung cancer at 66.
Famous for: American actress best known as Torchy Blane in a 1930s film series. Notable roles are Olga Stassoff from Little Caesar, Mrs. Black, Prisoner at Checkers Table from Three on a Match, Florence Dempsey from Mystery of the Wax Museum, Missouri Martin from Lady for a Day, Marie from I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang, Torchy Blane from Smart Blonde and other films, Jean Fenderson from Prison Break, Mae Blythe Agridowski from Johnny Eager, Regina Rush from The Talk of the Town, Hazel Bixby from I Love Trouble, Maude Snodgrass from Susan Slept Here, Mrs. Nesbit from The Girl in the Red Velvet Swing, Mrs. Winston from Secret of the Incas, and Mrs. Mueller from Middle of the Night.
Nominated for: Farrell was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1932 for I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang since the award didn’t exist. Yet, she played the only person who genuinely cared about Paul Muni in the film.
Reasons: She was basically best known as the career oriented, competent, self-reliant, and intelligent Torchy Blane which got her typecast and partly inspired Nancy Drew and possibly Lois Lane.
Trivia: Second husband was a West Point graduate and member of General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s staff during WWII. Mother of Tommy Farrell. Buried at Arlington National Cemetery.
134. John Carradine
Though better known as the patriarch of the Carradine family, John Carradine was a prolific character actor who appeared in 227 film and TV credits throughout his career. Did everything from horror and westerns to Shakespearean drama.
Personal Life: (1906-1988) Born Richmond Reed Carradine in Manhattan’s Greenwich Village in New York City. Father was correspondent for the Associated Press while mother was a surgeon. Grandfather was evangelical author Beverly Carradine. At 2, his father died of tuberculosis. Stepfather was a paper manufacturer who was physically abusive. Ran away from home at 14 but later returned. Studied sculpture at Philadelphia’s Graphic Arts Institute. Was arrested for vagrancy and suffered a broken nose in jail that didn’t set correctly. Made his stage debut at New Orleans in 1925. Shipped bananas from Dallas to Los Angeles and worked as a set designer for Cecil B. DeMille. Made first film in 1930. Retired in 1987. Married 4 times and had 5 sons. Adopted Bruce and had David to first wife Ardanelle McCool Cosner and Christopher, Keith, and Robert to second wife Sonia Sorel. Both these 2 marriages ended in divorce and very acrimonious custody and alimony battles that resulted in his younger children being sent to an abused children’s home as wards of the court as well as himself in jail. Was separated from his third wife Doris Grimshaw when she died in a fire in 1971 started by her burning cigarette. Suffered from crippling arthritis before dying of multiple organ failure in Italy at 82.
Famous for: American actor best known for his role in horror films, westerns, and Shakespeare theater. Member of Cecil B. DeMille’s and later John Ford’s stock company. Was one of the most prolific character actors in movie Hollywood history as well as patriarch of the Carradine family. Made about 227 credit appearances. Notable roles are Enjolras from Les Miserables, Beauty Smith from White Fang, David Rizzio from Mary of Scotland, Jim Farrar from Ramona, Sand Diviner from The Garden of Allah, Gordon from Kidnapped, Bob Ford from Jesse James, Barryman from The Hound of the Baskervilles, Hatfield from Stagecoach, Jim Casy from The Grapes of Wrath, Porter Rockwell from Brigham Young, Nacional from Blood and Sand, Gaston Morel from Bluebeard, Orange Povey from Captain Kidd, Charles Forestier from The Private Affairs of Belle Ami, Old Tom from Johnny Guitar, Fletcher from The Kentuckian, Giacomo from The Court Jester, Bruce Alden from The Patsy, Jeff Blair from Cheyenne Autumn, and other roles in westerns and horror movies.
Nominated for: Carradine was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1940 for Stagecoach. Also, not receiving an honorary Oscar for his sheer volume of work men like Eli Wallach and Mickey Rooney have.
Reasons: Well, other than appearing in westerns and horror movies, his acrimonious custody and alimony battles might have hurt his chances.
Trivia: Was said to be apprentice for Lincoln Monument sculptor Daniel Chester French. Third wife typed the script to The Treasure of the Sierra Madre. Son Christopher is vice president of Disney Imagineering. Had the word “HAM” on his Mercedes-Benz license plate. Had climbed 328 steps of Milan’s Gothic Duomo Cathedral when he was fatally stricken.
135. Joan Bennett
Joan Bennett had 3 distinct phases of her career: first as a winsome blonde, second as a sensuous femme fatale, and third as a warmhearted matriarch such as in Dark Shadows. Also has a scandal in which her husband shot her agent over suspicion she and the agent were having an affair.
Personal Life: (1910-1990) Born in Fort Lee, New Jersey from a famous theatrical family. Father was an actor Richard Bennett while mother was an actress and literary agent. Made her first film in 1916 with her parents. Attended L’Hermitage, which was a finishing school in Versailles, France. Married 4 times and had 4 children. Married to third husband producer Walter Wanger for 25 years (I’ll get to him later). Retired in 1982. Died of a heart attack at 80.
Famous for: American actress who appeared in more than 70 films from the silent era well into the sound era. Best known for her femme fatale roles in Fritz Lang movies. Had three distinct phases to her long and successful career, first as a winsome blonde ingenue, then as a sensuous brunette femme fatale (with looks that movie magazines often compared to those of Hedy Lamarr), and finally as a warmhearted wife/mother figure. Notable roles are Phyllis Benton from Bulldog Drummond, Lady Clarissa Pevensey from Disraeli, Lucy Blackburn from The Mississippi Gambler, Delores Fenton from Puttin’ on the Ritz, Helen Riley from Me and My Gal, Amy from Little Women, Helen Berkeley from The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo, Brenda Bentley from The House Across the Bay, Princess Maria Theresa from The Man in the Iron Mask, June Delaney from Girl Trouble, Sophia Baumer from Margin for Error, Alice Reed from The Woman in the Window, Katharine “Kitty” March from Scarlet Street, Margaret “Margot” Macomber from The Macomber Affair, Peggy from The Woman on the Beach, Ellie Banks from Father of the Bride and Father’s Little Dividend, Amelie Ducotel from We’re No Angels, Madame Blanc from Suspira, and Elizabeth Collins Stoddard from House of Dark Shadows.
Nominated for: Bennett was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Actress in 1947 for The Macomber Affair in which you really can’t tell whether to love her or hate her.
Reasons: Well, her career went through major damage in a 1961 scandal when her third husband Walter Wanger shot and injured her agent Jennings Lang in the balls over suspicion of him having an affair with his wife at the time (which she flatly denied). This in front of her. Wanger got off on a temporary insanity defense and a 4 month prison stint for assault with intent to kill. Nevertheless, she was virtually blacklisted for this for a time (yet I can’t understand why she stayed married to the jerk for 4 more years. Jesus!)
Trivia: Played Elizabeth Collins Stoddard on the daytime soap opera Dark Shadows. Sister of Constance Bennett. Granddaughter of legendary Jamaican-born Shakespearean actor Lewis Morrison who was of English, Spanish, Jewish, and African ancestry.
136. Herbert Marshall
Despite losing a leg while fighting for his country during WWI, Herbert Marshall managed to be an in-demand leading man in the 1930s. This might be because he had a nice English accent and that he was never expected to do a sex scene.
Personal Life: (1890-1966) Born in London. Parents were stage actors and his father also dabbled in writing and directing. Primarily raised by his aunts yet would occasionally appear on stage with his parents. Worked as an accounting clerk and an assistant manager for a troupe run by his father’s friend as well as a series of backstage jobs. Thus, decided to become an actor. Served in the London Scottish Regiment during WWI but was shot in the right knee by a sniper. His leg would later be amputated after a series of operations and he was in the hospital for 3 months. After he learned to walk with a prosthetic, he decided to return to the theater. Yet, he would suffer from the phantom pain associated with it for the rest of his life. Made his film debut in 1927. Married 5 times and had 2 children to his second and third wives. Suffered from bouts of depression and alcoholism. Suffered from a pulmonary embolism in 1951. Died of heart failure at 75.
Famous for: British actor who starred in many popular and well-regarded Hollywood films in the 1930s and 1940s. After a successful theater career in Britain and North America, became an in-demand Hollywood leading man, frequently appearing in romantic melodramas and occasional comedies. Turned to character acting in his later years. Notable roles are Geoffrey Hammond from The Letter, Edward ‘Ned’ Faraday from Blonde Venus, Gaston Monescu from Trouble in Paradise, Walter Fane from The Painted Veil, Gray Meredith from A Bill of Divorcement, Robert Crosbie from The Letter, Horace Giddens from The Little Foxes, W. Somerset Maugham from The Razor’s Edge, Scott Chavez from Duel in the Sun, Archibald Craven from The Secret Garden, William, Earl of Mackworth from The Black Shield of Falworth, and Lord Robert Dudley from The Virgin Queen.
Nominated for: Marshall was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 1946 for The Razor’s Edge.
Reasons: Though he was respected and liked by his colleagues for his professionalism, talent, gentlemanly demeanor, and pleasant attitude, he had a private turbulent life that periodically appeared in gossip columns.
Trivia: Grandfather wrote several books on art and travel while his uncle was a dramatic critic. Great-nephew of Edward Wollstonecraft who was a nephew of Mary Wollstonecraft and cousin of Mary Shelley. Was called “Bart” by his mother because she hated the nickname, “Bertie.” Was visited in the hospital by King George V during WWI and when asked to pick up which of his legs was fake, chose the wrong one. Made numerous appearances on the Armed Forces Radio Services during WWII and helped organize British war relief in Hollywood. Used his own money for travel to visit military hospitals during WWII and particularly focused on encouraging amputee soldiers to keep a positive attitude and not think of themselves as handicapped or limited. He even discussed his own experience with his amputation and gave them tips on how to use their prosthetics. Daughter Ann was Jack Nicholson’s personal assistant. Had an affair with Gloria Swanson. Starred in his own radio series A Man Called “X.”
137. Linda Darnell
From an ambitious stage mother, alcoholism, affairs, mental illness, and legal battles to her legendary death in a house fire, Linda Darnell’s life was full of drama from the time she came to Hollywood at 15. She may have had a perfect face yet her life was a hot mess which would end in flames -literally.
Personal Life: (1923-1965) Born Monetta Eloyse Darnall in Dallas, Texas. Father was a postal clerk. Parents’ marriage wasn’t happy and she grew up a shy and reserved girl in a house of domestic turmoil. Mother had big plans for her and thought she was the only one of her children with potential as an actress and ignored rearing her other kids. Mother’s reputation in her neighborhood ranged from “aggressive” to “downright mean.” Worked as a model at 11 and started acting at 13. Also, performed in beauty contests. Spotted by a talent scout from 20th Century Fox in 1937 who invited her for a screen test in Hollywood but was initially rejected for being too young (she was a teenager). At 15, she secured a contract in 1939 but lied about her age (posed as 17 but listed at 19). Made her first film in 1939. Married 3 times and adopted a daughter with first husband Peverell Marley. Died from severe burns sustained in a house fire in Chicago, Illinois at 41, which burned 80-90% of her body.
Famous for: American actress who appeared in supporting roles for big budget films at 20th Century Fox throughout the 1940s and rose to fame co-starring opposite Tyrone Power in adventure films. Established a main character career after her role in Forever Amber. Won critical acclaim for her work in Unfaithfully Yours and A Letter to Three Wives. Notable roles are Carolyn Sayers from Star Dust, Zina Webb – The Outsider from Bringham Young, Lolita Quintero from The Mark of Zorro, Carmen Espinosa from Blood and Sand, Virginia Clemm from The Loves of Edgar Allan Poe, The Virgin Mary from The Song of Bernadette, Dawn Starlight from Buffalo Bill, Netta Longdon from Hangover Square, Stella from Fallen Angel, Tuptim from Anna and the King of Siam, Amber St. Clair from Forever Amber, Chihuahua from My Darling Clementine, Daphne De Carter from Unfaithfully Yours, Lora Mae Hollingsway from A Letter to Three Wives, Edie Johnson from No Way Out, and Edwina Mansfield from Blackbeard the Pirate.
Nominated for: Darnell was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1949 for A Letter to Three Wives in which her portrayal of a social climber is sympathetic and well balanced compared to others.
Reasons: Though she appeared onscreen as The Virgin Mary in The Song of Bernadette, her off-screen lifestyle was particularly notorious and made perfect tabloid fodder. She struggled with alcoholism, weight gain, and mental health issues. She fought legal battles with agents and estranged husbands causing her financial woes as well as distanced herself from her dysfunctional family. She also had a lot of affairs and it’s said Ann Miller was her only friend. This didn’t help that 20th Century Fox wanted her to be a movie sex symbol.
Trivia: Was a witness at Lana Turner’s first wedding to Husband Stephen Crane. Star Dust was basically based on her beginnings in Hollywood. Romantically linked to Mickey Rooney, Howard Hughes, and Joseph L. Mankiewicz.
138. Frances Farmer
Frances Farmer isn’t as known for her work in Hollywood during the 1930s than for her involuntary commitment to a mental hospital, which has become the stuff of Hollywood legend that Jessica Lange played her in a film.
Personal Life: (1913-1970) Born in Seattle, Washington. Father was a prominent lawyer. Worked as a movies usher, waitress, tutor and factory worker while attending the University of Washington. Made her first film in 1936 at Paramount. Married 3 times with first marriage to Leif Erickson. Died of esophageal cancer at 56.
Famous for: American actress and TV host. Notable roles are Lotta Morgan/Lotta Bostrom from Come and Get It, Josie Mansfield from The Toast of New York, Ruby Taylor from South of Pago Pago, Linda Chalmers from Flowing Gold, Doris Halliday from Rhythm on the Range, Kitty Carr from World Premiere, Elaine Raden from Among the Living, and Isabel Blake from Son of Fury: The Story of Benjamin Blake.
Nominated for: Farmer was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1936 for Come and Get It, if any.
Reasons: Well, not only was Farmer alleged to be a Communist and an atheist, she had an outspoken style that made her uncooperative and contemptuous. She rebelled against the studio’s control and resisted every attempt they made to glamorize her private life. Refused to attend Hollywood parties or date other stars for the gossip columns. Not to mention, she’s more famous for her dramatic fall from grace when she was arrested on multiple charges and involuntarily committed to a mental hospital twice (with her mother having to assume legal guardianship). However, contrary to popular fictional portrayals, she was never lobotomized.
Trivia: Was agnostic and influenced by the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche according to a high school essay of hers she won $100 in a contest yet she would later convert to Roman Catholicism in 1959. Also won contests to Europe and the Soviet Union during her college years. Romantically linked to Clifford Odets. Had a second career as a daytime TV host in Indiana from 1958-1964.
139. Sylvia Sidney
Though Sylvia Sidney achieved fame by playing gangster gals in 1930s crime dramas, she is better known by younger viewers as the afterlife caseworker from Beetlejuice and the Slim Whitman loving grandmother from Mars Attacks!. Also wrote 2 books on needle point.
Personal Life: (1910-1990) Born Sophia Kosow in The Bronx of New York City to Russian and Romanian Jews. Father was a Russian Jewish immigrant who worked as a clothing salesman. Mother would later become a dressmaker. Parents divorced in 1915 and mother remarried a man named Sidney who adopted her. Became an actress at 15 as a way of overcoming shyness and trained in the Theater Guild’s School of Acting, appearing in several theatrical productions during the 1920s. Discovered by a Hollywood talent scout in 1926 and made her first film later that year. Married 3 times and had a son wit second husband Luther Adler, who died of Lou Gehrig’s disease. Was a lifelong smoker. Died of esophageal cancer in New York City at 88.
Famous for: American actress who rose to prominence in the 1930s appearing in numerous crime dramas, often playing a gangster’s girlfriend or sister. Notable roles are Nan Cooley from City Streets, Roberta “Bert” Alden from An American Tragedy, Rose Maurrant from Street Scene, Helen Smith from The Miracle Man, Joan Prentice from Merrily We Go to Hell, Cho-Cho San from Madame Butterfly, Katherine Grant from Fury, Mrs. Verloc from Sabotage, Joan Graham from You Only Live Once, Drina from Dead End, Cecily Harrington from Love from a Stranger, Fantine from Les Miserables, Mrs. Pritchett from Summer Wishes, Winter Dreams, Miss Coral from I Never Promised You a Rose Garden, Juno from Beetlejuice, and Grandma Florence Norris from Mars Attacks!
Nominated for: Sidney was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1973 for Summer Wishes, Winter Dreams.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Supporting Actress in 1977 for I Never Promised You a Rose Garden.
Reasons: Sidney was typecast as gangster molls and sisters early in her career and kindly old ladies in her later years. In 1977, she spoke of how producers came to typecast her as “the girl of the gangster, then the sister who was bringing up the gangster, then later the mother of the gangster, and they always had me ironing somebody’s shirt.” As for her Oscar nomination, she was just burned by the competition. Not to mention, she was a more prominent actress in the theater than in films.
Trivia: Tim Burton was a big fan of hers. Wrote 2 popular books on needle point.
140. Van Johnson
Though Van Johnson was the embodiment of the cheery wholesome boy next door onscreen during the 1950s, much of his live wasn’t which included a difficult childhood, a 1943 near-fatal car accident, and a supposedly engineered marriage by MGM to quell gay rumors which ended horribly.
Personal Life: (1916-2008) Born Charles Van Dell Johnson in Newport, Rhode Island. Father was a plumber and real estate salesman. Mother was an alcoholic who left the family when he was a child and he had a chilly relationship with his father. Moved to New York City after graduating from high school and made his stage debut in 1935. Made his first movie in 1940. Was involved in a car crash in 1943 which left him with a metal plate on his forehead and scars on his face that the plastic surgery at the time couldn’t correctly conceal. Also had his scalp nearly sheared off. Yet, he slapped his scalp and crawled 50 yards to get to rescue workers for aid. Injury exempted him from service during WWII. Married to stage actress Eve Abbott for 23 years and had a daughter (though marriage might’ve been a publicity stunt to quell gay rumors). Retired in 1992. Died in New York of natural causes at 92.
Famous for: American actor, singer, and dancer who was a major MGM star during and after WWII. Was the embodiment of “the boy next door wholesomeness” that made him a popular Hollywood star in the 1940s and 1950s. Was one of the last surviving matinee idols of Hollywood’s Golden Age. Notable roles are Marcus Macauley from The Human Comedy, Ted Randall from A Guy Named Joe, Ted Lawson from Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, Spike McManus from State of the Union, John Alden from Plymouth Adventure, Lt. Stephen Maryk, USNR from The Caine Mutiny, Jeff Douglas from Brigadoon, Maurice Bendix from The End of the Affair, Charles Wills from Last Time I Saw Paris, Al Yearling from Divorce American Style, and Larry from The Purple Rose of Cairo.
Nominated for: Johnson was never nominated for an Oscar.
Most Crushing Loss: Not being nominated for Best Actor in 1954 for The Caine Mutiny.
Reasons: Despite his image as a cheery guy, Johnson was reputed to be morose and moody because of his difficult early life and had little tolerance for unpleasantness. He and his daughter were estranged by his death. Also it’s said he was involved in many homosexual proclivities which were well known within the film industry but mostly covered up due to respect for privacy and Louis B. Mayer’s efforts to quash scandal (yet, this can’t really be proven). Still his marriage ended very bitterly and his life was frequent tabloid fodder.
Trivia: Was friends with Lucille Ball. Usually wore heavy makeup in his roles since 1943 with the sole exception of The Caine Mutiny. Always wore red socks.
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China and Japan's troubled waters
(CNN) -- The husk of a dead volcano protruding from the East China Sea has become the battleground between the two mightiest economies in Asia. At stake are potentially lucrative gas drilling rights in waters claimed by China and Japan. But the outcome of the territorial dispute may hinge on the medicinal herbs of a Chinese empress, the collection of bird excrement by the Japanese and the definition of what really makes an "island." The latest controversy over the simmering dispute erupted when Japanese patrol officers arrested the captain and crew of a Chinese fishing boat earlier this month near the disputed islands -- known as Diaoyu in China and Senkaku in Japan. The crew was released, but the Chinese captain remains in custody. He is to appear in a Japanese court on charges that he rammed two Japanese boats with his vessel . Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao on Tuesday urged Japan to release the boat captain "immediately and unconditionally," China's state news agency Xinhua reported. The economic repercussions have been immediate. The Chinese government cut off high-level talks with Japan on coal and increased commercial flights between the countries. The dispute also threatens planned talks on a 2008 agreement to jointly develop gas fields located near the disputed islands and in other parts of the East China Sea. Run-ins between China and Japan over the sovereignty of the islands are nothing new. Japanese nationalists held demonstrations on the island back in 1990. But what is most worrisome to long-time watchers of the dispute is the assertiveness of both governments in the current fracas. "A big difference this time: These incidents aren't being sparked by nationalists," said James Manicom, an expert on maritime disputes at the Balsillie School of International Affairs in Waterloo, Canada. "In the past, the most important thing (for Beijing and Tokyo) was to try to make this issue go away and to keep a lid on nationalist sentiment. Japan in particular now sees (territorial sovereignty) as a vital issue economically and as a national security issue." "It's different in terms of the context of China rising and Japan in bit of a travail both economically and politically," said Mark Valencia, a fellow at the National Asia Research Program. What makes an island? The dispute boils down to where lines can be drawn in the ocean for commercial use. International law allows for a nation to claim exclusive economic rights to fish, oil and mineral reserves up to 200 nautical miles from the shore. "The islands are a pile of rocks determining where the boundary may be drawn," said Dr. Wu Kang of the East-West Center in Hawaii. "The overriding issue is a territorial issue." "If Japan owns (the islands), then it gets a heck of a lot more (area) to develop what is increasingly thought to be a very gas-rich area that hasn't been explored very much at all because of this ongoing dispute," Valencia said. One question hanging over territorial claims is whether the disputed islands are islands at all, according to maritime law. If they're not islands, then territorial claims don't apply. "An island has an economic life of its own and can support human habitations; these are extinct volcanoes," Valencia said. Both sides say they have a history of economic use of the islands. China points to a 1893 decree by Dowager Empress Cixi, giving the island to a Chinese medicine-maker for use in cultivating herbs. Japan points to 19th century use on the island to collect seabird feathers and guano. Japanese nationalists traveled to the islands in 1990 and 1996 to build a lighthouse and further the economic claim for sovereignty. The islands are considered part of Japan based on U.S.-Japan security treaties. Though analysts don't think the current tension will escalate and draw in the U.S. military treaty obligations, the agreements add murk to an already muddy territorial dispute. With nationalists in Japan and China watching, officials in Tokyo and Beijing will face increasing pressure not to blink in the current conflict. The Ishigaki Summary Court in Okinawa decided that the captain will be held at least until September 29, the Japanese Coast Guard told CNN on Monday. "Both sides are getting themselves in real deep here. Someone is going to emerge with egg on their face," Valencia said. Powered By iWebRSS.com Source from CNN.com
Spice Girls Discography (1996-2007) [With Members Discographys]
Free Download Mp3 album Spice Girls Discography (1996-2007) [With Members Discographys] Pop, Dance Pop, Teen Pop | Years Active: 1994-2000; 2007-2008 320 Kbps | 513 Mb | 4 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Origin; London, EnglandOccupations; Victoria Beckham, Melanie Brown, Emma Bunton, Melanie Chisholm, Geri Halliwell EnglishThe Spice Girls are a British pop girl group that formed in 1994. The members consist of Victoria Beckham (ne Adams), Melanie Brown, Emma Bunton, Melanie Chisholm and Geri Halliwell. They are signed to Virgin Records and released their debut single, Wannabe, in 1996. The song hit number-one in 31 countries and helped establish the group as a global phenomenon. Credited for being the pioneers that paved the way for the commercial breakthrough of teen pop in the 1990s, their first album, Spice, sold more than 23 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling album by a female group in music history. They have sold over 75 million records worldwide with only four albums and twelve singles, making them the most successful British band since The Beatles and the best selling girl group of all time. Measures of their success include international record sales, a 200708 reunion tour, merchandising, record breaking achievements, iconic symbolism such as the Union Flag dress, Girl Power, a box office hit movie Spiceworld and their nicknames. Under the guidance of their long time mentor and manager Simon Fuller, the group embraced merchandising and became a regular feature of the British press. Each member of the group was given an alias by Top of the Pops magazine in 1996, which were adopted by the group and media alike. According to biographer David Sinclair, Scary, Baby, Ginger, Posh and Sporty were the most widely recognized group of individuals since John, Paul, George and Ringo. They are the biggest cultural icons of the 1990s, according to a survey carried out by Trivial Pursuit, winning by 80 percent in a poll of 1,000 people carried out for the board game, stating that Girl Power defined the decade. In May 1998, Geri Halliwell left the group in the middle of numerous rumours. The four remaining members released the third album Forever, but went their separate ways in November 2000 after the release of the third album to focus on their solo careers. On 28 June 2007 all five reformed before the launch of their Reunion Tour in December, alongside the release of their Greatest Hits album. In December, a new official documentary Giving You Everything aired on various television networks around the globe. The tour was a success and is estimated to have grossed over US$100 million. The tour won the Billboard 2008 Touring Award for Top Boxscore for a 17-night stand at Londons O2 Arena. TrkeSpice Girls (Baharat Kzlar) (1994-2000, 2007-2008) tm zamanlarn en ok satan kz grubudur. ngiltere`de ortaya km, ksa bir sre iinde tm dnyada tannan bir grup haline gelmitir. 1996 1998 aras ortal salladklar dnem olmutur. Grup dnya apnda 55 milyon albm,20 milyon single satm,75 milyon dolar haslat yapan bir sinema filmine imza atm,MTV ve Brit Awards bata olmak zere onlarca prestijli dl kazanm,saysz reklam filmi ekmitir.Herbiri klasik olmu pop arklaryla bir dneme damgasn vurmu Baharat Kzlar,1998de Geri Halliwellin ayrlmasyla sarslm,2000 ylnda da dalmtr.Ama 2007de hayranlarna teekkr ve veda etmek iin orijinal kadrosuyla yeniden birlemilerdir. 28 Haziran 2007de yaptklar basn toplantsnda, yeni bir dnya turnesi iin biraraya geleceklerini aklamlar, 1 Ekimde sata sunulan Londra konser biletleri 38 saniyede tkenince, grup dnya turnesindeki konserlerin saysn 47ye ykseltmilerdir.Kasm 2007de Greatest Hits albmlerinin sonrasnda kardklar Headlines (Friendship Never Ends) singlenn tm gelirini kimsesiz ocuklar vakfna balamlardr. + Studio Albums Spice Girls 1996 Spice Spice Girls 1997 Spiceworld Spice Girls 2000 Forever + Studio Albums Spice Girls 2007 Greatest Hits (Box Set 3CD) Spice (1996) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 91 MB | 40:07 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: November 1996 01. Wannabe (2:53)02. Say Youll Be There (3:56)03. 2 Become 1 (4:01)04. Love Thing (3:39)05. Last Time Lover (4:12)06. Mama (5:05)07. Who Do You Think You Are (4:01)08. Something Kinda Funny (4:05)09. Naked (4:26)10. If U Cant Dance (3:49) Spiceworld (1997) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 88 MB | 38:45 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: November 1997 01. Spice Up Your Life (2:54)02. Stop (3:25)03. Too Much (4:32)04. Saturday Night Divas (4:26)05. Never Give Up on the Good Times (4:30)06. Move Over (2:47)07. Do It (4:04)08. Denying (3:47)09. Viva Forever (5:11)10. The Lady Is a Vamp (3:09) Forever (2000) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 113 MB | 49:40 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: November 2000 01. Holler (4:16)02. Tell Me Why (4:15)03. Let Love Lead The Way (4:58)04. Right Back At Ya (4:11)05. Get Down With Me (3:46)06. Wasting My Time (4:15)07. Weekend Love (4:07)08. Time Goes By (4:52)09. If You Wanna Have Some Fun (5:27)10. Oxygen (4:57)11. Goodbye (4:35) Greatest Hits (Box Set 3CD) (2007) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 400 MB | 02:55:03 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: November 2007 Disc 101. Wannabe (Radio Edit) (2:54)02. Say Youll Be There (Single Mix) (3:58)03. 2 Become 1 (Single Version) (4:04)04. Mama (Radio Version) (3:42)05. Who Do You Think You Are (Radio Edit) (3:46)06. Move Over (2:44)07. Spice Up Your Life (Stent Radio Mix) (2:56)08. Too Much (Radio Edit) (3:53)09. Stop (3:26)10. Viva Forever (Radio Edit) (4:14)11. Let Love Lead The Way (Radio Edit) (4:16)12. Holler (Radio Edit) (3:57)13. Headlines (Friendship Never Ends) (3:31)14. Voodoo (3:11)15. Goodbye (Radio Edit) (4:22)Disc 201. Wannabe (Motiv 8 Vocal Slam Mix) (6:21)02. Say Youll Be There (Juniors Main Pass) (8:35)03. 2 Become 1 (Dave Way Remix) (4:02)04. Mama (Biffco Mix) (5:50)05. Who Do You Think You Are (Morales Club Mix) (9:31)06. Spice Up Your Life (Murk Cuba Libre Mix) (8:07)07. Too Much (SoulShock & Karlin Remix) (3:54)08. Stop (Morales Remix) (7:25)09. Viva Forever (Tony Rich Remix) (5:21)10. Holler (MAW Remix) (8:32)11. Goodbye (Orchestral Mix) (4:16)Disc 301. Wannabe (2:54)02. Say Youll Be There (3:54)03. 2 Become 1 (4:07)04. Mama (3:43)05. Who Do You Think You Are (3:45)06. Move Over (2:48)07. Spice Up Your Life (2:55)08. Too Much (3:55)09. Stop (3:26)10. Viva Forever (4:13)11. Let Love Lead The Way (4:16)12. Holler (3:56)13. Goodbye (4:22) Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 Pop, Dance Pop, R&B, Hiphop | Years Active: 1994 Present 320 Kbps | 202 Mb | 2 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Melanie Janine Brown (29 May 1975)Origin; Leeds, England, UKOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, TV Presenter, Author EnglishMelanie Janine Brown (previously Gulzar; born 29 May 1975)[1][2] is an English pop singer-songwriter, actress, author and television presenter. She is best known as one of the members of the girl group the Spice Girls.[3] She was given the nickname Scary Spice by the British media because of her outrageous, in-your-face attitude, thick Leeds accent, throaty laugh and manner of dress. TrkeMelanie B (d. 29 Mays 1975) (Mel B) Spice Girls grubun siyahi eleman Mel B, baharatlar arasndaki en vahi grnendi. Leopar desenli giysileri, kabark salar ve platform ayakkablaryla 1990larda 1970ler modasn geri getirmiti. En iyi dans eden Spicet. Spice Girlsden sonra Hot (2000) ve L.A.State Of Mind (2005) adl 2 albm kard. 1999da Spice Girls danss Jimmy Gulzardan Phoenix Chi, 2007de nl oyuncu Eddie Murphyden Angel Iris isminde iki kz ocuu dnyaya getirdi. Haziran 2007de Stephen Belafonte ile dnya evine girdi ve hala ok gzel bir Spice Girls kz. + Studio Albums Melanie Brown 2000 Hot Melanie Brown 2005 L. A. State Of Mind Hot (2000) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 102 MB | 44:41 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 9 October 2000 01. Feels So Good (5:07)02. Tell Me (4:34)03. Hell No (4:19)04. Lullaby (3:26)05. Hotter (3:14)06. Step Inside (4:00)07. ABC 123 (3:13)08. I Believe (4:02)09. I Want You Back (featuring Missy Misdemeanor Elliott) (3:26)10. Pack Your Shit (4:22)11. Feel Me Now (4:58) L. A. State Of Mind (2005) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 97 MB | 42:46 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 27 July 2005 01. Today (3:19)02. Stay In Bed Days (4:07)03. Beautiful Girl (3:51)04. Music Of The Night (Perdido) (3:51)05. If I Had My Life Again (4:44)06. In Too Deep (4:03)07. Sweet Pleasure (3:42)08. L.A State Of Mind (3:46)09. Say, Say, Say (3:56)10. Bad, Bad, Girl (3:29)11. Hold On (3:56) Pop, Dance Pop, Pop Rock | Years Active: 1994 Present 320 Kbps | 313 Mb | 3 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Geraldine Estelle Halliwell (6 August 1972)Origin; London, England, UKOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, Philanthropist, Author EnglishGeraldine Estelle Geri Halliwell (born 6 August 1972) is an English pop singersongwriter, author, actress and philanthropist. After coming to international prominence as a member of the girl group, the Spice Girls, Halliwell launched her solo career and released her debut album Schizophonic. Since then she has released two more studio albums Scream If You Wanna Go Faster and Passion and four number one singles at the UK Singles Chart, Mi Chico Latino, Lift Me Up, Bag It Up and Its Raining Men. In 2008 Halliwell published a book series named Ugenia Lavender.[1] As a solo artist Halliwell has sold 12 million records worldwide and been nominated for Brit Awards in both 2000 and 2002. TrkeGeri Halliwell (d. 6 Austos 1972, Watford, ngiltere), 1990larn nl pop mzik topluluu The Spice Girlsn Ginger ve seksi Spice lakapl yesi olarak nlenen, kard solo albmlerle byk bir hayran kitlesi edinen, kzl sal arkc. Bir dnem, Trkiye televizyonlarndaki Se Bakalm adl yarma programnda hosteslik yapan Geri, Its Raining Men, Look At Me, Lift Me Up ve Mi Chico Latino gibi hitlerle tannyor. Geri Halliwell Spice Girls grubuyla nlendi. Grubun lideri ve en ok dikkat eken ismiydi. Grubun en gzel kzyd. Ginger Spice olarak tanlr. 1998 ylnda grup zirve gnlerini yaarken, dnya turnesi srasnda gruptan ayrlmasyla ok konuuldu. Gruptan ayrldktan sonra otobiyogrofisini bir kitapta toplad. Byk bir sat rakamna ulat. Kimse Gerinin gruptan ayrldktan sonra baarl olabileceini dnmyordu. Fakat sanat onlar 4 tane 1 numara single ve birbirinden baarl albmlerle susturdu. 2007 ylnda Spice Girlsn birlemesinde Gerinin ok yarar oldu. 2008 ylnda piyasaya srd Ugenia Lavender ismindeki ocuk kitaplar serisiyle tekrar gndeme gelen Halliwelln serinin Hollywood adaptasyonunda senaryo yazaca konuuluyor. + Studio Albums Geri Halliwell 1999 Schizophonic Geri Halliwell 2001 Scream If You Wanna Go Faster Geri Halliwell 2005 Passion Schizophonic (1999) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 93 MB | 40:55 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 7 June 1999 01. Look At Me (4:32)02. Lift Me Up (3:52)03. Walkaway (5:04)04. Mi Chico Latino (3:15)05. Goodnight Kiss (4:39)06. Bag It Up (3:45)07. Sometime (4:05)08. Let Me Love You (4:01)09. Someones Watching Over Me (4:15)10. Youre In A Bubble (3:27) Scream If You Wanna Go Faster (2001) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 107 MB | 47:02 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 14 May 2001 01. Scream If You Wanna Go Faster (3:39)02. Shake Your Bootie Cutie (4:05)03. Calling (4:24)04. Feels Like Sex (3:25)05. Circles Round The Moon (3:59)06. Love Is The Only Light (3:27)07. Strength Of A Woman (4:04)08. Dont Call Me Baby (3:42)09. Lovey Dovey Stuff (3:39)10. Its Raining Men (4:18)11. Heaven And Hell (Being Geri Halliwell) (3:31)12. I Was Made That Way (4:48) Passion (2005) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 97 MB | 42:46 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 5 June 2005 01. Passion (2:56)02. Desire (3:23)03. Love Never Loved Me (4:04)04. Feel the Fear (4:15)05. Superstar (3:28)06. Surrender Your Groove (2:59)07. Ride It (3:46)08. Theres Always Tomorrow (3:49)09. Let Me Love You More (4:06)10. Dont Get Any Better (3:23)11. Loving Me Back to Life (3:25)12. So I Give Up of Love (3:11) Pop, Britpop, Pop Rock | Years Active: 1994 Present 320 Kbps | 523 Mb | 4 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Melanie Jayne Chisholm (12 January 1974)Origin; London, England, UKOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, Businesswomen EnglishMelanie Jayne Chisholm (born 12 January 1974) is an English singer-songwriter, actress and businesswoman. She is best known as one of the five members of the girl group Spice Girls, in which she was nicknamed Sporty Spice. Performing as Melanie C as a solo artist, she released four albums, earned nominations for a BRIT and ECHO Awards[1] and charted at the top of Billboard Dance Chart in the United States in late 2000. Chisholm has sold 10 million albums as a solo artist and holds the second position for most United Kingdom number-ones by a female co-writer only behind Madonna and her former Spice Girls bandmate Geri Halliwell.[2] She is also third after John Lennon and Paul McCartney for the most UK number-one singles by a British co-writer and is the only female to reach the UK number-one as part of a quintet, quartet, duo and as a solo artist. TrkeMelanie Chisholm, Melanie C olarak da bilinir, I Turn To You adl arksyla tannan ngiliz sanat. Tam ismi Melanie Jayne Chisholmdur. 12 Ocak 1974te Liverpool doumludur. Never be the same again adl arksyla isim yapmtr. 1996da kurulan nl kz mzik topluluu Spice Girlsn yesi Melanie Jayne Chisholm, grubun elemanlarndan Geri Halliwellin solo projelere ynelmesinden sonra, kendisi de solo projesine yneldi. Spice Girlsn Sporty Spice nvanl yesi Melanie C, ilk defa 1998 senesinde Bryan Adams ile det yapt When Youre Gone parasyla adndan bahsettirdi. lk albmn 1999 ylnda Northern Star ismiyle kartan Melanie C, Spice Girlsteki pop soundunu rock mzikle birletirerek, mzik eletirmenlerinden olumlu not ald. ngilterede 900,000, tm dnyada 3 milyon satan albmden kan ilk single Goin Down ngiltere listelerinde 4 numaraya kadar ykseldi. Albmden kan bir dier single Lisa Left-Eye Lopes ile deti Never Be The Same Again ile ngiltere listelerinde 1 numara olmay baaran Melanie C, bir sonraki single I Turn To You ile de listelerde 1 numaraya ykseldi. ngilterede 3 kez platin plak alan Melanie C, Avrupada da 1 kez platin plak kazand. 2003 senesinde kan 2. stdyo albm Reason ile ngiltere listelerinde 5 numara olan Melanie C, bu albmle tm dnyada 100,000 satt. Pop soundundan uzak durmak istediini ve Reason albmnn bu fikirle hazrlandn belirten Melanie C, bu albmle altn plan sahibi oldu. Ancak satlarn dk olmas sanatnn irketi Virgin Recordsu memnun etmedi ve irket ile sanat bu albm sonras yollarn ayrd. 2004 ylnda kendi plak irketi Red Girl Recordsu kuran Melanie C, 3. albmn Nisan 2005te Beautiful Intentions adyla piyasaya srd. Albmden kan ilk single Next Best Superstar ngiltere listelerinde 10 numara olurken, albm ngiltere listelerinde 24 numara olabildi. ngilterenin tersine baz dier lkelerde 1 numara olan Beautiful Intentions, 2005 2006 dneminin en nemli bamsz albmleri arasnda kabul ediliyor. Albmden kan 3. single First Day Of My Life, Avrupada byk baar yakalayarak 500,000 satmay baard. 2006 senesinin sonunda Live Hits adl bir DVD yaynlayan Melanie C, bu DVD ierisinde akustik paralara da yer verirken, 5 Nisan 2007 tarihinde This Time adl 4. albmn hayranlarna ulatrd. Albmn prodktrlnde Peter Vettese, Guy Chambers ve Stephen Hauge yer ald ve ayrca Adam Argyle bir parada konuk mzisyen olarak bulundu. Albmden The Moment You Believe adl para ilk single olarak piyasaya srlrken, I Want Candy 2. single olarak yaynland. Sz yazarl da bulunan Melanie C bu konuda da kendisini ispatlamtr ve yine You will see adl arksyla beenileri toplamtr. + Studio Albums Melanie C 1999 Northern Star Melanie C 2003 Reason Melanie C 2005 Beautiful Intentions Melanie C 2007 This Time Northern Star (1999) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 122 MB | 53:40 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 18 October 1999 01. Go! (3:39)02. Northern Star (4:41)03. Goin Down (3:36)04. I Turn To You (5:52)05. If That Were Me (4:33)06. Never Be The Same Again (4:54)07. Why (5:30)08. Suddenly Monday (2:38)09. Ga Ga (3:52)10. Be The One (3:37)11. Closer (5:45)12. Feel The Sun (5:03) Reason (2003) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 114 MB | 52:24 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 10 March 2003 01 Here It Comes Again (4:19)02. Reason (4:21)03. Lose Myself In Love (4:13)04. On The Horizon (3:38)05. Positively Somewhere (3:44)06. Melt (3:44)07. Do I (3:35)08. Soul Boy (4:29)09. Water (3:38)10. Home (4:40)11. Lets Love (3:23)12. Yeh Yeh Yeh (4:22)13. Independence Day (4:18) Beautiful Intentions (2005) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 138 MB | 01:00:26 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 11 April 2005 01. Beautiful Intentions (3:50)02. Next Best Superstar (3:27)03. Better Alone (4:35)04. Last Night on Earth (3:28)05. You Will See (3:27)06. Never Say Never (3:11)07. Good Girl (4:03)08. Dont Need This (3:50)09. Little Piece of Me (2:56)10. Here and Now (4:28)11. Take Your Pleasure (3:08)12. Youll Get Yours (4:39)13. First Day of My Life (Bonus) (4:00)14. Next Best Superstar (Groove Gutters Short Radio mix) (3:37)15. Better Alone (Pop mix) (3:53)16. Better Alone (Amazing Dub Radio edit) (3:53) This Time (2007) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 111 MB | 48:52 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 2 April 2007 01. Understand (3:42)02. What If I Stay (3:12)03. Protected (4:34)04. This Time (3:27)05. Carolyna (3:21)06. Forever Again (3:36)07. Your Mistake (3:53)08. The Moment You Believe (3:31)09. Dont Let Me Go (feat. Adam Argyle) (3:49)10. Immune (4:34)11. May Your Heart (3:57)12. Out Of Time (3:50)13. I Want Candy (Bonus Track) (3:26) Pop, Adult Contemporary | Years Active: 1992 Present 320 Kbps | 322 Mb | 3 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Emma Lee Buntun (21 January 1976)Origin; London, EnglandOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, TV Personality EnglishEmma Lee Bunton (born 21 January 1976) is an English pop singersongwriter and actress. She was a member of the 1990s girl group, the Spice Girls, in which she was known as Baby Spice as she was the youngest member. In 2010 she joined the judging panel on ITVs Dancing On Ice and is the host of Channel 5s Dont Stop Believing TrkeEmma Bunton (d. 21 Ocak 1976, Londra, ngiltere), Spice Girls grubunun elemanlarndandr. Solo almas hayli ses getirmitir. Takma Ad Baby olan ve Spice Gruba en son katlan en gen ye Emma, zellikle ocuklarn favori Spiceyd. ocukken ald eitimi sayesindeki danstaki becerisi ve kadife sesiyle Spice Girls arklarna renk katan nemli bir eleman oldu. Grup daldktan sonra A Girl Like Me (2001),Free Me (2004) ve Life In Mono (2006) adl 3 solo albm kard,fakat aksine solo kariyeri gruptaki baars gibi ses getirmedi. Austos 2007de nianls Jade Jonesdan, Beau adnda bir erkek ocuu dnyaya getirdi. + Studio Albums Emma Bunton 2001 A Girl Like Me Emma Bunton 2004 Free Me Emma Bunton 2006 Life In Mono A Girl Like Me (2001) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 105 MB | 45:57 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 16 April 2001 01. What Took You So Long (4:01)02. Take My Breath Away (3:36)03. A World Without You (4:53)04. High on Love (3:50)05. A Girl Like Me (4:02)06. Spell It Out (3:14)07. Sunshine on a Rainy Day (4:17)08. Been There, Done That (3:07)09. Better Be Careful (3:19)10. Were Not Gonna Sleep Tonight (3:24)11. She Was a Friend of Mine (3:35)12. What I Am (4:39) Free Me (2004) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 101 MB | 44:30 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 9 February 2004 01. Free Me (4:29)02. Maybe (3:45)03. Ill Be There (3:25)04. Tomorrow (3:57)05. Breathing (4:03)06. Crickets Sing For Anamaria (2:46)07. No Sign Of Life (3:40)08. Who The Hell Are You (3:20)09. Lay Your Love On Me (3:26)10. Amazing (4:06)11. You Are (3:48)12. Something So Beautiful (3:45) Life In Mono (2006) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 113 MB | 49:36 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 4 December 2006 01. All I Need To Know (4:19)02. Life In Mono (3:49)03. Mischievous (3:41)04. Perfect Strangers (3:32)05. He Loves Me Not (3:29)06. I Wasnt Looking (When I Found Love) (3:31)07. Take Me To Another Town (4:09)08. Undressing You (3:22)09. Im Not Crying Over Yesterdays (3:24)10. All That Youll Be (4:00)11. Downtown (3:28)12. Something Tells Me (Somethings Going To Happen) (3:42)13. Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps (2:34)14. Por Favor (2:36) Pop, R&B | Years Active: 1994 Present 320 Kbps | 267 Mb | 3 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Victoria Caroline Adams (17 April 1974)Origin; Goffs Oak, Hertfordshire, EnglandOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, Dancer, Model, Fashion designer, Businesswomen EnglishVictoria Caroline Beckham (ne Adams; born 17 April 1974)[1][2] is an English singersongwriter, dancer, model, occasional actress, fashion designer and businesswoman. During her rise to fame with the late 1990s girl pop group the Spice Girls, Beckham was dubbed Posh Spice, a nickname first coined by the British pop music magazine, Top of the Pops in the July 1996 issue.[3] Since the Spice Girls pursued separate careers, she has had a solo pop music career, scoring four UK Top 10 singles. Her first single to be released, Out of Your Mind, reached Number 2 in the UK Singles Chart and is her highest chart entry to date. During her solo music career she has been signed to Virgin Records and Telstar Records. Beckham has found more success as an internationally recognised and photographed style icon. Her career in fashion includes designing a line of jeans for Rock & Republic and later designing her own denim brand, dVb Style. Beckham has brought out her own range of sunglasses and fragrance, entitled Intimately Beckham, which has been released in the UK and the US. In association with the Japanese store Samantha Thavasa and Shiatzy Chen, she has produced a range of handbags and jewellery. In addition, Beckham has released two best-selling books; one her autobiography, the other a fashion guide. In her television ventures, Beckham has participated in five official documentaries and reality shows about her, some of which include Being Victoria Beckham and The Real Beckhams. Her last documentary to date was Victoria Beckham: Coming to America which documented her move to the US with her family in 2007. She has since made a cameo appearance in an episode of American TV series Ugly Betty, and been a guest judge on Project Runway, Germanys Next Topmodel, and American Idol (season 9). Beckham is married to English footballer David Beckham with whom she has three sons, Brooklyn, Romeo and Cruz. As of 2009, the couples joint wealth is estimated at 125 million TrkeVictoria Beckham (d. 17 Nisan 1974, Hertfordshire, ngiltere), ngiliz sosyoelit, David Beckhamn ei, eski Spice Girls yesi. Erkek kardei Christian ve kz kardei Lousie adndadr. 1990l yllara damgasn vuran Spice Girls adl mzik grubunun Posh lakabl yesidir. 4 Mart 1999 tarihinde ilk ocuunu, Brooklyn, dnyaya getirdi. Bu doumdan 4 ay sonra da David Beckham ile evlendi. 2. oullar Romeo James Beckham 1 Eyll 2002 tarihinde dnyaya geldi. 3. oullar Cruz Beckham 2005 ylnn ubat aynda dnyaya geldi. Kendi adlarn kardklar dvb adl marka vardr. Victoria Beckham, moda almalarna bir jean defilesi ve parfm tasarmyla balad. Halen, ABDde almalarn srdrmektedir. + Studio Albums Victoria Beckham 2001 Victoria Beckham + Other Albums Victoria Beckham Open Your Eyes (Leaked Promo Album 1) Victoria Beckham Open Your Eyes (Leaked Promo Album 2) Victoria Beckham (2001) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 105 MB | 46:06 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 1 October 2001 01. Not Such An Innocent Girl (3:20)02. A Mind Of Its Own (3:50)03. That Kind Of Girl (3:49)04. Like That (4:01)05. Girlfriend (3:44)06. Midnight Fantasy (3:16)07. I.O.U. (3:50)08. No Trix No Games (3:04)09. I Wish (4:10)10. Watcha Talkin Bout (3:53)11. Unconditional Love (3:52)12. Every Part Of Me (5:14) Open Your Eyes (Leaked Promo Album 1) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 192 Kbps CBR | 74 MB | 01:16:20 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: Unknown 01. Let Your Head Go (3:33)02. Open Your Eyes (2:40)03. Be With You (3:21)04. Full Stop (2:50)05. Generate The Flow (3:04)06. The Hustla (4:08)07. 25 Minutes (3:52)08. Me Without You (3:58)09. Should Have Known Better (4:16)10. Id Give It All Away (3:58)11. Gone (Bittersweet) (4:14) Open Your Eyes (Leaked Promo Album 2) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 256 Kbps CBR | 87 MB | 01:04:08 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: Unknown 01. Let Your Head Go (Cut) (3:28)02. Open Your Eyes (Extended) (3:44)03. Be With You (Mix For Approval) (3:21)04. Full Stop (feat. Nas) (Extended) (3:33)05. Flow (3:44)06. Hustler (4:08)07. 25 Minutes (Extended) (4:10)08. Me Without You (Extended) (4:20)09. I Should Have Known Better (4:17)10. Id Give It All Away (Extended) (4:11)11. Bittersweet (4:49)12. Cant Get Enough (Of You DJ) (Version 1) (3:02)13. Cant Get Enough (Of You DJ) (Version 2) (3:08)14. Cant Get Enough (Of You DJ) (Version 3) (3:15)15. Obsession (Victorias Demo Vocalist) (4:16)16. Time (Victorias Demo Vocalist) (3:12)17. Love Letter (Victorias Demo Vocalist) (3:30) Free Download Mp3 album Spice Girls Discography (1996-2007) [With Members Discographys]
The Morning After: Yes, No, Maybe So ~ Daily World News
SHOWTIME Saul (Mandy Patinkin, with interrogator James Urbaniak) gets ready to face some hard truths. “You can’t deny the facts just because you find them inconvenient.”—Saul Berenson As I started watching last night’s Homeland, “The Good Soldier,” I noticed that the episode was written by producer Henry Brommell, the executive producer of the late, and at-least-by-me lamented Rubicon. And as the episode played out I was reminded of a episode of that episode that distinguished the show for me because of the use it made of, yep, lie detectors. As I wrote then: In many stories, the dramatic function of lie detectors—like the ostensible actual function of lie detectors—is to eliminate ambiguity: to cut through the murk and differing possibilities and find black and white answers. Black or white, pass or fail. In some stories, however, they show how the truth can be elided, finessed, or—think of the Xerox-lie-detector scam in The Wire and Homicide before it—gamed. Last night’s Homeland (some spoilers ahead) again made me think of the series as a chance to improve on Rubicon—specifically it’s themes of doubt and the unknowable—with the dramatic wind-assist of a first-hand investigation of a terror plot. (Homeland places us somewhere between the a-twist-every-15-minutes overdrive of 24 and the deskbound cerebralness of Rubicon, which gives the series enough pop appeal that it’s been guaranteed a second season.) And as in Rubicon, the polygraph here did less to clear up the murkiness around the terror story—if anything, it introduced suspicion around Saul—than it did to raise and illuminate the pressures on the investigators. As Saul’s home life continued to unravel, the lie detector served as a kind of sad visual confirmation of his interior state; the guy is so tightly wound it’s a wonder he didn’t short-circuit the machine. And Carrie—showing a recklessness more enthralling than any high-speed chase—has her proof,
After slow start, Miami Heat slams the door on New Orleans Hornets
“We started the game in a little bit of a fog,” Spoelstra said ... He was also 6 of 6 from the free-throw line. LeBron James also had 22 points to go along with 11 rebounds and eight assists. The Heat (16-5) held the Hornets (4-17 ...
Album reviews: Still Corners and Etta James
Still Corners is a quartet that creates the sort of dreamy pop that hangs in the air like a deep fog. Led by songwriter Greg Hughes ... this is the album for you. Etta James is most widely known for her hit “At Last,” which is arguably ...
New Orleans at Miami
James had 11 rebounds -- more than any two Hornets -- and ... "We started the game in a little bit of a fog and they came out and played very sharply," Spoelstra said. "They came out with a lot of energy ... then the game changed, I felt ...
Pinellas County district wrestling preview
PALM HARBOR — The air inside the Palm Harbor University wrestling room is so thick that the windows are blanketed with fog. The mats are soaked with ... On one end of the room, fraternal twins Connor and Jared Prince square off. The freshmen are ...
Daniel Radcliffe Talks His Post-'Potter' Follow-up 'The Woman in Black'
James Watkins at that point was going to direct ... Just walking around in that thick kind of fog of depression. Completely disenchanted with the world. One of my big questions about Arthur was, 'Why does he stay there? Why does he stay in ...
Pasco commissioner's son survives Sunday's I-75 crash
The driver of the car, James Buford Madison, 22 ... It had been closed for more than three hours because of poor visibility from fog and smoke from a fire. The Infiniti was one of 10 vehicles that crashed in the three northbound lanes.
3-on-3 debate: Heat fall to the Warriors
Michael Wallace: It's hard to see a silver lining through the funk and fog of that second-half collapse ... Windhorst: What is the point of LeBron James doing all this post work and efforts to enjoy playing the game more to free his mind ...
| Bryan Adams |
The 2011 album ‘The King of Limbs’ was released by which English rock band? | Who is Estelle Watford - (252) 345-9332 - Aulander - NC - waatp.com
O Abade de Travanca: Geri Halliwell - It's Raining Men
Geraldine Estelle Halliwell (Watford, Reino Unido, 6 de agosto de 1972) ou simplesmente Geri Halliwell, como é mundialmente conhecida, é uma cantora, compositora, atriz, escritora, empresária e produtora de música britânica. Em 2007 Geri Halliwell, juntou-se às Spice Girls numa tourné mundial, que finalizou-se no ano de 2008. A sua carreira está marcada por diversas polémicas, sendo que a mais célebre, foi o apalpão que deu ao traseiro do Príncipe Charles.
Spice Girls Discography (1996-2007) [With Members Discographys]
Free Download Mp3 album Spice Girls Discography (1996-2007) [With Members Discographys] Pop, Dance Pop, Teen Pop | Years Active: 1994-2000; 2007-2008 320 Kbps | 513 Mb | 4 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Origin; London, EnglandOccupations; Victoria Beckham, Melanie Brown, Emma Bunton, Melanie Chisholm, Geri Halliwell EnglishThe Spice Girls are a British pop girl group that formed in 1994. The members consist of Victoria Beckham (ne Adams), Melanie Brown, Emma Bunton, Melanie Chisholm and Geri Halliwell. They are signed to Virgin Records and released their debut single, Wannabe, in 1996. The song hit number-one in 31 countries and helped establish the group as a global phenomenon. Credited for being the pioneers that paved the way for the commercial breakthrough of teen pop in the 1990s, their first album, Spice, sold more than 23 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling album by a female group in music history. They have sold over 75 million records worldwide with only four albums and twelve singles, making them the most successful British band since The Beatles and the best selling girl group of all time. Measures of their success include international record sales, a 200708 reunion tour, merchandising, record breaking achievements, iconic symbolism such as the Union Flag dress, Girl Power, a box office hit movie Spiceworld and their nicknames. Under the guidance of their long time mentor and manager Simon Fuller, the group embraced merchandising and became a regular feature of the British press. Each member of the group was given an alias by Top of the Pops magazine in 1996, which were adopted by the group and media alike. According to biographer David Sinclair, Scary, Baby, Ginger, Posh and Sporty were the most widely recognized group of individuals since John, Paul, George and Ringo. They are the biggest cultural icons of the 1990s, according to a survey carried out by Trivial Pursuit, winning by 80 percent in a poll of 1,000 people carried out for the board game, stating that Girl Power defined the decade. In May 1998, Geri Halliwell left the group in the middle of numerous rumours. The four remaining members released the third album Forever, but went their separate ways in November 2000 after the release of the third album to focus on their solo careers. On 28 June 2007 all five reformed before the launch of their Reunion Tour in December, alongside the release of their Greatest Hits album. In December, a new official documentary Giving You Everything aired on various television networks around the globe. The tour was a success and is estimated to have grossed over US$100 million. The tour won the Billboard 2008 Touring Award for Top Boxscore for a 17-night stand at Londons O2 Arena. TrkeSpice Girls (Baharat Kzlar) (1994-2000, 2007-2008) tm zamanlarn en ok satan kz grubudur. ngiltere`de ortaya km, ksa bir sre iinde tm dnyada tannan bir grup haline gelmitir. 1996 1998 aras ortal salladklar dnem olmutur. Grup dnya apnda 55 milyon albm,20 milyon single satm,75 milyon dolar haslat yapan bir sinema filmine imza atm,MTV ve Brit Awards bata olmak zere onlarca prestijli dl kazanm,saysz reklam filmi ekmitir.Herbiri klasik olmu pop arklaryla bir dneme damgasn vurmu Baharat Kzlar,1998de Geri Halliwellin ayrlmasyla sarslm,2000 ylnda da dalmtr.Ama 2007de hayranlarna teekkr ve veda etmek iin orijinal kadrosuyla yeniden birlemilerdir. 28 Haziran 2007de yaptklar basn toplantsnda, yeni bir dnya turnesi iin biraraya geleceklerini aklamlar, 1 Ekimde sata sunulan Londra konser biletleri 38 saniyede tkenince, grup dnya turnesindeki konserlerin saysn 47ye ykseltmilerdir.Kasm 2007de Greatest Hits albmlerinin sonrasnda kardklar Headlines (Friendship Never Ends) singlenn tm gelirini kimsesiz ocuklar vakfna balamlardr. + Studio Albums Spice Girls 1996 Spice Spice Girls 1997 Spiceworld Spice Girls 2000 Forever + Studio Albums Spice Girls 2007 Greatest Hits (Box Set 3CD) Spice (1996) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 91 MB | 40:07 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: November 1996 01. Wannabe (2:53)02. Say Youll Be There (3:56)03. 2 Become 1 (4:01)04. Love Thing (3:39)05. Last Time Lover (4:12)06. Mama (5:05)07. Who Do You Think You Are (4:01)08. Something Kinda Funny (4:05)09. Naked (4:26)10. If U Cant Dance (3:49) Spiceworld (1997) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 88 MB | 38:45 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: November 1997 01. Spice Up Your Life (2:54)02. Stop (3:25)03. Too Much (4:32)04. Saturday Night Divas (4:26)05. Never Give Up on the Good Times (4:30)06. Move Over (2:47)07. Do It (4:04)08. Denying (3:47)09. Viva Forever (5:11)10. The Lady Is a Vamp (3:09) Forever (2000) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 113 MB | 49:40 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: November 2000 01. Holler (4:16)02. Tell Me Why (4:15)03. Let Love Lead The Way (4:58)04. Right Back At Ya (4:11)05. Get Down With Me (3:46)06. Wasting My Time (4:15)07. Weekend Love (4:07)08. Time Goes By (4:52)09. If You Wanna Have Some Fun (5:27)10. Oxygen (4:57)11. Goodbye (4:35) Greatest Hits (Box Set 3CD) (2007) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 400 MB | 02:55:03 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: November 2007 Disc 101. Wannabe (Radio Edit) (2:54)02. Say Youll Be There (Single Mix) (3:58)03. 2 Become 1 (Single Version) (4:04)04. Mama (Radio Version) (3:42)05. Who Do You Think You Are (Radio Edit) (3:46)06. Move Over (2:44)07. Spice Up Your Life (Stent Radio Mix) (2:56)08. Too Much (Radio Edit) (3:53)09. Stop (3:26)10. Viva Forever (Radio Edit) (4:14)11. Let Love Lead The Way (Radio Edit) (4:16)12. Holler (Radio Edit) (3:57)13. Headlines (Friendship Never Ends) (3:31)14. Voodoo (3:11)15. Goodbye (Radio Edit) (4:22)Disc 201. Wannabe (Motiv 8 Vocal Slam Mix) (6:21)02. Say Youll Be There (Juniors Main Pass) (8:35)03. 2 Become 1 (Dave Way Remix) (4:02)04. Mama (Biffco Mix) (5:50)05. Who Do You Think You Are (Morales Club Mix) (9:31)06. Spice Up Your Life (Murk Cuba Libre Mix) (8:07)07. Too Much (SoulShock & Karlin Remix) (3:54)08. Stop (Morales Remix) (7:25)09. Viva Forever (Tony Rich Remix) (5:21)10. Holler (MAW Remix) (8:32)11. Goodbye (Orchestral Mix) (4:16)Disc 301. Wannabe (2:54)02. Say Youll Be There (3:54)03. 2 Become 1 (4:07)04. Mama (3:43)05. Who Do You Think You Are (3:45)06. Move Over (2:48)07. Spice Up Your Life (2:55)08. Too Much (3:55)09. Stop (3:26)10. Viva Forever (4:13)11. Let Love Lead The Way (4:16)12. Holler (3:56)13. Goodbye (4:22) Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 Pop, Dance Pop, R&B, Hiphop | Years Active: 1994 Present 320 Kbps | 202 Mb | 2 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Melanie Janine Brown (29 May 1975)Origin; Leeds, England, UKOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, TV Presenter, Author EnglishMelanie Janine Brown (previously Gulzar; born 29 May 1975)[1][2] is an English pop singer-songwriter, actress, author and television presenter. She is best known as one of the members of the girl group the Spice Girls.[3] She was given the nickname Scary Spice by the British media because of her outrageous, in-your-face attitude, thick Leeds accent, throaty laugh and manner of dress. TrkeMelanie B (d. 29 Mays 1975) (Mel B) Spice Girls grubun siyahi eleman Mel B, baharatlar arasndaki en vahi grnendi. Leopar desenli giysileri, kabark salar ve platform ayakkablaryla 1990larda 1970ler modasn geri getirmiti. En iyi dans eden Spicet. Spice Girlsden sonra Hot (2000) ve L.A.State Of Mind (2005) adl 2 albm kard. 1999da Spice Girls danss Jimmy Gulzardan Phoenix Chi, 2007de nl oyuncu Eddie Murphyden Angel Iris isminde iki kz ocuu dnyaya getirdi. Haziran 2007de Stephen Belafonte ile dnya evine girdi ve hala ok gzel bir Spice Girls kz. + Studio Albums Melanie Brown 2000 Hot Melanie Brown 2005 L. A. State Of Mind Hot (2000) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 102 MB | 44:41 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 9 October 2000 01. Feels So Good (5:07)02. Tell Me (4:34)03. Hell No (4:19)04. Lullaby (3:26)05. Hotter (3:14)06. Step Inside (4:00)07. ABC 123 (3:13)08. I Believe (4:02)09. I Want You Back (featuring Missy Misdemeanor Elliott) (3:26)10. Pack Your Shit (4:22)11. Feel Me Now (4:58) L. A. State Of Mind (2005) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 97 MB | 42:46 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 27 July 2005 01. Today (3:19)02. Stay In Bed Days (4:07)03. Beautiful Girl (3:51)04. Music Of The Night (Perdido) (3:51)05. If I Had My Life Again (4:44)06. In Too Deep (4:03)07. Sweet Pleasure (3:42)08. L.A State Of Mind (3:46)09. Say, Say, Say (3:56)10. Bad, Bad, Girl (3:29)11. Hold On (3:56) Pop, Dance Pop, Pop Rock | Years Active: 1994 Present 320 Kbps | 313 Mb | 3 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Geraldine Estelle Halliwell (6 August 1972)Origin; London, England, UKOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, Philanthropist, Author EnglishGeraldine Estelle Geri Halliwell (born 6 August 1972) is an English pop singersongwriter, author, actress and philanthropist. After coming to international prominence as a member of the girl group, the Spice Girls, Halliwell launched her solo career and released her debut album Schizophonic. Since then she has released two more studio albums Scream If You Wanna Go Faster and Passion and four number one singles at the UK Singles Chart, Mi Chico Latino, Lift Me Up, Bag It Up and Its Raining Men. In 2008 Halliwell published a book series named Ugenia Lavender.[1] As a solo artist Halliwell has sold 12 million records worldwide and been nominated for Brit Awards in both 2000 and 2002. TrkeGeri Halliwell (d. 6 Austos 1972, Watford, ngiltere), 1990larn nl pop mzik topluluu The Spice Girlsn Ginger ve seksi Spice lakapl yesi olarak nlenen, kard solo albmlerle byk bir hayran kitlesi edinen, kzl sal arkc. Bir dnem, Trkiye televizyonlarndaki Se Bakalm adl yarma programnda hosteslik yapan Geri, Its Raining Men, Look At Me, Lift Me Up ve Mi Chico Latino gibi hitlerle tannyor. Geri Halliwell Spice Girls grubuyla nlendi. Grubun lideri ve en ok dikkat eken ismiydi. Grubun en gzel kzyd. Ginger Spice olarak tanlr. 1998 ylnda grup zirve gnlerini yaarken, dnya turnesi srasnda gruptan ayrlmasyla ok konuuldu. Gruptan ayrldktan sonra otobiyogrofisini bir kitapta toplad. Byk bir sat rakamna ulat. Kimse Gerinin gruptan ayrldktan sonra baarl olabileceini dnmyordu. Fakat sanat onlar 4 tane 1 numara single ve birbirinden baarl albmlerle susturdu. 2007 ylnda Spice Girlsn birlemesinde Gerinin ok yarar oldu. 2008 ylnda piyasaya srd Ugenia Lavender ismindeki ocuk kitaplar serisiyle tekrar gndeme gelen Halliwelln serinin Hollywood adaptasyonunda senaryo yazaca konuuluyor. + Studio Albums Geri Halliwell 1999 Schizophonic Geri Halliwell 2001 Scream If You Wanna Go Faster Geri Halliwell 2005 Passion Schizophonic (1999) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 93 MB | 40:55 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 7 June 1999 01. Look At Me (4:32)02. Lift Me Up (3:52)03. Walkaway (5:04)04. Mi Chico Latino (3:15)05. Goodnight Kiss (4:39)06. Bag It Up (3:45)07. Sometime (4:05)08. Let Me Love You (4:01)09. Someones Watching Over Me (4:15)10. Youre In A Bubble (3:27) Scream If You Wanna Go Faster (2001) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 107 MB | 47:02 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 14 May 2001 01. Scream If You Wanna Go Faster (3:39)02. Shake Your Bootie Cutie (4:05)03. Calling (4:24)04. Feels Like Sex (3:25)05. Circles Round The Moon (3:59)06. Love Is The Only Light (3:27)07. Strength Of A Woman (4:04)08. Dont Call Me Baby (3:42)09. Lovey Dovey Stuff (3:39)10. Its Raining Men (4:18)11. Heaven And Hell (Being Geri Halliwell) (3:31)12. I Was Made That Way (4:48) Passion (2005) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 97 MB | 42:46 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 5 June 2005 01. Passion (2:56)02. Desire (3:23)03. Love Never Loved Me (4:04)04. Feel the Fear (4:15)05. Superstar (3:28)06. Surrender Your Groove (2:59)07. Ride It (3:46)08. Theres Always Tomorrow (3:49)09. Let Me Love You More (4:06)10. Dont Get Any Better (3:23)11. Loving Me Back to Life (3:25)12. So I Give Up of Love (3:11) Pop, Britpop, Pop Rock | Years Active: 1994 Present 320 Kbps | 523 Mb | 4 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Melanie Jayne Chisholm (12 January 1974)Origin; London, England, UKOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, Businesswomen EnglishMelanie Jayne Chisholm (born 12 January 1974) is an English singer-songwriter, actress and businesswoman. She is best known as one of the five members of the girl group Spice Girls, in which she was nicknamed Sporty Spice. Performing as Melanie C as a solo artist, she released four albums, earned nominations for a BRIT and ECHO Awards[1] and charted at the top of Billboard Dance Chart in the United States in late 2000. Chisholm has sold 10 million albums as a solo artist and holds the second position for most United Kingdom number-ones by a female co-writer only behind Madonna and her former Spice Girls bandmate Geri Halliwell.[2] She is also third after John Lennon and Paul McCartney for the most UK number-one singles by a British co-writer and is the only female to reach the UK number-one as part of a quintet, quartet, duo and as a solo artist. TrkeMelanie Chisholm, Melanie C olarak da bilinir, I Turn To You adl arksyla tannan ngiliz sanat. Tam ismi Melanie Jayne Chisholmdur. 12 Ocak 1974te Liverpool doumludur. Never be the same again adl arksyla isim yapmtr. 1996da kurulan nl kz mzik topluluu Spice Girlsn yesi Melanie Jayne Chisholm, grubun elemanlarndan Geri Halliwellin solo projelere ynelmesinden sonra, kendisi de solo projesine yneldi. Spice Girlsn Sporty Spice nvanl yesi Melanie C, ilk defa 1998 senesinde Bryan Adams ile det yapt When Youre Gone parasyla adndan bahsettirdi. lk albmn 1999 ylnda Northern Star ismiyle kartan Melanie C, Spice Girlsteki pop soundunu rock mzikle birletirerek, mzik eletirmenlerinden olumlu not ald. ngilterede 900,000, tm dnyada 3 milyon satan albmden kan ilk single Goin Down ngiltere listelerinde 4 numaraya kadar ykseldi. Albmden kan bir dier single Lisa Left-Eye Lopes ile deti Never Be The Same Again ile ngiltere listelerinde 1 numara olmay baaran Melanie C, bir sonraki single I Turn To You ile de listelerde 1 numaraya ykseldi. ngilterede 3 kez platin plak alan Melanie C, Avrupada da 1 kez platin plak kazand. 2003 senesinde kan 2. stdyo albm Reason ile ngiltere listelerinde 5 numara olan Melanie C, bu albmle tm dnyada 100,000 satt. Pop soundundan uzak durmak istediini ve Reason albmnn bu fikirle hazrlandn belirten Melanie C, bu albmle altn plan sahibi oldu. Ancak satlarn dk olmas sanatnn irketi Virgin Recordsu memnun etmedi ve irket ile sanat bu albm sonras yollarn ayrd. 2004 ylnda kendi plak irketi Red Girl Recordsu kuran Melanie C, 3. albmn Nisan 2005te Beautiful Intentions adyla piyasaya srd. Albmden kan ilk single Next Best Superstar ngiltere listelerinde 10 numara olurken, albm ngiltere listelerinde 24 numara olabildi. ngilterenin tersine baz dier lkelerde 1 numara olan Beautiful Intentions, 2005 2006 dneminin en nemli bamsz albmleri arasnda kabul ediliyor. Albmden kan 3. single First Day Of My Life, Avrupada byk baar yakalayarak 500,000 satmay baard. 2006 senesinin sonunda Live Hits adl bir DVD yaynlayan Melanie C, bu DVD ierisinde akustik paralara da yer verirken, 5 Nisan 2007 tarihinde This Time adl 4. albmn hayranlarna ulatrd. Albmn prodktrlnde Peter Vettese, Guy Chambers ve Stephen Hauge yer ald ve ayrca Adam Argyle bir parada konuk mzisyen olarak bulundu. Albmden The Moment You Believe adl para ilk single olarak piyasaya srlrken, I Want Candy 2. single olarak yaynland. Sz yazarl da bulunan Melanie C bu konuda da kendisini ispatlamtr ve yine You will see adl arksyla beenileri toplamtr. + Studio Albums Melanie C 1999 Northern Star Melanie C 2003 Reason Melanie C 2005 Beautiful Intentions Melanie C 2007 This Time Northern Star (1999) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 122 MB | 53:40 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 18 October 1999 01. Go! (3:39)02. Northern Star (4:41)03. Goin Down (3:36)04. I Turn To You (5:52)05. If That Were Me (4:33)06. Never Be The Same Again (4:54)07. Why (5:30)08. Suddenly Monday (2:38)09. Ga Ga (3:52)10. Be The One (3:37)11. Closer (5:45)12. Feel The Sun (5:03) Reason (2003) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 114 MB | 52:24 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 10 March 2003 01 Here It Comes Again (4:19)02. Reason (4:21)03. Lose Myself In Love (4:13)04. On The Horizon (3:38)05. Positively Somewhere (3:44)06. Melt (3:44)07. Do I (3:35)08. Soul Boy (4:29)09. Water (3:38)10. Home (4:40)11. Lets Love (3:23)12. Yeh Yeh Yeh (4:22)13. Independence Day (4:18) Beautiful Intentions (2005) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 138 MB | 01:00:26 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 11 April 2005 01. Beautiful Intentions (3:50)02. Next Best Superstar (3:27)03. Better Alone (4:35)04. Last Night on Earth (3:28)05. You Will See (3:27)06. Never Say Never (3:11)07. Good Girl (4:03)08. Dont Need This (3:50)09. Little Piece of Me (2:56)10. Here and Now (4:28)11. Take Your Pleasure (3:08)12. Youll Get Yours (4:39)13. First Day of My Life (Bonus) (4:00)14. Next Best Superstar (Groove Gutters Short Radio mix) (3:37)15. Better Alone (Pop mix) (3:53)16. Better Alone (Amazing Dub Radio edit) (3:53) This Time (2007) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 111 MB | 48:52 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 2 April 2007 01. Understand (3:42)02. What If I Stay (3:12)03. Protected (4:34)04. This Time (3:27)05. Carolyna (3:21)06. Forever Again (3:36)07. Your Mistake (3:53)08. The Moment You Believe (3:31)09. Dont Let Me Go (feat. Adam Argyle) (3:49)10. Immune (4:34)11. May Your Heart (3:57)12. Out Of Time (3:50)13. I Want Candy (Bonus Track) (3:26) Pop, Adult Contemporary | Years Active: 1992 Present 320 Kbps | 322 Mb | 3 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Emma Lee Buntun (21 January 1976)Origin; London, EnglandOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, TV Personality EnglishEmma Lee Bunton (born 21 January 1976) is an English pop singersongwriter and actress. She was a member of the 1990s girl group, the Spice Girls, in which she was known as Baby Spice as she was the youngest member. In 2010 she joined the judging panel on ITVs Dancing On Ice and is the host of Channel 5s Dont Stop Believing TrkeEmma Bunton (d. 21 Ocak 1976, Londra, ngiltere), Spice Girls grubunun elemanlarndandr. Solo almas hayli ses getirmitir. Takma Ad Baby olan ve Spice Gruba en son katlan en gen ye Emma, zellikle ocuklarn favori Spiceyd. ocukken ald eitimi sayesindeki danstaki becerisi ve kadife sesiyle Spice Girls arklarna renk katan nemli bir eleman oldu. Grup daldktan sonra A Girl Like Me (2001),Free Me (2004) ve Life In Mono (2006) adl 3 solo albm kard,fakat aksine solo kariyeri gruptaki baars gibi ses getirmedi. Austos 2007de nianls Jade Jonesdan, Beau adnda bir erkek ocuu dnyaya getirdi. + Studio Albums Emma Bunton 2001 A Girl Like Me Emma Bunton 2004 Free Me Emma Bunton 2006 Life In Mono A Girl Like Me (2001) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 105 MB | 45:57 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 16 April 2001 01. What Took You So Long (4:01)02. Take My Breath Away (3:36)03. A World Without You (4:53)04. High on Love (3:50)05. A Girl Like Me (4:02)06. Spell It Out (3:14)07. Sunshine on a Rainy Day (4:17)08. Been There, Done That (3:07)09. Better Be Careful (3:19)10. Were Not Gonna Sleep Tonight (3:24)11. She Was a Friend of Mine (3:35)12. What I Am (4:39) Free Me (2004) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 101 MB | 44:30 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 9 February 2004 01. Free Me (4:29)02. Maybe (3:45)03. Ill Be There (3:25)04. Tomorrow (3:57)05. Breathing (4:03)06. Crickets Sing For Anamaria (2:46)07. No Sign Of Life (3:40)08. Who The Hell Are You (3:20)09. Lay Your Love On Me (3:26)10. Amazing (4:06)11. You Are (3:48)12. Something So Beautiful (3:45) Life In Mono (2006) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 113 MB | 49:36 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 4 December 2006 01. All I Need To Know (4:19)02. Life In Mono (3:49)03. Mischievous (3:41)04. Perfect Strangers (3:32)05. He Loves Me Not (3:29)06. I Wasnt Looking (When I Found Love) (3:31)07. Take Me To Another Town (4:09)08. Undressing You (3:22)09. Im Not Crying Over Yesterdays (3:24)10. All That Youll Be (4:00)11. Downtown (3:28)12. Something Tells Me (Somethings Going To Happen) (3:42)13. Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps (2:34)14. Por Favor (2:36) Pop, R&B | Years Active: 1994 Present 320 Kbps | 267 Mb | 3 Albums | % 3 Recovery File | Album Covers (Scans)Birth Name; Victoria Caroline Adams (17 April 1974)Origin; Goffs Oak, Hertfordshire, EnglandOccupations; Singer-Songwriter, Actress, Dancer, Model, Fashion designer, Businesswomen EnglishVictoria Caroline Beckham (ne Adams; born 17 April 1974)[1][2] is an English singersongwriter, dancer, model, occasional actress, fashion designer and businesswoman. During her rise to fame with the late 1990s girl pop group the Spice Girls, Beckham was dubbed Posh Spice, a nickname first coined by the British pop music magazine, Top of the Pops in the July 1996 issue.[3] Since the Spice Girls pursued separate careers, she has had a solo pop music career, scoring four UK Top 10 singles. Her first single to be released, Out of Your Mind, reached Number 2 in the UK Singles Chart and is her highest chart entry to date. During her solo music career she has been signed to Virgin Records and Telstar Records. Beckham has found more success as an internationally recognised and photographed style icon. Her career in fashion includes designing a line of jeans for Rock & Republic and later designing her own denim brand, dVb Style. Beckham has brought out her own range of sunglasses and fragrance, entitled Intimately Beckham, which has been released in the UK and the US. In association with the Japanese store Samantha Thavasa and Shiatzy Chen, she has produced a range of handbags and jewellery. In addition, Beckham has released two best-selling books; one her autobiography, the other a fashion guide. In her television ventures, Beckham has participated in five official documentaries and reality shows about her, some of which include Being Victoria Beckham and The Real Beckhams. Her last documentary to date was Victoria Beckham: Coming to America which documented her move to the US with her family in 2007. She has since made a cameo appearance in an episode of American TV series Ugly Betty, and been a guest judge on Project Runway, Germanys Next Topmodel, and American Idol (season 9). Beckham is married to English footballer David Beckham with whom she has three sons, Brooklyn, Romeo and Cruz. As of 2009, the couples joint wealth is estimated at 125 million TrkeVictoria Beckham (d. 17 Nisan 1974, Hertfordshire, ngiltere), ngiliz sosyoelit, David Beckhamn ei, eski Spice Girls yesi. Erkek kardei Christian ve kz kardei Lousie adndadr. 1990l yllara damgasn vuran Spice Girls adl mzik grubunun Posh lakabl yesidir. 4 Mart 1999 tarihinde ilk ocuunu, Brooklyn, dnyaya getirdi. Bu doumdan 4 ay sonra da David Beckham ile evlendi. 2. oullar Romeo James Beckham 1 Eyll 2002 tarihinde dnyaya geldi. 3. oullar Cruz Beckham 2005 ylnn ubat aynda dnyaya geldi. Kendi adlarn kardklar dvb adl marka vardr. Victoria Beckham, moda almalarna bir jean defilesi ve parfm tasarmyla balad. Halen, ABDde almalarn srdrmektedir. + Studio Albums Victoria Beckham 2001 Victoria Beckham + Other Albums Victoria Beckham Open Your Eyes (Leaked Promo Album 1) Victoria Beckham Open Your Eyes (Leaked Promo Album 2) Victoria Beckham (2001) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 320 Kbps CBR | 105 MB | 46:06 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: 1 October 2001 01. Not Such An Innocent Girl (3:20)02. A Mind Of Its Own (3:50)03. That Kind Of Girl (3:49)04. Like That (4:01)05. Girlfriend (3:44)06. Midnight Fantasy (3:16)07. I.O.U. (3:50)08. No Trix No Games (3:04)09. I Wish (4:10)10. Watcha Talkin Bout (3:53)11. Unconditional Love (3:52)12. Every Part Of Me (5:14) Open Your Eyes (Leaked Promo Album 1) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 192 Kbps CBR | 74 MB | 01:16:20 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: Unknown 01. Let Your Head Go (3:33)02. Open Your Eyes (2:40)03. Be With You (3:21)04. Full Stop (2:50)05. Generate The Flow (3:04)06. The Hustla (4:08)07. 25 Minutes (3:52)08. Me Without You (3:58)09. Should Have Known Better (4:16)10. Id Give It All Away (3:58)11. Gone (Bittersweet) (4:14) Open Your Eyes (Leaked Promo Album 2) Pop, Dance pop, Teen Pop | Mp3 256 Kbps CBR | 87 MB | 01:04:08 Min. % 3 Recovery File | Release Date: Unknown 01. Let Your Head Go (Cut) (3:28)02. Open Your Eyes (Extended) (3:44)03. Be With You (Mix For Approval) (3:21)04. Full Stop (feat. Nas) (Extended) (3:33)05. Flow (3:44)06. Hustler (4:08)07. 25 Minutes (Extended) (4:10)08. Me Without You (Extended) (4:20)09. I Should Have Known Better (4:17)10. Id Give It All Away (Extended) (4:11)11. Bittersweet (4:49)12. Cant Get Enough (Of You DJ) (Version 1) (3:02)13. Cant Get Enough (Of You DJ) (Version 2) (3:08)14. Cant Get Enough (Of You DJ) (Version 3) (3:15)15. Obsession (Victorias Demo Vocalist) (4:16)16. Time (Victorias Demo Vocalist) (3:12)17. Love Letter (Victorias Demo Vocalist) (3:30) Free Download Mp3 album Spice Girls Discography (1996-2007) [With Members Discographys]
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In 1889 which American inventor devised the first flexible transparent film suitable for motion pictures? | Film History Before 1920
1970s | 1980s | 1990s | 2000s | 2010s
Innovations Necessary for the Advent of Cinema:
Optical toys, shadow shows, 'magic lanterns,' and visual tricks have existed for thousands of years. Many inventors, scientists, and manufacturers have observed the visual phenomenon that a series of individual still pictures set into motion created the illusion of movement - a concept termed persistence of vision. This illusion of motion was first described by British physician Peter Mark Roget in 1824, and was a first step in the development of the cinema.
A number of technologies, simple optical toys and mechanical inventions related to motion and vision were developed in the early to late 19th century that were precursors to the birth of the motion picture industry:
[A very early version of a "magic lantern" was suggested in the mid-17th century by German Jesuit priest Athanasius Kircher in Rome. However, the official inventor of a usable device was prominent Dutch astronomer/scientist Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s. Like a modern slide projector (which has since gone out of date!), its main feature was a lens that projected images from transparencies onto a screen, with a simple light source (such as a candle).]
1824 - the invention of the Thaumatrope (the earliest version of an optical illusion toy that exploited the concept of "persistence of vision" first presented by Peter Mark Roget in a scholarly article) by an English doctor named Dr. John Ayrton Paris
ca. 1826 or 1827 - the oldest recorded (and surviving) permanent photograph made in a camera was taken by French inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. He used a camera obscura device which captured and projected a scene illuminated by sunlight. The photo image was "shot" at his estate named Le Gras from his studio's upstairs window in the Burgundy region of France in the early 1820s. It was a very rudimentary photograph (using principles of lithography) - the image is now known as View from the Window at Le Gras. His invention was called heliography, or "light writing."
1831 - the discovery of the law of electromagnetic induction by English scientist Michael Faraday, a principle used in generating electricity and powering motors and other machines (including film equipment)
1832 - the invention of the Fantascope (also called Phenakistiscope or "spindle viewer") by Belgian inventor Joseph Plateau, a device that simulated motion. A series or sequence of separate pictures depicting stages of an activity, such as juggling or dancing, were arranged around the perimeter or edges of a slotted disk. When the disk was placed before a mirror and spun or rotated, a
spectator looking through the slots 'perceived' a moving picture.
1834 - the invention and patenting of another stroboscopic device adaptation, the Daedalum (renamed the Zoetrope in 1867 by American William Lincoln) by British inventor William George Horner. It was a hollow, rotating drum/cylinder with a crank, with a strip of sequential photographs, drawings, paintings or illustrations on the interior surface and regularly spaced narrow slits through which a spectator observed the 'moving' drawings.
1839 - the birth of still photography with the development of the first commercially-viable daguerreotype (a method of capturing still images on silvered, copper-metal plates) by French painter and inventor Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre, following on the work of Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.
1841 - the patenting of calotype (or Talbotype, a process for printing negative photographs on high-quality paper) by British inventor William Henry Fox Talbot
1861 - the invention of the Kinematoscope, patented by Philadelphian Coleman Sellers, an improved rotating paddle machine to view (by hand-cranking) a series of stereoscopic still pictures on glass plates that were sequentially mounted in a cabinet-box
1869 - the development of celluloid by John Wesley Hyatt, patented in 1870 and trademarked in 1873 - later used as the base for photographic film
1870 - the first demonstration of the Phasmotrope (or Phasmatrope) by Henry Renno Heyl in Philadelphia, that showed a rapid succession of still or posed photographs of dancers, giving the illusion of motion
1877 - the invention of the Praxinoscope by French inventor Charles Emile Reynaud - it was a 'projector' device with a mirrored drum that created the illusion of movement with picture strips, a refined version of the Zoetrope with mirrors at the center of the drum instead of slots; public demonstrations of the Praxinoscope were made by the early 1890s with screenings of 15 minute 'movies' at his Parisian Theatre Optique
1879 - Thomas Alva Edison's first public exhibition of an efficient incandescent light bulb, later used for film projectors
Late 19th Century Inventions and Experiments: Muybridge, Marey, Le Prince and Eastman
Pioneering Britisher Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1904), an early photographer and inventor, was famous for his photographic loco-motion studies (of animals and humans) at the end of the 19th century (such as 1882's published "The Horse in Motion"). In the 1870s, Muybridge experimented with instantaneously recording the movements of a galloping horse, first at a Sacramento (California) race track. In June, 1878, he successfully conducted a 'chronophotography' experiment in Palo Alto (California) for his wealthy San Francisco benefactor, Leland Stanford, using a multiple series of cameras to record a horse's gallops - this conclusively proved that all four of the horse's feet were off the ground at the same time.
Muybridge's pictures, published widely in the late 1800s, were often cut into strips and used in a Praxinoscope, a descendant of the zoetrope device, invented by Charles Emile Reynaud in 1877. The Praxinoscope was the first 'movie machine' that could project a series of images onto a screen. Muybridge's stop-action series of photographs helped lead to his own 1879 invention of the Zoopraxiscope (or "zoogyroscope", also called the "wheel of life"), a primitive motion-picture projector machine that also recreated the illusion of movement (or animation) by projecting images - rapidly displayed in succession - onto a screen from photos printed on a rotating glass disc.
True motion pictures, rather than eye-fooling 'animations', could only occur after the development of film (flexible and transparent celluloid) that could record split-second pictures. Some of the first experiments in this regard were conducted by Parisian innovator and physiologist Etienne-Jules Marey in the 1880s. He was also studying, experimenting, and recording bodies (most often of flying animals, such as pelicans in flight) in motion using photographic means (and French astronomer Pierre-Jules-Cesar Janssen's "revolving photographic plate" idea).
In 1882, Marey, often claimed to be the 'inventor of cinema,' constructed a camera (or "photographic gun") that could take multiple (12) photographs per second of moving animals or humans - called chronophotography or serial photography, similar to Muybridge's work on taking multiple exposed images of running horses. [The term shooting a film was possibly derived from Marey's invention.] He was able to record multiple images of a subject's movement on the same camera plate, rather than the individual images Muybridge had produced.
Marey's chronophotographs (multiple exposures on single glass plates and on strips of sensitized paper - celluloid film - that passed automatically through a camera of his own design) were revolutionary. He was soon able to achieve a frame rate of 30 images. Further experimentation was conducted by French-born Louis Aime Augustin Le Prince in 1888. Le Prince used long rolls of paper covered with photographic emulsion for a camera that he devised and patented. Two short fragments survive of his early motion picture film (one of which was titled Traffic Crossing Leeds Bridge).
The work of Muybridge, Marey and Le Prince laid the groundwork for the development of motion picture cameras, projectors and transparent celluloid film - hence the development of cinema. American inventor George Eastman, who had first manufactured photographic dry plates in 1878, provided a more stable type of celluloid film with his concurrent developments in 1888 of sensitized paper roll photographic film (instead of glass plates) and a convenient "Kodak" small box camera (a still camera) that used the roll film. He improved upon the paper roll film with another invention in 1889 - perforated celluloid (synthetic plastic material coated with gelatin) roll-film with photographic emulsion.
The Birth of US Cinema: Thomas Edison and William K.L. Dickson
In the late 1880s, famed American inventor Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) (and his young British assistant William Kennedy Laurie Dickson (1860-1935)) in his laboratories in West Orange, New Jersey, borrowed from the earlier work of Muybridge, Marey, Le Prince and Eastman. Their goal was to construct a device for recording movement on film, and another device for viewing the film. Dickson must be credited with most of the creative and innovative developments - Edison only provided the research program and his laboratories for the revolutionary work.
Although Edison is often credited with the development of early motion picture cameras and projectors, it was Dickson, in November 1890, who devised a crude, motor-powered camera that could photograph motion pictures - called a Kinetograph. This was one of the major reasons for the emergence of motion pictures in the 1890s. Edison Studios was formally known as the Edison Manufacturing Company (1894-1911), with innovations due largely to the work of Edison's assistant Dickson in the mid-1890s.
The motor-driven camera was designed to capture movement with a synchronized shutter and sprocket system (Dickson's unique invention) that could move the film through the camera by an electric motor. The Kinetograph used film which was 35mm wide and had sprocket holes to advance the film. The sprocket system would momentarily pause the film roll before the camera's shutter to create a photographic frame (a still or photographic image).
In 1889 or 1890, Dickson filmed his first experimental Kinetoscope trial or test film, Monkeyshines No. 1 (1889/1890), the only surviving film from the cylinder kinetoscope, and apparently the first motion picture ever produced on photographic film in the United States. It featured the movement of laboratory assistant Sacco Albanese, filmed with a system using tiny images that rotated around the cylinder.
Dickson Greeting (1891), apparently the second film made in the US, was composed of test footage of William K.L. Dickson himself, bowing, smiling and ceremoniously taking off his hat. It was a three-second clip. It was used for one of the first public demonstrations of motion pictures in the US using the Kinetoscope, presented to the Federation of Women's Clubs.
In 1891, Dickson also designed an early version of a movie-picture projector (an optical lantern viewing machine) based on the Zoetrope - called the Kinetoscope. Dickson and Edison also built a vertical-feed motion picture camera in the summer of 1892.
The formal introduction of the Kinetograph in October of 1892 set the standard for theatrical motion picture cameras still used today. It used a film strip that was 1 1/2 inches wide. This established the basis for today's standard 35 mm commercial film gauge, occurring in 1897. The 35 mm width with 4 perforations per frame became accepted as the international standard gauge in 1909. However, moveable hand-cranked cameras soon became more popular, because the motor-driven cameras were heavy and bulky.
On Saturday, April 14, 1894, a refined version of Edison's Kinetoscope began commercial operation. The floor-standing, box-like viewing device was basically a bulky, coin-operated, movie "peep show" cabinet for a single customer (in which the images on a continuous film loop-belt were viewed in motion as they were rotated in front of a shutter and an electric lamp-light). The Kinetoscope, the forerunner of the motion picture film projector (without sound), was finally patented on August 31, 1897 (Edison applied for the patent in 1891, granted in 1893). The viewing device quickly became popular in carnivals, Kinetoscope parlors, amusement arcades, and sideshows for a number of years.
The world's first film production studio - or "America's first movie studio," the Black Maria, or the Kinetographic Theater (and dubbed "The Doghouse" by Edison himself), was built on the grounds of Edison's laboratories at West Orange, New Jersey. Construction began in December 1892, and it was completed by February 1, 1893, at a cost of $637.67. It was constructed for the purpose of making film strips for the Kinetoscope. It was a black, tar-paper covered building/studio (with a retractable or hinged, flip-up roof to allow sunlight in), and built with a turntable to orient itself throughout the day to follow the natural sunlight.
Thomas Edison displayed 'his' Kinetoscope projector at the World's Columbian Exhibition in Chicago and received patents for his movie camera, the Kinetograph, and his electrically-driven peepshow device - the Kinetoscope. In early May, 1893, Edison also held the world's first public exhibition or demonstration of films at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. The exhibited 34-second film, Blacksmith Scene (1893), was viewed on Dickson's Kinetoscope viewer, and was shot using a Kinetograph at the Black Maria. It showed three people pretending to be blacksmiths.
The first motion pictures made in the Black Maria were deposited for copyright by Dickson at the Library of Congress in August, 1893. On January 7, 1894, The Edison Kinetoscopic Record of a Sneeze (aka Fred Ott's Sneeze (1894)) became the first film officially registered for copyright. It was one of the first series of short films made by Dickson for the Kinetoscope viewer in Edison's Black Maria studio with fellow assistant Fred Ott. The short five-second film was made for publicity purposes, as a series of still photographs to accompany an article in Harper's Weekly. It was the earliest surviving, copyrighted motion picture (or "flicker") - composed of an optical record (and medium close-up) of Fred Ott, an Edison employee, sneezing comically for the camera. It was noted as the first medium-closeup.
A short film (about 21 seconds long) titled Carmencita (1894) was directed and produced by Edison's employee William K.L. Dickson. She was filmed March 10-16, 1894 in Edison's Black Maria studio in West Orange, NJ. Spanish dancer Carmencita was the first woman to appear in front of an Edison motion picture camera, and quite possibly the first female to appear in a US motion picture. In some cases, the projection of the scandalous film on a Kinetoscope was forbidden, because it revealed Carmencita's legs and undergarments as she twirled and danced. This was one of the earliest cases of censorship in the moving picture industry.
Most of the first films shot at the Black Maria included segments of magic shows, plays, vaudeville performances (with dancers and strongmen), acts from Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, various boxing matches and cockfights, and scantily-clad women. Most of the earliest moving images, however, were non-fictional, unedited, crude documentary, "home movie" views of ordinary slices of life - street scenes, the activities of police or firemen, or shots of a passing train. [Footnote: the 'Black Maria' studio appeared in Universal's comedy Abbott and Costello Meet the Keystone Cops (1955).]
In the early 1890s, Edison and Dickson also devised a prototype sound-film system called the Kinetophonograph or Kinetophone - a precursor of the 1891 Kinetoscope with a cylinder-playing phonograph (and connected earphone tubes) to provide the unsynchronized sound. The projector was connected to the phonograph with a pulley system, but it didn't work very well and was difficult to synchronize. It was formally introduced in 1895, but soon proved to be unsuccessful since competitive, better synchronized devices were also beginning to appear at the time. The first known (and only surviving) film with live-recorded sound made to test the Kinetophone was the 17-second Dickson Experimental Sound Film (1894-1895).
Kinetoscope Parlors and Films Flourish:
On April 14, 1894, the Holland Brothers opened the first Kinetoscope Parlor at 1155 Broadway in New York City and for the first time, they commercially exhibited movies, as we know them today, in their amusement arcade. Each film cost 5 cents to view. Patrons paid 25 cents as the admission charge to view films in five kinetoscope machines placed in two rows. The first commercial presentation of a motion picture took place here. The mostly male audience was entertained by a single loop reel depicting clothed female dancers, sparring boxers and body builders, animal acts and everyday scenes. Early spectators in Kinetoscope parlors were amazed by even the most mundane moving images in very short films (between 30 and 60 seconds) - an approaching train or a parade, women dancing, dogs terrorizing rats, and twisting contortionists.
Soon, peep show Kinetoscope parlors quickly opened across the country, set up in penny arcades, hotel lobbies, and phonograph parlors in major cities across the US. One of the companies formed to market Edison's Kinetoscopes and the films was called the Kinetoscope Exhibition Company. It was owned by Otway Latham, Grey Latham, Samuel Tilden, and Enoch Rector. In the summer of 1894 in downtown New York City (at 83 Nassau St.), it set up a series of large-capacity Kinetoscopes (able to handle up to 150 feet of film), each one showing one, one–minute round of the six round Michael Leonard-Jack Cushing Prize Fight (1894) film (produced and filmed at Edison's Black Maria studio). Each viewing cost 10 cents, or 60 cents to see the entire fight. The popular boxing film was the first boxing film produced for commercial exhibition.
In June of 1894, pioneering inventor Charles Francis Jenkins became the first person to project a filmed motion picture onto a screen for an audience, in Richmond, Indiana, using his projector termed the Phantoscope. The motion picture was of a vaudeville dancer doing a butterfly dance - the first motion picture with color (tinted frame by frame, by hand). Some of the earliest color hand-tinted films ever publically-released were Annabelle Butterfly Dance (1894), Annabelle Sun Dance (1894), and Annabelle Serpentine Dance (1895) featuring the dancing of vaudeville-music hall performer Annabelle Whitford (known as Peerless Annabelle) Moore, whose routines were filmed at Edison's studio in New Jersey. Male audiences were enthralled watching these early depictions of a clothed female dancer (sometimes color-tinted) on a Kinetoscope - an early peep-show device for projecting short films.
Young Griffo v. Battling Charles Barnett (1895) was the first 'movie' or motion picture in the world to be screened for a paying audience on May 20, 1895, at a storefront at 156 Broadway in NYC. [This was more than seven months before the Lumière brothers showed their film in Paris (see below).] The 8-minute B&W silent film (shown on one continuous reel of film without interruption, using the "Latham Loop" to prevent tearing) was made by Woodville Latham and his sons Otway and Grey. The staged boxing match had been filmed with an Eidoloscope Camera on the roof of Madison Square Garden on May 4, 1895 between Australian boxer Albert Griffiths (Young Griffo) and Charles Barnett. Shortly thereafter, nearly 500 people became cinema's first major audience during the showings of films with titles such as Barber Shop, Blacksmiths, Cock Fight, Wrestling, and Trapeze. Edison's film studio was used to supply films for this sensational new form of entertainment. More Kinetoscope parlors soon opened in other cities (San Francisco, Atlantic City, and Chicago).
The Kiss (1896) (aka The May Irwin Kiss) was the first film ever made of a couple kissing in cinematic history. May Irwin and John Rice re-enacted a lingering kiss for Thomas Edison's film camera in this 20-second long short, from their 1895 Broadway stage play-musical The Widow Jones. It became the most popular film produced that year by Edison's film company (it was filmed at Edison's Black Maria studio, in West Orange, NJ), but was also notorious as the first film to be criticized as scandalous and bringing demands for censorship.
The American Mutoscope Company: Dickson's Split From Edison
Disgruntled and a disenchanted inventor, William K.L. Dickson left Edison to form his own company in 1895, called the American Mutoscope Company (see more further below), the first and the oldest movie company in America. A nickelodeon film producer who had been working with Thomas Edison for a number of years, Dickson left following a disagreement. Three others joined Dickson, inventors Herman Casler and Henry Marvin, and an investor named Elias Koopman. The company was set up at 841 Broadway, in New York - its sole focus was to produce and distribute moving pictures. The business was moved to Canastota, NY. Superior alternatives to the Kinetoscope were the company's invention of the Mutoscope - a hand-cranked viewing device utilizing bromide prints or illustrated cards in a 'flick-book' principle, and the Biograph projector, released in the summer of 1896 - a projector using large-format, wide-gauge 68 mm film (different from Edison's 35mm). The Biograph soon became the chief US competitor to Edison's Kinetoscope and Vitascope. [Note: The American Mutoscope Company eventually became the Biograph Company.] [By the 1897 patent date of the Kinetoscope, both the camera (kinetograph) and the method of viewing films (kinetoscope) were on the decline with the advent of more modern screen projectors for larger audiences.]
Film History of the Pre-1920s
| George Eastman |
What is the first part of the Jewish Bible called, which refers to the first five books of Moses? | George Eastman Facts
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George Eastman Facts
By mass-producing his inventions, the American inventor and industrialist George Eastman (1854-1932) promoted photography as a popular hobby. He was also a benefactor of educational institutions.
George Eastman was born in Waterville, N.Y., on July 12, 1854, and educated in Rochester public schools. He advanced from messenger to bookkeeper in the Rochester Savings Bank by 1877. Frugal with money—his only extravagance amateur photography—he spent his savings on cameras and supplies and went to Mackinac Island. When photographic chemicals ruined his packed clothes, he became disgusted with the wet-plate process.
In the 1870s American photography was still slow, difficult, and expensive. Equipment included a huge camera, strong tripod, large plateholder, dark tent, chemicals, water container, and heavy glass plates. Eastman experimented with dry-plate techniques. He was the first American to contribute to photographic technology by coating glass plates with gelatin and silver bromide. In 1879 his coating machine was patented in England, in 1880 in America. He sold his English patent and opened a shop to manufacture photographic plates in Rochester. To eliminate glass plates, Eastman coated paper with gelatin and photographic emulsion. The developed film was stripped from the paper to make a negative. This film was rolled on spools. Eastman and William Walker devised a lightweight roll holder to fit any camera.
Amateurs could develop pictures after Eastman substituted transparent film for the paper in 1884. Flexible film was created by Hannibal Goodwin of New York and a young Eastman chemist, Henry Reichenback. The long patent dispute between Goodwin and Eastman was the most important legal controversy in photographic history. A Federal court decision on Aug. 14, 1913, favored Goodwin. Goodwin's heirs and Ansco Company, owners of his patent, received $5,000,000 from Eastman in 1914.
In 1888 Eastman designed a simple camera, the Kodak (Eastman's coined word, without meaning), which was easy to carry and eliminated focusing and lighting. With a 100-exposure roll of celluloid film, it sold for $25.00. After taking the pictures and sending the camera and $10 to the Rochester factory, the photographer received his prints and reloaded camera. Eastman's slogan, "You press the button, we do the rest," was well known.
Anticipating photography's increased popularity, in 1892 Eastman incorporated the Eastman Kodak Company. This was one of the first American firms to mass-produce standardized products and to maintain a chemical laboratory. By 1900 his factories at Rochester and at Harrow, England, employed over 3,000 people and by 1920 more than 15,000. Eastman, at first treasurer and general manager, later became president and finally board chairman.
Daylight-loading film and cameras eliminated returning them to the factory. To Eastman's old slogan was added "or you can do it yourself." A pocket Kodak was marketed in 1897, a folding Kodak in 1898, noncurling film in 1903, and color film in 1928. Eastman film was indispensable to Thomas Edison's motion pictures; Edison's incandescent bulb was used by Eastman and by photographers specializing in "portraits taken by electric light."
Eastman's staff worked on abstract problems of molecular structure and relativity, as well as on photographic improvements. During World War I his laboratory helped make America's chemical industry independent of Germany, and finally the world leader.
Concerned with employee welfare, Eastman was the first American businessman to grant workers dividends and profit sharing. He systematically gave away his huge fortune to the University of Rochester (especially the medical school and Eastman School of Music), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Hampton Institute, Tuskegee Institute, Rochester Dental Dispensary, and European dental clinics.
After a long illness the lonely, retiring bachelor committed suicide on March 14, 1932, in Rochester. He had written to friends, "My work is done. Why wait?"
Further Reading on George Eastman
The best biography of Eastman is Carl W. Ackerman, George Eastman (1930). Robert Taft, Photography and the American Scene: A Social History, 1839-1889 (1938), places Eastman in perspective in the evolution of photography. Mitchell Wilson, American Science and Invention: A Pictorial History (1954), is also helpful.
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A halophyte is a plant that grows in what type of conditions? | Saline Crops, From Halophyte Research to Sea Vegetable Markets | Vegetables | Sea
Saline Crops, From Halophyte Research to Sea Vegetable Markets
review article submitted at the COST meeting on ‘Sustainable cultivation and exploitation of halophyte crops in a salinizing world’ held at the Vrije University in Amsterdam on the 18th and 19th April 2012
Copyright: Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Saline crops,from halophyte research to sea vegetable markets
Joost Bogemans*, László Erdei
Intellicrops bvba, Abdijstraat 14, 9400 Ninove, Belgium
b
Department o Plant Biology, University o Szeged, Közép asor 52, 6726 Szeged, Hungary *Corresponding author.el.: +32 54329093; ax: +32 54331175.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.Bogemans), [email protected] (L.Erdei)published by Intellicrops bvba , Ninove 2012 ©
AbstractA spin-o company was established in 1999 rom EU research on the cultivation, selection and do-mestication o a selection o halophytes. Te mission o the company has always been ocused onplant breeding, selection and seed production. Salicornia europaea and Aster tripolium were, romthe beginning, the key products o the company. oday the range o sea vegetable species has beenextended with Salicornia bigelovii, Salsola komarovii, Salsola soda, Crithmum maritimum, Plantagocoronopus, Beta maritima, Crambe maritima and Mertensia maritima. Among them, dierent racesare under development with respect to marketable characteristics (e.g. shape, yield, pest resistance…)At an early stage, the company established cultivation systems and had the reclamation o saline soilsas a primary task. Later, new cultivation systems were deployed to t horticultural needs (e.g. impro- ving non-seasonality, greenhouse cultivation, mechanization); today we give new growers advice in es-tablishing the new crops. Grower-adapted cultivation systems are setup rom hydroponics over salinesoil reclamation and highlighting acets like salinity and irrigation control, mineral nutrition undersalt regimes and advice on the particular saline crop.Simultaneously with the introduction o new halophyte crops and appropriate cultivation systems, amarketing development was built up to highlight interesting eatures o sea vegetable crops such astaste, unctional components, ease o use. to new consumers. Tis review ocuses on the establishmento a sea vegetable market under advanced agro-ood markets . Introducing new halophyte crops toless developed agro ood markets need dierent approaches but is not made easier . In terms o develo-ping new applications rom saline crops (orage, cosmetics, environmental issues, biouel) a marketingstrategy should be ocused on the derived products, bearing in mind that the consumer compares anddecides.
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Saline Crops, from halophyte research to sea vegetable markets
1.From research to spin-o.From 1993 until 1996 an EU research project running under the name ‘Saline crops. A contribution to the diver-sication o the production o vegetable crops by research on the cultivation methods and selection o halophytes.(AIR3-C92-0198)’,whose overall objective was to domesticate a number o plant species, naturally growing insaline or brackish soils that are locally gathered or consumption as a vegetable in the EU (Huiskes, Lemeur et al.1997). Species o Salicornia, Aster tripolium., Beta maritima. and Crambe maritima were envisaged. Tree o thespecies are harvested rom wild populations along European coastal areas, but in the case o Crambe maritima (Seakale) the cultivation disappeared in the 20th century. Te aim o the project was to develop commercial agriculturalproducts that could be cultivated as horticultural crop. As research topics the ocus was on new cultivation me-thods, breeding and the reclamation o saline soils.Research institutes rom the Netherlands (NIOO) , Belgium (UGent and VUB Brussels) and Portugal (IBE, EAN)were involved with Te Foundation or Marine Cultures Oosterchelde (SMCO, the Netherlands) coordinating theproject. Experimental eld plots were established in Burg-Haamstede (Netherlands), Aveiro and Leziria (Portugal)and .in a later stage the project was partially reinorced with an EU-Phare project on "Oxygen toxicity and abioticstress in crops” (H 9112-0163) under the direction o Pro. Dr. László Erdei (University o Szeged, Hungary) (Ságiand Erdei 2002). Te work plan comprised: germination and propagation, primary production, nutrition and sali-nity, selection and breeding, crops production in the eld and pests and diseases.According to the work plan promising results were obtained with Aster tripolium and Beta maritima. At the end o the "Saline Crops" project, the specie Salicornia was still dicult to control in terms o germination and growth. Teresearch on Crambe was abandoned at that time as new cultivation and propagation systems were setup by Péron(Peron 1987). Given the progress that was made with Aster tripolium a spin-o company was established in 1999with its ounders Pro. Dr. László Erdei (University o Szeged, Hungary) and Dr. Joost Bogemans (VUB Brussels,Belgium). It was the start o a journey with ups and downs.In 1999 Scrops nv was established. At a time when venture capital was readily available, we easily ound commercialpartners . ogether with one o the commercial partners a cultivation eld was ound in Portugal. Tis ancient riceeld ooded or years by sea water was reclaimed and the ooded eld turned into a dry compact lime soil. Due tothe conversion rom anaerobic to aerobic soil conditions, we had to start with a soil pH o 3.5. A lot o liming wasneeded to cultivate Sea aster (Aster tripolium L.) as the rst sea vegetable crop. Although in the years thereafer theeld was ooded three times more due to heavy rains or the weakness o the natural ditchesand twice destroyed by cattle through poor encing, the work proved the use o halophytes as orage crops. Te eld had to be abandonedand although the Salicornia greenhouse cultures, were successul, the resources o Scrops were depleted.In 2004 the ounders continued the activities under Intellicrops bvba . Te activities were ocused on seed produc-tion and consultancy. In 2007 a partial transer o technology was realised through the establishment o Serra Marisbvba. Serra Maris is today the seed company or sea vegetable seeds. Intellicrops still has its role as developer o non-ood applications and runs the management o Serra Maris bvba. oday Serra Maris operates in an internatio-nal context by setting up cultures in France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Portugal, urkey, Israel and the delivery o seeds to the US and Japan.From having a tentative start with only two crops (Salicornia spp. and Aster tripolium L.) we are today dealing with
Fig. 1 Aster tripolium selection trial. EU project SalineCrops 1993-1996 .Experimental feld Burgh Haamstede
| Saline |
Which author wrote the book ‘The Firm’, ‘The Pelican Brief’ and ‘The Rainmaker’? | 17.3 Halophytes and adaptation to salt | Plants in Action
Home , Title Page , Part IV - Ecophysiology in natural and managed communities , Chapter 17 - Salt: an environmental stress ,
17.3 Halophytes and adaptation to salt
Halophytes are adapted to saline soils, and occur naturally in environments ranging from maritime estuaries to remnant salt lakes in arid zones (see Case studies 17.1 and 17.2). Vascular halophytes are widely distributed among many families of flowering plants, including grasses, shrubs and trees. Well-known inland halophytes of Australasia include saltbushes (Atriplex spp.) and samphires (Halosarcia spp.) while mangroves (diverse genera) are characteristic of coastal wetlands.
Halophytes commonly require some salt (soil solution c. 10–50 mM NaCl) to reach maximum growth, and a few halo-phytes, for example Atriplex nummularia (old man saltbush), grow best around 100 mM NaCl (Figure 17.18). Many halophytes can grow in full strength or even concentrated seawater (mangroves); and some unicellular organisms (Dunaliella salina) can withstand saturated salt (c. 5.5 M NaCl).
Figure 17.18 Growth responses for a range of halophytes, compared to one of the most salt tolerant cultivated plants, barley. Atriplex nummularia (old man saltbush) is one of the most tolerant inland species known (data from Greenway 1968). The samphire species is Halosarcia pergranulata subsp. pergranulata (P.G. Wilson) ‘black-seeded samphire’, a common samphire in southwestern Western Australia (data from Short and Colmer, unpublished). Compare these halophytes with species of agricultural importance in Figure 17.3.
Halosarcia (coll. samphires) is a genus comprising several species and subspecies, all of which are perennial shrubs or subshrubs with succulent stems (Figure 17.27). The genus is found only in countries bordering the Indian Ocean and is well represented within Australia (Wilson 1980). Halosarcia spp. inhabit a range of saline environments that are also prone to waterlogging, such as coastal saltmarshes, mud flats, estuaries, margins of inland salt lakes, brackish seepages and saline clay pans. Due to their high degree of tolerance to salinity and waterlogging, Halosarcia spp. have been used in the revegetation of salt-affected areas in the Western Australian wheatbelt.
Curiously, only dicotyledonous halophytes respond positively to salinity. Monocotyledonous species show little or no growth stimulation with increasing salinity (e.g. Kallar grass in Figure 17.18). Nevertheless, most halophytes accumu-late large amounts of NaCl that contribute substantially to plant dry mass. For example, salts contributed about 10% of the dry mass of A. nummularia grown near its optimum salinity of 200 mM NaCl. The salt concentration in the leaf tissues of halophytes can be greater than 500 mM (up to 1 M; see Table 17.4) which is well above maximum concentrations commonly found in non-halophyte species. Enzymes cannot function in such a high NaCl concentration, but adaptive features of halophytes allow metabolism to continue in that environment (discussed later).
Figure 17.19 Germination response of saltbush and wheat. Germination responses for three saltbush (Atriplex) species to increasing concentrations of NaCl were identical to those from iso-osmotic concentrations of mannitol. Germination response for a typical Australian bread wheat, Egret, confirms substantial NaCl tolerance during germination. Similar responses were obtained for barley cultivars. (Based on Osmond et al. 1980 for Atriplex, and Rana Munns, unpublished, for cereal germination)
Paradoxically, germinating seeds and young seedlings of halophytes are sensitive to salt, despite their extraordinary tolerance as adults. Seed germination is poor at NaCl con-centrations of 300 mM, or about 1.5 MPa of osmotic pressure. Indeed, seeds of halophytes are no more tolerant of salt at germination than are those of many cultivated species. For example, saltbush and wheat show a similar tolerance of germination to NaCl (Figure 17.19) Inhibition of seed ger-mi-nation by high salinity is osmotic in nature because iso-osmotic concentrations of mannitol exert similar effects on germination of Atriplex spp.
Some halophytes have evolved with reproductive features that forestall salt inhibition of germination, and ensure that seed shed and subsequent germination coincides with periods of low salinity. For example, many Atriplex species carry their seeds in bracts that contain high levels of NaCl. When hydrated, the salt concentration in these bracts is over 500 mM, which inhibits germination. However, this salt is leached from the bracts by substantial rain that will also generate a favourable seed bed. Accordingly, shed seeds then take up water and germinate.
Wetland halophytes such as mangroves carry additional adaptive features that enable propagation and establishment in waterlogged saline sediments where even heavy rain is insufficient to dilute soil salt. Mangroves do not discharge their seeds to the soil surface, but retain them so that the seed germinates on the parent plant. Such germination, or ‘vivipary’, refers to continued development of an embryo, with little or no dormant phase. When viviparous seedlings detach from their parent tree, their radicles have already elongated to form a root with cellular structures to exclude salt.
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In humans, emesis is more commonly known as what? | The Glossary of Common Viruses
A Step by Step Guide for Starting Your Career as a Medical Coder
The Glossary of Common Viruses
A
Astrovirus – Infection with this virus causes gastroenteritis in people, both children and adults. The infection is typically not severe but may sometimes lead to dehydration.
C
Chickenpox – This infection is caused by the varicella zoster virus. It is highly contagious, being spread through coughing, sneezing, or contact with secretions. The main noticeable symptom is a skin rash.
D
Dengue Virus – This virus is mosquito-borne and causes Dengue Fever. This illness occurs predominantly in the tropics and may be life-threatening.
E
Ebola – Infection with this virus can lead to hypovolemic shock due to coagulation problems caused by the virus. It is spread through body fluids, conjunctivae, and also orally.
F
Foot-and-mouth disease virus – This virus causes foot-and-mouth disease, a disease that spreads rapidly through certain animals but that is extremely rare in humans. Symptoms in humans can include fever, vomiting, malaise, and occasionally skin lesions.
H
Hepatitis A – The Hepatitis A virus causes the illness Hepatitis A. The virus is spread through feces-contaminated food and water. The illness itself is usually mild, with symptoms such as fever, nausea, abdominal discomfort, and malaise.
Hepatitis B – This virus causes the disease Hepatitis B. This disease infects the liver and can lead to liver cirrhosis and even liver cancer. The virus is transmitted through infected blood or body fluids with infected blood.
Hepatitis C – Hepatitis C infects the liver and is caused by the Hepatitis C virus. This virus is transmitted from person-to-person through contaminated blood.
Herpes – Herpes is a group of several viruses that infect humans. Diseases caused by the herpes viruses include cold sores, genital herpes, chickenpox, and shingles. Herpes viruses are spread between people by way of body fluids, through the air, and through contaminated objects and surfaces.
HIV – Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the virus that causes AIDS. The virus attacks the immune system, which eventually allows other diseases to infect and proliferate in the body. HIV can be spread through blood, semen, breast milk, and vaginal fluid.
HPV Human Papilomavirus – The HPV virus is spread through sexual contact. There are hundreds of different strains of HPV, some of which cause no ill health effects. Other strains of the virus can cause genital warts and cancers of the cervix and vulva.
I
Influenza – Influenza is commonly known as the flu and is caused by influenza viruses. These viruses can be found in both animals and humans. The flu viruses are spread through humans by way of respiratory secretions.
J
Japanese Encephalitis – This is a mosquito-borne virus that produces the disease Japanese encephalitis. It can cause severe symptoms in humans but is not transmitted between them.
M
Measles – The measles virus is the cause of the disease measles. The virus only infects humans and is spread through respiratory secretions. Complications may occur and can include pneumonia, encephalitis, and even death.
Mumps – The mumps virus causes the disease mumps in people. The disease is transmitted from person-to-person through respiratory secretions but is generally a self-limiting disease and is not fatal in most circumstances.
N
Naples Virus – This is a type of Phlebovirus that has been linked to disease in humans. The virus is transmitted through infected sandflies.
P
Parvovirus – Parvovirus B19 is a human parvovirus that causes a disease in humans called fifth disease. This disease occurs most often in children and is characterized by a rash. Other types of parvoviruses are common in animals and cannot be transmitted from animals to humans.
R
Rabies – The rabies virus causes a fatal disease in animals and humans. Transmission of the virus often occurs through the saliva of animals.
Rubella – This virus causes the disease Rubella, and it also causes congenital rubella syndrome in developing fetuses and newborns. The rubella virus is only known to infect humans.
S
Shingles – This is a skin rash caused by the varicella zoster virus. In children, this virus causes chickenpox. Symptoms of shingles include skin pain and burning and a rash.
Smallpox – The variola virus causes smallpox. Symptoms of smallpox can include body aches, fever, vomiting, malaise, and a rash of fluid-filled bumps that cover the body.
T
Toscana Virus – This virus may be transmitted to humans through the bite of a sandfly. Symptoms of the illness may be mild, such as muscle aches, fever, or headache, or they may become severe, such as meningoencephalitis or meningitis.
V
Varicella Zoster Virus – This is the virus that causes chickenpox in children and causes shingles in adults. After a person has had a bout with chickenpox, the virus will lie dormant in the body and may become active again decades later and produce the condition shingles.
W
West Nile Virus – This virus can be found in both tropical and temperate areas. It is known to infect several animal species and also humans through infected mosquitoes. Infection symptoms can range from asymptomatic all the way to encephalitis-like symptoms.
Y
Yellow Fever – This virus causes the disease yellow fever and is transmitted through the bite of a mosquito. It is found in tropical regions of South America and Africa.
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In which 1932 film does Greta Garbo say the line ‘I want to be alone’? | Common Infectious Diseases Worldwide
Common Infectious Diseases Worldwide
Sources: The Centers for Disease Control (CDC); The World Health Organization (WHO).
The following is a list of the most common infectious diseases throughout the world today. Accurate caseload numbers are difficult to determine, especially because so many of these diseases are endemic to developing countries, where many people do not have access to modern medical care. Approximately half of all deaths caused by infectious diseases each year can be attributed to just three diseases: tuberculosis, malaria, and AIDS. Together, these diseases cause over 300 million illnesses and more than 5 million deaths each year.
The list does not include diseases that have received a significant amount of media attention in recent years—such as Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever or West Nile Virus > but which in fact have infected a relatively small number of people
African Trypanosomiasis (“sleeping sickness”): African trypanosomiasis is spread by the tsetse fly, which is common to many African countries. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that nearly 450,000 cases occur each year. Symptoms of the disease include fever, headaches, joint pains, and itching in the early stage, and confusion, sensory disturbances, poor coordination, and disrupted sleep cycles in the second stage. If the disease goes untreated in its first stage, it causes irreparable neurological damage; if it goes untreated in its second stage, it is fatal.
Cholera: Cholera is a disease spread mostly through contaminated drinking water and unsanitary conditions. It is endemic in the Indian subcontinent, Russia, and sub-Saharan Africa. It is an acute infection of the intestines with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Its main symptom is copious diarrhea. Between 5% and 10% of those infected with the disease will develop severe symptoms, which also include vomiting and leg cramps. In its severe form, cholera can cause death by dehydration. An estimated 200,000 cases are reported to WHO annually.
Cryptosporidiosis: Cryptosporidiosis has become one of the most common causes of waterborne disease in the United States in recent years; it is also found throughout the rest of the world. It is caused by a parasite that spreads when a water source is contaminated, usually with the feces of infected animals or humans. Symptoms include diarrhea, stomach cramps, an upset stomach, and slight fever. Some people do not exhibit any symptoms.
Dengue: WHO estimates that 50 million cases of dengue fever appear each year. It is spread through the bite of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Recent years have seen dengue outbreaks all over Asia and Africa. Dengue fever can be mild to moderate, and occasionally severe, though it is rarely fatal. Mild cases, which usually affect infants and young children, involve a nonspecific febrile illness, while moderate cases, seen in older children and adults, display high fever, severe headaches, muscle and joint pains, and rash. Severe cases develop into dengue hemorrhagic fever, which involves high fever, hemorrhaging, and sometimes circulatory failure.
Hepatitis A: Hepatitis A is a highly contagious liver disease caused by the hepatitis A virus. Spread primarily by the fecal-oral route or by ingestion of contaminated water or food, the number of annual infections worldwide is estimated at 1.4 million. Symptoms include fever, fatigue, jaundice, and dark urine. Although those exposed usually develop lifelong immunity, the best protection against Hepatitis A is vaccination.
Hepatitis B: Approximately 2 billion people are infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV), making it the most common infectious disease in the world today. Over 350 million of those infected never rid themselves of the infection. Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver that causes symptoms such as jaundice, extreme fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and stomach pain; hepatitis B is the most serious form of the disease. Chronic infections can cause cirrhosis of the liver or liver cancer in later years.
Hepatitis C: Hepatitis C is a less common, and less severe, form of hepatitis. An estimated 170 million people worldwide are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV); 3–4 million more are infected every year. The majority of HCV cases are asymptomatic, even in people who develop chronic infection.
HIV/AIDS: See Understanding AIDS .
Influenza: Several influenza epidemics in the 20th century caused millions of deaths worldwide, including the worst epidemic in American history, the Spanish influenza outbreak that killed more than 500,000 in 1918. Today influenza is less of a public health threat, though it continues to be a serious disease that affects many people. Approximately 20,000 people die of the flu in the United States every year. The influenza virus attacks the human respiratory tract, causing symptoms such as fever, headaches, fatigue, coughing, sore throat, nasal congestion, and body aches.
Japanese Encephalitis: Japanese encephalitis is a mosquito-borne disease endemic in Asia. Around 50,000 cases occur each year; 25% to 30% of all cases are fatal.
Leishmaniasis: Leishmaniasis is a disease spread by the bite of the sandfly. It is found mostly in tropical countries. There are several types of leishmaniasis, and they vary in symptoms and severity. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL, or kala azar) is the most severe; left untreated, it is always fatal. Its symptoms include fever, weight loss, anemia, and a swelling of the spleen and liver. Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL, or espundia) produces lesions that affect the nose, mouth, and throat and can destroy their mucous membranes. Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) produces skin ulcers, sometimes as many as 200, that cause disability and extensive scarring. Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis (DCL) is similar to CL, and infected people are prone to relapses. Approximately 12 million cases of leishmaniasis exist today.
Malaria: Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that affects 300–500 million people annually, causing between 1 and 3 million deaths. It is most common in tropical and subtropical climates and is found in 90 countries—but 90% of all cases are found in Sub-Saharan Africa. Most of its victims are children. The first stage consists of shaking and chills, the next stage involves high fever and severe headache, and in the final stage the infected person's temperature drops and he or she sweats profusely. Infected people also often suffer from anemia, weakness, and a swelling of the spleen. Malaria was almost eradicated 30 years ago; now it is on the rise again.
Measles: Measles is a disease that has seen a drastic reduction in countries where a vaccine is readily available, but it is still prevalent in developing countries, where most of the 777,000 deaths (out of 30 million cases) it caused in 2001 occurred. Symptoms include high fever, coughing, and a maculo-papular rash; common complications include diarrhea, pneumonia, and ear infections.
Meningitis: Meningitis, often known as spinal meningitis, is an infection of the spinal cord. It is usually the result of a viral or bacterial infection. Bacterial meningitis is more severe than viral meningitis and may cause brain damage, hearing loss, and learning disabilities. An estimated 1.2 million cases of bacterial meningitis occur every year, over a tenth of which are fatal. Symptoms include severe headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, lethargy, delirium, photophobia, and a stiff neck.
Onchocerciasis (“river blindness”): Onchocerciasis is caused by the larvae of Onchocerca volvulus, a parasitic worm that lives in the human body for years. It is endemic in Africa, where nearly all of the 18 million people infected with the disease live. Of those infected, over 6.5 million have developed dermatitis and 270,000 have gone blind. Symptoms include visual impairment, rashes, lesions, intense itching, skin depigmentation, and lymphadenitis.
Pneumonia: Pneumonia has many possible causes, but it is usually an infection of the streptococcus or mycoplasma bacteria. These bacteria can live in the human body without causing infection for years, and only surface when another illness has lowered the person's immunity to disease. Streptococcus pneumoniae causes streptococcal pneumonia, the most common kind, which is more severe than mycoplasmal pneumonia. S. pneumoniae is responsible for more than 100,000 hospitalizations for pneumonia annually, as well as 6 million cases of otitis media and over 60,000 cases of invasive diseases such as meningitis.
Rotavirus: Rotavirus is the most common cause of viral gastroenteritis worldwide. It kills more than 600,000 children each year, mostly in developing countries. Symptoms include vomiting, watery diarrhea, fever, and abdominal pain.
Schistosomiasis: Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease that is endemic in many developing countries. Roughly 200 million people worldwide are infected with the flukeworm, whose eggs cause the symptoms of the disease. Some 120 million of those infected are symptomatic, and 20 million suffer severely from the infection. Symptoms include rash and itchiness soon after becoming infected, followed by fever, chills, coughing, and muscle aches.
Shigellosis: Shigella infection causes an estimated 600,000 deaths worldwide every year. It is most common in developing countries with poor sanitation. Shigella bacteria cause bacillary dysentery, or shigellosis. Symptoms include diarrhea with bloody stool, vomiting, and abdominal cramps.
Strep Throat: Strep throat is caused by the streptococcus bacteria. Several million cases of strep throat occur every year. Symptoms include a sore throat, fever, headache, fatigue, and nausea.
Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis causes nearly 2 million deaths every year, and WHO estimates that nearly 1 billion people will be infected between 2000 and 2020 if more effective preventive procedures are not adopted. The TB bacteria are most often found in the lungs, where they can cause chest pain and a bad cough that brings up bloody phlegm. Other symptoms include fatigue, weight loss, appetite loss, chills, fever, and night sweats.
Typhoid: Typhoid fever causes an estimated 600,000 deaths annually, out of 12–17 million cases. It is usually spread through infected food or water. Symptoms include a sudden and sustained fever, severe headache, nausea, severe appetite loss, constipation, and sometimes diarrhea.
Yellow Fever: Yellow fever causes an estimated 30,000 deaths each year, out of 200,000 cases. The disease has two phases. In the “acute phase,” symptoms include fever, muscle pain, headache, shivers, appetite loss, nausea, and vomiting. This lasts for 3–4 days, after which most patients recover. But 15% will enter the “toxic phase,” in which fever reappears, along with other symptoms, including jaundice; abdominal pain; vomiting; bleeding from the mouth, nose, eyes, and stomach; and deterioration of kidney function (sometimes complete kidney failure). Half of all patients in the toxic phase die within two weeks; the other half recover.
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What name is given to an ornamental, usually coloured, design made of small pieces of hard material such as stone, tile or glass? | mosaic | art | Britannica.com
Mosaic
pebble mosaic
Mosaic, in art , decoration of a surface with designs made up of closely set, usually variously coloured, small pieces of material such as stone, mineral, glass , tile , or shell. Unlike inlay , in which the pieces to be applied are set into a surface that has been hollowed out to receive the design, mosaic pieces are applied onto a surface that has been prepared with an adhesive. Mosaic also differs from inlay in the size of its components. Mosaic pieces are anonymous fractions of the design and rarely have the dimensions of pieces for intarsia work (fitted inlay usually of wood), whose function is often the rendering of a whole portion of a figure or pattern. Once disassembled, a mosaic cannot be reassembled on the basis of the form of its individual pieces.
Mosaic floor fragment from a synagogue or church, cut stone with mortar from Israel, late …
Photograph by Katie Chao. The Jewish Museum, New York City, gift of Erwin Harvith, U 7529
Technical insight is the key to both the creation and the appreciation of mosaic, and the technical aspects of the art require special emphasis. There are also significant stylistic, religious, and cultural aspects of mosaic, which has played an important role in Western art and has appeared in other cultures . Although mosaic is an art form that appears in widely separated places and at different times in history, in only one place—Byzantium—and at one time—4th to 14th centuries—did it rise to become the leading pictorial art.
Principles of design
Between mosaic and painting , the art with which it has most in common, there has been a reciprocal influence of varying intensity. In colour and style the earliest known Greek figurative mosaics with representational motifs, which date from the end of the 5th century bce, resemble contemporary vase painting, especially in their outline drawing and use of very dark backgrounds. The mosaics of the 4th century tended to copy the style of wall paintings , as is seen in the introduction of a strip of ground below the figures, of shading, and of other manifestations of a preoccupation with pictorial space. In late Hellenistic times there evolved a type of mosaic whose colour gradations and delicate shading techniques suggest an attempt at exact reproduction of qualities typical of the art of painting.
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In Roman imperial times, however, an important change occurred when mosaic gradually developed its own aesthetic laws. Still basically a medium used for floors , its new rules of composition were governed by a conception of perspective and choice of viewpoint different from those of wall decoration. Equally important was a simplification of form brought about by the demand for more expeditious production methods. In the same period, the increasing use of more strongly coloured materials also stimulated the growing autonomy of mosaic from painting. As a means of covering walls and vaults, mosaic finally realized its full potentialities for striking and suggestive distance effects, which surpass those of painting.
The general trend towards stylization—that is, reduction to two-dimensionality—in late antique Roman painting (3rd and 4th centuries ce) may have been stimulated by experimentation with colour in mosaic and particularly by the elimination of many middle tones for the sake of greater brilliance. The central role played at that time by mosaic in church decoration, for which it is particularly well suited, encourages the assumption that the roles had shifted and painting had come under its influence. The strong, sinuous outlines and the absence of shading that came to characterize painting during certain periods of Byzantine and western European art of the Middle Ages may have originated in mosaic technique and use of materials. It is notable, however, that from the Renaissance to the 20th century mosaic was again wholly dependent on painting and its particular forms of illusionism.
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In modern mosaic practice, the main tendency is to build on the unique and inimitable qualities of the medium. Although not a few of the works created in the 20th century reveal the influence of painting, figurative or abstract, the art came a long way toward self-realization. By and large the modern mosaic makers share with their medieval predecessors the conviction that there are functions to which the materials of mosaic lend themselves with particular appropriateness.
Materials
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In antiquity, mosaics first were made of uncut pebbles of uniform size. The Greeks, who elevated the pebble mosaic to an art of great refinement, also invented the so-called tessera technique. Tesserae (Latin for “cubes” or “dice”) are pieces that have been cut to a triangular, square , or other regular shape so that they will fit closely into the grid of cubes that make up the mosaic surface. The invention of tesserae must have been motivated by a desire to obtain densely set mosaic pictures which could match, in pavements, the splendour of contemporary achievements in painting.
Tesserae vary considerably in size. The finest mosaics of antiquity were made of tesserae cut from glass threads or splinters of stone; ordinary floor decorations consisted of cubes about one centimetre square. Medieval works often display a differentiation in tessera size based on function: areas requiring a wealth of details, faces and hands, for instance, are sometimes set with tesserae smaller than average, while dress and jewelry are occasionally set with very large single pieces.
As long as mosaic was a technique for the making of floors, the main requisite of its materials was, besides their colour, their resistance to wear.
Stone
Stone , therefore, was long dominant, and throughout antiquity the natural colours of stone provided the basic range of tints at the artist’s disposal. They put their mark not only on the earliest Greek works but continued to determine colour schemes far into Roman times. Stone continued to be used in Christian monumental decorations but on a more limited scale and for special effects. In Byzantine mosaics, faces, hands and feet, for example, were set with stone, while cubes of marble , often of coarse crystals, were used to depict woollen garments. Stone was also used for background details (rocks, buildings), probably to bring about particular illusions . Though marble and limestone were ordinarily preferred, in a period when Roman mosaic cultivated a black and white technique, black basalt was widely employed. Marble cubes painted red, probably to substitute for red glass, have been found in many Byzantine mosaics, in 9th-century works at Istanbul , for example.
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Because its granular, nonpolished surface is often preferred to the hard brilliance of other materials, stone is also widely used in modern mosaics. At the University of Mexico in Mexico City , for example, the mosaics covering the exterior of the library by Juan O’Gorman (1951–53) and the exterior of the stadium by Diego Rivera (1957) are made with natural stone.
Glass
Glass , which first appeared among the materials of mosaic in the Hellenistic period (3rd–1st century bce), brought unlimited colour possibilities to the art. In floors, however, it had to be used sparingly because of its brittleness. In floors, glass tesserae were used for the strongest hues of red, green, and blue, while softer tints were rendered with coloured stone. With the development of wall mosaic, glass largely took over the functions of stone, producing tints of unsurpassed intensity and leading to a continuing search for new coloristic effects.
With little knowledge of the laws of optics but with immense practical experience, mosaic makers of the Early Christian period gave the art a completely new direction with the exploitation of gold and silver glass tesserae. Like a mirror, the glass from which this kind of tesserae was made had a metal foil applied or, better, encased in it. The metal was gold leaf or, for the “silver,” probably tin. These pieces of mirror glass gave golden or white reflections of high intensity and could be used to depict objects of precious metal or to heighten the effect of other colours; but, above all, it was used as a means of rendering the light emanating from God.
Gold tesserae were first used by the Romans, in both floor and vault decoration of late antiquity. Initially, their role was simply to give a golden effect. Gold tesserae, for example, were employed to depict a golden wreath in a floor mosaic at Antioch (c. 300 ce) and gold vessels in some of the vault mosaics in Santa Costanza in Rome. Later, when this use of gold for imitation purposes had become more refined, some spectacular effects were produced in the depiction of garments. The Good Shepherd in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia at Ravenna (c. 450 ce) is dressed in golden robes of densely set gold cubes shaded with stripes of light-yellow tesserae. The female saints in Sant’Apollinare Nuovo (c. 550–570 ce) in the same town wear costumes set with green glass cubes among which appear both patterns and large fields of gold tesserae, producing a striking similarity to rich silk brocade. Silver was used in a similar way. Christ scenes in Sant’Apollinare Nuovo (500–526 ce) employ silver tesserae in the drawn sword of Peter in the betrayal, no doubt an imitation of steel. Silver tesserae are also found in the silver jug and basin in the scene of Pilate washing his hands.
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Gold cubes were distributed among the ordinary tesserae to add to the shimmer of light in ornaments and background details. To avoid an uneven gleam in the surface, the mirror effect was often moderated by setting the gold tesserae in reverse, so that the visible part of the cube is the side with the thickest sheet of glass covering the gold leaf. In the now-lost mosaics of the Church of the Dormition in Nicaea, a scholar observed another exquisite effect, which he called dark gold, created by cubes from which some of the gold leaf had been chipped off, for example, in the frontal part of Mary’s golden footstool (7th or 8th century ce).
An early instance of the use of gold for depicting light emanating from God is in a representation of Christ-Helios (Christ as the Sun God) in a 3rd-century mausoleum under St. Peter’s at Rome. Here, a few gold tesserae are seen in the rays coming from Christ’s head. The halo of gold, a feature so common in Christian art that religious pictures without it can hardly be imagined, developed in mosaic art in the 4th century ce. The gold background, signifying divine light, probably originated in Roman mosaic art, but the first preserved instances date from the advanced 4th century. The cupola mosaic of Áyios Geórgios at Thessaloníki (c. 400), for example, has a background of gold. In Italian mosaics of the 5th century, other types of background, such as a dark-blue ground or a more naturalistic landscape setting, were dominant. Only at the beginning of the 6th century did the gold background become the rule.
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In addition to this massive predilection for gold, the Christian East began to use silver to depict the symbolic light emanating from Christ. First, it was used for the entire disc of his halo, later only for the cross arms. The archangels were the only figures besides Christ for whom the silver halo was used. The light of God, appearing as rays from above in scenes of the Annunciation , Nativity , Baptism , and Transfiguration , was also depicted with silver tesserae. Finally, silver and gold were used together in Byzantine representations of the infant Jesus, whose golden robes are highlighted with silver cubes (the apse and south vestibule of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul; both 9th century).
Other materials
In Christian mosaics, tesserae of mother-of- pearl or coarse-grained marble cut to round or oblong shapes were used to depict pearl. Though pieces of semiprecious stones were among the mosaic materials of antiquity, their use was rarely dictated by the wish for particular sumptuous effects. Reduced to common tessera size, bits of this strongly coloured material served as part of the general colour scheme of the mosaic pictures. Objects like those of the pre-Columbian American Indian cultures, in which, because of its exquisite materials, such as turquoise and garnet, mosaic attained the status of jewelry have not been found in Western art.
Among the materials that have played and continued to play a role in the production of mosaic, ceramic is the most versatile. Terra-cotta “threads” were used in Greek mosaics as contours , and tesserae of the same material were frequently used by the Byzantines for the depiction of red objects and garments. Today, glazed or unglazed ceramic is used and is one of the strongest competitors with glass and stone. Ceramic tesserae are cut from tiles or, like much modern glass mosaic material such as pressed glass, come prefabricated. Prefabricated tesserae have the advantage of a very uniform and smooth surface which harmonizes with glass, steel, and other new building materials.
Techniques
The most commonly used adhesive for mosaics was mortar , the function of which was in the 20th century largely taken over by modern, tougher kinds of cements or glue. In Roman floors, two to three layers of mortar preceded the setting bed that was to carry a tesserae facing. The first layer rested on a thick foundation of stone that prevented settling of the mortar bed and the formation of cracks. For wall mosaics the preparation was equally painstaking, and in many cases an application of a waterproofing of resin or tar preceded the laying of the mortar. There then followed two layers of coarse, roughened mortar, the stability of which was often improved by large nails that had been driven into the joints of the wall before the work of laying started. A third and final layer was of fine consistency and frequently, like the mortar for floor mosaics, contained powdered marble and binding elements such as pounded brick.
As in fresco painting (technique of using water-suspended pigments in a moist plaster surface), the setting bed was applied in patches never larger than were needed for one day’s work. In a frescoed surface, the breaks between the different stages of the work can easily be detected; they are harder to discover in mosaic.
Numerous underpaintings discovered in wall mosaics indicate that sketches , often detailed and with the main colours suggested, were executed on the setting bed to serve as guides for the disposition of the tesserae. Similar procedures are thought to have been part of the technique of floor mosaic. In church mosaics, rough preliminary sketches have been found on layers underneath the setting bed and, in a few instances, even on the brick wall itself. This kind of preparatory sketch, for which there are parallels in wall painting, suggests that the artist was trying out the overall scheme of the decoration before making a more detailed sketch on the setting bed.
Instead of laying the tesserae one by one directly onto the mortar, another method was sometimes used. In Pompeii many of the so-called emblēmata (central panels of floors), which were made up of smaller than average tesserae and were often of very high artistic quality, appear to have been preset on trays of stone or terra-cotta which were then embedded in the mortar of the floor. The surrounding mosaic area was then set according to the ordinary, direct method. Although the direct method was used for wall mosaics during the Middle Ages , there are signs in at least one medieval monument of a partial use of the prefabrication—or “indirect”—method: in the cupola mosaic of the church of Áyios Geórgios, Thessaloníki (c. 400), the heads of the saints seem to have been inserted in the mortar in one piece. The indirect method was the one most used in the 20th century. In the workshop, the mosaic is first set in reverse with glue on paper or cloth and then applied to the floor or wall. The technique permits preassembling of mosaics intended even for curved surfaces, cupolas, or apses. It has been hypothesized that behind the enormous output of floor mosaics in the Roman era lay similar production methods which had developed out of the tray procedure described above. The introduction of wall mosaics led to experimentation with the spacing and angling of tesserae. The solidity of floor mosaics depended on a close-set texture, but in wall mosaics, in which the element of wear was no longer relevant, the organization of the surface could become looser. For several centuries, a very wide spacing of the tesserae was cultivated, and the placing of cubes at irregular angles was regarded as important to the overall effect of wall mosaics. These tendencies reached the extreme in the 7th and 8th centuries, in mosaics of the chapel of San Venanzio in the Lateran Baptistery, Rome, and in the fragments of the decoration of Pope John VII (705–707 ce) in the old St. Peter’s in the Vatican. Later periods preferred a somewhat closer setting, but the irregular surface continued to be in fashion for most of the Middle Ages.
The tilting of tesserae became an art in itself. In 6th-century Byzantine mosaics there evolved a new technique whereby gold and silver tesserae were set at extremely sharp angles to enhance reflection. By pointing their mirror ends downward in the direction of the onlooker, it was possible to secure maximum light effect. In Hagia Sophia at Istanbul , the enormous gold areas in the wall mosaics of the emperor Justinian are set with cubes tilted this way. In one particularly dark corner, the tesserae are not only tilted downward but are also turned slightly sideways to catch the light from a nearby window. A similar technique, based on a high degree of tilting of the gold tesserae in unlit areas, can be observed in the mosaics of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (c. 690 ce).
Haloes set with tilted cubes that bring out the circle of light surrounding the heads of holy figures became common in Byzantine mosaics of the 6th to 7th centuries, as is seen in the mosaic panels dating from this period in the church of Áyios Dhimítrios, Thessaloníki. Striking examples of such haloes are also found among mosaics that were put up in Hagia Sophia in Istanbul in the 9th century, above all in a panel with the kneeling emperor (Leo VI?).
Effects such as those described above are unthinkable without the accumulated experience of the craftsman-artist. In the 20th century, mosaic increasingly became an art divided between the inventor who furnished the design and the worker who executed it. It may be that the dry character of many modern mosaics can be ascribed to the fact that the artist no longer put his thumb on every tessera.
Periods and centres of activity
Among the cultures of the ancient Middle East there is one remarkable occurrence of a mosaic-like technique: the exteriors of some large architectural structures dating from the 3rd millennium bce, at Uruk ( Erech ) in Mesopotamia , are decorated with long terra-cotta cones imbedded in the wall surface. The blunt, outer ends of the cones, coloured in red, black, and white, form patterns consisting of zigzag lines, lozenges, and other geometrical motifs. This revetment was decorative as well as functional, for the cones shielded the core of sun-dried bricks from rain and wind. The technique, however, died out and seems to have had no influence on the later development of mosaic.
Columns decorated in the early 3rd millennium bce by the Sumerians in a mosaic-like technique …
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin—Preussischer Kulturbesitz
In western Asia Minor are preserved the earliest examples of the surface-covering technique that lead to mosaic in the present sense of the word. In the town of Gordium near modern Ankara in Turkey , houses have been uncovered with floors made of pebbles set in a primitive mortar. In some of these floors (dated to the 8th century bce), rows of light pebbles form awkward geometrical figures against a background of darker stones. These rudimentary elements of decoration introduced into a crude form of pavement laying spurred artistic imagination and set in motion a process that was to bring spectacular results.
Ancient Greek and Hellenistic mosaics
Three main phases can be determined in the development of mosaic art in antiquity. The first, chiefly a Greek matter, involved the gradual perfecting of the pebble medium. The second, which saw the invention and spreading of the tessera technique, took place partly in the Hellenistic Greek world and partly on Roman soil. The third, largely a Roman phenomenon, was characterized by the popularization of mosaic and the application of the medium to new functions. By a process of diffusion , the taste in floor decoration documented at Gordion spread through the Greek-speaking world of the Mediterranean. Its first full flourishing seems to have occurred in late Classical times. Pebble mosaics are found as far west as Sicily (Motya, Morgantina) and, in the east, in the Greek colonies on the Crimean Peninsula (Cherson). They are preserved in large number at only two sites, Olinthos and Pella, in Macedonian northern Greece.
In the town of Olinthos there are floor mosaics, with elaborate figures and complicated patterns, which were part of the new city culture that developed in the 5th century bce. The Olinthos mosaics also reveal that picture making with light and dark pebbles had by then evolved into an intricate art. Against a ground set with black or blue-black stones stand figures or patterns set with white or slightly tinted ones. Pebble size had become fairly uniform, with diameters from one to two centimetres, but particularly intricate areas, like faces, are set with smaller stones. Very small black pebbles serve as outlines. Although the mortar between them is visible, the pebbles are set close enough so that the pictures appear with regular, not too broken outlines and with some emphasis on detail.
Floors in houses at Pella , dating from the 4th century bce, demonstrate a significant later development of the pebble technique. Floor mosaics then openly vied with wall painting in the rendering of space and realistic detail. This was made possible by the introduction of new materials that eliminated the shortcomings of the ordinary pebble medium. Among the basic changes was an increase in the range of colours. When the demand for particular tints could not be met with pebbles of natural colours, “artificial pebbles” were made and are found in several of the floors at Pella. These “pebbles” have been painted in the required tones—mostly strong green and red—and, to protect the film of paint, have a depression sunk in the middle. The new trend also called for smaller pebbles to permit pictures to be set more closely. To obtain precise delineation of limbs and features, outlines made not with pebbles but with long strips of terra-cotta or lead wire were employed. Pictures made in this technique reflect a taste for heroic hunt scenes and fights with wild animals, themes inspired from court art glorifying the ruler.
Greek pebble mosaic, detail from The Lion Hunt, from Pella, Macedonia, c. 300 bc.
Dimitri
The next innovation came at the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 3rd century bce, when the introduction of new principles led to the abandonment of the pebble technique. Cut mosaic pieces permitted the nearly complete elimination of the disturbing effects of visible mortar patches, and new materials, above all glass, offered a vast new range of colours. The acceptance of the new methods and materials seems, however, to have come about slowly. In Alexandria (Greco-Roman Museum) there is a mosaic (depicting Erotes fighting a stag and, in the outer border, a frieze of animals) in which cut, triangular tesserae are used together with both pebbles and lead wire. In somewhat later Alexandrian mosaics made with tesserae (late 3rd or early 2nd century bce), lead threads are still in use—for example, in a panel, signed by the artist Sophilos and depicting a personification of Alexandria, that is the earliest known example of miniature mosaic work (called opus vermiculatum , meaning “wormlike work” because of the close-set, undulating rows of small tesserae).
Pergamum , another centre of the Hellenistic world, was particularly famous for its school of mosaics. According to the ancient Roman historian Pliny the Younger , Sosos, one of the most renowned mosaic artists of antiquity, worked in this city. None of his works survives but, thanks to Roman copies, the intentions that underlay his art can be judged. Pliny listed as his most celebrated works a representation of drinking doves and a clever imitation of the “unswept floor” of a banquet room (asarōtos oikos). The copies tell of Sosos’s phenomenal ability to create trompe l’oeil (“fool-the-eye”) effects through a shading and colouring that seems to bring the objects out in full plasticity on the ground on which they are depicted. To call the work merely an imitation of painting may be incorrect. The intense colours and the smooth texture permitted by the new setting technique paved the way for illusionistic effects that went beyond those achieved by painting.
Roman mosaics
Eager to adopt the artistic culture of the Hellenized eastern Mediterranean, the Romans introduced mosaic in this exquisite form in both their domestic architecture and their places of worship. Pompeii has yielded a host of opus vermiculatum works datable to the 2nd or 1st century bce. Among these the most famous is the Battle of Issus , found in the Casa del Fauno in 1831. This is the largest of all known works, measuring about 11.22 by 19.42 feet (3.42 by 5.92 metres), in the miniature mosaic technique. This mosaic (which probably copies a work of painting, perhaps a famous picture by Philoxenus of Eretria) and other Pompeiian panels of similar quality are supposed to have been executed by Greek artists, who carried on in the tradition established at Alexandria and Pergamum.
Dionysus on a Tiger, from the Casa del Fauno, Pompeii, 2nd century bc. In the Museo Archeologico …
Kina Italia S.P.A.
Skeleton of a Cup-Bearer, from the Casa del Fauno, Pompeii, 2nd century bc. In the Museo …
Kina Italia S.P.A.
The Romans transformed mosaic from an exclusive art to a common decorative medium. Some of the earliest examples of this new type of floor are in the late republican (2nd century bce) houses at Delos. For rooms of secondary importance and often for floors surrounding the finely designed and executed central emblēmata (a featured picture or ornamental motif) in the most important rooms, the Romans developed a simpler, less artistic kind of mosaic. The floors are set with fairly large tesserae with a limited range of colours, some tending toward monochrome (black-and-white). The decorative designs and motifs are also simple and uncomplicated.
“Battle of Alexander and Darius at Issus,” detail of the Roman mosaic done in the …
SCALA/Art Resource, New York
This new trend in mosaic floors was probably stimulated by new and functional ways of thinking about the role of floors in architecture. To the practical Romans it may have seemed illogical that floors destined for rough wear should bear delicate pictures. Moreover, the demand for large-scale mosaic making brought about by the colossal urban expansion in the 1st century ce made the development of quicker and simpler techniques imperative . The aim of the Romans seems to have been to create a style, technique, and form of composition that would be simple and functional. Competition with painting in illusionistic and coloristic refinement was therefore abandoned; emblēmata gave way to decorative elements distributed over the floor in one large overall pattern or to figure compositions taking the full floor plane; and polychrome gave way to monochrome mosaics (which may have been easier to produce). Enormous floors in the baths and in the courtyards of warehouses (1st to 3rd century ce) at Ostia , Rome’s port at the mouth of the Tiber, are the best preserved examples of the monochrome style.
Roman monochrome floor mosaic, 3rd century ad; in the Portico delle Corporazioni, Ostia, Italy.
SCALA/Art Resource, New York
The expressionist Roman style, which flourished in Italy, penetrated into the former Greek cities in the eastern part of the empire, but polychromy and types of composition based on the framed picture persisted with especial tenacity due to strong local Hellenistic traditions. A splendid series of emblēmata (2nd century) with mythological representations, allegories , and scenes from the theatre have been uncovered at Antioch in southern Turkey. They prove the existence of a school there of mosaicists of particular brilliance. Recent research has pointed to the African provinces as the site of another, highly active school with a taste for larger, dramatic compositions. Influence from these areas may have been responsible for the renewed opulence, represented by a vivid polychrome pictorial mosaic, which reappeared in Roman art in late antiquity. Outstanding examples of this renewal are the mosaics in the Roman villa of Casale (c. 300 ce) near Piazza Armerina , Sicily. The mosaic decoration of this vast palace complex culminates in the gallery of the Large Hunt, which contains a scene of animal hunting and fighting covering an area of 3,200 square feet (300 square metres).
It is generally agreed that in the course of the 3rd century the status of mosaic was radically altered. Already in Hellenistic times the medium had been employed for other ends than floor covering and had become part of the embellishment of the fantastic garden architecture of which the rulers of the period seem to have been particularly fond. Reflections of this tradition in the 1st century ce are the mosaic-covered fountains in the mansions at Pompeii and Herculaneum and mosaic panels and niches in rustic banquet halls and artificial grottoes at The Golden House of Nero in Rome and his villa at Anzio. Mosaic fragments and imprints of tesserae in the vaults of baths and buildings of similar size demonstrate that mosaic gradually was introduced into new fields. Equally important is the evidence that mosaic was used to depict sacred images. On some of the monochrome floors at Ostia are scenes pertaining to animal sacrifice and to the cult of the dead. Three monuments of the 3rd century inform of another new practice introduced at this time, that of putting mosaic pictures of religious importance on walls: a niche mosaic with the god Silvanus from a temple of Mithra at Ostia; a Christian wall and vault mosaic depicting Christ as Helios , the Sun God, in a mausoleum under St. Peter’s, Rome ; and a decoration, now lost but recorded in a 17th-century drawing, of a chapel for the Lupercalian worship at Rome. It has been pointed out by modern scholarship that the new role gradually assumed by mosaic must be related to the corresponding decline in interest in three-dimensional representation. The cultic mosaic took over the function of the cult statue, mosaic being that two-dimensional medium which was considered most capable of convincingly expressing religious ideas in visual form.
Interior court with mosaic of Neptune and Amphitrite, from the House of Neptune and Amphitrite (1st …
SCALA/Art Resource, New York
Early Christian mosaics
Present-day insight into the crucial early phase of this part of the history of mosaic is limited because of the loss of nearly everything that was made in the field during the first half of the 4th century. Nevertheless, as indicated above, it seems certain that wall mosaics had come into use in Roman art well before Emperor Constantine’s edict of toleration of the Christian faith in 313 ce. Considered to be among the earliest Christian wall mosaics in Rome are those in the church of Santa Costanza built about 320–330 ce as a mausoleum for Constantine’s daughter. The content of the pictures is almost completely Dionysiac and pagan, but a series of small format scenes from the Old and New Testament s were included among the non-Christian pictorial elements of the decoration. Obviously an independent Christian pictorial program for buildings of Santa Costanza’s size and complexity had not yet been developed; and, probably in lieu of that, a Dionysiac program had been chosen because its many allusions to the symbolism of wine lent themselves to a Christian interpretation.
Other monuments of the 4th century bear similar marks of transition. Floor mosaics in the cathedral complex at Aquileia demonstrate that the church before and immediately after Constantine’s edict of tolerance of the Christian faith in 313 ce adhered to the late antique tradition of placing religious pictures in pavements. In the earliest group of Aquileia mosaics (c. 300 ce) objects and animals symbolize the Good Shepherd, while the later group (second decade of 4th century) contains scenes from the story of Jonah , symbolic animals, such as the deer and the lamb, and a representation of the bread and the wine. Before long, pictures of this character were banished from floors, and simpler and more general symbols took their place.
The latest of the preserved transitional works, a decorated cupola in a mausoleum, possibly imperial, at Centcelles (now Constantí, Tarragona), Spain , seems to have been made not long after 350 ce. This very fragmentary decoration has yielded important information about a stage of increasing mastery in the handling of the medium. The scenes from the Old and the New Testament are presented with greater self-confidence and occupy a full, broad zone in the lower part of the cupola. Yet, below it is a stag hunt, rich in symbolic content but adhering closely to the patterns of profane floor mosaics. Stone tesserae dominate in the lower zones, but glass cubes are found in large quantities in the upper. Glass, with its stronger colours, was doubtlessly concentrated in this area intentionally. The zenith of the cupola, weak in lighting and distant from the spectator, needed tesserae of strong reflecting power to make it possible to read its decoration.
A series of large, in part well-preserved mosaics make it possible to follow the progress of the art in 5th-century Italy . Ravenna and Rome have several important works, while Naples and Milan have preserved enough to suggest that workshops of high artistic standard must have existed in many of the large cities of the peninsula. In these works, the tendency to clarify and even underline the content of religious pictures with the help of colour is brought to its full peak. The swing towards a greater employment of glass reached a point at which the mosaics are almost entirely made of this material. In what must be regarded as a late but vigorous revival of the painterly illusionism of antiquity, there is an audacious blending of colours. Among the high points of this trend are the flaming visages of angels in Santa Maria Maggiore , Rome (c. 432–440 ce) and the spiritualized physiognomies of St. Bartholomew and his fellow apostles in the Baptistery of the Orthodox, Ravenna (c. 450). But the designer’s mastery and sophistication are nowhere more overwhelmingly illustrated than in the glowing interior of the so-called Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (c. 450) at Ravenna, with its blue star-filled mosaic dome, and in the decoration of the Naples Baptistery of San Giovanni in Fonte (5th century), with its hypnotizing glimmer.
A Christian language of pictures ( iconography ) was now developed and its grammar worked out. In cupolas the centre tended to be reserved for depictions of Christ or the cross. In apses there was a trend toward static and symbolical representation of holy figures and a reduction of detail. On the walls of the nave of basilicas were scenes from the Old or the New Testament or both. The largely intact decoration of the church of Santa Maria Maggiore throws some light on the principles involved. Old Testament scenes are distributed on the side walls of the nave in panels measuring about 6 by 6 feet (1.9 by 1.9 metres). There is one panel below each of the basilica’s large windows. The pilasters (columns projecting shallowly from the surface of the wall) between the windows (restored but repeating the original disposition) serve as outer frames for these panels. Before the restoration of the church in the 16th century there were also inner frames, made of stucco; in addition, each panel was adorned with a small pediment (triangular gable) of the same material and thus appeared as if enshrined by a small aedicula (a pedimented niche). The Classical rules governing the relation between the architecture of a building and its decoration may be expected to leave their mark on Christian mosaic art for a long time.
Byzantine mosaics
Early Byzantine mosaics
Mosaics made in Ravenna for the Ostrogoth king Theodoric (493–526 ce) are the first full manifestations of Byzantine art in the West. As seen in two of the foremost works from his time, the Baptistery of the Arians and the church of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo , the gold background now dominates. Accompanying it was silver, a novelty among the mosaics of Italy. In Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, the faces and hands in several of the Christ scenes are set not with glass tesserae but with cubes of stone. Stylistically, these mosaics are characterized by more static figures and less depth and plasticity than in those of the 5th century.
Another remarkable element is the movement, now fully developed, toward an integration of architecture and mosaic decoration. This is most clearly seen in the basilica. In the church of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, the mosaics are no longer inserted panels but form a continuous “skin” that covers every inch of the wall. The size of the windows and even their number have been reduced, apparently to provide more wall space for pictures. Figures have grown in size, to match the dimensions of architectural components, and they seem to have taken the place of pilasters in the articulation of the room. This trend is given truly monumental expression in the choir of the church of San Vitale at Ravenna, dating from c. 526–548 ce. A profusion of decorative elements is spread like tapestry over the walls and vault, the panels of the emperor Justinian and his consort Theodora near the apse embodying the new spirit in their colour-laden pageantry.
In the East, the circular church of Áyios Geórgios at Thessaloníki, Greece , shows Byzantine mosaic at its earliest flourishing (c. 400 ce). Its partly preserved mosaics display a disposition related to that of the Baptistery of the Orthodox at Ravenna, with a lower zone containing Paradisiac architecture; above this a zone with standing and walking figures and in the centre of the cupola a medallion with a figure of Christ. A uniform gold background dominates the two lower zones, at a time well before it had come into general use in the West. Silver is found in profusion, used for the background in the central medallion as well as a means to enhance the radiation of light from all parts of the mosaic. In the figures of saints the material for faces and hands is chiefly natural stone, its gentle gradations contrasting spectacularly with the violent juxtapositions of coloured glass tesserae of the hair and the garments.
Effects of this kind, which are the hallmark of Byzantine mosaic technique, seem to derive from intentions wholly dissimilar to those which had determined the development of early Christian mosaic art in the West, where the illusionism of Greco-Roman art persisted for a long time. In the great Ravenna mosaics of the 5th century, pictures illustrating the narrative of the Bible or expounding the dogmas of religion were still done in the painterly style of Roman mosaics and wall painting. During the same period, mosaic art of the Eastern Empire, having abandoned conventional illustration, was boldly exploring the way that lay open, in mosaic art, toward a new kind of imagery.
In the mosaics of the 6th century are found the earliest refinement introduced by the Byzantines to enhance the brilliance of gold tesserae. This refinement, already described, involved setting gold cubes at oblique angles to direct their reflections toward the viewer. Used in haloes, the tesserae, obliquely set, convey to the holy figures a miraculous aura of light. The visages of the saints, with their dull stone surfaces and hues reminiscent of actual human skin, add a touch of mysterious reality to this theatre of effects.
Splendid mosaics from many parts of the eastern Mediterranean testify to the continuous cultivation and improvement of these effects. In the city of Thessaloníki the mosaics in the churches of Hosios David (5th century ce) and Áyios Dhimítrios (6th and 7th centuries) exemplify the trend, which is also expressed in apse decorations preserved at Cyprus (church of the Panagia Angeloktistós, at Kiti, and of the Panayía Kanakaria near Lythrangome; both 6th century) and in the Monastery of St. Catherine , Sinai Desert , founded by Justinian .
Apart from the gold ground, which had considerable impact, the technical subtleties essential to these mosaics met very little response outside Byzantium . When Byzantine artisans operated in foreign territory, they brought their particular techniques with them. Again and again the impact of this tradition was felt in the West, though, at its purest, mostly as short-lived episodes. To judge from a few surviving fragments, mosaics executed under Pope John VII (705–707 ce) in a chapel in St. Peter’s, Rome, might have been the work of artisans summoned from Byzantium. Technical and stylistical features demonstrate that the mosaics executed under the earliest Muslim rulers, in the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem (c. 690 ce) and in the Great Mosque at Damascus (c. 715 ce), are certainly the work of specialists called from Byzantium. Sources testify that even the mosaics in the mosque at Córdoba , Spain (965 ce), were made by Greek craftsmen.
The floor mosaics in the great palace of the Byzantine emperors at Istanbul—with their pastoral scenes, fights with wild animals, and figure groups taken from pagan mythology—testify to an undercurrent of Classical taste in Constantinople. The date, which according to archaeological evidence must be placed as late as about the year 600 ce, demonstrates the tenacity of that taste in the midst of the Christian milieu of the Byzantine metropolis.
Mosaic floor fragment, stone tesserae from Syria, 6th century ce; in the Los Angeles County …
Photograph by Howard Cheng. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, gift of Nasli M Heeramaneck, M.76.174.252
Middle Byzantine mosaics
Scholars have been concerned to discover how Iconoclasm , the dispute concerning images during the 8th and 9th centuries, may have influenced the course of Byzantine art. In some respects, at least, mosaic reflects very little change. The main source of knowledge about the state of mosaic in the time shortly after the end of Iconoclasm is Hagia Sophia at Istanbul . Parts of the redecoration that the church underwent in the last half of the 9th century have been uncovered in recent times. In their colour and technique these show a continuation of the early Byzantine tradition: the preference for rather strong, clear tints, and the effects created by such techniques as the tilting of tesserae and the turning of gold cubes. The preoccupation with light seems stronger than ever: in badly lit places in the vestibule and gallery, the gold ground displays a high percentage of silver cubes among the gold ones to add to the sparkle. Stylistically, new ground had been broken. Particularly in faces, the tesserae are set in wavy lines which break up the modelling in bandlike configurations. Linearism (the expression of form in terms of line rather than colour and tone) had taken a great step forward.
In the arrangement and distribution of pictures new features are visible. In the apse of Hagia Sophia, the Virgin with the Child sits surrounded by a vast expanse of gold. She is one of the first of a family of similar majestic madonnas, the most striking of which is in the Cathedral of Torcello near Venice (12th century). The tendency to depict icon-like, motionless mosaic figures isolated on a gold background has pre-Iconoclastic precedents, but from the 9th century onward it became a leading decorative principle.
Nineteenth-century drawings show that the decoration of Hagia Sophia also included comprehensive series of saints. Of these saints, which stood in rows on the nave walls above the galleries, only a few have survived. According to the drawings, those of the middle zone represented prophets, those of the lower, holy bishops. Higher up there may have been a guard of angels and in the centre of the cupola, probably a mosaic of Christ. The disposition of the pictures, in other words, may have corresponded to that which at this time was being tried out especially for the new church architecture and which was to become the accepted system of decoration in the middle Byzantine churches.
The monastery church at Daphni, near Athens, contains one of the best preserved decorations of this type. The building belongs to a category of central-plan structures that had come into fashion and was to dominate for centuries both in Byzantium and in other areas under the influence of the Orthodox Church. The interior of the church at Daphni displays a layout which, compared with the wealth of detail of the early Christian period, appears single-minded and concentrated. In the centre of the dome is a medallion containing a colossal bust of Christ as Pantokrator, the All-Ruler. In the lowest part of the dome, separated from the medallion by a broad zone of gold, stand prophets with their scrolls. Further down, there may originally have been medallions with portraits of the Evangelists. In the four arches that carry the drum of the cupola are scenes from the life of Christ which, with eight more Christological scenes in the transepts, formed a cycle devoted to the central feasts of the church. The Virgin is represented in the apse, her guard of archangels on the side walls of the sanctuary. About thirty saints, depicted either as busts or as full-length figures, fill the remaining wall space. In the vestibules are more scenes from the life of Christ and the remains of a cycle devoted to the life of the Virgin. Golden frames with floral ornaments surround the panels, and gold once covered every inch of wall between them.
The ensemble represents a visualization of the Christian cosmos, its effect created by an intricately conceived interplay of pictures and architecture. The worshipper who moves within this golden shell finds its world of pictures thoroughly involved with space. Space in fact fuses the decoration into one giant image, in which the ruler, hailed by the prophets surrounding him, presides in his sphere above the host of saints that people the lower part of the room.
Subtle spatial devices animate the individual pictures; figures of saints, their two-dimensionality emphasized by their outlines, appear in niches sunk in the wall or lean forward in the interior curves of arches. The 20th-century Austrian scholar Otto Demus, in studies on the aesthetics of middle Byzantine mosaic art, coined the term space icons for this kind of imagery, in which the forms of architecture collaborate to make the solemnly stylized figures appear with unexpected tactility. As shown by Demus, the spatial element contributes to the narrative scenes also. In the four arches, for example, the hollow plane on which the scenes from the life of Christ unfold adds a dimension of spatial realism to the total image. This is most clearly to be observed in the Annunciation scene, where Mary and the Angel face each other across a stretch of real space. The figures share or are made to appear to share the room with the beholder.
The “classical system,” as this close interrelation of architecture and mosaic has been called, was probably perfected in the course of the 9th to 10th centuries, but the earliest fully preserved examples are from the 11th to 12th. Besides Daphni, Greece owns two more monuments of this kind, the monastery church of Hosios Loukas in Phocis and the Nea Moni on Chios (both 11th century). Similar churches are found in such widely distant places as Kiev (Hagia Sophia, 11th century) and Palermo (Martorana, c. 1150), both the products of strong Byzantine influence. The system, however, is not identical in any of these. The churches belong to the same general type, but their plans and elevations vary and thus require variations in this disposition of pictures as well.
The classical system with its emphasis on totality may have led to the gradual toning down of the many splendid effects of the earlier tradition for the sake of the equilibrium and clarity of the whole. At Daphni, for example, the rich, tapestry-like character of earlier mosaic has given way to a controlled, less sparkling range of tints. The reds and yellows are restricted, their function in the overall scheme taken over by the gold of the background. Sombre, often hard blues, greens, and violets are preferred to the lighter ones. Compared with the Hosios Loukas and the Nea Moni mosaics, which retain more of the older colour scheme (the latter almost to the point of brutality), the Daphni mosaics appear cool and intellectual , an impression further conveyed by their elegant style. Actually they belong to a new phase of Byzantine art which took its name from the dynasty of the Comnenus (1081–1185 bce). This style appears at its most refined in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, in a panel depicting the Virgin flanked by the emperor John Comnenus II and his wife Irene. The practice of tilting the gold tesserae also seems to have been abandoned, for it is not found at Daphni nor in any of the mosaics that are examples of the fully developed classical system. Silver was reduced to the single role of depicting the light emanating from God and Christ . This drying out of the effects of light and colour was partly compensated for by a perfectionist setting and spacing of the tesserae.
Late Byzantine mosaics
The phenomenon called the Palaeologian Renaissance (from the dynasty of the Palaeologians, 1261–1453) led to a renewal of Byzantine mosaic art. The stylistic innovations that made themselves felt both in painting and mosaics of the late 13th and beginning 14th century bear witness to one of the most startling changes that ever took place within the framework of Byzantine culture. Bred by a vital humanism , which penetrated westward and laid the foundations for the Italian Renaissance, painting showed a predilection for perspective and three-dimensionalism. A peculiar vivacity invaded religious art, together with a sense of pathos and of the tragic. The results, as expressed in mosaics, were extraordinary.
To respond to the new trend, mosaicists recast their technique. The tessera size generally became smaller than it had been in earlier epochs; and contours lost their rigidity, became thinner, and were occasionally abolished. Colour was reintroduced in a manner that gives the Palaeologian works a striking likeness to the mosaics of the Early Christian period, which, one must suppose, in many cases served the artists as models. An interest in the optical effects of gold apparently returned but rarely, it seems, in the form of the tilting technique. On flat walls, the gold ground was sometimes set in a shell pattern, probably to enhance the play of light on the surface and to avoid a too-uniform brilliance. For domes , a densely ribbed form of cupola construction, which, when covered with mosaics, produces reflections of light that expand like rays from the central medallion toward the figures surrounding it, was preferred. Such domes are preserved in Kariye Cami , the former church of the Chora, at Istanbul, which was reconstructed and decorated as an act of piety by the logothete, or controller, Theodore Metochites in the second decade of the 14th century. Another superb example is found in Fetiye Cami (Church of the Virgin Pammakaristos) in the same city.
The feeling for colour, which is at its most refined in fragments from the decoration of the Church of the Holy Apostles in Thessaloníki (c. 1315) and at its most intense in the partly well-preserved cycles in the Kariye Cami, informs one of the greatest mosaic works of art, the Deësis panel in the south gallery of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. In this same panel, the tilting technique reappears (in the cross arms of Christ’s halo)—another indication of the retrospection inherent in late Byzantine art.
No mosaic in the true Palaeologian style has survived outside Byzantium. Reflections of it are found, however, in some of the 13th- and 14th-century works at Venice and in the mosaics executed by Pietro Cavallini in the apse of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome (c. 1290–1300). Some of the characteristics of the style may have been brought to the attention of the Italian artists through portable mosaics, which despite their small size (generally about 2 by 4 to 8 by 10 inches [5 by 10 to 20 by 25 cm]) are imbued with many of the coloristic and technical features typical of monumental mosaics. Byzantine mosaic icons , the production of which was stimulated during the early Palaeologian era, were manufactured for personal devotion more than for the embellishment of churches and were exported in considerable numbers to the West or found their way there as gifts or booty in the politically troubled 14th and 15th centuries. In works whose quality can be compared with the most splendid of the Hellenistic emblēmata, extremely small tesserae, some measuring less than 0.04 inch (1 mm) square, were assembled in wax or mastic on a board of fine wood. The tesserae material is often exquisite: silver, gold, and lapis lazuli and other semiprecious stones. The icons depict single figures such as saints, Christ, or the Virgin; single Christian scenes such as the Annunciation (Victoria and Albert Museum, London) and the Crucifixion (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin); or even the full Greek Festival Cycle.
Medieval mosaics in western Europe
The prestige , both cultural and political, enjoyed by Byzantium in the Middles Ages led to a widespread imitation of its arts. Art objects in great number were imported to the West from Constantinople and other Greek centres. Individuals or communities outside the realm of Byzantium, however, were able to secure Byzantine artisans for the execution of monumental mosaics. Abbot Desiderius of the abbey of Montecassino in Italy, for example, called specialists in many crafts from Constantinople to decorate his new basilica (dedicated 1071 ce). Among these were mosaic workers. Of particular importance is the fact that he took care to see that young local artists were trained by the foreigners. This was the pattern that was followed where Byzantine experts were temporarily called in.
The Norman rulers of Sicily, who vied with the Byzantines for control of the Mediterranean, molded their representational arts largely on those of the great Eastern power. The existence, at Palermo, of a central-plan church (Martorana) embellished according to the classical system has already been noted. In other 12th-century churches in Sicily, the Byzantine element is blended with western Mediterranean traits. Cappella Palatina , the palace chapel of the royal residence at Palermo (c. 1143 and later), for example, is a synthesis of a centralized middle Byzantine church and a basilica . The building therefore called for a hybrid program. According to Western custom, the mosaics of the basilical parts depict narrative cycles: scenes from the Old Testament and from the lives of Saints Peter and Paul. In the centralized part of the church most of the features belonging to the classical system are at hand. There is a bust of the Pantokrator in the dome, surrounded by angels, but as a concession to the longitudinal disposition of the church, the Pantokrator reappears in the apse.
Martorana and Cappella Palatina were decorated by Byzantine artists, a fact borne out by the brilliant technique, the purity of the Comnenian style, and the adherence to Eastern iconographical prototypes . Two large basilicas are among the highpoints of this Sicilo-Byzantine flowering: the cathedral of Cefalù (c. 1148) and the church of Monreale , the last of the mosaic churches of Sicily (c. 1180–90). Demus has pointed out the extraordinary homogeneity of style and technique in the Monreale mosaics, which constitute the largest decoration of this kind in Italy. He has also shown that the Monreale mosaics are not executed in the refined and softly curved style that dominates in Cappella Palatina and at Cefalù . Monreale is infused with a more agitated and expressive style which, however, has nothing local or provincial about it. It was the late Comnenian style of Constantinople which had then reached Sicily—a testimony to the unbroken artistic contact that existed at this time between the Norman court and Byzantium.
Venice , for a long time commercially active in the eastern Mediterranean, enjoyed similar but more long-lasting artistic connections with Constantinople. A church that in the 11th century must have looked exotic as well as old-fashioned, St. Mark’s was copied after the venerable Church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, an early Byzantine, many-domed type that had long since gone out of favour.
The mosaic work undertaken at St. Mark’s lasted more than two centuries, from the end of the 11th to the middle of the 14th century. The many and marked stylistic disparities can be ascribed in part to the changes that affected Byzantine art during this period; but they may even have been caused by the freer, Western organization of the Venetian workshop, which allowed artists to develop and cultivate their own personal styles. Among the variety of styles, the Byzantine element is dominant, but it is modified by local tendencies and particularly by strong Romanesque impulses.
The workshops established in Sicily and Venice were active in the neighbouring areas. Mosaics in the cathedral at Salerno (c. 1190) and in the monastery at Grottaferrata near Rome (c. 1200) are regarded as products of the Sicilo-Byzantine school. The apse decoration of the cathedral at Ravenna (early 12th century), of which fragments survive, seems to have been the work of mosaicists from Venice and, in Florence , Venetian artists decorated the dome of the Baptistery (1225–1330). The much later mosaics on the facade of the cathedral at Prague (14th century) are also Venetian.
In the early Middle Ages, Rome had been able to maintain and defend a mosaic tradition of its own despite the Byzantine hegemony in the arts. At a period when Iconoclasm had loosened the ties between Byzantium and the West, at the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th, the influence of the Roman school extended even into the Carolingian Empire. The apse mosaic of Germigny-des-Prés, France (between 799 and 818), is a product of this influence. In Rome, the pontificate of Paschal I (817–824) left three monumental decorations which constitute the best sources concerning the artistic intentions of this time: the sanctuary mosaics of the churches of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Santa Maria in Domnica, and Santa Prassede (attached to the latter is the domed chapel of San Zeno, also fully decorated with mosaics). The iconographic schemes of these 9th-century churches largely reflect local 5th- and 6th-century church decorations. Also remarkable is the return of many of the technical idiosyncrasies of the early Christian period, including the employment of large tesserae for faces and dress and the use of glass for all parts of the composition. The setting of the tesserae is, however, loose and disorganized; and their varying shapes suggest that they are reused cubes taken from older monuments. Stylistically, the mosaics of the Paschal period, with their extreme two-dimensionality, are related to Byzantine mosaics of the 9th century (the cupola of Hagia Sophia, Thessaloníki), but technically the differences could not be greater.
Little is known of the art in 10th and 11th century Rome. But from the 12th century, a group of works testify to continued inbreeding. The apse decoration of San Clemente (the 1st half of the 12th century), for example, contains a scroll pattern (rinceaux) reproduced from a 4th-century decoration in a technique that in many respects resembles that of the Paschal mosaics. This isolation, or resistance to foreign influence, seems to have been broken in the 13th century. In 1218, Pope Honorius III asked the doge to send craftsmen for the decoration of San Paolo Fuori le Mura (1218). Several important mosaics from the later part of the same century reflect the trends current at that time in Byzantine and Italo-Byzantine mosaics. The mosaics by Jacopo Torriti in the apse of the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore (c. 1290–1305) are among the finest of these. They show a mingling of Western medieval and Early Christian iconographical features, such as a scene of the crowning of the Virgin surrounded by the scrolls of a fleshy, classicizing rinceaux; but the lower zone with scenes pertaining to Mary reflects Byzantine influence, an influence also seen in the technique and colour scheme of the mosaics.
Floor mosaics had a renaissance in the West that was unmatched in the Eastern Empire. In the early Middle Ages the Byzantines developed their particular form of floor covering consisting of a geometrical mosaic made up of pieces of marble of various sizes and shapes (opus sectile) usually with some tessera work added for special coloristic touches. This art, called Cosmati work , spread to the West, in which, however, there was also a revival of the tesselated pavement. This pavement, which had survived the Dark Ages in a very primitive form, reemerged in Italy in the 11th century in greater splendour. There are impressive remains of such floors in many of the larger Italian churches. The fashion spread to other parts of Italy and even to France and Germany . In France, where large floors were produced in quantity in the 12th century, fragments of outstanding quality are found—for example, in Saint-Nicolas at Reims (last half of 12th century). Cologne seems to have been a leading centre for this art in Germany. The style of the floors is usually one of simple outlines and light colours, though in some cases figures and ornaments appear against dark ground. The programs draw their inspiration from many sources, such as textiles, early floor mosaics, and the sculptural ornamentation of churches. An exceptionally well-preserved example is found in Otranto in the Italian province of Apulia, now Puglia (1163–66), where vast floors depict scenes from the Old Testament and mythology (the ascension of Alexander), representations of the Zodiac , and of the labours of the month. A profusion of monsters and fantastic animals fills out the picture of a decoration cast in the Romanesque iconographic tradition.
Renaissance to modern mosaics
With the downfall of Byzantium in the 15th century, there perished that milieu in which mosaic had been constantly cultivated and had undergone continuous renewal in response to changing patterns of religious and cultural life. The art lost another foothold in Italy at the beginning of the same century, when changing attitudes about the world and about the function of art eliminated the very bases upon which mosaic had been built. One of the conventions against which the artists of the Renaissance , who were striving for pictorial realism, most strongly rebelled was the use of gold, the other-worldly element most typical of mosaic art.
Although mosaic continued to be used to a certain extent as church decoration, it was a changed art. Some of its traditional glitter was retained, but essentially mosaics became imitations of painting. These imitative intentions were disastrous and led to the loss of knowledge of how to blend colours and handle materials. In earlier mosaics, there undoubtedly had been a distinction between the leading artist of the project, who drew the composition and oversaw the execution, and the ordinary setters of the tesserae. The leading artist, however, almost certainly took a hand in the setting of special parts and was thoroughly trained in the technical side of the production. Now the preparatory work was divorced from the execution: the artist submitted his cartoon and left its transposition into mosaic to artisans. This drew the lifeblood from the art and caused its degradation .
In Italy many of the great painters of the 15th and 16th centuries delivered designs for decorations in mosaic. Best known among these decorations are the works of the Venetian Luigi da Pace after Raphael’s cartoon, in the dome of the Chigi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome (1516), and the mosaics made after the cartoons of Titian, Tintoretto, Giuseppe Salviati, and Paolo Veronese to complete the decoration of St. Mark’s in Venice. Among the greatest single undertakings of this kind was the decoration of the dome of St. Peter’s in Rome, executed in the last quarter of the 16th century from the cartoons of Cavalier d’Arpino . St. Peter’s also displays some of the most technically striking mosaic reproductions of paintings ever executed—the much admired altar pictures after originals by 16th- and 17th-century masters. Created for the completion and care of the large mosaics of the two great churches, the workshops attached to St. Peter’s and to St. Mark’s gradually became centres for the manufacture of mosaics. From them, artists were summoned for decorative work in all parts of Europe . The school of mosaics in the Vatican and the workshops in Venice still have a considerable share in the field, together with the school more recently set up for the restoration of the mosaics at Ravenna.
Nineteenth-century historicism and the breaking down of Neoclassicism’s contempt for Byzantine art led to an increasing interest in and demand for mosaics. Improvements in the technique of prefabrication according to the indirect method and in the manufacture of tessera material led to a veritable mass production , which has put its mark on countless churches, town halls and opera houses. Shrill colours and a gleaming, metal-like surface characterize many of these works.
The modern revival of mosaics had several causes. Scholarship and tourism made the monuments of ancient and medieval mosaics available to an art-loving public. Painting , since the last third of the 19th century engaged in the exploitation of colour, at the turn of the century focussed on the problems of colour as the expression of psychological qualities rather than of the external world. Expressionism , which opened the eyes of artists to the art and artifacts of foreign and distant cultures, also turned their interest towards medieval mosaics. The abstract element which these mosaics contain and which springs from the latent conflict between the design and the tessera pattern made them particularly attractive to artists of the earliest decades of this century such as Marc Chagall and Giovanni Serverini. The texture of mosaic was also an attraction. An American mosaicist, Jeanne Reynal, for example, created abstract compositions in which texture is emphasized by a combination of granulated, pebble-sized, and normal tesserae, sparsely spread over a coloured base of portland cement. Many of these mosaics are small and are hung on the wall like paintings.
Mosaic’s smooth yet faceted surface is ideal for decorating the large unbroken surfaces of modern architecture . The greatest modern use of mosaic as architectural decoration is in Mexico , a country with a long tradition of folk mural painting. Realizing the potential of the medium for public enjoyment and education, the government in the 1930s and ’40s commissioned many murals with historical and political themes for public buildings. Later it became desirable to decorate the exterior walls of buildings, and mosaic was the logical alternative to the less durable murals. Often mosaics were designed by mural painters—such as Diego Rivera , who in 1953 designed the immense mosaic on the facade of the Teatro de los Insurgentes. Francisco Eppens also used historical themes in his mosaic decorations of the schools of medicine and dentistry at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (1957), as did Xavier Guerro in the Cine Ermita in Mexico City . Carlos Mérida , however, created abstract mosaic designs in the Reaseguras Alianza in Mexico City. Among the most prolific Mexican mosaicists was the architect-muralist Juan O’Gorman . Of his many mosaic works, the most important is on the exterior walls of the library of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (1951–53), which exemplifies the monumentality of which mosaics are capable. Other works executed by O’Gorman include mosaics on the SCOP, or Secretaría de Communicaciones y Obras Públicas (1952), and a stone mosaic on the facade of the Posada de la Misión Hotel in Taxco. In 1950, O’Gorman began to decorate his own house in Mexico City with phantasmagoric images and symbols from Aztec mythology.
Mosaic in the strict sense of the word is an art in transition. The conventional tessera mosaic is still largely in use, mainly because of the efficient production methods of modern mosaic firms, yet the distinction between this kind of mosaic and other, mosaic-like techniques is slowly being dissolved. A mixture of cubes and larger pieces of glass, ceramics, or stone is one of the variants that occurs, cubes and objets trouvés (“found objects”) another. After World War II , experiments seem to have moved in the direction of an employment of larger, less regularly cut units. Today, mosaic is just one out of a very wide range of techniques that have as common principle the piecing together of a surface covering with the use of different durable or nondurable materials.
Per Jonas Nordhagen
Pre-Columbian mosaics
The art of mosaic in pre-Columbian Central America was marked by a combination of great technical skill and widespread use. The representation of a mosaic mask on a stela (an upright, freestanding stone slab functioning as a commemorative monument) at Seibal, Guatemala (590 ce), established the early use of the technique in Maya territory, but it became best known from the few specimens surviving from the time of the Aztec empire (c. 1376–1519) and from descriptions of others left by the Spanish conquerors. The Mexican lapidaries worked with obsidian, garnet, quartz, beryl, malachite, jadeite, marcasite, gold, mother-of-pearl, and shell, but turquoise above all constituted their favourite material; the excessive richness of the religious ceremonial gave wide range to its employment in ritual paraphernalia of all sorts. The incrustation was laid upon wood, stone, gold, shell, pottery , and possibly leather and native paper and was held in place by a tenacious vegetal pitch or gum or a kind of cement.
Mosaic skull, Mixteca-Puebla style, from Western Oaxaca or Puebla, Mex., 1400–1521; in the …
Photograph by Beesnest McClain. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, gift of Constance McCormick Fearing, M.86.311.47a-b
Masks , shields, helmets , knife handles, staffs , collars, medallions, ear plugs, leggings, mirrors, animal figures, and cult statues received a covering, in whole or part, of small and irregularly shaped pieces of highly polished turquoise, cut to fit tightly together so as to form a brilliant green surface, varied at times with cabochons (a gem cut in convex form, highly polished but not faceted) of turquoise or other material. Most striking and best preserved of the surviving two dozen major specimens of this art are a mask in the British Museum , London , and a shield in the National Museum of the American Indian , New York City . Minute pieces of turquoise, studded with cabochon turquoises, completely cover the cedar mask and are laid in symmetrical lines around the eyes and mouth and on the nose; eyes and teeth are of shell inlay. Over the wood of the shield, one panelled and three circular borders of mosaic frame a scene that may relate to the worship of the planet Venus; it is estimated that nearly 14,000 pieces of turquoise make up the decoration. A Nahuatl story of a hall at the Toltec city of Tula , the walls of which were covered with fine mosaic, may belong to legend , but a monumental use of the technique was achieved in the mosaic-like treatment of the exterior wall casing of certain buildings. Those at Mitla in the state of Oaxaca are outstanding; bands and panels of simple but striking geometric ornamentation were produced by fitting together small stones of different shapes and sizes, tenoned back into the rubble mass of the wall. Each stone was cut for the spot it occupied, and some were more deeply imbedded than others so that the designs stand out in sharp relief. The effective simplicity of design and precision of workmanship at Mitla are not matched on the elaborate Maya facades—at Uxmal and Chichén-Itzá in Yucatán, for example—where, along with geometrical designs, animal forms also occur.
| Mosaic |
Who was the first Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa? | Which Backsplash Tile goes with Granite?
Which Backsplash Tile goes with Granite?
December 06, 2010
I have rarely seen a patterned porcelain or stone tile actually work with a busy granite countertop. Recently I was discussing this very point with a client and she was lamenting that her kitchen was only 5 years old and she hated the backsplash tile because it clashed so badly with the granite countertops.
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I always let my clients know that years ago I heard that it’s not until you build your third house (if you are lucky enough to have that luxury) that your house is exactly what you want. It takes time to learn what works and what you like and dislike enough about your space and then actually be able to translate that into the house of your dreams. So don’t despair if your house isn’t perfect yet, it will be eventually :)
Southern Living
Okay so back to the patterned porcelain tile, I’m here to tell you, DON’T DO IT. If you are installing granite countertops—unless they’re black—they will be busy looking enough on their own. No need to drive yourself nuts trying to find a coordinating patterned backsplash to match. Tile is not like pattern mixing with fabrics. With fabric you can mix stripes, flowers, paisley’s, checks together (below) as long as the colours harmonize together—not so with tile.
Image via Cote de Texas
Personally, I find the 2 x 2 mosaic backsplash in the second kitchen (above) too busy, but at least the undertones of both the granite and the mosaic backsplash seem to coordinate. The one below, pretty kitchen but the backsplash, too much!
Decorpad
Should you continue the granite onto the backsplash? It’s busy as well, there’s enough going on with what’s just sitting on the countertops. But some people really love the patterned look of granite, so if you are one of those, keep going with it. It will look way better than a clashing tile.
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Truly what has developed my ‘clean’ aesthetic over the years is the hundreds of kitchens and bathrooms I have seen with bad accent tile or simply tiles that aren’t even in the same colour family. So take my advice and go for a simple subway tile or ANYTHING else but in a solid colour NOT a pattern.
Also DO NOT let your granite installer stick one of those 4 inch bands of granite all around where your backsplash tile should be. I don’t know why many of them still install them! If it’s too late and you already have one, I would leave it and just paint the rest of the backsplash the same colour as the rest of the kitchen.
Image via House of Turquoise
Hope this helps you with your backsplash choices. If all else fails and you don’t know what to do, simple is always better!
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If you need help finalizing your finishes or colours for your kitchen contact me for a Happy Kitchen you will love walking into!
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140 Responses to Which Backsplash Tile goes with Granite?
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12/06/2010 at 3:48 am
I totally agree with you. As tempted as I know I'll be when we finally get to redo our kitchen, I vow to keep it simple. Especially because I know my need for change, and that's easy in everything but the big stuff like tile and countertops. Pretty backsplashes are only pretty for a short time — then they're "what was I thinking?"
Carol
I couldn't agree more, Maria! I just finished installing a simple white subway tile backsplash in my newly-white kitchen and am just thrilled! It's classic, fresh and absolutely lovely!
Karena
Maria you always have the best of advice and are right about this subject as well!
Do come and enter my giveaway from Fifi Flowers $200 value!
xoxo
12/06/2010 at 3:55 am
Good recommendation to do a simple subway tile as a backsplash, installed in a herringbone pattern makes it especially chic. And agree – definitely no 4" bands! Another option is to do a counter in something other than the ubiquitous granite. Soapstone is a favorite and not as busy as granite.
Maria Killam
Hi Mandarin Studio, great points you make, I actually much prefer quartz but this post is for all those who love granite!
Thanks for your comment!
12/06/2010 at 4:08 am
Great post Maria. I think that a lot of clients get swayed into purchasing a backsplash that gets old and bothersome very quickly. An expensive mistake. The tiled backsplash in the two pictures that you find too busy in your post, I believe is not because of the pattern, but the color choice of the tile in the patterns. If you can visual those small 1 x 1 tiles in a more subtle beige travertine with no variety of deep and light colors, it wouldn't be so busy with the granite. It is not just the style of tile you pick but the complimentary color to your countertops in the tile, just as important as the wall color and textiles you put in the room. A patterned backsplash brings another layer of design and texture to a kitchen, even if it is a simple white tile that has a simple border inset half way up the back splash. It breaks up the massive space that you see in a kitchen. But it has to be done right in order to withstand time.
Just A Girl
12/06/2010 at 4:55 am
I would like to agree that it is really a despair to not know what you really love or dislike in your house. My wife and I already had two houses, one in Minnesota and the other in Minneapolis. We both did changes in our houses.
In our first remodel, (Minnesota , house) my wife decided to have some granites in the kitchen. It went good, really. So, the next time we moved in, she also had the same piece for our kitchen. However, when she did a remodel (Minneapolis , house) she paired it with a black and white tile. It seems off to me this time. And then again we remodel our kitchen. As of now, we have hardwood for our flooring and it looks good. Since then, my wife learned her lesson – stick with simple and plain flooring!
They are both in Minnesota – Minneapolis is IN Minnesota.
A Delightful Design
12/06/2010 at 12:43 pm
Thank you for this great post! I always learn so much from you.
I actually just finished helping one of my clients (I'm just starting out) select the materials for her kitchen remodel and you confirmed all of my choices. Thanks!
abby
Oh Maria, Every time I read your blog, I hate my kitchen a little more. ;)
Amy @MaisonDecor
12/06/2010 at 1:15 pm
I have always recommended no tile back splash with granite. I hate it! It always competes…when I had my granite put in I told them no 4" ledge around the back wall….now I know why they do it! Because it hides the gap when your granite is not cut exactly to the wall…or if the wall is a bit irregular that 4" piece hides the gap! So they installed it and there was a lot of gaps, so I ended up having to have a ledge. But I had them do a 2" high border instead of the 4", and I think it looked a lot better shorter. I just go with a painted back splash.
jamie
Thank you for this info! I have been wondering why they do that awful 4" piece
Dovecote Decor
Great advice! I agree 100% but you say it so well.
Best,
12/06/2010 at 1:59 pm
I too had to have the granite backsplash, because of the gap, I did do the 4" one though. I have black granite countertops and decided not to do backsplash other than the 4" one. We still have a few minor things left to do in our kitchen remodel, the main one is to install some kind of backspash behind the stove. This is where I'm trying to find something that I will love with the granite without it being to busy, guess I'll stick with what I figured would work since you said it also, a simple white subway tile. Oh, and I'm still looking for the perfect island, I didn't like the ones they had that just matched the cabinets. Next we are on to the bathroom, ugg. Everything will be new and that is scary to decide on what to install.
diane@onlinefabricstore
12/06/2010 at 2:33 pm
Great post Maria. I dont like the mix either. Just wanted to comment that in some areas that four inch band or backsplash is required under code but your installer will know that. I believe the "ugliness) of it is why the trend of continuing their granite all the way up to the underside of the cabinets came into vogue.
Angela Vaughn
12/06/2010 at 3:00 pm
We have a mossy green glass subway tile paired with our granite and it looks terrific! It was already in place when we purchased the house a couple months ago. Everyone always comments on our backsplash while it would not have been something I would have first picked I now see how great it can be.
Lenore Spelbring
Do you have a photo of the granite and backsplash. We are just having our granite installed and are thinking of the Subway glass for a back splash.
Thank you
Yes, simple is always better…unless you are Wolfgang Puck – I love simple but sometimes really eclectic can be fun, just like the right necklace.
pve
12/06/2010 at 3:42 pm
You did it again!
That's why I keep coming back to this blog. You really know how to explain things in a easy and comprehendible way.
I also would like you to know that I have a very interesting post today. "The Godfather's" house is for sale and I would love if you could take a look and let me know what you'd do with the interiors!
xo
I'm all for simple! It's my favorite, especially in a kitchen!
Mary
I finally did something right.
Black granite counter, no 4" band, white subway tile backsplash.
We just completed our master bath reno. We had a marble counter installed and ran it all the way up to the recessed medicine cabinet. It looks great.
Sherri Cassara
I couldn't agree more! SIMPLE is always better!
Angela
12/06/2010 at 5:16 pm
Always a timely post from you! My next project is most likely going to be my kitchen backsplash. We have granite counters (installed and chosen by the builder) and I decided to go with a white subway tile backsplash. My hubby and my dad, who will be helping with the install, are both trying to convince me to do accent tiles. I did consider a small strip of solid black 3/4 the way up the backsplash, but still think the white subway is definitely the way to go with granite. Thanks for confirming my gut feeling!!
Lazy Gardens
12/06/2010 at 7:56 pm
Definitely have to agree … when everything is clamoring for attention, nothing can be given adequate attention.
A kitchen with elaborate cabinets, fancy granite, accent backsplash and some sort of fancy floor covering. The eye has nowhere to rest.
Your kitchen can have ONE primadonna piece …
Steph@TheGraniteGurus
12/06/2010 at 8:25 pm
I agree, choosing a backsplash is often the thing that our clients have the hardest time with.
We keep installing the 4" granite backsplashes because customer's keep asking for them. We just do what we're told. :)
Nichole@40daysof
12/06/2010 at 8:40 pm
My very dark Black/geen granite kitchen has large slate backsplash laid in a diamond pattern with small diamonds of granite inlaid. It's not what I would have chosen, but it integrates the color of the cupboards and wood floors. I really like the look of the subway tile a lot.
12/07/2010 at 1:22 am
I have a four inch curl to my counter and it doesn't look good at all, but I think with the new paint it will be good enough. It just doesn't match the wall paper the previous owners installed. They had a busy border on the wall, and I've been so happy since I removed it. The color may be off..but the busy effect was driving me crazy. I shudder to think if it had been a permanent backsplash!
My friend, Laurie, had a backsplash installed behind her stove similar to the one with all the little rectangles. She wants them to paint the grout or stain it black because the white made all of the pieces look like squares. If it looks solid it's fine.
Great advice!
I love my newly remodeled kitchen AND the backsplash…yes, I put in granite countertops and I agonized over the backsplash. I kept it very neutral and I love it! I'd post a pic if I knew how.
MJB
Okay…pics are posted on my blog.
Kirsten
Not until you build your third house??? Oh gosh, I will be lucky to just build one. I love the white subway tile back splash. Here's hoping it will be mine one of these days. ;)
~Kirsten
Christina Rodriguez | The Diva's Home
says:
12/10/2010 at 5:20 am
I completely agree with you, Maria. Too much pattern is just that, too much! I also agree about the 4-inch backsplash. What's the point? Either go all the way up the wall or leave it off. it gives you more counter space with it gone.
Anonymous
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Hilary
04/16/2011 at 4:53 am
Interesting article. Too much busyness is definitely a bad thing.
However, I can't help feeling there are other options apart from subway tile. I personally feel subway tile is pretty ugly, especially in white. If it's poorly installed it looks even worse.
Anonymous
04/16/2011 at 10:02 pm
Hi……any suggestions about grout color with white crackle finish subway tiles? Husband wants to pick up a color from the granite countertop. I was going to use white sealed grout. Countertops are a busy pattern of golds, browns,greys, etc. Cabinets are white and match tiles. Floors are a golden color that we picked up from the granite. Please let me know……..concerns center around aesthetics along with keeping white sealed grout clean in a kitchen….tiler is coming again tomorrow!!
Maria Killam
As long as the colour isn't too dark I don't mind if the white subway picks up the granite.
virginia
Hi there..Is there any other backsplash ideas with granite instead of tile.and trout? Thanks
virginia
03/06/2013 at 11:28 pm
Don't like the busyness of granite along with a tile backsplash and really don't like the same granite as the counter…I have a lot of things on my counter so I chose bead board (also known as waynes coat)… Very reasonable and used a little bit shinier paint than my cabinets for easy clean up… Love it :)
Anonymous
04/17/2011 at 8:11 pm
Thanks Maria. I hate feeling stuck in an obsessive mode. If there is no problem with keeping the sealed white grout clean in a kitchen, especially behind a gas stove, I can easily stick with the white. But, a darker or antique white or even a flaxen color would look good with my granite. The thought of major upkeep on a backsplash is not my idea of fun. Love your Blog and your site. Thank you
jules
06/14/2011 at 5:03 am
Hi Maria,
I really like the simple, clean look of the white subway tile. Going back to your other post on "White Kitchens", I'm wondering which white you would recommend to go with a straight white subway tile? You offered so many white suggestions for paint colors, but it isn't clear to me which are "white" enough to not clash/look yellow with the white tiles. Many thanks!
Julie
06/14/2011 at 1:44 pm
Hi Jules,
Subway tile comes in white or cream so as long as you stick to white or off-white, the white tile will look good.
Maria
06/20/2011 at 12:16 pm
I've never been fond of granite until I shopped granite slabs for a client and found there are some beautiful choices. It's the inexpensive granite that gets overused and usually paired with a backsplash that doesn't go well it seems. We used travertine for the backsplash cut to 6×12 and installed subway style. The grout matched the darkest tone in the travertine. In a niche behind the cooktop the same tiles were cut smaller and installed in the same design. The look is fabulous. Rich and sleek.
Mia
07/21/2011 at 11:22 pm
Wow, thanks for the great advice and pics. I have been lamenting about cancelling the 4" black granite backsplash our granite company neglected to bring when they installed. Now going to copy some of your beautiful clean ideas-the white brick specifically. I've had several issues with the granite company (not having one tarp to cover appliances or underneath their work-now my bowls are full of dust, not rescrewing my dishwasher back & telling me "it's just a five minute job" and to do it myself,only answering my husbands complaint calls etc) so don't really want them back now. My question is how much should I deduct for not installing that part now? He said in a phone conversation that it "was included" in our original price. Any help would be appreciated-thanks! love your site…Mia
Jane
08/06/2011 at 3:11 am
Hey Maria,
You have described my problem exactly in your blog what backsplash tile goes with granite…I have recently painted my kitchen cabinets SW divine white. My walls are BM timothy straw. I have granite countertop with alot of movement (juparana caravelas) and don't know what to do with the backsplash.I have brought home many natural stone samples and sizes. What would you recommend?
Maria Killam
08/06/2011 at 12:52 pm
Hi Jane,
I recommend a neutral solid that either coordinates with your granite or a white that coordinates with your cabinets. Don't overthink it. Maria
Jane
08/06/2011 at 2:41 pm
Thanks for responding so quickly…
When you say solid do you mean porcelain like bathroom tiles…Sounds like I need to pick something that disappears…
I like the subway pattern …Right now I have a sample of a mini stacked stone pattern…I was liking it but you have got me thinking again…I am like others just need to hide the gap tween the wall and granite…and you got me…I have been over thinking this for 2 years :)
linda @ bushel and a pickle
says:
08/20/2011 at 3:23 pm
I know this is an old post but answers my own current dilemma. No wonder I could never find one to fit to be stylish and look right! So I have not installed anything! I do want something. Silly me…simple is best. And my granite is beautiful but rich in swirls. Thanks for the advice.
Karen
11/05/2011 at 8:09 pm
We havea granite countertops in the kitchen with 6 inch granite backsplashes. There is a granite wall that extends to the cabinets behind the range. At present, the areas above the 6 inch granite backsplash are painted the same light color as the rest of the kitchen. Should we install travertine above the granite backsplash, leave the color above the granite, or paint this area another color.
Thanks for your help. Karen
Chris
11/15/2011 at 6:25 pm
Maria,
I love your blogs and have found this one particularly helpful. I have just had granite installed and plan to use a cream colored subway tile as you suggest. My big question, though, is whether I can have the tile installed in a pattern other than a running bond, such as a herringbone or whether that would be too busy. A matching grout will be used and I plan to ask the installers to make as small a grout line as possible. I would so much appreciate your input on this. Thank you!
Amos
11/20/2011 at 6:08 am
Hello Maria,
We are remodelling our kitchen. We have gone with antique white cabinets and a black countertop. We are thinking of going with a subway tile but are having trouble picking the colour. It's almost impossible to match it to the cabinet colour, so we are thinking of going with just a plain white. We were also thinking going black with the backsplash, not sure though. Would plain white with antique white grout be an option? Also, the floors are white, with some grey/black and beige in them, would a light beige go well on the walls? The walls are green now and make the cabinets look greenish.. Thanks
charles demonterey
12/21/2011 at 2:03 pm
as a tile installer for 30 years ive done many hundreds of backsplahes.personally i got the 4 inch granite backsplash because i know there can be minor expansion and contraction with wood. cabinetry and house framing move with humidity . cracked grout line against needs unsightly caulking . so i recommend graite splash of any heiight . is more sanitaryand looks better down the line.
Gina
03/02/2012 at 12:44 pm
Love the ideas and agree that a simple backsplash goes best with granite. I have picked a 4 inch light travertine, but keep going back and forth on a diamond pattern or a square pattern. I really like both but am concerned that a diamond pattern will look too busy. We have a 14 foot long wall of backsplash. Please let me know what you think!
virginia
I love reading your ideas..I however would.love to stay clear of anything with grout..any other ideas for backsplash with Carolina summer granite? Thanks
Carol
03/24/2012 at 12:15 pm
What is the undertone color of natural travertine? Having a hard time selecting a paint color for the walls – backsplash is herringbone-laid rectangular travertine tiles. Thought they were ivory – now they are installed and look a bit orangey. Any neutral paint color you can suggest to go with them? Not too fond of orangey-white.
Marie
05/27/2012 at 6:23 am
Hi Maria,
I have been looking for a backsplash for 4 yrs. I have shaker style brown nutmeg perimeter cabinets, 10' black painted distressed island and tropical brown granite (no green undertones …just brown/black). The kitchen/FR walls are BM capilano bridge (1076), floors are light wood. My hood is a 46" stacked stone (brown/grey). Kitchen/house are earthtones. I don't like tumbled marble, travertine. Thinking of a subway or brick pattern tile (matte finish) I don't want to compete with the hood. I could change the wall color if that would help. No greens or blues.
Thanks.
Your ONLY option is a solid subway or other shape tile in a the same pink beige as your walls and countertop! Maria
Shawn Dickerson
05/27/2012 at 6:30 pm
great posts! We have not installed our typhoon bordeaux granite counter tops yet, but I love the pattern. It has swirls of light green, beige, and a bit of purple. Very busy. We will have cream cabinets and maple hardwood floors – stainless steel appliances. I have always loved the light green glass subway tiles, but I am afraid it will be too much green. Any suggestions?
Also – I saw something recently where the decorator suggested taking the back-splash all the way up the wall to the ceiling. Any suggestions as to how high the back-splash should ideally be?
Maria Killam
05/27/2012 at 10:03 pm
How high totally depends on where all the empty spaces in your kitchen land. if you have an open area with a wall mounted head fan, then it should go all the way to the ceiling but there are no standard rules. If the light green glass subway tiles go with the granite and you love it then I would suggest painting the kitchen the same colour. Maria
Selena
07/09/2012 at 11:37 pm
Hi,
I am in the middle of painting my cabinets white and installed kahlua maple hardwood floors in my kitchen. I really love the look of subway tile, but am completely stuck on what color granite to install for a countertop. I am trying to keep the kitchen warm as my kitchen opens up to dining room and has a brown/beige color.
Any suggestions?
White quartz is always my first choice and absolute black granite is my second choice. Maria
Erin
07/14/2012 at 9:31 am
You've really hit the nail on the head here.
What do you think about a patterned glass tile backsplash with a non-busy counter? We are trying to work with some existing elements in our kitchen, so we've got white cabinets and a grey Corian (tiny specks of white, wheat, and dark grey all over). Our floor is a warm-colored tile floor that doesn't really go with the Corian. I found a glass tile mosaic that has marbled white, grey and wheat in it, and am hoping that it could help tie in the floor, countertops, and cabinets. In a situation like this, would a pattern backsplash be ok, or would you still suggest sticking with a solid color, like the white subway tiles? Thank you so much!
Maria Killam
Sounds like it could work if it ties in both elements. My sisters kitchen has white countertops and cabinets with a blue, subway tile glass backsplash and it's great! As long as our tile is not too busy! Maria
Erin
07/19/2012 at 12:05 am
Thanks Maria. One other question: do you think that a Crema Fila backsplash feels busy? After reading your opinions about busy backsplashes, I started leaning toward the marble instead. Although each stone will have color variations, I'm thinking the overall look will be pretty simple, and hopefully more classic. 2×4 brick pattern seems like our leading contender. (By the way, I read your bathroom post and your comments about chair rail…would love to see you do a post about when to/to not use this traditional element in today's homes.) Thanks so much for your help!
ann
07/17/2012 at 2:39 pm
I just read all your blogs and i did my kichen last summer white with pretty beige brown granite.This year I did the backsplash subway colors all colors from the granite.Once it was all up the family was not happy,It is nice but maybe it clashes i think i made a big mistake.I do see these ideas online. i am stuck help thanks
Maria Killam
07/17/2012 at 6:54 pm
Hi Ann,
Just choose the white or cream in the granite or a neutral and do the whole backsplash tile in the same solid colour. Maria
sharon
07/31/2012 at 6:50 pm
Hi
I thought the backsplash keeps water which has pooled on the counter from getting onto the wall or running behind the cabinet?
I'm confused…backsplash or no backsplash?
Maria Killam
Always a backsplash, never the 4" slab of granite. This is not a post about not installing backsplash. Maria
M Sharon
08/26/2012 at 8:13 pm
I have a granite backsplash (which is the same as the countertop) that goes right up to meet cupboards? The cupboards and granite are all dark brown. The floor is also dark. I wonder if there's anything I can do to lighten up the granite backsplash short of tearing it out. My kitchen is just too dark. Could a few accent tiles be stuck to the backsplash at intervals? If so, how should they be adhered? Any advice would be so helpful.
Thank you.
i am absolutely sold on granite backslashes, to me anything else totally detracts from the granite!
I don't like any of the other choices, 90% of the time the
backslashes detract from the granite!
Judith
09/22/2012 at 5:56 pm
I just heard you speak at the Calgary Home Show, right after talking to a granite salesman about getting a quote to do our kitchen countertops. We live in a condo and have expresso coloured cabinets and black appliances. Nothing we could change about these choices and as the appliances are all brand new, we won't be changing them. The kitchen came with a Silgranite (black) sink, which we would like to reuse. I appreciate the look of white subway tiles as a backsplash, but think the white would look too stark against black appliances and dark cabinets. Aren't the subway style of tiles going to go out of fashion just like any other style has? What colour tone of granite would you suggest, and what kind/colour of backsplash? It sounds like a dark kitchen, but actually has lots of natural light coming into it. Walls and flooring are a neutral builders taupe colour.
Maria Killam
09/22/2012 at 6:36 pm
Hi Judith,
Thanks so much for listening to my presentation!! If you look at any images on pinterest (for example) of dark cabinets you will always see a contrasting lighter colour on the countertops. I would do cream quartz counters, cream subway tile because cream is better with brown than white (I agree to stark) and no subway tile will not go out of fashion, it has been around for decades and will continue to be, do 4 x 4 or 5 x 5 solid tile if subway tile doesn't do it for you, ANYTHING solid and light and neutral NOT accents, and you will love your kitchen for a long time to come!
Hope this helps,
I don't show a photo like that because I don't think that kind of backsplash looks good in the end. Just my point of view, not like it's right. Maria
PAUL
01/14/2013 at 2:21 pm
I NEED HELP ON COLORS OF BACKSPLASH, I TRIED TO HIT CONTACT ME BUT IT ONLY WORKS WITH MICROSOFT OUTLOOK AND MINE IS NOT SETUP FOR I USE YAHOO. IF YOU COULD POST YOUR EMAIL THAT WOULD BE AWESOME. I HAVE TOASTED ALMOND CABINETS AND ARE GOING WITH ANTIQUE BROWN GRANITE WITH CERAMIC WOODLIKE TILE IN THE KITCHEN WHICH IS PETRIFIED HICKORY FROM SHAW. FIRST I WOULD LIKE TO KNOW IS THE WOODLIKE TILE FLOOR A GOOD CHOICE AND IF SO THEN WHAT TYPE OF BACKSPLASH IS NECESSARRY? ALSO, MY HOME IS IN LOUISIANA AND YES EVERYONE HAS THAT 4 INCH GRANITE PIECE IN THE BACK. WHY IS THIS A BAD THING? IS IT BECAUSE IT CLASHES TOO MUCH WITH THE BACKSPLASH? NEED SOME EDUCATION ON THIS..AND MY COLOR MATCHING SKILLS ARE HORRIBLE!
Maria Killam
Your countertops should be cream quartz with cream subway tile to tie in with your cream beadboard island. Maria
Jayasree
04/12/2013 at 3:46 pm
Hi Maria,
Read your great post! We are planning to design our kitchen with a dark brown colored oak cabinets and a light brown colored granite counter top. Please advice me on the back splash (they are offering 4"granite and rest is our choice).Will 4"granite and filling the rest of the space with cream colored subway tile look good?
Or else can you give your advice on any other type of back splash for the combination which I mentioned above? Should I select a light or dark colored (oak wood) floor?
Thank you,
05/26/2013 at 10:05 pm
Maria — your comments validates others who have been guiding us — thanks! Do you have an opinion for a good neutral backsplash: we are selecting Golden Crystal granite for a large center island and the kitchen perimeter with natural cherry cabinets. We are thinking the floors will be select red birch to offer a lighter contrast. I am struggling with the backsplash — no 4" granite, but a good color for the 3×6 subway tiles…. and how to offset something behind the cooktop? What do you think of a mix of 2" square glass tiles within a 3' rectangle? Thanks for your thoughts!
Maria Killam
Great advice on the choice of simple subway tile for backsplash….that's what I'm doing with one exception. I'm going with a handmade tile to keep my kitchen (and bath as well) from looking like a fast food operation.
stacy
08/15/2013 at 6:33 am
my fiancé has gutted a Lloyd wright home and contractor has talked him into taking out most of its character (sliding glass door insert doors, painted all woodwork black) anyway we have this really wild granite and he want him to install a glass tiles backsplash that is stainless and gold??then add over the stove a framed in stainless only pattern. I told him way too busy. we have dark hardwood floor, granite is black, beige, white marble specs cabinets maple color, stainless appliances. would white subway tiles look good?
Maria Killam
08/15/2013 at 9:29 am
If you don't have any white in the kitchen I would not install white rather have the colour relate to the wall colour or something else in the space. Definitely keep it solid and simple. You're on the right track. Maria
Julie Keilman
08/25/2013 at 7:17 am
I am beside myself with indecision! We recently installed Santa Cecilia granite and I cannot find a suitable backsplash! The granite has beiges as well as greys in it ( I just heard the new word, greige!). We had subway tile before and would like something a bit different. I want simple and clean, but yet a little interesting. Suggestions? I am stuck!!
Maria Killam
Your granite needs to be the most important feature of the kitchen, installing anything but a solid and simple tile will be too busy. Maria
JS
08/27/2013 at 3:45 am
Maria, thank you so much for this post. You affirmed what I was already thinking. I'm doing an "update" of my kitchen, moving cooktop to another area. I have a granite backsplash, but with the move of the range hood, it no longer completely covers the backsplace above the cooktop and I have a section of bare wall about 10" x 30" above the granite. It will be impossible to match the granite. I considered a small band of mosaic tile to fill the space in coordinating colors to the granite. Have you any suggestions about this? Do you think the tiles should be solid, or what do you think about multiple colors that pick up the granite colors? I don't want something too busy, but this is such a small area that I thought perhaps it would work. Right now the cabinets are a cherry color, but I'm considering painting them a cream color. Thanks so much for your blog and any advice you have. Janet
Maria Killam
08/27/2013 at 7:03 am
I'm really not the one to ask on how to get 'creative' I think if you add mosaic there it will be the first thing that will bug you about your kitchen. I have seen enough of them to know. Maria
Lynn Gunkler
09/18/2013 at 7:23 am
Stumbling across your website in need of help with picking a backsplash couldn't have come at a better time! We have chosen dark floors (Bruce/Bison) and dark cabinets (Aristokraft Maple Umber). I wanted to lighten up the counters and our only choice of a lighter granite was Santa Cecelia. I have gone round and round with choosing a backsplash. The only plain and simple tile they have is a 6×6 in white or shiny/matte beige. I was leaning towards the matte beige. My question is will the 6×6 squares look cheap? Should I have them staggered?
Thanks!
If it's a yellow beige that will work. Cheap is busy and patterned. Classic is solid and simple. Maria
Laine
09/19/2013 at 7:43 pm
We are building a new house and the kitchen backsplash is driving me crazy. I had originally choosen a glass painted back 3×6 in a putty colour to be laid in herringbine. our installer was not happy with the cuts as the back was chipping. honestly I am not heart broken. Our granite is cold spring. Cabinets are maple painted in linen and our island is chocolate maple. How do you feel about a 3×6 bianco Romano marble laid in a herringbone pattern?
Maria Killam
Your page Rocks! Thanks again
Wendy
09/27/2013 at 5:49 am
I respect your opinion regarding "timeless" backsplashes. After having removed a dated backsplash I would hope to not have to do it again. Our kitchen floor is a cream coloured tile, "orange" oak cabinets (In the third house we build I'll have white) and a brown, grey, rust, cream coloured quartz countertop. Would a 4" cream coloured tumbled marble tile work that is created with one row of square tile then a pencil tile (cream colour) and topped with the 4" tile placed diagonally? We have white appliances and I would have loved to have white subway tiles but I was told there would be too much contrast between the countertop and the backsplash. It was also suggested that I shouldn't decorate around the appliances.
Thanks Maria……. does it matter whether it's a porcelain or glass cream coloured subway tile?
Danielle
09/29/2013 at 9:43 am
Maria,
I completely agree with you. However, I'm still having trouble chosing my backsplash. My cabinets are a dark cherry shaker and counters are new Venetian gold. The two choices I've narrowed down to are an almond color subway tile or an off white buscuit color subway tile. I like both (the colors are so close and even look the same in some lighting). Because they're so close I've considered using both for a subtle two tone subway tile. Do you think something like that could work?
Thanks
Your flooring should be cork or hardwood. Tile is too trendy.
Diane
11/10/2013 at 1:12 pm
In my new home, I have natural cherry cabinets with dark brown (marron cohiba) granite, however, the island granite is cream with veins of brown, gray, and rust. I dislike my patterned mosaic backsplash as it competes with the island. How I wish I had read your blog before I chose this. You are so right about the mosaics. Would a cream subway in a matte finish be a better choice than glossy subway tile with all of that shiny granite? Thanks!
Theresa
12/18/2013 at 7:30 pm
Cabinets are very dark black/brown stained maple. Counter is cashmere white granite. Floor is gunstock hickory. I have selected an oversize white subway tile. It is glossy and has a bit of a wavy texture, not completely smooth. It will be laid in a brick pattern and will go up and around range hood all the way to the top of cabinets…around 10 ft high.
I am worried that the white will be too much contrast. Should I go for a cream colour instead of white?
Maria Killam
Your subway tile should perfectly match your granite period. If that's white, then white it is. Maria
Joy
01/01/2014 at 7:02 pm
Maria, So far I have planned a white subway tile shower either with or without a band of Calcutta accent in 1×2. Would you skip the accent stripe in a 36 in shower? Also stuck with sink. Do I put in a 4 inch back splash same as quartz sink or use Calcutta back splash or use subway tile coordinating with the quartz counter. What are your thoughts on Calcutta/Carrara. Is it timeless and does it give a cleaner look? Is it being overused and will easily tire of? Would it be better to just use the the same white subway from shower up the wall to base of mirror and not the quartz from the sink counter continuing into a 4inch back splash. Love your site. Appreciate any comments you can give.
Cher
01/20/2014 at 7:44 am
I have very beautiful white ice granite counters. The install messed up and are prepared to put in the backsplash for free. They have offered solid matching granite on the entire back (not tiles) in large pieces. I had considered classic white subway tiles. My cabinets are shaker white and my floor is espresso wood. Do you think the solid granite would be too busy…even though matching? I dont have a lot of backsplash area! Thanks.
Maria Killam
Yes I do think it would be too busy. Maria
Jan
01/29/2014 at 1:50 pm
How did I end up with this crazy granite choice that is glaring at me from the counter?! Im crying at this expensive new member of the family. Ugh!! My vision was clean and simple: Cream shaker cabs, white/light grey granite and a very light grey ceramic subway tile backsplash. Well I got it all EXCEPT the crazy granite!
Looking at the upright slab at the yard, it read white and soft cream with splashesof of grey. So soothing. Now that it's lying on its ugly back, it looks like a big spotted lizard. Why did I not see these huge splotches? What was I thinking? I'm already thinking of big solid placemats on the peninsula to cover up some of the garishness. I feel childish but also guilty that I spent so much on this remodel and not absolutely lovin it. I desperately needed you at the slab yard that day.
Well, Since I need to live with this reptile, my question is should I stick with the light grey backsplash or step it down even more with cream to tame the beast down?
We haven't done the sub tiles yet, but GC has already ordered it. Please help . Thank you.
Maria Killam
01/29/2014 at 10:19 pm
Oh no, yes I would definitely stick to the cream. The biggest problem with coloured tiles is that if the colour even slightly changes by the time it's installed with the light, etc it can look like it doesn't match and then you'll be even more annoyed. You have maintained your sense of humour all things considered :) Maria
Debbie
02/25/2014 at 12:14 pm
I have white kitchen cabinets from Homedepot and my floor is a dark wood color. I'm thinking of having a laminate dark color countertop and I would like to get a white subway tile backsplash. My problem is that my appliances are white and the range hood above my cooktop is also white. I'd like the range hood to pop but then what color backaplash do I go with? I suppose I could do the white subway tiles and let the range hood disappear???
04/16/2014 at 3:17 pm
We have natural cherry cabinets and a calm slab of costa esmeralda granite that is a soft grayish green with some yellow. The walls are painted BM Windham Cream, which matches perfectly with the soft creamy yellow present in the granite. I am thinking a plain subway tile backsplash that matches the wall color, or have a 2 inch granite backsplash all around and extend it above the range. I also like stainless backsplashes behind the range but worry that it may look too choppy.
Jean
07/28/2014 at 4:14 pm
I'm in the process of getting my tiny kitchen redone. The shaker cabs are BM Simply White, counter London Grey quartz, floor tiles light grey matte porcelain (possibly with a black diamond insert). Should the 3×6 subway tile backsplash be cream? Or white? Or pale grey? Glossy or matte?
Maria Killam
What color walls go with white cabinets and either Carrara or calacatta type marble? My current walls are BM Stone House. I want this light marble but can the walls be beige… not gray?
Heather
10/24/2014 at 9:34 pm
I just found your blog and LOVE it! I'm having a major dilemma and need to get my kitchen done before Thanksgiving!! I have creme-ish big tile floor, new venetian gold granite counter tops, cabinets that are primered and we plan to paint white. BUT, I am clueless on backsplash. Should I do travertine subway or a solid subway tile? Or something else? What do you think?
Maria Killam
Travertine is pink beige. Very bad with all that cream and yellow. Cream solid subway tile. The end.
Jennifer
10/26/2014 at 5:49 pm
We are in the process of redoing our kitchen! I have painted our cabinets "old white" by Annie Sloan and we had installed St.Cecilia granite. I am having the hardest time picking out a backsplash and floor that doesn't clash horribly with the granite!! Help please :)
Maria Killam
10/27/2014 at 6:39 am
You WILL have a hard time! So much tile is blotchy and just plain ugly. Go with cream subway on your backsplash and hardwood flooring if you can. If not, look for something creamy with barely any pattern or it will look terrible once it's all installed. Maria
E.
01/15/2015 at 11:27 am
Installing black galaxy countertops with shiny white subway tiles up to the underside of the honey oak cabinets, and up over my range slightly. Have all white appliances, one bowl brushed stainless steel sink with black onyx and brushed stainless steel single hole faucet. I have found a classy accent tile consisting of black, charcoal, brushed stainless that is contemporary and sharp and was thinking of a 2 row (an inch high insert) to bring it together, running around the countertop wall inserting somewhere in the subway. I am troubled though as I don't want a cheap looking project or a busy to the eye one. I want it clean and stylish. If I use the insert tile will paint exposed walls in a charcoal gray color. The knobs on the cabinets are brushed oiled bronze which looks fabulous with the fleck in the granite, and I plan to use oiled bronze accents around the room, like chandelier, bronze/black curtain rods, just a splash to pick up the bronze. The floor is a lighter shadowy gray vinyl now, but will change either to wood to match cabinets or a deeper gray of some sort later. I can't decide to use the accent tile strip or do just plain white subway. I do love the accent tile, but maybe should do just a framed strip over the range and leave it at that instead of around the walls. Comments welcome. Thanks.
Maria Killam
Kill the accent tile. Go with your intuition which is that it's cheap and busy.
But you knew I would say that? :)
E.
01/16/2015 at 6:38 am
Thanks for the comment. If not using the accent tile where do I get my inspiration for wall color and flooring? Countertops are just black with a fleck of bronze here and there, not a color one could match to easily. Thanks.
Karen Dyck
02/24/2015 at 7:28 pm
The reason granite suppliers do the 4" backsplash, in addition to selling more of their product, is to prevent moisture from coming off of the back of the counter and eroding the drywall. If you just caulk the joint where the back of the counter and the drywall meet it will eventually dry out and water will trickle down the back of your cabinets and also start to attach the drywall.
Barbara
Maria, I M stressing over the backsplash for my remodeled kitchen
We are getting African Ivory granite
With either 4×4 or 6×6 tile backsplash.
I want a simple diamond pattern
with one row of straight tiles at the
bottom of our 16 in high space above
Cooktop and below microwave.
The tile has some shading but is
Fairly neutral. Would it be too much
To add one row of a solo sliver that is
One inch high and a Color that is in
The granite just above the straight
Row of tile at the bottom?
Thanks for your input.
Yes it absolutely would be too much. Your kitchen would then be the same as everyone else's with a backsplash that will date in 5 minutes. Stick to simple and clean (but of course I would say that :)
Susan
07/07/2015 at 3:14 pm
Hello,
I am re-doing my kitchen. I am doing white cabinets with new venetian gold countertops. We have hard wood floors and stainless appliances. I have been struggling back and forth between subway tile and travertine. I found a subway tile in a creamy color that looks good with the granite, but I'm not convinced this is the route. If I choose subway tile, should I just go with white? I don't want the whole kitchen to be blah with too much white. Any ideas would be helpful.
Thanks in advance.
| i don't know |
A bronze medal is traditionally awarded for which place in a competition or race? | Bronze medals - definition of Bronze medals by The Free Dictionary
Bronze medals - definition of Bronze medals by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Bronze+medals
Related to Bronze medals: Gold medals , Silver medals
bronze medal
n
(Individual Sports, other than specified) a medal of bronze, awarded to a competitor who comes third in a contest or race. Compare gold medal , silver medal
bronze′ med′al
a medal, traditionally of bronze, awarded to the third-place winner in a competition.
bronze′ med′alist, n.
Noun
1.
bronze medal - a trophy made of bronze (or having the appearance of bronze) that is usually awarded for winning third place in a competition
trophy , prize - something given as a token of victory
Translations
bronze
(bronz) noun, adjective
1. (of) an alloy of copper and tin. The medal is (made of) bronze. brons بْرونْز бронз bronze bronz(ový) die Bronze bronze κράμα χαλκού με κασσίτερο, μπρούντζος bronce pronks برنز pronssi bronze ארד कांस्य bronca bronz perunggu bronzo 青銅 청동 bronza bronza gangsa brons ; bronzen bronse brąz برنز، برنج bronze bronz бронза z bronzu bron bronza brons ทองสัมฤทธิ์ bronz , tunç 青銅 бронза کانسی - تانبے اور قلعی کا بھرت đồng thiếc 青铜
2. (of) its reddish brown colour. bronskleurig لَوْن البرونْز бронзов цвят bronze bronzový, bronzové barvy bronzefarben bronze- μπρούντζινος color bronce pronksikarva قهوه ای مایل به قرمز؛ برنزه punaruskea bronze צֶבָע בְּרוֹנזָה इसका लाल भूरा रंग brončan bronz coklat kemerahan bronzo 青銅色の 청동색 bronzinis bronzas- warna coklat kemerahan bronskleur; bronskleurig bronse brązowy قهوه یی مایل برنجو ته ، برنجی bronze цвет бронзы bronzový bronaste barve bronzani bronsfärg (สี) ทองแดง bronz rengi, tunç renginde 青銅色 бронзовий колір سرخی مائل بھورا رنگ màu đồng thiếc 青铜色
3. (a work of art) made of bronze. an exhibition of bronzes. bronsbeeld مَصْنوعٌ مِنَ البرونْز бронзов bronze bronz das Bronzekunstwerk bronze- κατασκευσμένος από ορείχαλκο (για έργα τέχνης) talla de bronce pronksese برنزی pronssinen bronze יְצִירַת בְּרוֹנזָה कांस्य कलाकृति brončati bronztárgy terbuat dari perunggu bronzo 青銅の 청동 제품 bronzos dirbinys bronzas izstrādājumi diperbuat daripada gangsa bronzen kunstvoorwerp bronsefigur wyrób z brązu برنجی bronze (obiect) de bronz изделие из бронзы bronz bron bronza bronsföremål ทำจากทองสัมฤทธิ์ bronz 青銅製(藝術)品 бронза فنون کے نمونے اس سے بنائے جاتے ہیں đồ bằng đồng thiếc 青铜制（艺术）品
bronzed adjective
suntanned. a bronzed face. verbruin, songebruin بْرونْزي اللوْن، اَسْفَعُ البَشَرَه с бронзов тен bronzeado opálený sonnengebräunt solbrændt; brun με μπρούντζινο μαύρισμα bronceado päevitunud برنزه ruskettunut bronzé שזוף कांस्या potamnjeti lesült terbakar matahari abbronzato 日焼けした 청동색의 įdegęs iededzis muka terbakar gebronsd bronsefarget , solbrun opalony برنجی bronzeado bronzat загорелый opálený porjavel preplanuo brun, solbränd (สี) แทน bronzlaşmış 曬黑的 загорілий, засмаглий دھوپ سے جلد کے رنگ کو کانسی کی طرح کرنا bị cháy nắng 晒黑的
bronze medal
in athletics competitions, the medal awarded as third prize. bronsmedalje ميداليه بْرونْزِيَّه бронзов медал medalha de bronze bronzová medaile die Bronzemedaille bronzemedalje χάλκινο μετάλλιο medalla de bronce pronksmedal مدال برنز pronssimitali médaille de bronze מְדַלייָת אָרַד कांस्य पदक bronačana medalja bronzérem medali perunggu medaglia di bronzo 銅メダル 동메달 bronzos medalis bronzas medaļa pingat gangsa bronzen medaille bronsemedalje brązowy medal د برنجو مډال medalha de bronze medalie de bronz бронзовая медаль bronzová medaila bronasta medalja bronzana medalja bronsmedalj เหรียญทองแดง bronz madalya 銅牌 бронза کانسے کا تمغہ huy chương đồng 铜质奖章
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Which spirit is traditionally used to make a Tom Collins cocktail? | Award Medals for First Place, Second Place, Third Place | Award Medals for 1st Place, 2nd Place, 3rd Place
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Place Medals - (1st place medals)
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Which English singer/songwriter released a 2010 album entitled ‘Lights’? | Ellie Goulding: Singer / Songwriter & Yoga | Relax and Release
Ellie Goulding: Singer / Songwriter & Yoga
By catherine on July 26, 2016
Having caught the public’s attention in 2010 with her singles “Starry Eyed” and “Guns and Horses,” British vocalist Ellie Goulding quickly rose to the top of the charts with her infectious electronic pop sound. Although she started out writing songs in a folk-inflected style, she eventually grew into a more electronic-influenced artist, touching upon dance music and ambient synth pop. With her unique soprano warble and knack for writing catchy yet emotionally earnest songs, Goulding, much like her predecessors Kate Bush and Imogen Heap, stands at the forefront of contemporary mainstream music and arty, independent-minded pop.
Born in Hereford, England, she later moved to the country’s east coast to study drama at the University of Kent. Goulding had developed a love for folk music as a teenager, and her time at university also exposed her to electronica. After two years, she took a break from her studies and moved to West London, where she pursued a career as an alternative singer/songwriter and befriended producers like Starsmith and Frankmusik, who gave her songs an electro-pop twist. In 2009, Goulding began building an audience via the Internet, where early tracks like “Starry Eyed” and a cover of Sam Sparro’s “Black & Gold” were posted on tastemaking MP3 blogs such as Discodust. Goulding soon graduated from the blogosphere to print media, gaining praise from mainstream publications like The Guardian and fielding offers from record labels. She ultimately signed a major-label deal with Polydor Records and began making preparations to release her debut album. In the meantime, she penned songs for Diana Vickers, Gabriella Climi, and others.
During the final weeks of 2009, Goulding topped the BBC’s Sound of 2010, a poll conducted by British music critics and industry insiders to identify new talent. Building on that momentum, she released Lights — a sparkling debut album that splashed Goulding’s vocal flutter across a landscape of acoustic and synthesized instruments – in March 2010. Lights topped the U.K. charts during its first week and spun off “Starry Eyed” as a Top Five single (it also charted well in Ireland and New Zealand). Later that year, the album was re-released as Bright Lights, featuring seven new recordings (including a cover of Elton John’s “Your Song,” which peaked at number two).
In 2012, Goulding returned with her sophomore album, Halcyon, which showcased an even more sonically adventurous, electro-pop-infused sound. In 2013, a deluxe reissue featuring ten extra songs was released; entitled Halcyon Days, it acted as a supplement to the original release. Two of its new songs, “Burn” and “How Long Will I Love You,” were among her biggest hits. The following year, she was featured on Calvin Harris’ Top Ten U.K. hit “Outside,” participated in Band Aid 30’s update of “Do They Know It’s Christmas?,” and entered the U.K. Top Ten once more with “Beating Heart,” a song released on the soundtrack for Divergent. Another soundtrack single, “Love Me Like You Do,” added to the success of Fifty Shades of Grey in 2015. Also in 2015, Goulding released her third studio album, Delirium, which featured collaborations with Max Martin, Greg Kurstin, and others. Included on Delirium was the leadoff single “On My Mind.” ~ Andrew Leahey & Jason Birchmeier, Rovi
Ellie Goulding & Yoga
With her love of running, yoga and ab-revealing croptops, singer-songwriter Ellie Goulding has gained a reputation for being as impressive in the gym as she is on stage.
“If I’m at home in London, ideally I like to try and fit in a couple of yoga sessions a week – I do love yoga.”
Yoga is a healing system of theory and practice. The purpose of yoga is to create strength, awareness and harmony in both the mind and body.
| Ellie Goulding |
Which French king was known as ‘The Quarrelsome’ (Le Hutin)? | Ellie Goulding | Musicget - Download Latest Music Online
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Ellie Goulding (born Elena Jane Goulding on 30 December 1986) is an English singer-songwriter. Born in Hereford, she grew up in Kington, Herefordshire and currently lives in London, England. After studying drama at the University of Kent for a couple of years, Goulding moved to West London for the purpose of developing her songs and music career. Touring since 2008 she released her debut single "Under the Sheets" on 15 November 2009. The track was produced by Starsmith, with whom she has been working since the beginning of her career. On 8 January 2010, Goulding topped the BBC Sound of 2010 music list. Previous winners include the likes of Little Boots, Corinne Bailey Rae and Mika. On 16 February 2010, she won the Critics' Choice award at the BRIT Awards, which has previously been given to acts such as Adele and Florence + the Machine. Ellie Goulding's debut album Lights was released on 1 March 2010 and debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart. It was re-released 29 November 2010 as Bright Lights with six new tracks. It produced two additional singles: "Your Song," a cover of Elton John's song (which went on to become her biggest single to date in the UK, reaching number two) and the title track "Lights (single version)." Following this re-release, the album saw a surge in sales in both the UK and Ireland. On March 8, 2011, the album was released in the United States with alternate cover art and featuring three songs that were previously not on the original version but were included on Bright Lights, those songs being "Lights," "Animal," and "Your Song." Goulding's second album Halcyon was released on 8 October 2012. The first single from the album, "Anything Could Happen," was released digitally in the UK on 30 September 2012. Goulding co-wrote three songs for Diana Vickers debut album Songs From The Tainted Cherry Tree, titled "Remake Me & You", "Notice" and "Jumping Into Rivers" (all three co-written with Vickers and Guy Sigsworth). She also co-wrote a track with George Astasio, Gabriella Cilmi, Jason Pebworth and Jon Shave for Cilmi's second album Ten, titled "Love Me Cos You Want To". In 2015, Goulding released the worldwide #1 hit, "Love Me Like You Do", from the box office success "Fifty Shades of Grey". http://elliegoulding.com/ Read more on Last.fm. User-contributed text is available under the Creative Commons By-SA License; additional terms may apply.
Ellie Goulding
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In a rugby union team, what number does the fly half wear on their shirt? | Rugby Football History
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Introduction
Originally the number of players in a game of Rugby football was not limited, and there were no formal playing positions. Games at rugby school were simply played by however many boys wanted to play in a particular game. A kind of huge rolling maul developed, moving around the field since there was a very limited amount of space on the field in which to run. As the game began to be played between different schools and clubs a fixed number of players was needed. This then allowed players to start specializing in certain positions and to develop particular skills appropriate to those positions.
Rugby teams were then limited to twenty players made up of seventeen forwards and three full backs whose sole job was to maintain possession if the opposition managed to hack it out the scrum. Circa 1875 the number of players in a team was reduced to fifteen (ten forwards and five backs).
Today the player names, positions and numbers worn on shirts are defined by the International Rugby Board (IRB). Players usually have the following position names and numbers although there are some local variations in namingin common use:
F
full back
1 & 3 Prop
Along with the hooker, the loose-head and tight-head props make up what is known as the front row, which refers to their position in the scrum.
To be successful, both props must be extremely strong in the neck, shoulders, upper body and legs, and they should relish head-to-head competition.
While stopping their side of the scrum from moving backwards, the props also support the hooker's body weight, allowing him or her to see and strike the ball when it is put into the scrum. In the lineout, props should be able to support or lift the jumper to prevent the opposition winning the ball.
Away from set pieces, props help to secure the ball when a player has been tackled, so it helps if they can combine their power with a degree of mobility. You’ll also often see them used as battering rams in attack, receiving short passes after a ruck or maul and hitting the opposition defence at pace in an attempt to occupy the defenders and make space for their own backs.
2 Hooker
Lining up in the scrum between the two props, the hooker is one of the forwards’ key decision-makers. He or she will coordinate the timing at the scrum, and is also responsible for winning possession in the scrummage by hooking the ball back through the props' legs.
To allow the hooker to do this effectively, the props support much of the hooker’s weight, leaving him or her free to concentrate on hooking the ball back, rather than pushing against the opposition forwards. For this reason the hooker is often the smallest member of a front-row trio.
At the lineout he or she is responsible for throwing the ball in and must be able to accurately hit the lineout jumper who is expecting the ball. In open play the hooker plays a similar role to the props, securing possession at rucks and mauls, or taking short ‘crash’ passes.
4 & 5 Lock
The second row forwards (also known as locks) are the engine room of the scrum and the target men in the lineout, meaning that they need to be tall, powerful players with excellent scrummaging technique and pinpoint timing.
If they bind to each other and the props too loosely in the scrum their pack will lose power, and if they are not accurate and dynamic with their lineout jumping, it offers the opposition forwards a chance to steal possession.
In open play the second row’s duties have evolved from being support players at rucks and mauls to ball carriers. If a marauding second row is comfortable with the ball in hand, their bulk and power makes them very difficult to stop.
6 & 7 Flanker
Open-side and blind-side flankers are often considered to be the players with the fewest set responsibilities, but as such must be excellent all-rounders with inexhaustible energy. Speed, strength, fitness, tackling and handling skills are all vital.
Flankers are more often than not at the centre of the action – winning balls at the ruck and maul, collecting short passes from tackled players and making their own big tackles in open play. While they can rarely be blamed for a loss, they can certainly be the key to victory.
The open-side flanker plays on the far side of the scrum from the touchline and is often smaller in size than their blind-side partner, making them more mobile around the pitch. The blind-side flanker tends to have bigger, more physical role around the pitch, and also acts as a target jumper in the lineout.
8 Number Eight
Support play, tackling and ball-carrying are the No.8’s areas of expertise, making his or her duties similar to the two flankers. Together the trio forms a unit called the back row.
Binding on right at the back of the scrum, the No.8 is also the only player from the forwards who is allowed to pick the ball up from the base of the scrum.
It is a move that is often used to gain vital yards when a team is scrummaging close to the opposition try line, and for it to be truly effective the No.8 must be an explosive, dynamic runner.
9 Scrum-Half
Acting as the link between the forwards and the backs, the scrum half is a key player when it comes to building attacks. Playing just behind the forwards, a good scrum half will control exactly when the ball is fed out to the backs from the rear of a scrum, ruck or maul.
A scrum half needs good vision, speed and awareness, quick hands and lightning reactions. They tend to be one of the smaller players on the pitch and so rely on protection from their own forwards. An indecisive or poorly protected scrum half makes easy meat for a rampaging opposition flanker.
10 Fly-Half
The heartbeat of the side and arguably the most influential player on the pitch. Almost every attack will go through the fly half, who also has the responsibility of deciding when to pass the ball out to the centres and when to kick for position.
The fly half must orchestrate the team's back line, deciding what rehearsed moves to put into action and reacting to gaps in defence. He or she is also the main target for the defending team's open-side flanker and so must be strong in the tackle.
The fly half has to be able to relieve territorial pressure by kicking down the field into touch, and is often the team's designated place kicker for conversions, penalties and drop goal attempts.
In defence he or she will marshal the backs to ensure each opposition player is covered, and a strong-tackling fly half can snuff out opposition attacks before they start.
11 & 14 Wing
Playing out wide on the side of the pitch, the winger is a team’s finisher in attack. A winger is also often the last line of defence when they don’t have the ball and as such, pace is their major resource.
12 & 13 Centre
The inside centre – who stands closest to the fly half when the backs line up – and the outside centre tend to be strong, dynamic runners with a good eye for exposing gaps in the opposition defence. In attack they tend to run very direct lines.
The centres take on their opposite number in an attempt to either break the defensive line, or draw in enough opposition defenders to create space and try-scoring opportunities for their team-mates. As such they need to be strong and powerful, and when attack turns into defence, they must also be accomplished at tackling.
The inside centre is often the more creative in a centre pairing and should be able to pass and kick nearly as well as the fly half. In either defence or attack, the inside centre tends to be all action – dishing out the tackles and then drawing the opposition defence.
Meanwhile, the outside centre tends to be the faster of the two and the ability to offload the ball quickly to the wingers is also vital.
15 Full-back
Lining up behind the entire back line, the full back is the closest thing that rugby has to a sweeper in defence. But they also receive deep kicks from the opposition, so they must be comfortable catching high balls and launching attacks from the resulting possession.
As such, the full back must have enough tactical awareness to recognise when to counter-kick, and when to run with the ball, often from deep within his or her half. Having started life as a winger, ex-England, Sale and British Lions player Jason Robinson was an excellent example of a running full back who also had the ability to kick his way out of trouble – the perfect combination for a number 15.
This high-pressure position is not for the faint-hearted, but those who can combine tackling, kicking, catching and running with a cool head can excel here.
Player line-up
Players will typically line up as follows at a scrum:
Position Hierarchy
Here is a hierarchy of player position naming including collective terms, the corresponding common player numbering shown in parenthesis:
Forwards
Notes:
In some countries the term halfback refers solely to the scrum half, while in other countries it applies to both the scrum half and the fly half.
New Zealand saw advantage in having a fourth player in the three-quarters placing a forward between the half back and the three-quarters. Legend has it that the position was named by deciding that the half back was 4/8ths and the three-quarters 6/8ths, so therefore the new position must be a 5/8ths. When fly half play developed they introduced the first 5/8th and the second 5/8th. Hence the fly half is sometimes referred to as the 1st 5/8, implying a slightly deeper position than halfback and the inside centre is sometimes referred to as the 2nd 5/8 implying a more forward position than a 3/4 back.
Centres used to be called Centre Three-quarters and Wings, Wing Three-quarters. The term three quarters collectively describes the centers, wings and full-back.
In some countries the Flankers are referred to as 'Break-aways' e.g. New Zealand.
In some countries the No. 8 is referred to as the 'Last man down' e.g. New Zealand.
Additional collective terms:
History of Positions
Origin of the Half-Back (collective name for Fly-half and Scrum-half)
Originally the rules described three full backs which was later changed to one and the other two players were then stationed at a midpoint between the forwards and the full backs and were to be called half-way backs. In time this was shortened to half backs. Their role and that of the full back continued to be to fall on the ball in the event of the opposition hacking it out of the scrum.
Origin of Fly-Half
In 1878 at Cardiff, in Wales, they developed a short pass to one of the half backs who would then go charging ahead with the ball. He became known as the flying half back which in time was shortened to the fly half. In New Zealand the fly half is sometimes referred to as the 1st 5/8, implying a slightly deeper position than halfback.
Origin of the three-quarters
In the 1880’s the game had spread to the Universities, particularly Cambridge and Oxford, whose input lead to far more thought being put into the game and the style of play that was developed. They were instrumental in the development of the games tactics, the introduction of need to practice and the coaching of the players. In addition they re organised the scrum, developed short passes amongst the forwards and long passes amongst the backs. This led to the need for more players to be placed in the back line between the halves and the full back. The fraction between a half and a whole (full) is three-quarters.
Note: One alternative theory for why they are called three-quarters is that these new positions were called 'quarters' and the fact that three of them were put in this position led to them being known as three-quarters. But this seems unlikely since there is an obvious progression from Half-back (half-way from the from of the scrum to the full back), Five-eighths, three-quarters, full back..
Scotland claim the honour of having first introduced a third three-quarter, against Ireland in 1881.
Origin of the centre and wings
The middle player being called the centre with the two on his outside called wings.
Fouth three-quarter
The introduction of a fourth player into the three-quarters was to a large extent, accidental, with Wales again being allowed to take the honour. In 1885 Cardiff were due to play a tough match away from home and their first choice centre was not available so they promoted one Frank E. Hancock from the second side in his place. Hancock was a great success scoring two vital tries. When the Cardiff selectors sat down to pick their team for the next match they were keen to revert to their original team, but they were most reluctant to drop Hancock, so they compromised by introducing a fourth three-quarter. Within two years Wales had introduced it at international level.
The New Zealanders were quick to see the advantage of having a fourth player in the three-quarters. Their solution was to pull a forward out the pack and put him between the half back and the three-quarters. Their problem was what did they call the new position. Legend has it that consent was reached by deciding that the half back was 4/8ths and the three-quarters 6/8ths, so therefore the new position must be a 5/8ths, a name that has continued to this day in that country. When fly half play developed they introduced the first 5/8th and the second 5/8th.
Origin of the Number 8
This is a two-part question. In summary, the No 8 position evolved in South Africa, but was christened in New Zealand.
a) How did the No.8 evolve?
The position now known as No.8 evolved in South Africa in the 1920s.
Before the Great War a number of scrum patterns were tried. Most involved a three-man front-row in a 3-3-2 or more commonly 3-2-3 pack. Paddy Carolin of the 1906 Springboks claimed to have experimented with a 3-4-1 formation.
New Zealand most notably always used a 2-3-2 system. Their so-called diamond scrum had a rover to act as a detached winging forward who could also double as a second scrum-half. The Law dictating that a scrum must have a three-man front-row did not come into effect until the 1951-2 season (Law 15c.).
New Zealand apart, forwards in Test matches were selected primarily for their all-round skills - there were no fixed position in the early days. The first forwards up for a scrum were the first to pack down, although by the early 1900s there was usually one player specifically chosen to hook and one to act as a wing forward.
There is evidence that early Australian and French packs experimented with fixed places for their players under the 3-2-3 formation, but it wasn't until 1923 that Wavell Wakefield, as pack leader, allocated fixed positions to England's forwards. Two were devolved to prop up their hooker, while two formed the second-row. Behind them was a back-row of two wing-forwards either side of a middle man who was then called the lock or lock-forward - the position from which the No 8 has evolved. England won the Grand Slam that year and specialism became the norm in the Home Unions.
Meanwhile in South Africa, Oubaas Markötter of the famous Stellenbosch club developed the 3-4-1 pack formation to curb a fly-half named Bennie Osler, who was the master kicker and tactician for their great rivals at the University of Cape Town. Markötter's new scrum was essentially the 3-2-3 scheme but with the wing-forwards from the back-row flanking the second-row instead - and therefore closer to the fly-half.
That helped to address the Osler problem, but other advantages of the formation became apparent. With only one man at the back, the ball was heeled from the scrum more quickly, while the opposing scrum-half and loose forwards found it harder to disrupt possession. In addition, the inward push from the flankers at the scrum channelled considerable drive through their props and put extra pressure on the opposition hooker.
All South Africa embraced the 3-4-1 scrum and by 1928 it was the preferred formation for the Springboks in their home series with the All Blacks. In the first Test their scrum was a revelation to the New Zealanders, who were demolished 17-0. It wasn't until a few years later, however, that modern back-row play evolved. Markötter considered how to make the best use of a gifted Stellenbosch threequarter named André McDonald, who was not fast enough for a back and not big enough for a forward. McDonald was moved to the solo position at the back of the scrum where he inter-played with his scrum-half in attack and was deployed as a shadow flanker in defence.
So the prototype for the No.8 evolved in South Africa as a much looser player than his forerunner, the lock. South Africa still sought strong forwards who could push from the back of the scrum, but attacking and defensive duties for which the prime attribute was mobility became part of the job description.
The Springboks toured Britain/Ireland in 1931-32, demonstrating the new scrum formation and back-row tactics to the Home Unions, and in 1933 Australia saw them for the first time when they were beaten in a series in South Africa. By the time war broke out in 1939, most of the world's rugby-playing nations had bowed to Springbok supremacy, adopting the 3-4-1 pack and refining back-row tactics. The main dissenters were the Scots, who persisted with the old 3-2-3 system until the mid 1950s.
b) When was the term No.8 first used?
It was not until the 1940s that the expression No.8 became recognised worldwide as part of rugby's lexicon.
Finding a common name for the sole player at the back of the 3-4-1 scrum seems to have taken some time. In the Home Unions he was still referred to as the lock or lock-forward, as he had been in the 3-2-3 system. Australian reports of the 1937 Tests against the Springboks refer to the position as anchor-man or solo-lock. South Africans called him the eighthman (as many of the old-timers out there still do), in New Zealand he was usually the back-row or back-row forward and to the French he was le troisième ligne centre.
Numbering of players in Tests was a haphazard affair until the 1960s. In the Five Nations, some teams numbered from 1 to 15 from the back, starting with the fullback and finishing with a flanker (so that the back-row man was number 14). France and Ireland often numbered in reverse starting from the front-row, making the middle-man of the loose trio number 7. Wales even used letters throughout the 30s and 40s making him letter N! Players on tour were numbered 1 to 30 and kept their allocated numbers for Tests.
Old Test programmes show that the earliest efforts to number the back-row man with jersey eight were in New Zealand's South Island during the 1930s. For NZ v Australia at Dunedin in 1936 and NZ v SA at Christchurch in 1937 the All Blacks' back-row man wore this number. Abbreviating the South African term eighthman to No.8 originated there and the noted New Zealand rugby historian, Arthur Swan, was among the first to refer to him in print as the "number-eight". When post-war Tests resumed in 1946, New Zealand led the way in regularly numbering their back-row man in the eight jersey.
Curiously, South Africa's Hennie Muller, who played Test rugby between 1949 and 1953 and was universally hailed as the definitive eighthman of his day, never wore an eight shirt in a Test, although by 1951 the British press were referring to him as the team's No 8.
It was not until the 1960s that the shirt number universally matched its position's name in Test matches.
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What does the Latin phrase ‘Ad astra’ translate to in English? | Positions – Talk Rugby Union
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Rugby Union Positions
Aside from the obvious, one major distinction between football and rugby union is the latter’s extra emphasis on positional discipline. Whereas football is decidedly fluid, with most players having the freedom to assist in areas which are not their forte and often having personal squad numbers, rugby union players are numbered according to their position, with each one carrying with it a series of responsibilities.
The basic split in a 15-man rugby union side is between the eight Forwards (numbered 1-8) and the seven Backs (numbered 9-15). These two camps both have basic tasks to achieve as a group but, more specifically, contain players with particular skills to complete them successfully.
The Forwards
The Forwards’ chief responsibility is to gain and retain possession of the ball, whether in open play or from set pieces such as the scrum and the line-out. They will contain the most physically intimidating members of the team, with weight and power a major issue. However, as general athletic standards have increased in the modern game, so Forwards are today expected to have some speed and agility, particularly when carrying the ball. The Forwards are made up of the following positions:
Loosehead Prop (No. 1)
The loosehead prop supports the hooker in the scrum and the jumpers in the line-out. He/she must have plenty of power for the scrum but, at the same time, they are vital to the proper functioning and movement of the scrum. Indeed, when substituting a prop, his/her replacement must be a prop themselves, such are the skills required.
More specifically, the loosehead prop can be found on the left-hand side of the scrum and is so called because he/she is not locked into the scrum. Instead, his/her head is outside that of the opposition tighthead prop
Tighthead Prop (No. 3)
Identical to the loosehead prop, but the tighthead packs down on the right-hand side of the scrum and is named ‘tighthead’ because they are locked between two opponents (the loosehead prop and the hooker). There are other subtle differences in technique, which you will pick up as you get further into the sport.
Famous Props – Jason Leonard (England), Wilson James Whineray (New Zealand).
Hooker (No. 2)
The hookers are unsurprisingly responsible chiefly for hooking the ball with their feet in the scrum, although some are experienced and skilled enough to act as an extra prop as well (to complicate opposition feeds by the scrum-half).
The hooker additionally usually throw the ball at line-outs, and it’s their responsibility to ensure success with good distribution.
Famous Hookers – Sean Fitzpatrick (New Zealand)
The Locks (Nos. 4 & 5)
The locks are typically the tallest players and act as targets at line-outs, having to catch and distribute to the scrum-half or at least pat the ball on his/her team’s side. At the scrum, they are vitally located between the props and the hooker, and provide balance and momentum to the team’s efforts. They are also extremely important in rucks and mauls, and need to be effective ball carriers, making the locks pivotal to how the forwards generally operate and succeed.
Famous Locks – Martin Johnson (England), Colin Meads (New Zealand), John Eales (Australia)
Blindside Flanker (No. 6)
The flanker is a curiosity in rugby union, being the only true all-rounder position with no set duties. It is therefore paradoxical that flankers are considered potential game-winning players. In the scrum, they are not big pushers and, although they must stay locked to the scrum until the ball is out (a recent introduction to the laws), they must respond quickly and unbind when it does.
Blindside flankers are generally larger than their openside counterparts and are so-called because they attach to the scrum on the side closer to the touchline and cover attacks on the blindside of the scrum. Throughout the game, the blindside flanker should act as a real ball-winner and can even perform duties as a jumper in the lineout.
Openside Flanker (No. 7)
Fundamentally similar to the blindside flanker, the openside equivalent is usually smaller and more agile, with extra pace to provide impetus to attacks. In the scrum, they are found on the side furthest from the touchline, allowing them to get into open play more quickly and, if they receive possession, test out the opponent’s defence for weaknesses.
Famous Flankers – Richie McCaw (New Zealand), François Pienaar (South Africa), Wavell Wakefield (England)
Number Eight (No. 8)
The number eight is very much a linking man for the Forwards and the Backs, incorporating the attributes of both sets. Their fundamental role is to augment the team’s ball-winning and ball-carrying.
As such, they can be found in the rear of the scrum, controlling the movement and either feeding the ball to the scrum-half once it has been hooked back, or taking the ball on and running at the opposition. Similarly, they are typically located at the back of the lineout, providing an option for a long throw-in.
Famous Number Eights – Hennie Muller (South Africa), Lawrence Dallaglio (England), Morne du Plessis (South Africa)
The Backs
The Backs are expected to both create and convert point-scoring opportunities after the ball has been won and taken on by the Forwards. All members have to be agile and dynamic, with pace a major attribute for many positions, but kicking skills are a priority elsewhere. Moreover, just as the Forwards have grown more agile in recent years, so too the disparity in size and strength between the Forwards and the Backs has shrunk markedly to allow the latter to contribute more effectively in defence and attack.
Scrum-half (No. 9)
Much like the number 8 links the Forwards to the Backs, so too the scrum-half connects the Backs to the Forwards.
The scrum-half is involved in play at all times – feeding the ball into the scrum and usually distributing after it has left, standing at the side of the lineout waiting to receive the ball from the jumpers, and following rucks and mauls. He or she is also the first line of defence in most situations.
Precisely because of these duties, the scrum-half has to be smaller than the majority of the team, have outstanding handling and distribution, as well as a fair amount of guile. For example, England’s Matt Dawson set up teammate Jonny Wilkinson’s famous drop goal to win the World Cup final in 2003 with what he later described as a ‘schoolboy dummy’ to evade tacklers and gain the necessary territory, putting Wilkinson in range.
Famous Scrum-Halves – Gareth Edwards (Wales; arguably the greatest player of all-time), Matt Dawson (England), George Gregan (Australia)
Fly-half (No. 10)
Otherwise known as the flying half back, the fly-half is arguably the most influential player on the pitch, as he calls the tactical game on the pitch with his kicking, distribution and ball-carrying from deep. The fly-half is also typically the goal-kicker. As a result, the fly-half has to be a leader, a powerful and accurate kicker, and yet also perform to the highest standard in defense.
Famous Fly-Halves – Jonny Wilkinson (England), Grant Fox (New Zealand), Michael Lynagh (Australia), Daniel Carter (New Zealand)
Wingers (Nos. 11 & 14)
The wingers are big try scorers and are usually seen on hand finishing a successful attack. Every time you hear a commentator refer to an ‘overlap’, for example, it will typically be the winger who receives the scoring pass. Therefore, the wingers are the quickest players and, during attacks, run into the space up to the try line provided by the forwards and the other backs.
That said, because of their defensive duties, recent decades have seen more powerful wingers who can ride tackles as well as put in strong ones of their own. The incredible impact of New Zealand’s 19-stone winger Jonah Lomu in the 1995 and 1999 World Cups was a decisive moment, encouraging wingers to take on the traits of other players as well as their physiques. As such, wingers today can also be ‘link players’, comprising the skills of half-backs and fullbacks as part of ‘the 3’ (the two wingers and the full-back – all with starting positions closest to their team’s goal area).
Famous Wingers – David Campese (Australia), Jonah Lomu (New Zealand), Doug Howlett (New Zealand), Jason Robinson (England)
Inside Centre (No. 12) & Outside Centre (No. 13)
Like their flanker counterparts in the Forwards, the Centres are all-rounders, but with extra power, mobility and handling to augment the defensive capabilities of the Backs as well as provide some venom to the offence. Both Centres receive frequent balls from the fly-half to test the opposition’s defensive line and expose gaps which either they or the wingers can profit from.
However, whereas the outside centre tends more towards wing-play, the inside centre more closely approximates the fly-half in his or her abilities. It is subsequently far from unique for a fly-half to play at inside centre and vice versa (England’s Jonny Wilkinson is a notable example)
Famous Centres – Tana Umaga (New Zealand), Philippe Sella (France), Mike Tindall (England), Mils Muliaina (New Zealand)
Fullback (No. 15)
The fullback acts as a sweeper behind the first few lines of defence, but his responsibilities don’t end with tackling. The fullback must also have good handling, distribution and kicking. Furthermore, despite his withdrawn position in the scrums and the lineouts, the fullback has become increasingly pivotal to a team’s offensive game in recent years – initiating attacks from deep in the field. One tradition which has endured is the fullback’s duty to contend with high-kicks from opposition players while under pressure.
Famous Fullbacks – Christian Cullen (New Zealand), Gavin Hastings (Scotland), George Nepia (New Zealand)
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What is the square root of 225? | Square Root of 225 - Sqrt 225 - What is the Square Root of 225?
Home › Square Roots › Square Root of 225
Square Root of 225
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The square root of 225 is the number, which multiplied by itself, is 225. In other words, the square of this number equals two hundred and twenty-five. If you have been looking for square root of two hundred and twenty-five then you are right here, too. On this page you can also find what its parts are called, and in addition to the terminology of √225 we also have a calculator you don't want to miss. Read on to learn everything about the sqrt 225.
Extracting the root is the inverse operation of ^2:
The term can be written as
Like any positive number, the number 225 has two square roots:
, which is positive and called principal square root of 225, and −
, which is negative.
Together, they are denominated as ±
.
Although the principal square root of two hundred and twenty-five is only one of the two square roots, the term "square root of 225" usually refers to the positive number.
If you want to know how to find the square root of 225 then read our article square root which you can find in the header menu.
Here you can find the cube root of 225 .
What is the Square Root of 225
You already know the answer to what is the square root of 225 and about the inverse operation of 225 square root. Keep reading to learn what the parts of it are called.
n = index, 2 is the index.
a = radicand, the radicand is the number below the radical sign, 225 is the radicand here.
b = root = ±15
√ is called radical symbol or radical only.
Now you really know all about √225, including its parts and the inverse. If you like to learn the square root of any other number use our calculator below: Insert the number of which you like to find the square root (e.g. 225), then press the calculate button.
Number:
Square Root of 180
Square Root of Two Hundred And Twenty-Five
If you have been searching for whats the square root of 225 or square root 225 the you have come to the right site, too.
The same is true if you typed sq root of 225 or 225 root in the search engine of your preference, just to name a few similar terms.
To sum up,
The negative square root of 225 is -15, and the positive sqrt 225 is 15. Make sure to understand that √225 and 225 squared , 225 x 225 = 50625, are not the same.
Finding the square root of the number 225 is the inverse operation of squaring the √225. In other words (±15)2 = 225.
Further information can be found on our page square root . Note that you can also find frequents roots including √225 by using the search form in the sidebar of this website.
If our article about sqrt 225 has been useful to you, then please give us a like or press all social buttons. If you have any question about square roots of 225 then use the comment form below.
Thanks for your visit.
| fifteen |
What is a baby skunk called? | SOLUTION: What is the formula for finding the square root of 225? I know the answer is 15, I'm trying to figure out the formula, please. I know how to figure it using the factor tree, but I
You can put this solution on YOUR website!
The way to simplify square roots involves finding their factors and grouping.
The way I like to explain this is that you need to find all the prime factors of the number you want to take the root of, circle (on paper) all the pairs of numbers that you have. Now, each of these pairs can be "pulled out" of the square root. But when they do get pulled through this square root, the root acts as a kind of filter that allows only one "spokesman" for each group. For example, if I have
then factored out that is the same as
.
There is only one complete pair of 2's here that would get pulled out. The one leftover 2 will remain inside the root. We have to obey the spokesman rule for our pair of 2's, so only one 2 gets to represent the pair on the outside of the root. Therefore,
would be the simplified answer where the two 2's in parentheses are the pair of 2's that I am pulling out.
The same goes for 225, except we just don't have anything leftover or remaining on the inside except a factor of 1. That is why your answer is just a solid integer, 15.
=
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‘Coach’ is a brand name for which fashion items? | Coach Introduces Cheaper Line Named Poppy | POPSUGAR Fashion
Coach Introduces Cheaper Line Named Poppy
Fab Flash: Coach Launches Sweeter, Cheaper, Poppier Line
February 24, 2009
by Fashion
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Coach is responding to the tough economic times with a new budget-friendly line named Poppy. Like the name, Poppy is a fresher, more youthful collection of footwear, handbags, and accessories compared to its namesake line. The best part? Lower price points. “Poppy offers a different attitude that is younger in spirit,” said executive creative director , Reed Krakoff. It’s playful, with more prints, interesting fabrics and more experimentation."
The Poppy line, ranging from $198 to $598, will include a whimsical array of tiaras, pochettes, footwear, watches, eyewear, and even select apparel items. The collection debuts in July in stores and online at Coach.com . Fun!
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Fashion and Beauty News
Shannolyn 7 years
That they even try to advertise this line as "budget-friendly" is a joke in and of itself.Glittery or colorful print ballet flats? Whoever thought Coach would look to their local Target store for inspiration...and then jack the price up by 200% percent. Genius, really.
Shannolyn 7 years
That they even try to advertise this line as "budget-friendly" is a joke in and of itself. Glittery or colorful print ballet flats? Whoever thought Coach would look to their local Target store for inspiration...and then jack the price up by 200% percent. Genius, really.
SweetFirefly 7 years
I like Coach. They still make nice leather bags. Lots of them. Not everything is made of their signature fabric. The leather is nice, but doesn't always appeal to a larger audience. They also make things that are cute and fun for younger people. I don't think this new line is priced any differently than their current line(except for the leather bags, which cost more).
Martini-Rossi 7 years
puh-leez. I buy coach products because I love their leather. These flats are not only ugly but also still expensive. I dont see how a $100 - $500 price range is cheaper?
HMBowling 7 years
How is $200-$600 budget friendly? Coach hasn't been impressing me lately so I think I'll stick with my new favorite leather goods, Cole Haan.
tulleandtea 7 years
I remember when Coach didn't have those tacky C prints all over them and when people didn't knock them off.My mom lends me her original leather Coach bags without all that jargon on it. They are really good quality and classic!Coach sometimes ain't what it used to be.
tulleandtea 7 years
I remember when Coach didn't have those tacky C prints all over them and when people didn't knock them off. My mom lends me her original leather Coach bags without all that jargon on it. They are really good quality and classic! Coach sometimes ain't what it used to be.
ilanac13 7 years
well i think that it's a sign of the times that brands like Coach are doing this, and i really hope that it pays off. the other upside to this is that there are more people that the brand/company can hire now since they are designing a brand extension - and that means that more people are getting jobs. granted it's not a LOT of people that are needed to design the new affordable line, but it's something at least
amandaaa 7 years
ugh i like the concept of a cheaper line, but this is still expensive. and the sequins make them a trendy flat, so they're hardly worth the bang for the buck. a price that high demands a shoe that you will get the most satisfaction from purchasing. nice try coach, but try a little harder.
kristinb 7 years
First of all, I already kind of hate the shoes that Coach makes because I do think that they are really dated. It's not that the shoes are overly mature (I'm not guessing every woman is just dying to have sequins splattered all over her shoes), it's that the shoes literally look like they are from the early '90's. It's quite horrid. While I love ballet flats these are really quite tragic and 500 dollar ballet flats are hardly cheap.
prettywarrior 7 years
Why, Coach, why? I love their leather and classic designs, why are they going all tacky and sequin-y? BARF.
msjean 7 years
i don't see how this responds to the recession or the market either! price points - agreed these are too close to Coach pricing to seem more affordable, and too high to seem recession-friendly tacky designs - 1st- why? 2nd-seems to contradict the brand image for classic designs (arguably already forfeited with the ugly patchwork designs of recent years). 3rd - all the trend-tracking shows recession shoppers want understated, discreet, conservative items, not over the top embellishments or flashy logosfinally, i think it will be very confusing in the marketplace that they want to call the line "poppy" but the logos say "coach." typically you see a diff brand name to distinguish a line that's selling at a lower price point. ie, lexus/toyota, ritz carlton/marriott, donna karan/dkny, BR/Gap/Old Navy, Ralph Lauren/Polo. (Bad examples would be KORS by Michael Kors vs Michael by Michael Kors vs Michael Kors, or MARC by Marc Jacobs vs Marc Jacobs).
| Handbag |
Misr is the local name for which North African country? | Coach Has Never Faced Competition Like This Before - Business Insider
Coach Has Never Faced Competition Like This Before
Jan. 23, 2013, 12:05 PM
13,170
Wikimedia Commons
Coach is losing its grip on American women.
The handbag seller reported disappointing sales results today, but investors have been wary of the brand for months.
The brand's strategy is to expand into more of a "lifestyle brand" with categories like watches, shoes and clothing, CEO Lew Frankfort told Women's Wear Daily .
But the strategy puts Coach "in even more direct competition with other lifestyle players such as the fast-growing Michael Kors and Tory Burch," writes Alexandra Steigrad at WWD.
One of Coach's biggest issues is the emergence of similarly-priced brands like Michael Kors and Tory Burch. Those companies have exploded in recent years, and Coach now has to compete for the same customers.
Meanwhile the competition has already dominated other categories. Michael Kors watches were one of the hottest holiday items, while Tory Burch's ballet flats are said to be the basis for her fashion empire.
Coach even mentioned the growing competition in its earning release, a move that shows how serious the issue is for the company, said Brian Sozzi, chief equities analyst at NBG Productions.
"This is perhaps one of the first times in eight years I have covered Coach in which it acknowledged intensified competition," he said.
Sozzi described what happened when he observed consumers watching Coach and Michael Kors products in malls this holiday season:
"A simple exercise I did in peak holiday was to stand back and look at Coach and Michael Kors stores that are positioned next to one another to get a feel of the traffic and how the product looked visually. Bottom line is that Michael Kors crushed Coach in this non-spreadsheet test, as it also did when applying the test to department store shop in shops."
Michael Kors is not only beating out Coach in its core category, handbags, but it's also figured out the watch and clothing categories, according to Sozzi.
Perhaps Coach should spruce up its handbag assortments before rapidly expanding other categories.
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What is the first name of Mr Darcy in the 2001 film ‘Bridget Jones’s Diary’? | Bridget Jones's Diary (2001) - IMDb
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A British woman is determined to improve herself while she looks for love in a year in which she keeps a personal diary.
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Title: Bridget Jones's Diary (2001)
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Nominated for 1 Oscar. Another 8 wins & 29 nominations. See more awards »
Videos
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Over the course of five social occasions, a committed bachelor must consider the notion that he may have discovered love.
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Two women troubled with guy-problems swap homes in each other's countries, where they each meet a local guy and fall in love.
Director: Nancy Meyers
Follows the lives of eight very different couples in dealing with their love lives in various loosely interrelated tales all set during a frantic month before Christmas in London, England.
Director: Richard Curtis
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Edit
Storyline
Bridget Jones is an average woman struggling against her age, her weight, her job, her lack of a man, and her many imperfections. As a New Year's Resolution, Bridget decides to take control of her life, starting by keeping a diary in which she will always tell the complete truth. The fireworks begin when her charming though disreputable boss takes an interest in the quirky Miss Jones. Thrown into the mix are Bridget's band of slightly eccentric friends and a rather disagreeable acquaintance who Bridget cannot seem to stop running into or help finding quietly attractive. Written by Anuja Varghese <[email protected]>
All Women Keep Score... Only The Great Ones Put It In Writing. See more »
Genres:
Rated R for language and some strong sexuality | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
13 April 2001 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
El diario de Bridget Jones See more »
Filming Locations:
£5,720,292 (UK) (13 April 2001)
Gross:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Aside from bearing a resemblance to Jane Austen 's "Pride and Prejudice", the film also features a number of veterans of Austen film adaptations. Writer Andrew Davies wrote the screenplay for Pride and Prejudice (1995), which starred Colin Firth and Crispin Bonham-Carter . Hugh Grant and Gemma Jones both appeared in Sense and Sensibility (1995). Embeth Davidtz can be seen in Mansfield Park (1999). See more »
Goofs
When they are in the lake, and Daniel is about to fall down, the overtaking gets close to Bridget and she is combed, when you go away his uncombed hair is seen, you approach and again he right now is combed with the totally straight hair. See more »
Quotes
Mark Darcy : Yes. You?
Bridget : Ah, no. Was at a party in London last night, I'm afraid I'm a bit hungover.
[nervous laugh]
Bridget : Wish I could be home with my head in a toilet like all normal people...
[pause]
Bridget : ...ah! New Year's Resolution: drink less... and quit smoking... and quit talking total nonsense to strangers... actually, quit talking, full stop.
[awkward silence]
See more »
Crazy Credits
During the end credits, we see footage of a home movie taken during a birthday party, which also happens to be the birthday party that both Bridget and Mark are at that is referred to several times during the movie. See more »
Connections
By Arrangement with Warner Bros Records Inc
Courtesy of Warner Special Products/Warner Special Marketing (UK)
(Pittsburgh, PA) – See all my reviews
Being a long time fan of the BJD books (three years and counting), I had nothing but high hopes for the movie version. I was lucky enough to get into a sneak preview last night, and I was not disappointed. The movie, like the book, has the most hilarious lines and moments, and each of the actors portrayed their characters so well you couldn't imagine anyone else in that part. Renee Zellweger IS Bridget, there is just no arguing it. No other actress could have pulled off what Renee did in this movie. Hugh Grant makes for an excellent Daniel, who is completely two faced and has a smarmy sort of charm that makes you want him just as badly as Bridget does. Colin Firth is a superb Mark Darcy, but that was a given because the character was practically written with him in mind - as all avid BJD readers know, Mark Darcy's character is a play on the Mr. Darcy Firth portrayed in Pride and Prejudice.
Some of the more hardcore fans of the book may be disappointed with all the missing jokes and scenes, but to film the entire book would have left us with a 10 hour movie. The writers did an excellent job distilling the essence of the novel, and the finished product has all the charm and wit of the original. The audience, many of whom I'm sure have never read the book (and many of whom, surprisingly, were male), laughed nonstop throughout the film, and everyone seemed to enjoy it thoroughly. As for those of us who have read it, I do believe that this is one of those rare book-to-movie jobs that was really spot-on, and everything that was noticeably changed in the process only makes the movie better. So go see it, it's hands-down one of the best movies of 2001 so far.
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| Mark |
A ladder-back is a type of what? | Bridget Jones's Diary Movie Review
What parents need to know
Positive messages
Despite Bridget's obsessive attempts to improve herself -- and to make herself more appealing to the men in her life -- Mark tells her that he likes her "just the way she is," and doesn't expect her to change. Friends are loyal to each other, and Bridget does try hard.
Positive role models
There is a reason Bridget Jones is loved by women around the world. She's fighting many of the same singleton problems so many of us are too. That being said, she still smokes, drinks and makes foolish mistakes. Proceed with caution.
Violence
Characters drink and smoke a lot. Bridget drinks when she's depressed.
Parents Need to Know
Parents need to know that Bridget Jones's Diary is a romantic comedy that's full of strong language and sexual situations. Many people find Bridget to be a likable, relatable woman, but her obsession with finding a boyfriend, among other things, make her an iffy role model. Despite her attempts to quit, Bridget drinks and smokes a lot, as do other characters. A great deal of the plot revolves around characters having sex and talking about having sex, with frequent uses of "f--k" and the British equivalent, "shag."
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Review this title!
What's the story?
In BRIDGET JONES'S DIARY, Bridget wants to lose weight, stop smoking and drinking, and stop worrying about getting a boyfriend -- so that she can get a boyfriend. But first, she has to get through the gorgeous cad stage -- having an affair with her workaholic, alcoholic, self-centered, needy, but witty and undeniably extremely gorgeous boss, Daniel ( Hugh Grant ). But being taken advantage of by Daniel is not the worst of Bridget's trials. There is her mother, who leaves her father for an oily home shopping channel pitchman with a fake tan. There is showing up for a "tarts and vicars" party in a Playboy bunny outfit because no one told her that they had decided not to have the guests wear costumes after all. There is the rather stunning shot of Bridget from below as she slides down a fireman's pole, broadcast throughout the country on television. And there is the stiff and disapproving childhood neighbor, Mark Darcy ( Colin Firth ), now a divorced barrister, who always seems to be there just as Bridget encounters disaster.
Is it any good?
QUALITY
Renée Zellwegger is irresistible as Bridget Jones, in this delectable romantic comedy with some sly references to that uber-romantic comedy, Pride and Prejudice. From the opening credits of , when we see her singing along with the radio to "All By Myself" in her flannel pajamas, we know that she is destined to find someone who loves her as much as we do already, and that we will have a lot of fun on the way there. Hugh Grant seems positively relieved not to have to be the stammering, adorable, truehearted "Notting Hill" guy anymore. He plays the part of Daniel, "a disaster with a posh voice and a terrible character," with such relish that viewers enjoy seeing Bridget fall for him almost as much as they enjoy seeing her tell him off.
Like his namesake in Pride and Prejudice, though, Darcy turns out to have more tenderness and humor than one would think. And so do the filmmakers. Firth , who played Darcy in the television miniseries Pride and Prejudice , appears as this Mr. Darcy as well, and his sly and subtle variation on the character is another of the great pleasures in Bridget Jones's Diary.
Families can talk about...
Families can talk about self image in Bridget Jones's Diary. What sort of factors do you think affect Bridget's body image and self-esteem ?
How do we sort through all of the expectations of our families and our society to decide who we will be and what chances we will take?
What does someone have to know about herself in order to turn down a Daniel? In order to understand what someone like Darcy has to offer?
How does Bridget Jones's Diary relate to Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice ? What similarities are there between the two stories? What is different in the modern setting?
Movie details
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